ISTANBUL AYDIN UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING DEPT.

EEE247: DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

Basic Proof Methods

Instructor:
Dr. Mohammed Alkrunz
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Dept.
Basic Proof Methods

 Methods of mathematical arguments (i.e., proof methods) can be formalized

in terms of rules of logical inference.

 Mathematical proofs can themselves be represented as discrete structures.

 We will review both Correct and Fallacious (tricky) inference rules and several
proof methods.

Proof Terminology:

1) Theorem: a statement that has been proven to be true.

2) Axioms, Postulates, Hypotheses, Premises: assumption (often proven)

defining the structures about which we are reasoning.

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Basic Proof Methods

3) Rules of Inference: patterns of logically vaild deductions from hypotheses to

conclusions.

Basic Definitions:

1) A theorem is a mathematical statement that can be shown to be true.

 It is essentially a conditional statement of form:

𝑯𝟏 ∧ 𝑯𝟐 ∧ 𝑯𝟑 ∧ ⋯ ∧ 𝑯𝒏 → 𝑪

Where: 𝐻𝑖 are called the hypotheses, and 𝐶 is the conclusion.

 A theorem can be proven using:

 Other theorems

 Axioms (statement which one given to be true)

 Rules of inference

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Basic Proof Methods

2) A Lemma is a ‘pre-theorem’ or a result which is needed to prove a theorem.

3) A Corollary is a ‘post-theorem’ or a result which follows directly from a theorem.
4) A Conjecture is a statement whose truth value is known.

Inference Rules - General Form:

 Each logical inference rule corresponds to an implication that is a tautology.

Antecedent 1
Antecedent 2
----------------------
∴ Consequent
 Corresponding tautology:
𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟏 ∧ 𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟐 ∧ … → 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒕
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Basic Proof Methods

Some Inference Rules:

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Basic Proof Methods

Some Inference Rules:

Verifications: (Example: Rule of addition)

𝑝 → 𝑝∨𝑞 From Table (addition)

¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
𝑇 ∨ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑇 (𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦)
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Basic Proof Methods

Example: What rule of inference is used in each of those arguments?

a. Ali is a mathematics major. Therefore, Ali is either a [Addition]

mathematics major or a computer science major.

b. Jerry is a mathematics major and a computer science [Simplification]

major. Therefore, Jerry is a mathematics major.

c. If it is rainy, then the pool will be closed. It is rainy. [Modus Ponens]

Therefore, the pool is closed.

d. If it snows today, the university will close. The university [Modus Tollens]
is not closed today. Therefore, it is not snow today.

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Basic Proof Methods

Example: What rule of inference is used in each of those arguments?

e. If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too [Hypothetical Syllogism]

long. If I stay on the sun too long, then I will
sunburn. Therefore, if I go swimming, then I will
sunburn.

Formal Proofs:
 A formal proofs of a conclusion “C” given premises 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … . . , 𝑝𝑛 consists
of a sequence of steps, each of which implies some inference rule to
premises or to previously proven statements (as antecedent) to yield a new
true statements (as consequent).
 A proof demonstrates that if the premises are true, then the conclusion is
true.
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Basic Proof Methods

Example: (Formal Proof)

Suppose we have the following premises:
1) “It is not sunny and it is cold”
2) “We will swim only if it is sunny”
3) “If we do not swim, then we will play volley”
4) “If we play volley, then we will be home early”

 Prove the theorem, “We will be home early” using inference rules.

BY LOGIC IT IS TRUE, BUT WE NEED A PROOF

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Basic Proof Methods

Solution:

 Let us adopt the following abbreviations:

 Sunny = “it is sunny”  Cold = “it is cold”

 Swim = “we will swim”  Volley = “we will play volley”
 Early = “we will be home early”

 Then, the premises can be written as:

1) ¬ 𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑦 ∧ 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 2) 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑚 → 𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑦

3) ¬ 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑚 → 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 4) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 → 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦

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Basic Proof Methods

Solution:

STEP PROVEN BY
1. ¬ 𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑦 ∧ 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 [Premise #1]
2. ¬ 𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑦 [Simplification of 1]
3. 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑚 → 𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑦 [Premise #2]
4. ¬ 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑚 [Modus Tollens on 2, 3]
5. ¬ 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑚 → 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 [premise #3]
6. 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 [Modus Ponens on 4, 5]
7. 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 → 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 [premise #4]
8. 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 [Modus Ponens on 6, 7]

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Basic Proof Methods

Another Example: (Formal Proof)

Show that the premises:
1) “If you send me an email, then I will finish writing the program”
2) “If you do not send me an email, then I will go to sleep early”
3) “If I go to sleep early, then I will wake up feeling refreshed”

Lead to the conclusion, “If I do not finish writing the program, then I will
wake up feeling refreshed.”

