THE NATURE OF TEACHER DEVELOPMENT

&

TEACHER TRAINING AND TEACHER DEVELOPMENT

DIRECTED BY: GROUP 1

1. PUTRI GRESIA SIMATUPANG 17120019

2. SHALSA NAMYRA ATISHA 17120032
3. MADONNA SAMOSIR 17120035

LECTURER:

PROF.DR.SELVIANA NAPITUPULU,M.HUM

FAKULTAS KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN

UNIVERSITAS HKBP NOMENSEN PEMATANG SIANTAR

 Nature of Teacher Education

1) Teacher education is a continuous process and its pre-service and in-service components
are complimentary to each other. According to the International Encyclopedia of Teaching
and Teacher education (1987), ―Teacher education can be considered in three phases : Pre-
service, Induction and In-service. The three phases are considered as parts of a continuous
process.

2) Teacher education is based on the theory that ―Teachers are made, not born in contrary to
the assumption, ―Teachers are born, not made. Since teaching is considered an art and a
science, the teacher has to acquire not only knowledge, but also skills that are called ―tricks
of the trade.

3) Teacher education is broad and comprehensive. Besides preservice and in-service

programmes for teachers, it is meant to be involved in various community programmes and
extension activities, viz adult education and non-formal education programmes, literacy and
development activities of the society.

4) It is ever-evolving and dynamic. In order to prepare teachers who are competent to face
the challenges of the dynamic society, Teacher education has to keep abreast of recent
developments and trends.

5) The crux of the entire process of teacher education lies in its curriculum, design, structure,
organization and transaction modes, as well as the extent of its appropriateness.

6) As in other professional education programmes the teacher education curriculum has a

knowledge base which is sensitive to the needs of field applications and comprises
meaningful, conceptual blending of theoretical understanding available in several cognate
disciplines. However the knowledge base in teacher education does not comprise only an
admixture of concepts and principles from other disciplines, but a distinct ‗gestalt‘ emerging
from the ‗conceptual blending‘, making it sufficiently specified.

7) Teacher education has become differentiated into stage-specific programmes. This

suggests that the knowledge base is adequately specialized and diversified across stages,
which should be utilized for developing effective processes of preparing entrant teachers for
the functions which a teacher is expected to perform at each stage.

8) It is a system that involves an interdependence of its Inputs, Processes and Outputs.

NEED, SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Need of teacher education : The American Commission on Teacher Education rightly

observes, “The quality of a nation depends upon the quality of its citizens. The quality of its
citizens depends not exclusively, but in critical measure upon the quality of their education,
the quality of their education depends more than upon any single factor, upon the quality of
their teacher.” In his Call for Action for American Education in the 21st Century in 1996,
Clinton indicated that : ―Every community should have a talented and dedicated teacher in
every classroom. We have enormous opportunity for ensuring teacher quality well into the
21st century if we recruit promising people into teaching and give them the highest quality
preparation and training”. The need for teacher education is felt due to the following reasons;

1) It is common knowledge that the academic and professional standards of teachers

constitute a critical component of the essential learning conditions for achieving the
educational goals of a nation. The focus of teacher preparation had to shift from training to
education if it had to make a positive influence on the quality of curriculum transaction in
classrooms and thereby pupil learning and the larger social transformation. The aspects that
need greater emphasis are; the length of academic preparation, the level and quality of subject
matter knowledge, the repertoire of pedagogical skills that teachers possess to meet the needs
of diverse learning situations, the degree of commitment to the profession, sensitivity to
contemporary issues and problems and the level of motivation. This is not possible if teacher
preparation focused only on training. Holistic teacher building is necessary and therefore
teacher education needed more emphasis than mere training.

2) Educating all children well depends not only on ensuring that teachers have the necessary
knowledge and skills to carry out their work, but also that they take responsibility for seeing
that all children reach high levels of learning and that they act accordingly.

