Pore Pressure & Fracture

Gradients

By Tom Arnold

Click on the ‘speaker’ to hear presentation

Why Do we Need to Understand
Geo-Pressures?
 Definitions
Pore Pressure - The pressure of the fluids within the pores of a reservoir, usually hydrostatic
pressure, or the pressure exerted by a column of water from the formation’s depth to sea level.
Transition Zone – impermeable rock cap topping an abnormal pressure zone that is
usually highly mineralized and well cemented with salt, calcite, anhydrite, etc.
Fracture Gradient -The minimum pressure required to break a formation at a given
depth in either a fresh water or salt water environment.
Mud Weight - Is the measure of the density of the drilling fluid which controls the
hydrostatic pressure in the bore hole. The drilling fluid is the medium which keeps formation
fluids from entering the well bore.
Casing seat - The lowest point at which the casing is set. It is usually the WEAKEST place in
the hole in terms of the pressure needed to fracture the formation.
Overburden Stress -Pressure exerted on a point from the material over lying it.
Hydrostatic Pressure - Relates to the pressure exerted by a fluid at a given depth.
Swab - Pressure reduction in the well bore due to pulling the pipe. This can cause formation
fluids to be ‘sucked’ into the well bore starting the well to flow and creating a kick.
Surge - Pressure increase in the well bore due to running the pipe into the hole. If the surge is
high enough, the fracture pressure can be exceeded and an ‘under-ground’ blow-out is possible.
 Normal Pressure Gradients
Salt Water: .465 Psi/Ft [9 ppg]
Fresh Water: .433 Psi/Ft [8.33 ppg]
> .433 psi/ft is Under Pressured
Depth (TVD)

Transition Zone

Pressure (PSI / PPG)

 Primary Causes of Abnormal
Pressures
All abnormal pressures are created and maintained by the restriction of pore fluid
movement within a formation! These zones don’t have the freedom of pressure
communications. If they did, the high pressures would rapidly dissipate reverting to
normal pressure.

Rapid Deposition
Artesian Aquifer
of Shale

Uplift, Erosion, & Psuedoplastic

Intrusion Formations

Fluid Density
Differences &
Hydrocarbon
Generation
 Rapid Deposition of Shale
This situation occurs during flooding in
rivers like the Mississippi. Rapidly
depositing sediments into a continuous
depositional basin like the Gulf of Mexico.

Abnormal pore pressures are generated under rapid deposition

because the shale matrix can’t support the overburden stress.
Trapped water doesn’t have enough time to escape under these
circumstances and is still helping support the overburden.
 Artesian Aquifer
Aquifer recharge is from an elevation higher than the drilling
location causing a very high formation pressure
encountered at a shallow depth.
Formation Pressure = (Total Vertical Displacement * .465 psi/ft * 19.23 )/ Depth of encounter

3000’

10000’
7000’
FP ppg = (.465 * 10000 * 19.23) / 7000
FP ppg = 12.7
 Erosion and Uplift Causes Under
Pressured Reservoirs
Underpressured reservoirs are common is rocks that have subjected
to uplift and erosion. Many fields in the western US are
underpressured for this reason. The Keyes field in Oklahoma
produces gas from a depth of
5550 ft. Two evaporite seals
are present, the Blaine
Anhydrite at 1000ft. and the
Wellington salt at 3000 ft. The
extent of the underpressure in
the Keyes sandstone at 5100 ft
is 1305 psi or 4.9 ppg. Normal
should be 2208 psi or 8.33 ppg.
Final burial of the formation after deposition was
8113ft. It was uplifted by 3013 feet and encountered
at 5100ft.
Under Pressure: 1305 PSI = (8113ft – 5100ft) * .433
Intrusion & Psuedoplastic Formations
…another example of a cause of under pressured formation.

Salt dome intrusions create

situations where beds
pressured at lower depths
are pushed higher in the
subsurface. Such situations
will create underpressured
zones. Pressures here are
determined in the same
manner as those in uplift
and erosion discussed
earlier.
 Fluid Density Difference &
Hydrocarbon Generation
Regional overpressured reservoirs are common in rocks that have been subjected
to rapid burial and oil generation. Many fields in the Gulf Coast are overpressured
in this way.
8.33 ppg 15 ppg
The Bakken Field of the
Williston Basin is a typical
6000 ft example of a locally
overpressured oil reservoir.

