CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Expected outcome:
1. Students understand differences between dynamic and static analysis.
2. Students can formulate relationship between force and deformation and can
determine stiffness.
3. Students can formulate governing equation of motion of a single-degree-of-freedom
system.

Static analysis of structures deals with forces and displacements that are invariant
with time. Dynamic analysis considers forces and displacements that vary with time at a rate
high enough to generate significant inertia forces.
The structural systems considered in dynamic analysis are the same as in statics, i.e.,
buildings, bridges, towers, dams etc. Because of inertia force in the dynamic analysis, mass
of the structure, which needs not be considered in static analysis, has to be considered in
dynamic analysis.

1.1 Types of mass modeling

a) Distributed-mass models
b) Lumped-mass models
c) Rigid bodies
In real conditions, mass is distributed over the volume of object. The mathematical
model that represents mass in this configuration is called “distributed-mass model,” which is
most realistic, among other types of mass model, and most complicated to deal with.

Figure 1.1 Distributed-mass models Figure 1.2 Lumped-mass models

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 A simpler model is simplified by assuming that mass is lumped and located at certain
points called “lumped-mass model.” The number of lumped mass locations affects how well
the model represents actual condition. The more locations of lumped mass, the more accuracy
and complexity. The mass is considered to be lumped at a single point such that the size of
the mass at that point is infinitesimally small and a lumped mass thus has no rotational
inertia.

When an object is very stiff compared to other component, the object with distributed
mass maybe assumed as “a rigid block,” or “a rigid body,” where the shape of the object
remains unchanged under external force.

Figure 1.3 Rigid bodies

1.2 Degree of Freedom

Degree of freedom (DOF) is a coordinate to describe position of mass in the system

(structure). It can be either translation or rotation.

Number of DOFs is number of independent displacement or rotation coordinates

required to completely describe the positions of all masses in the system. Number of DOFs
depends on type of model and directions of possible displacements being considered.

Figure 1.4 DOFs of lumped mass models

Figure 1.4 DOFs of rigid bodies

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 Number of DOFs for dynamic analysis is usually fewer than for static analysis.
Lumped mass has no rotational inertia, so it does not need rotational degree of freedom to
describe rotation of the mass.

Figure 1.5 DOFs in dynamic analysis Figure 1.6 DOFs in static analysis

Unless restrained from movement in certain direction, a lumped mass requires 2

DOFs and a rigid block requires 3 DOFs for analysis in two-dimensional (2D) plane.

1.3 Single-degree-of-freedom (SDF) system

Some simple structures can be approximately modeled as a single-degree-of-freedom

(SDF) system. For example, a one-story house with a large portion of mass at roof level. The
mass is approximated as a lumped mass at the roof level with the horizontal displacement
u  t  as the single degree of freedom. The vertical movement is restrained by columns which
are fixed at base.

u (t )
m
p (t )
Beam
Column k

Footing

Figure 1.7 Simplified model for dynamic analysis

Another typical SDF system is where a mass (m) on rollers is connected to the
supporting wall by a spring with stiffness (k). The horizontal displacement u(t) of the mass
relative to its original position is the only degree of freedom in this system.

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 u (t )

m p (t )
k

Figure 1.8 Single-degree-of-freedom system

1.4 Force-displacement relation

When the mass moves with a displacement u , the structural members such as
columns, beams, or spring will have some deformation, and strain of material will develop
internal force resisting movement and deformation.

The external force, required to move the mass to that displacement position and to
deform the structure, has to match the internal resisting force. Therefore, this external force
is called “structural resisting force ( f s ).”

When the deformation of structural material is still within linear elastic range, the
relation between structural resisting force and displacement of mass is linear as in Figure
1.10c:

f s  ku (1.1)

But when deformation is larger than elastic limit, the relationship becomes nonlinear
(Figure 1.10d).
u External force
fs fs
fs
Resisting force

(a) (b)
fs fs
k
1
k a
1
u d u
-uo o b uo

c
(c) (d)

Figure 1.9 Force-displacement relation

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 The ratio between f s and u is called “stiffness” k . For a cantilevered column the

stiffness k is equal to 3EI h3 where the base is fixed and the top is free to translate and
rotate, EI is flexural rigidity of the column where E is modulus of elasticity of material, I is
second moment of cross sectional area, often known as moment of inertia of cross section,
and h is column height.

u (t )

f S (t )

h 3EI
k
h3

Figure 1.10 Lateral stiffness of a cantilevered column

In a portal frame with a rigid beam, columns are restrained from rotation at both top
12EI
and bottom where lateral stiffness of each column is kcol  .
h3

u (t )

f S (t )

12 EI 24 EI
k   3
h3 h

Figure 1.11 Lateral stiffness of a portal frame with a rigid beam

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Table 1.1 Deflection and stiffness for various systems due to flexural deformation only

System Deflection (x) Stiffness (k)

x
F Fh3 3EI
h 3EI h3

x
F Fh3 12EI
h 12 EI h3

wL4 8EI
w h 8EI L3

x
F Fh3 12E  I1  I 2 
I1 I2 h 12 E  I1  I 2  h3

F
FL3 48EI
x 48 EI L3

L
w
5wL4 384 EI
x 384 EI 5L3

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Example 1.1

A mass on rollers is connected to support by a set of three springs, each with stiffness
k1, k2, and k3 as shown. Determine the relationship between resisting force and deformation of
the system.
u (t )
k1 k3

m p (t )
k2

Figure 1.12 an SDF system for example 1.1

We want to determine overall stiffness k eff , which follows equation:

f s  keff u

The spring no.1 and 2 are parallel and undergo the same deformation u1, and the total force
from both springs equal f s

f s  k1u1  k2u1   k1  k2  u1

Note that total stiffness of this parallel spring is k1  k2 .