3) People come to teacher education with beliefs, values, commitments, personalities and
moral codes from their upbringing and schooling which affect who they are as teachers and
what they are able to learn in teacher education and in teaching. Helping teacher candidates
examine critically their beliefs and values as they relate to teaching, learning and subject
matter and form a vision of good teaching to guide and inspire their learning and their work is
a central task of teacher education (Fieman-Nemser, 2001).

4) The National Academy of Education Committee‘s Report (Darling-Hammond and

Bransford, 2005) wrote that : ―On a daily basis, teachers confront complex decisions that
rely on many different kinds of knowledge and judgement and that can involve high stakes
outcomes for students‘ future. To make good decisions, teachers must be aware of the many
ways in which student learning can unfold in the context of development, learning
differences, language and cultural influences, and individual temperaments, interests and
approaches to learning. In addition to foundational knowledge about the areas of learning and
performance listed in the above quotation, teachers need to know how to take the steps
necessary to gather additional information that will allow them to make more grounded
judgements about what is going on and what strategies may be helpful. More importantly,
teachers need to keep what is best for the student at the centre of their decision making.

5) Teacher education like any other educational intervention, can only work on those
professional commitments or dispositions that are susceptible to modification. While we can‘t
remake someone‘s personality, we can reshape attitudes towards the other and develop a
professional rather than a personal role orientation towards teaching as a practice.

6) The Ministry of Education document ―Challenge of Education : A Policy Perspective

(1985) has mentioned, ―Teacher performance is the most crucial input in the field of
education.

7) Whatever policies may be laid down, in the ultimate analysis these have to be
implemented by teachers as much through their personal example as through teaching
learning processes.‖ India has reached the threshold of the development of new technologies
which are likely to revolutionise the classroom teaching. Unless capable and committed are
teachers in service, the education system cannot become a suitable and potential instrument
of national development. The teacher is required to acquire adequate knowledge, skills,
interests and attitudes towards the teaching profession. The teacher‘s work has become more
complicated and technical in view of the new theories of psychology, philosophy, sociology,
modern media and materials. The teacher can be made proficient with well planned,
imaginative pre-service and in-service training programmes.

Aspects of Teacher Education

Teacher education is concerned with the aspects such as, who (Teacher Educator),
whom (Student teacher), what (Content) and how (Teaching Strategy). Teacher education is
dependent upon the quality of teacher educators. The quality of pedagogical inputs in teacher
education programmes and their effective utilization for the purpose of preparing prospective
teachers depend largely on the professional competence of teacher educators and the ways in
which it is utilized for strengthening the teacher education programme. Teacher education,
thus, first deals with the preparation of effective teacher educators. Teacher education reaches
out to the student teachers by providing the relevant knowledge, attitude and skills to function
effectively in their teaching profession. It serves to equip the student teachers with the
conceptual and theoretical framework within which they can understand the intricacies of the
profession. It aims at creating the necessary attitude in student teachers towards the
stakeholders of the profession, so that they approach the challenges posed by the environment
in a very positive manner. It empowers the student teachers with the skills (teaching and soft
skills) that would enable them to carry on the functions in the most efficient and 9 effective
manner. Teacher education therefore pays attention to its content matter.
Objectives

Vision of teacher education : Teacher education has to become more sensitive to the
emerging demands from the school system. For this, it has to prepare teachers for a dual role
of; Encouraging, supportive and humane facilitator in teaching learning situations who
enables learners (students) to discover their talents, to realize their physical and intellectual
potentialities to the fullest, to develop character and desirable social and human values to
function as responsible citizens; and, An active member of the group of persons who make
conscious effort to contribute towards the process of renewal of school curriculum to
maintain its relevance to the changing societal needs and personal needs of learners, keeping
in view the experiences gained in the past and the concerns and imperatives that have
emerged in the light of changing national development goals and educational priorities. These
expectations suggest that teacher operates in a larger context and its dynamics as well as
concerns impinge upon her functioning. That is to say, teacher has to be responsive and
sensitive to the social contexts of education, the various disparities in the background of
learners as well as in the macro national and global contexts, national concerns for achieving
the goals of equity, parity, social justice as also excellence.

