-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter 7 - Power Amplifiers

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Introduction

So far, we have been discussed on small signal voltage amplifiers where the output power and input
power are very small so that special emphasise was given to the voltage and current gain, and the
efficiency of the amplifier and the power handling capacity of the amplifying device (transistor) were not
of much concern. However, the situation will be very different at the last stage of multi-stage amplifiers
for which the signal will be very strong in the range of few tens of watts there by insisting such amplifiers
that are capable of handling larger power called power amplifiers. Thus the main factors that has got
special place in power amplifiers are efficiency, linearity and amplification.

Classes of Power Amplifies

Depending on the shape of the output signal for a sinusoidal input, power amplifiers are classified as
class-A, class-B, class-AB, and class-C amplifiers.

Class-A

In class-A amplifiers the output device conducts for the full cycle of 360 o, and it is biased in the active
region.

Class-B

However, such types of power amplifiers are biased at the cut-off region so that they could conduct only
for half cycle (180o).

Class-AB

In these types of power amplifiers conduction is possible for greater than half cycle, or for180 o<θ<360o.

Class-C

These are design to conduct for less than half cycle or θ<180 o.

Class-A Power Amplifies

Series fed class A amplifiers

The output is taken directly as shown in the figure 7.1.

 VCC
IC

VCC /RC
RB RC

V0 ICQ Q-point ( VCC/ 2RC , VCC/ 2 )

C1
Output current swing
Vi
VCE
VCQ

Output voltage swing

VCC

The DC load line is expressed as: I C =−V CE /R C +V CC / RC , and

The ac current and voltage relationship can be determine from the small signal model, and is given by:

i C =−v ce /R C

Efficiency:

The efficiency of power amplifier is defined as the ratio of the output ac power to input dc power.
Mathematically,

Po (ac)
η= x 100 %
Pi (dc)

The DC input power is,

Pi (dc)=V CC I CQ

The AC output power is defined as,

V om I om
Po (ac) =
2

As it was true that the Q-point is chosen at the center of the load line, the maximum possible efficiency of
class-A amplifier will be obtained when I m=¿ I ¿andV om=¿V
CQ CC / 2 ¿.

Hence,
(V ¿ ¿ CC I CQ /4)
ηmax = x 100 %=25 % ¿
V CC I CQ
Transformer coupled Class-A amplifier

Obviously, 25 percent efficiency does mean about three-fourth of the input dc power is dissipated inside
the transistor which indicates inefficiency as well as requirement of greater power handling capacity by
the device. Such type of inefficiency can be partially solved by using a transformer as depicted by figure
7.2.

VCC

N1 / N2

RL V0
RB

IC
DC load line
Vi 2ICQ

Q-point
ICQ AC load line

VCE
VCQ=VCC 2VCC

The AC small signal model,

ic
Vo(ac)

1
+
Vi R’L
Vce
-
RB

After taking KVL around loop 1, the ac current and voltage are related by

I c =−V ce / R ' L

Substituting I c =I C −I CQ and V ce =V CE −V CEQ into the above equation, the AC load line is given by

I C =−( V CE −v CEQ ) / R ' L + I CQ

From the DC analysis we know that V CEQ =V CC

Therefore, the AC load line equation is expressed as

−( V CE −v CC )
I C= + I CQ −−−−−−−−−−−−(1)
R' L
Using impedance reflection rule, the effective resistance value of R 2 as seen from the primary side of the
transformer is given as,
2
N1
R ' L =R L
[ ]
N2

I Cmax
For class-A operation the Q-point is selected so that I CQ =
2

V CC
Comparing this with equation (1), we have I CQ =
R 'L

Thus,

V 2CC
Pi (dc)=V CC I CQ =
R 'L

At the maximum voltage swing, the output the ac power is given by

V CC V CC

Pi (a c) =
V om I 0 m
=
( R' L ) =
V CC V CC
2 2 2 R' L

Therefore, the maximum possible efficiency is,

Pi(ac)
ηmax = x 100 %=50 %
Pi(dc)

Class-B Power Amplifiers

The principle of operation of class B power amplifiers can be easy demonstrated using the circuit of
figure 7.4.

N1 / N2

RL Vo
Vi
VCC
If the BE diode is considered as an ideal rectifier, the power transistor will conduct for the positive cycle
of the input producing an output of the form similar to half-wave rectified signal. A more explicit
understanding could be developed using the load line graph here under.

Efficiency

In class-B operation the input DC power is the product of the DC value of the output current to that of the
DC supply voltage. That is,

Pi (dc)=V CC I 0 (DC)=V CC I m / π

And the AC output power is determined as

V mIm
Pi (ac )=V o(rms) I 0 (rms )=(V ¿¿ m/2)(I ¿¿ m/2)= ¿¿
4

For maximum output swing V m =V CC

Hence, the maximum theoretical efficiency of class-B power amplifier is determined as

V CC I m /4 π
ηmax = x 100 %= x 100 %=78.5 %
V CC I m /π 4

Transistor coupled Push-Pull Power Amplifier

This type of amplifier employs two Class B amplifiers that are made to operate in the positive and
negative half cycles of the input signal so that continues current is deliver to the load. An example of this
arrangement is shown in the figure 7.5.
 Q1
VCC
R1 RL Vo
VCC
AC
R2

Q2

During the first half-cycle of operation, transistor Q1 is driven into conduction whereas transistor Q2 is
driven off. The current I1 through the transformer results in the first half-cycle of signal to the load.
During the second half-cycle of the input signal, Q2 conducts whereas Q1 stays off, the current I2 through
the transformer resulting in the second half-cycle to the load. The overall signal developed across the load
then varies over the full cycle of signal operation.