The dense organic shale source

8000 ft rock has a central silty-sand
interval that forms a reservoir.
Local oil generation creates
14.1 ppg
higher formation pressure and
9840 ft Bakken Reservoir
is the reason for the large
overpressures of more than 14
11000 ft ppg. at only 9800 feet. Normal
would be 8.33 ppg.
More Considerations in Abnormal
Formation Pressure

Thick impermeable beds of shale or salt restrict the movement of

water. These are called ‘transition zones’ and should be watched
carefully while drilling! Below such beds abnormal pressure may be
found.
More Considerations in Abnormal
Formation Pressure

Hydrostatic pressure gradient is lower in gas or oil than in water.

 More Considerations in
Abnormal Formation Pressure

When crossing a fault it is possible to go from normal pressure to

abnormal pressure in a short interval. Faults also will often ‘leak’
pressures into other formations causing another potential hazard.
 More Considerations in
Abnormal Formation Pressure

Underground Blow-Out
{Fractured Formation}

Here we see a formation charged with high formation

pressure from a much deeper formation in an offset well.
This is clearly human induced abnormal formation pressure!
 Dangerous and Delicate Situation
Consider a scenario where you have crossed a transition zone and the pore pressure has risen to
14.5 ppg. The fracture pressure is 15 ppg at the casing seat. You have just taken a kick. The well
is flowing salt water and the gas is rising steeply. Calculations show that you need a 14.7 mud
weight to kill the kick. Coupled with the ECD, Equivalent Circulating Density, the effective mud
weight at the casing seat, the WEAKEST PLACE IN THE HOLE, will be 15.1. The fracture pressure
at that depth is 15 ppg. What do you DO???
This is a nightmare!

The answer is drop the pump rate

and pump pressure to a point
Depth

where the ECD is below the

fracture pressure while pumping
the kill weight mud. Kill the well
and set a drilling liner or an
intermediate casing! ..drill ahead,
and hope you don’t cross another
transition zone!
Pressure

Often you will find a delicate balance between balancing the mud weight with the pore
pressure and keeping the ECD below the fracture pressure at the casing seat or some other
weak formation encountered while drilling.
Abnormal Pore Pressure Indicators
Seismic Data (not discussed)
Wire-Line Logs (separate module)
Sloughing Shale & cutting size
Gas
Shale Density
Chloride Content
Pit Level and Volume

Temperature
Paleo Information
Drilling Rate
‘d’ exponent
Normalized Rate of Penetration
 Indicator – Cutting Size and
Sloughing Shale
The size of the cuttings coming out of the hole can be a very useful tool in the detection of
abnormal pressure. Sloughing shale may be the result of the following hole conditions.

1. Formation fluid pressures are in excess of the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column.
2. Hydration or swelling of shale
3. Erosion caused by the fluid circulation or pipe movement.

In some situations the problems of sloughing, also called

heaving, may be a combination of more than one of the
above causes. For this reason the PML Surface Logger
must always try to diagnose the cause.

Sloughing or Heaving shale associated with abnormal

pressure is easily recognizable in the samples at the shale
shaker. The size of the cuttings will increase and become
larger than what you were seeing before. These shale
cuttings become long and splintery or long and concave.
 Indicator – Gas Increase
Gas cut mud has always been considered a
warning signal, but is not necessarily a
serious problem, Gas may enter the mud
system as a result of any of the following:

1. Gas in shale (background gas)

2. Gas from sands
3. Connection gas
4. Trip gas
5. Gas that enters the mud due to
insufficient mud weight to control
formation fluids.
Connection and trip gas are introduced into the
mud by swabbing or just by the reduction in total
annulus back pressure when the pump is
stopped. Any increase in either of these types of
gas should be watched carefully. It may be the
result of abnormally high formation pressure.
Both gases will show an increasing trend when
entering abnormally high formation pressure.
 Indicator – Mud Temperature
As formation pressure rise, formation temperatures rise as well.
Therefore paying close attention to flow-line temperatures is another
important procedure when watching for abnormal down-hole
pressures.
 Indicator- Shale Density
Shale density is one of the most reliable and best of the abnormal pressure detection methods.
It is based on the assertion that the fluids and gas trapped between the shale platlets decrease
the density of the cutting. Look at the plot below. There is a marked decrease in the density of the
shale from the
normal trend
line. This is a
clear indicator of
the rise in
formation
pressure due to
the increased
fluid and gas
content in the
shale.

The determination
of shale density is
defined by two
methods upcoming.
 Indicator- Shale Density
(Mud Balance Method)
1. Fill mud cup with shale until the weight is 8.33.
2. Fill to top with water, and record the reading Wtot.

8.33
Spec.Gravity 
16.66  Wtot

Note: Dry sample carefully with towel.

Do not apply heat.
Indicator- Shale Density
(Fluid Column)
A shale density column is
composed of chlorothene
and bromaform. Both of
the chemicals are toxic
and cancer producers.
Setting up the column
takes practice and
patience.