To be able to realize such expectations, TE has to comprise such features as would

enable the student teachers to Care for children, and who love to be with them; Understand
children within social, cultural and political contexts; View learning as a search for meaning
out of personal experience; Understand the way learning occurs, possible ways of creating
conductive conditions for learning, differences among students in respect of the kind, pace
and styles of learning. View knowledge generation as a continuously evolving process of
reflective learning. Be receptive and constantly learning. View learning as a search for
meaning out of personal experience, and knowledge generation as a continuously evolving
process of reflective learning. View knowledge not as an external reality embedded in
textbooks, but as constructed in the shared context of teaching learning and personal
experience. Own responsibility towards society, and work to build a better world. Appreciate
the potential of productive work and hands-on experience as a pedagogic medium both inside
and outside the classroom. Analyze the curricular framework, policy implications and texts.
Have a sound knowledge base and basic proficiency in language.

The objectives of teacher education would therefore be to, Provide opportunities to

observe and engage with children, communicate with and relate to children Provide
opportunities for self-learning, reflection, assimilation and articulation of new ideas;
developing capacities for self directed learning and the ability to think, be self-critical and to
work in groups. Provide opportunities for understanding self and others (including one‘s
beliefs, assumptions and emotions); developing the ability for self analysis, self-evaluation,
adaptability, flexibility, creativity and innovation. Provide opportunities to enhance
understanding, knowledge and examine disciplinary knowledge and social realities, relate
subject matter with the social milieu and develop critical thinking. Provide opportunities to
develop professional skills in pedagogy, observation, documentation, analysis, drama, craft,
story-telling and reflective inquiry.
Method.

Eight Steps For this review study, we have used the methodological framework for a
(qualitative) literature review as described by Randolph (2009*). Randolph describes eight
steps, formulated as tasks that researchers have to carry out:

1. Create an audit trail;

2. Define the focus of the review;

3. Search for relevant literature;

4. Classify the documents;

5. Create summary data bases;

6. Identify constructs and hypothesised causal linkages;

7. Search for contrary findings and rival interpretations;

8. Use colleagues or informants to corroborate findings. In this chapter, we will describe how
we have applied these steps in this review study.

1. Create an Audit Trail

The aim of this first step is to carefully document all stages of the review process. We have
done so and will explain below the selection of our sources and of the studies we have used in
the review study. We will also describe the process of data analysis and data interpretation.
Next, we will report on how we have enhanced the trustworthiness, transparency and
completeness of this study through collegial collaboration. We have further underpinned
these by involving an international group of experts (the ‘critical friends’, see step 8).

2. Define the Focus of the Review

The focus of our review is defined by the goal of this study and by the three research
questions.

3. Search for Relevant Literature

According to Randolph, step 3 is focused on searching for relevant literature. We started this
search process with an orientation phase, followed by a selection phase.

Create Summary Data Bases

Using the lists of articles created in step 4, we summarised our findings and created a
database in which for each of the selected studies we described:

1. The country or countries in which the study had been carried out;

2. The central research question(s) or the focus of the study;

3. The method(s) used;

4. The data sources;

5. The number of teacher educators that had been objects of study;

6. The number of others, for example students that had been objects of study;

7. The roles and/or accompanying behaviour on which the study provided information;

8. The professional development of roles and/or accompanying behaviour on which the study
provided information.
 TEACHER TRAINING AND TEACHER DEVELOPMENT

Definitions

Teacher training may be defined as preparation for professional practice usually through
formal courses at colleges or universities. It usually results in some kind of recognized
accreditation, granting successful candidates a certificate and the right to put letters after their
names such as BATEFL, PGCE, RSA Dip.TEFLA, etc.

Teacher development , on the other hand, usually refers to professional learning by teachers
already engaged in professional practice, usually through reflective discussion sessions based
on current classroom experience.

So the first, basic difference is that teacher training implies preservice learning, and teacher
development in-service. But it is not so simple. A further very basic and far-reaching
distinction implied in the above definitions has to do with their different underlying theories
of the nature of professional learning.