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Basic Proof Methods

Solution:

 Let us adopt the following abbreviations:

 Email = “you send me an email”

 Sleep = “I will go to sleep early”
 program = “I will finish writing the program”
 Refreshed = “I will wake up feeling refreshed”

 Then, the premises can be written as:

1) 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑙 → 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 2) ¬ 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑙 → 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝

3) 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝 → 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 Conclusion:¬ 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 → 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒅

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Basic Proof Methods

Solution:

STEP PROVEN BY
1. 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑙 → 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 [Premise #1]
2.¬ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 → ¬ 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑙 [Contrapositive of 1]
3.¬ 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑙 → 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝 [Premise #2]
4.¬ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 → 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝 [Hypothetical Syllogism on 2, 3]
5. 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝 → 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 [premise #3]
6.¬ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 → 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 [Hypothetical Syllogism on 4, 5]

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Basic Proof Methods

Another Example: (Formal Proof)

Use rules of inference to show that the hypothesis:
1) “Randy works hard”
2) “If Randy works hard, then he is a boring boy”
3) “if Randy is a boring boy, then he will not get the job”
Imply the conclusion, “Randy will not get the job”

Solution:
 Let us adopt the following abbreviations:

 Hard = “Randy works hard”

 Job = “he will get the job”
 Boring = “Randy is a boring boy”
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Basic Proof Methods

Solution:

 Then, the premises can be written as:

1) ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑 2) ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑 → 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

3) 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 → ¬ 𝑗𝑜𝑏 Conclusion: ¬ 𝒋𝒐𝒃

Then:

STEP PROVEN BY
1. ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑 [Premise #1]
2. ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑 → 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 [Premise #2]
3. 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 [Modus Ponens on 1, 2]
4. 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 → ¬ 𝑗𝑜𝑏 [premise #3]
5. ¬ 𝑗𝑜𝑏 [Modus Ponens on 3, 4]
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Discussion Questions
[Q1]:
Which of these sentences are propositions? What are the truth values of
those that are propositions?
a. Answer this question No
b. 2+3=5 Yes, True
c. 5 + 7 = 10 Yes, False
d. 𝑥 + 2 = 11 No
e. 2𝑛 ≥ 100 No

[Q2]:
What is the negation of these propositions?!!
a. Ali has an MP3 player. Ali does not have an MP3 player.
b. There is no pollution in New Jersey. Three is a pollution in New Jersey.
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Discussion Questions

c. 2+1=3 𝟐+𝟏≠𝟑
d. 121 is a perfect square. 121 is not a perfect square.

[Q3]:
Let 𝒑 and 𝒒 be the propositions:

𝑝 ≡ "𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑡 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝐽𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑦 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑"

𝑞 ≡ "𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑒"

Express each of these propositions as an English sentence:

a. ¬𝑞 Sharks have not been spotted near the shore.

b. 𝑝∧𝑞 Swimming at New Jersey shore is allowed, and sharks
have been spotted near the shore.
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Discussion Questions

c. ¬𝑝∨𝑞 Swimming at New Jersey shore is not allowed, or

sharks have been spotted near the shore.

d. 𝑝→¬𝑞 If swimming at New Jersey shore is allowed, then

sharks have not been spotted near the shore.

e. 𝑝↔¬𝑞 Swimming at New Jersey shore is allowed, if and only

if sharks have not been spotted near the shore.

f. ¬𝑝∧ 𝑝∨¬𝑞 Swimming at New Jersey shore is not allowed, and

either swimming at New Jersey shore is allowed or
sharks have not been spotted near the shore.

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Discussion Questions
[Q4]:
Let 𝒑 and 𝒒 be the propositions:
𝑝 ≡ "𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔"
𝑞 ≡ "𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔"
Write these propositions using 𝒑 and 𝒒 and logical connectives (including
negations).
a. It is below freezing and snowing. 𝒑∧𝒒
b. It is below freezing, but not snowing. 𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒒
c. It is either snowing or below freezing (or both). 𝒑∨𝒒
d. If it is below freezing, it is also snowing. 𝒑→𝒒
e. Either it is below freezing or it is snowing, but it is not 𝒑∨𝒒 ∧ 𝒑→¬𝒒
snowing if it is below freezing.
f. That it is below freezing is necessary and sufficient for it to 𝒑 ↔ 𝒒
be snowing.
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Discussion Questions
[Q5]:
Determine each of these statement is true or false:
a. If 1 + 1 = 2, then 2 + 2 = 5 F
b. If 1 + 1 = 3, then 2 + 2 = 4 T
c. 2 + 2 = 4 if and only if 1 + 1 = 2 T
d. If monkeys can fly, then 1 + 1 = 3 T