.
 Indicator- Chloride Trends
Chloride trends in the mud are not easily recognizable as changes in gas concentration.
Methods of measurement make it more difficult to obtain information on chloride
changes. Also, in many cases , the water in the mud is either brackish or salt water with
a high level of salinity. A comparison of chloride trends both going in the hole and
coming out of the hole may provide a warning of increasing pore pressure.

The theory behind chloride trends is when entering an abnormally high pressure zone,
we enter a formation which is under-compacted. Comparing this information to those
drilled at shallower depths, there is an increase of native fluid. Therefore, we should see
an increase in chloride content in the mud system.

There are two methods that can be used to determine the mud chlorides. The first
method is the same as the one used by the mud engineer. It involves adding a sample of
drilling mud to a filter press and driving off the native fluid. By the use of titration and
indicator chemicals, the chloride ion concentration can be determined. Or you can
simply read the chlorides off the mud report!

The second method we will discuss next.

 Indicator- Chloride Trends
By knowing the resistivity and temperature of the mud, the chloride ion concentration may
be determined.

Standard surface
logging practice
provides resistivity
probes and
temperature probes
where these values
may be determined.

Enter the chart at the

bottom with the
resistivity. Read up to
the mud temperature.
Then follow the slope
to the top and read
the chloride ion.

A copy of this chart is

available for
download on this site.
 Indicator- Chloride Trends
If you are so inclined as to wish to make the calculation rather than
bother with the TINY lines on the chart, here is the equation on
which the chart is made.

Where:
CH = chlorides in ppm
T = mud temperature in Deg F from a probe
R = mud resistivity from a probe
Then to convert to true NaCL equivalent we have:
NaCL = Ch * 1.65
Example for a computer or calculator:
Temp = 175
R = .05
71072.3 PPM = ( ( (175 / .05 ^ -1.0185) / 201315.6) ^ (1 / -.971692) * 1.65)
 Putting It Together
Here is a typical response of several pressure indicators through a
transition zone and into abnormal pressure.

Temperature Chloride ppm Total Gas Pore Pressure

Transition Zone
 Indicator- Pit Volume Increase
Variations in the total mud volume can be monitored by pit level indicators. These devices
monitor the level of the mud in the pits and tell us when mud is being lost into the
formation or when fluids within the formation enter the well bore and the well starts
flowing.

The first indication of a kick while going into the hole following a trip is the observation that
a pit level increases in excess of the mud displacement by the pipe run into the hole.

HOLE FILL-UP: As the drill string is being pulled, the mud volume required to fill the hole
should equal the pipe displacement. Keeping the hole filled is even more critical at the time
the drill collars are pulled, since if the same length of collars as that of the drill pipe is pulled
, the level of the mud in the hole will fall 4 or 5 times as fast. Furthermore there may be a
temporary pressure reduction while the string is pulled due to the bit being balled, high
mud viscosity, thick mud cake……

If salt water, oil, or gas, or a combination of the three, from the formation has entered the
well bore, the mud volume required to fill the hole will be less than the volume of the pipe
pulled and gives the first indicator of a kick. The amount of mud required to fill the hole can
be monitored by the number of strokes required to fill the hole.

------ MORE ------

 Indicator- Pit Volume Increase
Any abnormal rise in pit level by the mud flow from the annulus will also be reflected in
an increased flow rate, which can be measured by a standard flow-meter. Actually, a
flow rate measurement is superior to pit level checks since small flow rate increases can
be detected before they become sufficiently large enough to show on any pit level
device. If such small flows are noticed immediately, they are not as critical at this point
and there is still time available to take proper control measures.

Pits
 Indicator- Paleo Data
Abnormally high pore pressures are frequently related to certain environmental conditions
within given geologic time periods of deposition. Formations are marked, depending on the
depth of the water during a particular stage of deposition, by the presence of certain fossils.
People who work with paleo information, -bug hunters-, examine samples from the well bore
looking for these fossils. Encountering certain fossils reveal the potential problem of entering
abnormally high formation pressures.
 Indicator- Drill Rate
Drilling rate alone is an important indicator of abnormally pressured formations. Seen
below, as the pressure in the well bore is reduced, the drilling rate will increase. This is the
foundation of this procedure as well as ‘d’ exponent and Normalized Rate of Penetration.
The latter two procedures will be discussed in great depth later.

Differential
Pressure is the
Decrease can be due to:
difference
• Chip hold down effect
between wellbore
•Well bore pressure on rock strength
pressure and pore
NOTE: Drilling pressure.
underbalanced can
INCREASE drilling rate!