Models of teacher learning

One "way in" to this distinction which I have found helpful is to define it in terms of
Wallace's (1991) three models of teacher learning: the applied science, craft, and reflective
models. According to the applied science model, teachers learn to be teachers by being taught
research-based theories, and then applying them in practice: The implication is that the most
important professional knowledge is generalizable theory. The craft model means learning
teaching in the way apprentices learn crafts like shoemaking or carpentry: The novice
watches and imitates a master teacher, and obeys the latter's directions for improvement. Here
the implication is that teaching is mainly a practical skill. Finally we have the reflection
model, according to which teachers learn by reflecting on their own experience and applying
what they have learned in order to develop their professional abilities further.

Teacher development sessions

If we turn to the literature on "teacher development" -- especially that which appears

in the newsletter of the Teacher Development special interest group of IATEFL -- we find a
different aspect being stressed: the practical side of the organization of "teacher
development" sessions. These are envisaged as meetings of groups of colleagues, often
working in the same institution, where participants share and discuss aspects of their ongoing
classroom experience. The differences which are thrown up are therefore more practical in
nature -- but the connection with the previous theoretical model is clear. The contrasting lists
below are based on articles by Bolitho (1986), Edge (1986), Freeman (1990), McGrath
(1986), Tangalos (1991), and Underhill (1987).

training DEVELOPMENT
Imposed from "above" Initiated by "self"
Pre-determined course structure Structure determined through process
Not based on personal experience Based on personal experience
Externally determined syllabus Syllabus determined by participants
External evaluation Self-evaluation
Input from "experts" Input from participants
Unthinking acceptance of information Personal construction of knowledge
Cognitive, cerebral Cognitive and affective, "whole person"
Isolated Collaborative
Stresses professional skills Stresses personal development
Disempowers individual teacher Empowers individual teacher

The first six items here clearly correspond with the "reflective" versus "applied science/craft"
diagrams previously shown. Items seven to ten add a fresh dimension: that of the "person-
centred" approach. Many writers emphasize that the function of "teacher development" is to
develop the teacher's own potential as a "whole person" through collaborative interaction
with colleagues. There is a clear association here with the humanist methodologies in
language teaching and with the ideas behind "collaborative development" (Edge, 1991),
where colleagues help each other develop through non-judgmental listening and response.
Item eleven -- teacher empowerment -- is a key one, which I will develop further below.

The teacher as professional

Teacher empowerment means that the teacher is seen as an autonomous professional,

responsible for, and an authority on, professional learning and practice, rather than
subordinate to external authority and expertise. The concept "professional" may be clarified
by contrasting it with opposing ones such as "lay." "amateur." "technician." and "academic"
(Ur, 1997).

1.Professional vs. lay. The teacher is a member of a specific professional community, as

distinct from the general public who are designated in contrast "lay." This professional group
is distinguished by its particular skills, knowledge, language, conventions and ethical
principles. Such a community maintains and develops its solidarity and standing through
conferences, journals, Internet communication, etc.
2. Professional vs. amateur. The professional teacher is differentiated from the amateur by
virtue of superior performance as a practitioner, superior knowledge, consistent self-
development and a serious commitment to the achievement of teaching objectives -- the
advancement, or bringing about, of learning on the part of their students. All of this usually
implies better pay and conditions.

3. Professional vs. technician. The professional possesses an underlying understanding of

the principles of their practice, not just a collection of technical skills. This enables them to
make appropriate real-time decisions in practice when different principles appear to conflict.
More importantly, it equips them with the ability and authority to criticize input from other
professionals or academics and evaluate its appropriateness or acceptability in principle or for
specific contexts.

4. Professional vs. academic. The professional is primarily engaged in real-time action and
is motivated by the desire to bring about real-world change seen as valuable or desirable. The
academic, on the other hand, is primarily engaged in thinking and experimenting, mainly
motivated by the desire to discover truth or further knowledge. This is obviously something
of an over-simplification -- the professional is also interested in abstract knowledge as is the
academic in real-world change -- but the primary "thrust" of their motives and activity is, I
think, as defined here.