The efficiency of push-pull amplifier is the same as that of normal class B amplifier. i.e., η=78.5%.

Complimentary push-pull Class-B Amplifier

This is constructed from npn and pnp complimentary transistors.

VCC

Q1

RL
Q2

-VCC

Compared to class A, class B amplifier is far more efficient. However, the great problem of push-pull
amplifier is that, in practical situation, each transistor conduct only for just less than 180 o, which leaves a
small interval of signal dicontinuity in between the takeover operation as shown in figure 7.4. This type of
distortion is called cross-over distortion.

Cross-over distortion

To prevent such type of distortion the B-E junction diodes of each transistor are forward biased so that
they will operate for above 180o.

Class C Amplifier

A class C amplifier, as shown in Fig. 7.6, is biased to operate for less than 180° of the input signal cycle.
The tuned circuit (will be discussed later) in the output, however, will provide a full cycle of output signal
for the fundamental or resonant frequency of the tuned circuit (L and C tank circuit) of the output. This
type of operation is therefore limited to use at one fixed frequency, as occurs in a communications circuit.

VCC

L2 C1

π 2π
Vo
Vm

Vi Q1 Input Output of LC Tune

Output of the
Signal circuit
L1 Amplifier

-VBE

Distortion and Thermal Effects

For small signal variation, the response of the amplifier can be approximated as linear. But for large
signal distortion can occur because the device characteristic is not linear, in which case nonlinear or
amplitude distortion occurs. This can occur with all classes of amplifier operation. Distortion can also
occur because the circuit elements and devices respond to the input signal differently at various
frequencies, this being frequency distortion. Distortion is mainly due to induced harmonic components
other than the fundamental frequency signal in the output.

When the amplifier is operated for long time its temperature increases causing the variation of the
transistor current gain. Thus a small change in the value of α will bring a large change in the vaue of β
called α-crowding.

Tuned Amplifier

So far we were dealing with a general amplifier that can operate to wide range of frequencies. However,
some electrical application may require the design of circuits that will allow the passage only few ranges
of signals, such as radio communication, for example. Consequently, tuned amplifiers will serve such a
purpose by picking up only the bands of useful signals from all incoming signals.

An ideal band pass filter and their counter parts are illustrated in the figure following.

H(jω)

1 Ideal bandpass filter

0.707 Practicalbandpass filter

f
ω1 ωo ω2

Series and Parallel Resonance Circuits

Series resonance
 R L

V(t)s C

The impedance of series resonance circuit is given by

j
Z=R+ jωL−( )
ωC

The maximum response can be found at the resonance frequency, where

j ω o L− ( ω jC )=0∨ω = √ 1LC rad /s

o
o

If we, then, proceed by defining quality factor as the ratio of reactive voltage to the active voltage at
resonance,

V L VC
Q= =
VR VR
ω=ωo |
We would have,

1
Q= ( √ L/C )
R

Expressing the impedance of the system in terms of magnitude and phase, we can write

1 2 1
√
Z= R 2+ ωL− ( ωC )<tan −1 [(ωL−
ωC
)/R ]

At half power frequencies,

1 2 1 R 1
√ (
R2 + ωL−
ωC )
=R / √ 2=¿ ωL−
ωC
2
=± R =>ω ∓ ω−
L LC
=0

R R 2 1 R R / √ LC 1/ √ LC ω o
ω=
±
L
±
√( L
2
+)LC R
=
2L
±1 ± 1+ 2
R C ( √ )
=
4 L , but we have L L/ √ LC
=
1
R C
L
=
Q
√
ωo
ω= ( ±1 ± √1+ 4 Q2 )
2Q
 ωo ω
Hence,ω 1= ( 1+ √1+ 4 Q2 )∧ω2= o (−1+ √ 1+4 Q 2) , are the upper and lower cut-off frequencies.
2Q 2Q

Therefore, the bandwidth of the series resonance circuit is determined by

R ω rad f
BW =ω 1−ω 1= = o
L Q s
= o Hz
2 πQ ( )
Parallel resonance circuits

Vs L R
C

The admittance of series resonance circuit is given by

j
Y =G+ jωC −( )
ωL

The maximum response can be found at the resonance frequency, where

j ω o C− ( ωj L )=0∨ω = √ 1LC rad /s

o
o

If we, then, proceed by defining quality factor as the ratio of reactive current to the active current at
resonance,

I L IC
Q= =
IR IR |
ω=ωo

We would have,

Q=R ( √C / L)

Similarly, the bandwidth of the series resonance circuit is determined by

1 ωo
BW =ω 1−ω 1= = rad / s
RC Q

Note: To determine the parameters of parallel resonant circuit just replace C by L, L by C, and R by 1/R
in the formulas of series resonance circuit.
From the results above, we can say that as the quality factor and bandwidth of a resonant circuit are
inversely related.

Single and double Tuned amplifiers

In tuned amplifiers the load is replaced by the resonating circuits. Since resonant circuits have high gain
at the resonant frequency and very low gain at all other frequencies, signals near resonant frequency will
be amplified and others suppressed.

Single tuned amplifiers use only one resonance RLC tank either in the output or in the input side (see
figure 7.10).

resonant Av Input Tuned

Input circuit output
amplifier

resonant output Output Tuned

Input Av
circuit amplifier

In double tuned amplifier the operating frequency can have two possible values determined by the input
and output resonant circuits.

resonant resonant
Input circuit Av circuit output