PHYD - PPORE , psi

 Indicator- Drill Rate
Typical drilling rate profile in shale.

The drilling rate in a normally

pressured, solid shale section will
generally generate a very steady
and smooth drilling rate curve.

The penetration rate will be

steady and not erratic (normally
pressured, clean shale).
 Indicator- Drill Rate
Any deviation from the expected decrease in drilling rate
with depth, when you are drilling in a clean shale, might
indicate a transition zone.
Note:
If you are drilling overbalanced in a transition zone, it will be very
difficult to pick up the transition zone initially. This will allow you to
move well into the transition zone before detecting the problem.
This could cause you to move into a permeable zone which would
probably result in a kick. The conditions you create with overbalanced
hydrostatic head will so disguise the pending danger that you may not
notice the small effect of the drilling rate curve change. This will allow
you to move well into that transition zone without realizing it.

Disastrous!
 Pore Pressure Prediction Methods
General Comments
1. Most pore pressure prediction techniques rely on measured or
inferred porosity.

2. The shale compaction theory is the basis for these predictions.

3. All measurements of the porosity indicator (density) must be done

in NORMAL, clean shales in order to establish a NORMAL trend
line. Trends are THE key part of abnormal pressure detection.

4. When the indicator suggests porosity values that are higher than
the trend, then abnormal pressures are suspected to be present.

5. The magnitude of the deviation from the normal trend line is used
to quantify the abnormal pressure.
 Establishing a Normal Trend
Porosity should 1. Establish “Normal” Trend
decrease with depth Line in good “clean” shale
in normally Trend lines are
pressured shales plotted on semi log
paper by increasing
depth: 1”=100”.
Divisions are
Transition labeled according to
the type of measure.

2. Extrapolate Trend lines are KEY in

normal trend line 3. Determine the evaluation of ‘d’
magnitude exponent, Normalized
of the deviation Rate of Penetration,
and other prediction
methods!

What is meant by a TREND line?

34
Establishing a Normal Trend

Older shales have had more time

to compact, so porosities would
tend to be lower (at a particular
depth).

Use the trend line closest to the

transition.

Lines may or may not be parallel.

 Indicator – ‘d’ Exponent
The theoretical base for the quantitative method for abnormal
pressure detection using drill rate and engineering mechanics is:

d
W 
R  K 3 N  
 db 
Where:
R = Penetration Rate
K = Formation Drilliability
N = Rotary Speed
W = Weight on Bit
b = Bit Diameter
d = Weight on Bit Exponent (‘d’-exponent)
 Indicator – ‘d’ Exponent
The d-exponent normalizes R for any variations in
W, db and N
 R 
 log  Under normal compaction, R should decrease
with depth. This would cause d to increase with
d  60 N 
depth.
 log 12W 
 
 10 D 
6 Any deviation from the trend could be caused by
abnormal pressure.
R  ft/hr
Mud weight also affects R…..
N  rpm An adjustment to d may be made:
d  d  exponent dc = d (rn /rc)
W  Bit Weight , lbf where

D  Bit Diameter, in dc = exponent corrected for mud density

rn = normal pore pressure gradient
rc = effective mud density in use
 Indicator – ‘d’ Exponent
 
Example  log R
d   60 N


12W 
While drilling in a Gulf Coast shale,  log 6 
 10 D 
R = 50 ft/hr
W = 20,000 lb
 50 
N = 100 RPM log  
 60 * 100   2.079
ECD = 10.1 ppg (ECD) d 
 12 * 20,000   1.554
D = 8.5 in
log  
 10 * 8.5 
6
Calculate d and dc

d  1.34
 0.465 
dc  1.34    rn 
 0.052 * 10.1 d c  d  
 rc 
dc  1.19
 Indicator – ‘d’ Exponent
Plotted example of ‘d’ exponent data in the table.

Normal ‘dx’ Trend Line

Should a new trend be

Established or is this a
transition zone?
‘dx’ indicated transition zone

Notice how the ‘dx’ breaks left

from the normal trend line
indicating the transition zone.
 Indicator – ‘d’ Exponent
How to determine the Pore Pressure from the ‘dx’ trend line shift.

Normal hard rock gradient = .465 psi./ft.

Normal ‘dx’ trend = 1.18
Observed ‘dx’ = .95

gp = gn (dcn/dco)
gp = 0.465 * (1.18/.95)

0.95 gp = 0.578 psi/ft

1.18

rp = 0.578/0.052

rp = 11.1 ppg
Indicator – ‘d’ Exponent

This is a pore pressure overlay. A copy is available

for download from the PML training web site.