An important implication of this is that research and thinking by the academic may
not always apply or be relevant to professional practice, just as "what works" for us may not
be for them a worthwhile or generalizable scientific hypothesis. Thus, to claim that academic
research should justify itself in terms of its usefulness or applicability to real-world
professional practice is to deny academic freedom and the joy of discovery for its own sake.
And from the professional's point of view: We should learn selectively and critically from the
academic's research and thinking, and not accept these as the main authoritative bases for
professional knowledge.

The empowerment of the teacher, in the sense of endowing him or her with the status
of autonomous professional as defined here, sounds great; but it does not always happen.
While preparing this paper I came across several instances of situations where "teacher
development" was understood as a training methodology based on "involving" teachers in
interactive discussion, but where the ultimate objective was to get them to accept innovations
that had been determined elsewhere: by the Ministry of Education, or by some authoritative
group of experts who were not themselves teachers. And the success of such "teacher
development" was evaluated by the extent to which the managers of the project succeeded in
convincing teachers to take on board these innovations (for example, Hayes, 1995; Bax,
1995a). In such cases, teachers appear to be given some measure of freedom to express their
opinions and initiate discussion -- but the aim of the organizers of the project is to use this
discussion in order to persuade the teachers to adopt certain pre-determined ideas for change,
rather than to explore and develop their own.
 I do not mean to imply that such projects are "bad." On the contrary, they tell the
story of some interesting work on the introduction of difficult but clearly valuable change in
teacher attitudes or methodology; and, the work invested in initiating, carrying through, and
documenting such work has produced results from which we can all learn. I would claim,
however, that they are not talking about real "teacher development" as I understand the term;
they are talking about effective methods of bringing about change in education. This is
because true teacher development, on its own, is not a very effective means for bringing
about change. You need a combination of aspects of "development" and "training."

Teacher training versus teacher development: a conclusion

My answer to the question posed in the title of this article would be "yes" - - but with
reservations. The distinction between teacher training and teacher development is an
interesting one, and, like Krashen's learning versus acquisition of language it has given rise to
some useful and productive thinking about the nature of professional learning. But, also like
Krashen's dichotomy, the distinction ceases to be a useful one if the two concepts are
considered to be completely separable or mutually exclusive. They are of optimal value when
they come together.

Neither model of teacher learning is satisfactory on its own. Teacher training as

described in Figure 1 leaves no scope for the teacher's own reflection and initiative. This is
contrary to our intuitions about effective learning, and contrary to the experience of most
competent teachers who will tell you if you ask them that the single most important
contribution to their present expertise was reflection on their own experience. It is also
contrary to the fairly widely accepted social constructivist, or Vygotzkian, conception of the
nature of learning, according to which we learn by constructing our own understanding of
reality through interaction with others (parents, teachers, peers).

The model of teacher development as presented in Figure 2 does the opposite. It

respects the teacher's own experience as a major source of learning, and allows full rein to
their own thinking and initiative. But it does not appear to take into account the enormous
amount of knowledge, practical and theoretical, that has been amassed by other practitioners,
thinkers and researchers, and of which the teacher-learner can take advantage. Taken to an
extreme, it implies that the incoming teacher has to "reinvent the wheel" on their own.

Confidence, teaching ability and teacher development

 In my opinion, gaining self-confidence and developing your teaching ability are
closely related, and working on either concern leads to improvement on the other. The more
you develop your teaching ability, the more confident you will become in your teaching. In
the same way, the more confident you become in your teaching skills, the better prepared you
are to move on to “the next level”, i.e. deepen your understanding of learning and teaching,
find out about the latest learning and teaching theories, and try out new teaching practices,
thus developing your teaching ability. In other words, answering one of the questions may
help us to answer the other question as well.