The spring no. 3 is under the same force f s . Total deformation u of spring in series is
addition of deformation of spring no.3 and the set of spring no.1 and 2

fS
u  u1 
k3

fS fS f
  S
keff k1  k2 k3

Divide f s on both sides and manipulate terms to obtain

keff 
 k1  k2  k3
for the relationship f s  keff u Ans
k1  k2  k3

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1.5 Damping

In reality, if a mass is moved to an initial displacement and released to vibrate, it

would oscillate with ever-decreasing amplitude and eventually come to stop. The process by
which vibration steadily diminishes in amplitude is called “damping.”

Figure 1.13 Damped free vibration

In damping process, the energy of the vibrating system is dissipated by various

mechanisms, e.g., internal friction, thermal effect, and sound. In practice, it is not easy to
identify or describe mathematically each of these energy-dissipating mechanisms in an actual
building. Damping is usually represented in an idealized manner by a linear viscous damper
or dashpot. For linear viscous damping, the damping force f D is proportional to velocity

du
u  , or rate of deformation as f D  cu where constant c is called “damping coefficient.”
dt

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1.6 Equation of motion

u (t )
c
p (t )
m
k

u (t )
f D  cu

m p(t )

f S  ku

Figure 1.14 Free body diagram of the mass object in an SDF system

Vibration of the mass in SDF system is governed by Newton’s second law of motion,
which states that the acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object:

 F  mu (1.2)

d 2u
where u 
dt 2
 of the mass and
is magnitude of acceleration vector u F is vector

summation of all forces acting on the mass.

p (t )  f D  f S  mu (1.3)

mu  cu  ku  p  t  (1.4)

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Earthquake excitation

When the structure is excited by earthquake ground movement, the displacement of

the ground is u g  t 

u t (t )

u (t )

u g (t )

Figure 1.15 An SDF system subjected to ground movement excitation

The total displacement of the mass is summation of ground displacement u g  t  and

the displacement u  t  of the mass relative to the ground, which causes deformation of the

structure.

ut  u  ug (1.5)

The total acceleration of the mass is also summation of ground acceleration and relative
acceleration, which are second order derivative of corresponding displacements. From
Newton’s second law of motion, the external force that is applied directly to the mass is zero:
p(t )  0 .

 F  mu
 cu  ku  mut  mu  mug
(1.6)

mu  cu  ku  mug  t 

(1.7)

Equation 1.7 suggests that a structure subjected to earthquake ground motion is equivalent to
a stationary-based structure subjected to an applied force called “effective earthquake force,”
peff  t  :

peff (t )  mug (t ) (1.8)

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 peff (t )   mug (t )


ug (t ) stationary base

Figure 1.16 Response of an SDF system subjected to ground acceleration ug (t ) is equivalent
to a stationary-based SDF system subjected to an effective earthquake force
peff (t )  mug (t ) applied to the mass.

1.7 Problem Statement

In dynamic analysis for applications in structural engineering problems, properties of

the system are supposed to be given such as mass, stiffness, damping coefficient, and
excitation. The primary unknown of dynamic analysis is the displacement response u  t  of

the mass to excitation, which is then used to compute velocity and acceleration of the mass,
and internal forces in the structure.

Given: mass m , damping coefficient c , stiffness k , applied force p  t  , or ground

acceleration ug  t  .

Determine: deformation response u  t  , velocity response u  t  , acceleration response u t 

and internal force from f S  ku

m
u3 (t )
k
m
u2 (t )
k
m
u1 (t )
k

ug (t )
Figure 1.17 Given a structure with known properties and excitation, displacement responses of all
floors are to be determined
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 The differential equation governing the movement of the mass is called “equation of
motion” for the SDF system:

mu  cu  ku  p  t  or mu  cu  ku  mug (1.9)

There are many available methods of solution of the above differential equation.

1. Classical solution of ordinary differential equation

2. Duhamel’s integral

3. Transform method (Frequency domain)

4. Numerical method

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Exercises

1.1 Identify degrees of freedom for static and dynamic analysis of this frame.

Figure P1.1 A gable frame for Problem 1.1

1.2 Identify degree of freedom and derive the relationship between structural resisting force
and displacement of this structure.

EI

Figure P1.2 A simple beam for Problems 1.2 to 1.4

1.3 Formulate equation of motion of the structure in Figure P1.2 when the mass is subjected
to externally applied force p  t  .

1.4 Formulate the equation of motion of structure in Figure P1.2 when the structure is
subjected to vertical ground excitation ug  t  .

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