When creating a pore pressure plot be carful that

the scale is correct for the graph paper being
used. Plot using 1”=1000’. Be sure the slope is
correct for normal trends. You must also be sure
that the overlay is correct for the formation.
 Indicator – ‘d’ Exponent
Improvements in Pore Pressure prediction.
Try to keep the weight and rpm relatively constant when
making measurements

Use donwhole (MWD) bit weights when these are available.

(Friction drag in directional wells can cause LARGE errors.

Add geological interpretation when possible.

Keep in mind that tooth wear can greatly influence

penetration rates.

Use common sense and engineering judgment.

Use several techniques and compare results.

 Indicator – Normalized Rate of
Penetration (NROP)
Normalization Considerations
•Lithology
•Formation compressive strength variations
•Bit Weight
•Rotary Speed
•Tooth Wear
•Hydraulics at the face of the hole
•Differential Pressure

The normalization process eliminates the influence of these

variations with the exception of Differential Pressure.
 Affect of WOB on ROP
PR ~ W – M

λ
PR ~ N

Where: W = Bit Weight Where: N = Bit Weight

M = Threshold Weight λ = Rotary Exponent

HHP =
HHP
AVERAGE VALUES OF= M AND λ
DEPTH M λ
0-9000- 5000 lbs. .6
9000- 11000 0 lbs. PR ~ Sp
.6
Where: Q = Flow Rate 11000-25000 5000 lbs. .6
PB = Bit Pressure Drop
d = Bit Size
 Equation for Normalized Rate of
Penetration
PRn = PRo X X X

Pr = Penetration Rate
W = Weight on Bit
M = Weight on bit exponent
N = Rotary Speed (rpm)
PB = Pressure Drop at Bit
Q = Flow Rate (gpm)
λ = Rotary Exponent
Note: Values subscripted n refer to ‘normal’ Values
Subscripted o refer to actual or ‘observed’ values.
 NROP Example
NORMAL CONDITIONS - Wn = 30000 Lbs.
Nn = 150 RPM
PBn= 1500 psi
Qn = 250 gpm
OBSERVED CONDITIONS - PRo = 16 FT/HR
Wo = 35000 Lbs.
Constants: M = 5000 lb.s No = 175 RPM
PBo = 1300 psi
λ = .6 Qo = 210 RPM

PRn = 16 X X X

PRn = 16 x (.8333) x (.9117) x (1.374)

PRn = 16.7 ft/hr
NROP vs DEPTH
The vertical scale (ordinate) is
for depth and should be linear.
It should be the same as the
depth scale on any correlation
logs being utilized.

NOTE: The normalized

penetration rate plot is an
excellent lithology log and is
very useful for geologic
correlation.

Normalized penetration rates

for each interval are plotted,
and the points connected to
create a continuous curve.
% Decrease vs Differential Pressure
Consulting the composite curve (Vidrine &
Benit) for percent decrease versus
differential pressure at a δP of 728 psi:
yields a percent decrease of 46.5%. This
means that penetration rates achieved
while drilling 728 psi overbalanced are
reduced 46.5% from the rates which would
have occurred if the drilling was done at
exact balanced conditions.

Utilizing the extrapolated dulling trend to

determine the penetration rate which
would have occurred if the formation
pressure had not changed, yields 13.5
ft/hr.
% Decrease vs Differential Pressure

X = 25.23 ft/hr

%DECREASE = X 100

X 100

%DECREASE = -10.98%
The negative % decrease means drilling is proceeding at a rate faster than would be
expected at zero differential pressure. This means drilling is underbalanced. The
formation pressure is greater than the ECD.
 Determine Pore Pressure

% decrease
from -10.98
calculation

-160 psi

Formation Pressure =ECD - X 19.23

X 19.23

Formation Pressure = 10.7 ppg

 Plotted Example
Following along with the
example plot a deviation from
the dulling trend is noted to
occur at approximately 10100 ft.
This penetration rate is seen to
be higher than expected
according to the dulling trend,
reflecting an increase in
formation pressure.

The calculation of the magnitude

of formation pressure is made at
10200 ft. where an actual
penetration rate of 27 ft/hr is
observed.
 Conclusion
This procedure, with the special considerations discussed, can
be utilized to maintain differential pressure at a desired value
throughout the drilling of a well. Mud weights can be properly
maintained, casing points located, differential sticking and lost
circulation minimized, and penetration rates maximized, all
without the necessity of prior knowledge of the Geologic
section or Geographic area. However, the most attractive
aspect of this procedure, in the author's viewpoint, is the large
response to relative small increases in formation pressures.
There should never again be heard "We got kicked and none of
our indicators showed anything - we got no warning at all".