Scribd
Upload
207 views8 pages

Radiography Part 2 - TWI

Uploaded by

Kolusu Sivakumar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
207 views8 pages

Radiography Part 2 - TWI

Uploaded by

Kolusu Sivakumar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 8

Home > Technical Knowledge > Job Knowledge >

RADIOGRAPHY PART 2

  

Job Knowledge 125

The previous article dealt mostly with the basic principles of radiography – this part will cover

the methods of ensuring that a radiograph is of an acceptable quality and capable of showing

relevant imperfections. As mentioned in the previous article the quality of a radiograph is

assessed using three factors: density, contrast and de nition or sharpness of the image.

Density and contrast have already been covered but there also has to be some method by

which the sensitivity (the ability to reveal imperfections) can be measured. To do this devices

known as image quality indicators (IQI’s), formerly called, are used. These can be of several

forms as illustrated in Fig.1


Fig. 1. Image Quality Indicators
The wire type is the most frequently used IQI in radiography-by- lm. The design of the IQI is
given in EN ISO 19232 Part 1 or ASTM E747. Both speci cations list a series of IQIs containing
six or seven wires of increasing diameter, from 1-8mm, from 10-50mm in length and in a
range of metals – iron, nickel, aluminium, magnesium, copper and titanium. The wires are
mounted side by side in a exible plastic sheath which also carries appropriate identi cation,
generally lead letters that will be clearly seen on the radiograph. The IQI is selected with
respect to the metal type and the component thickness; the thicker the component the
thicker the IQI’s wires. The IQI carries an identi cation and serial number so that it can be
con rmed at a later stage that the correct IQI has been used.
 Click here to see our latest technical engineering podcasts on YouTube.

Ideally the IQI is placed on the source side of the component and, in the case of a weld,
transversely across the joint although this is not always possible when radiographing pipe
and tube butt welds. The sensitivity is taken as the smallest diameter wire that can be seen
divided by the component thickness, expressed as a percentage. Most application codes
specify a sensitivity of between 2-4% ; this is a maximum, the smaller the gure the greater
the sensitivity of the radiograph. Alternatively an actual wire diameter that must be visible is
speci ed.

The step hole IQI is used less frequently. It is a stepped wedge with a hole drilled in each step,
the hole diameter matching the thickness of the step. As with the wire IQI, the material and
dimensions of the step wedge are selected to match the application. The diameter of the
smallest hole visible on the radiograph determines the sensitivity, this being calculated as
hole diameter divided by component thickness expressed as a percentage. The sensitivity
measured by the use of a wire IQI is not the same as the sensitivity using a step wedge IQI.

As with any lm, the method of processing will a ect the quality of the image. Care must be
taken to ensure that there is no light contamination, the processing chemicals are at the
correct concentrations and temperatures and that drying the lm does not leave marks and
stains that would leave spurious indications and would make accurate interpretation di cult.

Interpretation of the radiographs must be undertaken by trained and experienced


radiographers. In addition to being fully conversant with radiographic techniques such
individuals should also have a comprehensive knowledge of welding processes, joint design
and the various imperfections that may occur.  Many application speci cations require such
individuals to be independently certi ed to a suitable certi cation scheme such as PCN,
administered by the British Institute for NDT or CSWIP, administered by TWI Certi cation Ltd.
Viewing should be carried out in a darkened room, allowing a period of time for the viewer’s
eyes to be accustomed to the conditions. The luminance of the viewing screen will need to
vary with the density of the radiograph – there is generally a rheostat control (a dimmer
switch) on the viewer to enable the luminance to be varied. The light itself should be white
and di use and there should be as little light as possible leaking around the edges of the
radiograph. 

Radiography of at plates and cylinders large enough to permit entry for placement of the
lm is a relatively simple operation, as shown in Fig. 1 of the previous article. Lead numbers
are placed at xed intervals along the plate adjacent to the weld or around the circumference
of a pipe to enable the position of any imperfections to be accurately located. The weld also
carries a unique identi cation number reproduced on the radiograph by the use of lead
gures placed adjacent to the weld.

Radiography of pipes, however, where access to the bore to place the lm is not possible
presents some problems and terms such as SWSI and DWSI are used as shorthand to identify
the various techniques that may be used.

Single wall, single image (SWSI) is a technique whereby the radiographic source is placed
inside the pipe by some suitable method, the lm wrapped around the outside of the pipe
and the exposure made as shown in Fig. 2. This may also be known as a panoramic exposure.
The IQI is placed on the outside of the pipe immediately beneath the lm. Both X- and gamma-
radiography can be used, the source being placed in position by the use of a pre-placed
spider or by means of a crawler unit. This method is most commonly used for the inspection
of pipelines where the weld can be radiographed in one exposure, making the technique
rapid and cost e ective.

Fig. 2 Single wall, single image (SWSI) or panoramic radiographic technique

Where access to the bore is not possible or the pipe diameter is too small to permit the use
of an internal source then the double wall, single image (DWSI) technique is used. Here the
lm is placed on the outside of the pipe on the farthest side from the radiographic source, as
shown in Fig. 3. The source may be o set slightly to avoid an image of the upper part of the
weld to be projected onto the lm or directly in line. The source may be close to or a
substantial distance from the pipe, the location being a compromise between a less sharp
image but short exposure time for a small stand-o and sharper image but longer exposure
time for a large stand-o . The need to penetrate two wall thicknesses means that the
sensitivity will be poorer than with the single wall single image technique. The technique also
requires multiple exposures to enable the complete circumference of the pipe to be
examined – speci cation or contract requirements frequently specify the minimum numbers
of exposures to ensure complete coverage and images of an acceptable quality. The
technique is generally used on pipes over 80mm in diameter.
Fig. 3 Double wall, single image

The last technique is double wall, double image (DWDI), generally used only on pipes less than
75-80mm in diameter. By o setting the source from the weld centre line and using a long
source to lm distance it is possible to project an image onto the lm of both the upper and
the lower parts of the weld as shown in Fig. 4. As with the DWSI technique multiple exposures
are required to achieve complete coverage.
Fig. 4. Double wall double image radiograph of a pipe butt weld. Note the IQI, identi cation
numbers and position markers

Part 3 will look at some of the more sophisticated radiographic techniques and the
advantages and disadvantages of radiography.

This article was written by Gene Mathers.

For more information please email:

[email protected]

Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge, CB21 6AL, UK

+44(0)1223 899000

[email protected]

Subscribe to our newsletters

Copyright © 2021 TWI Ltd. All rights reserved.


Terms Privacy Cookies Modern Slavery Statement Safeguarding Policy

You might also like