[Q6]:
How many rows appear in the truth table for each of these compound
propositions:
a. 𝑝 → ¬𝑝 𝟐𝟏 = 𝟐
b. 𝑝∨¬𝑟 ∧ 𝑞∨¬𝑠 𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏𝟔
c. 𝑞∨𝑝∨¬𝑠∨¬𝑟∨¬𝑡∨𝑢 𝟐𝟔 = 𝟔𝟒

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Discussion Questions
[Q7]:
Construct the truth table for these compound propositions:

a. 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 → 𝑝⨁𝑞

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒 𝒑⨁𝒒 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 → 𝒑⨁𝒒

F F F F T
F T T T T
T F T T T
T T T F F

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Discussion Questions
[Q7]:
Construct the truth table for these compound propositions:

b. 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ⨁ ¬ 𝑝 ↔ ¬ 𝑟

𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 ¬𝒑 ¬𝒓 𝒑↔𝒒 ¬𝒑↔¬𝒓 𝒑↔𝒒 ⨁ ¬𝒑↔¬𝒓

F F F T T T T F
F F T T F T F T
F T F T T F T T
F T T T F F F F
T F F F T F F F
T F T F F F T T
T T F F T T F T
T T T F F T T F
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Discussion Questions
[Q8]:
Let 𝑷(𝒙) denote the statement "𝒙 ≤ 𝟒“. What are these truth values?!!

a. 𝑃(0) b. 𝑃(4) c. 𝑃(6)

T T F

[Q9]:
Let 𝑷(𝒙) be the statement "𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 ". If the domain consists of all integers,
what are these truth values?!!

a. 𝑃(0) b. 𝑃(1) c. 𝑃(2) d. 𝑃(−1)

T T F F
e. ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) f. ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) g. ∃𝑥 ¬ 𝑃(𝑥) h. ∀𝑥 ¬ 𝑃(𝑥)
T F T F

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Discussion Questions
[Q10]:

Suppose that the domain of 𝑸 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 consists of triples 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 where 𝒙

= 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝒐𝒓 𝟐, 𝒚 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝟏, 𝒛 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝟏. Write out these propositions using
disjunctions and conjunctions.

a. ∀𝑦 𝑄(0, 𝑦, 0) 𝑸 𝟎, 𝟎, 𝟎 ∧ 𝑸 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟎

b. ∃𝑥 𝑄(𝑥, 1, 1) 𝑸 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟏 ∨ 𝑸 𝟏, 𝟏, 𝟏 ∨ 𝑸 𝟐, 𝟏, 𝟏

c. ∃𝑧 ¬ 𝑄(0, 0, 𝑧) ¬ 𝑸 𝟎, 𝟎, 𝟎 ∨ ¬ 𝑸 𝟎, 𝟎, 𝟏
¬ 𝑸 𝟎, 𝟎, 𝟏 ∨ ¬ 𝑸 𝟏, 𝟎, 𝟏 ∨ ¬ 𝑸 𝟐, 𝟎, 𝟏
d. ∃𝑥 ¬ 𝑄 𝑥, 0, 1

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Discussion Questions
[Q11]:
What rule of inference is used in each statement:

a. It is either hotter than 100 degree or pollution is [Disjunctive Syllogism]

dangerous. It is less than 100 degree outside
today. Therefore, the pollution is dangerous.

b. Linda is an excellent swimmer. If Linda is an [Modus Ponens]

excellent swimmer, then she can work a
lifeguard. Therefore, Linda can work as
lifeguard.

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Discussion Questions
[Q12]:
Determine without using truth table whether ([¬ 𝒒 ∧ 𝒑 → 𝒒 ] → ¬ 𝒑) is a
tautology.

¬𝒒∧ ¬𝒑∨𝒒 →¬𝒑

¬𝒒∧¬𝒑 ∨ ¬𝒒∧𝒒 →¬𝒑
¬𝒒∧¬𝒑 ∨𝑭 →¬𝒑
¬𝒒∧¬𝒑 →¬𝒑
¬ ¬𝒒∧¬𝒑 ∨¬𝒑
𝒒∨𝒑∨¬𝒑
𝒒∨𝑻
𝑻

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 *Questions

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 *Thanks
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