But where do the answers to Mariam’s questions lie? It seems to me that finding ways
to gain confidence in what you do and improve your teaching skills are different aspects of
the same concern, i.e. how can we develop as a professional teacher? Underhill (1986:1)
describes teacher development as the process of becoming “the best kind of teacher that I
personally can be.” Rossner (1992:4) argues that “teacher development is not just to do with
language or even teaching: it’s also about language development, counseling skills,
assertiveness training, confidence-building (my italics), computing, meditation, cultural
broadening – almost anything, in fact.” Both descriptions of teacher development seem to
take account of Mariam’s concerns. Therefore, in order to answer Mariam’s questions we can
perhaps look into the theory of “teacher development”.

Teacher development and a model of teaching

Freeman (1989:37) regards teacher development and teacher training as the two main
teacher education strategies. In order to distinguish between them he proposes a model of
teaching which characterizes it as “a decision-making process based on the categories of
knowledge, skills, attitude, and awareness” (ibid:27). Whereas teacher training addresses the
more “trainable” aspects of teaching based on knowledge and skills, teacher development is
concerned with generating change with regard to the more complex constituents of teaching,
i.e. awareness and attitude.

I believe Freeman’s model of teaching can help us to impose some order on the wide
range of options which are available for teachers aiming to gain confidence in their teaching
and develop their teaching ability in general. In the sections that follow I make reference to
each of the aforementioned constituents of teaching in turn and discuss what teachers can do
in each of these respects in order to develop professionally. These are not exhaustive lists and
readers will very likely have their own ideas to add to them.

Self-confidence, teaching ability and KNOWLEDGE

As far as knowledge is concerned there seem to be different ways in which teachers can
develop confidence and improve their general teaching ability:
  The subject matter – Above all, teachers should aim to develop their knowledge of
the subject matter they teach. If this is English, teachers can study the language to
further their understanding of how it works, they can enroll in language development
courses, and they can seek opportunities to practise and develop their ability to listen
to, read, speak and write in English, for example, by not missing the opportunities
they have to interact orally with native speakers, subscribing to EFL/ESL magazines,
and participating in synchronic or asynchronic discussions on the Web. (Ed - such as
the onestopenglish forum)
 Theories about learning and teaching – Teachers should also aim at deepening their
understanding of the theories underpinning learning and teaching practices. This can
be achieved by reading about teaching and learning, attending seminars and
workshops regularly, and enrolling on methodology courses which will enable them
to reconstruct their knowledge of the background to language learning and teaching.
 The students – The more teachers know their students, the more effective their
teaching will be. Teachers can get to know students better by giving them
opportunities to talk about themselves, really listening to what they have to say,
encouraging them to give teachers feedback on anything and everything that happens
in the classroom, showing a real interest in them and above all, by teachers just “being
themselves,” i.e. not pretending to be somebody they are not.
 The workplace – Finally, it is important that teachers know the context in which they
work very well. This involves academic aspects such as syllabuses, assessment
procedures, and knowledge of the supplementary materials they can count on, as well
as more practical concerns like the use of audio, video or computer equipment.

Self-confidence, teaching ability and SKILLS

In addition to knowing about the subject matter, theories of learning and teaching, the
students, and the workplace, teachers should aim at improving their ability to put all this
knowledge into practice and becoming more skilful at teaching. This can be achieved by
having a daring and exploratory attitude towards teaching which involves trying out different
methods, techniques and activities again and again, reflecting on their effectiveness, and
capitalizing on these experiences in order to make the necessary changes to their teaching
habits.

Trying out new ideas in the classroom has the additional benefit of making the
activity of teaching much more interesting. Having an exploratory attitude towards teaching
helps to prevent the feeling of being stuck in a rut, i.e. working on the same teaching points in
the same way year after year.

Becoming more skilful at a certain activity has a lot to do with being aware of one’s
own strengths and weaknesses, which is the aspect that is discussed in the next section.
Self-confidence, teaching ability and AWARENESS

Teachers can develop further by increasing their self-awareness. What kind of teachers
are they? How are they perceived by their students and colleagues? What are the strengths
they should capitalize on and the weaknesses they should be working on? Self-awareness can
be raised in a number of ways:

 Teachers can make audio or video recordings of their lessons and watch, analyze and
reflect on the recordings afterwards.
 They can invite a colleague to sit in while they teach and ask them for feedback after
the lesson.
 Observing other teachers teach can be very enlightening. It helps teachers to compare
different teaching styles, practices, etc. and become more aware of what kind of
teachers they are, or they are not.
 The students themselves can provide teachers with very valuable feedback on their
performance. Implementing instances for the collection of this kind of feedback
regularly can be very valuable.
 Teachers can benefit from whatever evaluation system is implemented at their
workplace if they regard it as an awareness-raising opportunity leading to professional
development.

Self-confidence, teaching ability and ATTITUDE

Finally, teacher development has much to do with developing and sustaining a

positive attitude towards the activity of teaching and oneself as a teacher. Teachers must plan
their lessons regularly, aim at being better informed about their profession, obtain a teaching
certificate, diploma or degree, and respect themselves, their colleagues and their students.

In addition, teachers should try not to allow personal problems to affect their teaching
or feel discouraged when facing new challenges which at first may seem insurmountable.
They should enjoy themselves when teaching, treat themselves to something nice when they
achieve their aims, and take a well-deserved rest when they have the opportunity to do so.

Conclusion

Mariam’s questions are not easy to answer and some of the solutions that have been
suggested may not be simple to implement. Neither is the aforementioned list of options and
exhaustive account of what teachers can do to develop professionally. However, I hope the
present article has shed some light on some of the possible ways in which teachers can face
the problems of developing self-confidence and their teaching ability.
 References and Further Reading

1. https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-
shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/pubs/Nature%20of%20Teacher%20Research.pdf

2. https://www.sensepublishers.com/media/1858-the-professional-teacher-educator.pdf

3. Bax, S. (1995a). Appropriate methodology: the content of teacher development activity.

System, 23 (3), 347-357.

4. Bax, S. (1995b). Principles for evaluating teacher development activities. English

Language Teaching Journal 49 (3), 262-271.

5. Bolitho, R. (1986). Teacher development: A personal perspective. Teacher Development,

Newsletter of the IATEFL Teacher Development Special Group 1, 2.

6. Edge, J. (1991). Cooperative development: Professional self-development through

cooperation with colleagues. London: Longman.

7. Finocchiaro, M. (1988). Teacher development -- A developmental process. English

Teaching Forum, 26(3), 2-3.

8. Freeman, D. (1989). Teacher training, development and decision making: A model of

teaching and related strategies for language teaching education. TESOL Quarterly, 23(1), 27-
46.

9. Hayes, D. (1995). In-service teacher development: Some basic principles. English

Language Teaching Journal 49(3), 252-61.

10. Higgs, D. (1986). Blurring boundaries between training and development. Teacher
Development: Newsletter of the IATEFL Teacher Development Special Group 3, 1.

11. Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.Lange, D.L. (1990). A blueprint
for a teacher development program. In J.C. Richards & D. Nunan (Eds.), Second language
teacher education, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

12. McGrath, I. (1986). The balancing act: Our major responsibility. Teacher Development:
Newsletter of the IATEFL Teacher Development Special Group 4:, 1.

13. Tabachnik,&Zeichner (Eds.). (1991). Issues and practice in inquiry-oriented teacher

education. Lewes: The Falmer Press.

14. Tangalos, B. (1991). When you get lemons, make lemonade. English Teaching Forum,
29(4), 35-36.
1.Freeman, D (1989): “Teacher Training, Development, and Decision Making: A Model of
Teaching and Related Strategies for Language Teacher Education” in TESOL Quarterly
23/1: 27 - 45.

2. Underhill, A (1986): Editorial in Teacher Development Newsletter 9: 4

3. Rossner, R (1992): “Where there’s a will – facilitating teacher development” in Teacher

Development Newsletter 18: 4 - 5