CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

120 hour course programme

Contents

Unit One:
Introduction to Teaching English as a Foreign Language:
Methodologies;Behaviorism;Audiolingualism; The ’Natural Way’; Humanistic
Approaches.

Unit Two:
Grammar
Terms and definitions
Countable and uncountable nouns
Tenses
Verbs; Modal and auxiliary
Conditions

Unit Three
Teaching and Learning Grammar
Presenting a structure
Grading language
Mistakes and correction
Recycling language
Practice and Production

Unit Four:
Teaching vocabulary
Words and sentences
Using dictionaries
Choosing vocabulary
How to teach vocabulary

Unit Five:
Teaching Pronunciation
The phonetic chart
Stress, rhythm and intonation
Mother tongue interference
Practical activities

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Unit Six:
Materials and aids
Using flashcards, pictures and regalia
How to organize the board
Using the overhead projector
The use of video
Authentic materials

Unit Seven:
Teaching Productive skills; Speaking and Writing
Accuracy vs. Fluency
Communication activities
The stages of writing
Correction techniques

Unit Eight:
Teaching receptive skills; Listening and reading
Different types of listening skills
Teaching listening skills
The stages of reading
Reading activities and materials

Unit Nine:
Lesson Planning
Teaching different types of classes
Pair and group work
The contents of a lesson
The stages of a lesson
Getting feedback

Unit Ten:
Teaching young learners and teenagers
Basic principles
Teaching on holiday course
Practical activities and lesson types

Unit Eleven:
Using course books effectively
Exploiting a course book
Planning a course
Course book evaluation

Unit Twelve:
Introduction to using the web

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Unit One
Introduction to Teaching English as a Foreign Language

Five hundred years ago, the most widely studied language was Latin, but today it is
English.
Each year thousands of people come to Britain’s shores with the sole purpose
Of learning English in a wide variety of situations.
There are over a thousand
Organizations that cater for this demand running courses ranging from degree level in
universities to holiday courses run in church halls up and down the country.
A fast expanding area which is ever increasing in popularity is the ‘Home stay’ option,
where students live in the host’s family home and are also tutored by the host.
This is usually on a one-to-one basis, although a small group is also possible.
There are several organizations that will put prospective host teachers in touch with
students.

In addition to this, millions of students attend courses in every country in the world
and the demand for teachers of English as a Foreign Language has never been greater.
Each week, recruitment takes place for teachers all over Europe, particularly Eastern
Europe where there has been an explosion of need for English language learning, to
the more far-flung corners of the globe such as Thailand, Japan and the Middle East.

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Task

Write a few notes here about how you learned a foreign language

METHODOLOGIES

Grammar Translation Method

As already mentioned Latin was the most widely studied language due to its role as
the language of the educated and the powerful in society.
As other European languages started to dominate, Latin began to be studied for its
own sake as an intellectual exercise in the analysis of his structures and translation.
This was taught by memorizing grammatical rules, learning by heart long lists of
declensions and conjugations along with vast amounts of uncontextualised
translations of often unrelated sentences.

Language was taught by the teacher presenting the grammatical rules, usually in the
first language and then the learners would translate into the target language.

Accuracy was greatly stressed with the emphasis mainly on reading and writing –with

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little or no attention paid to speaking or listening skills.

By the 1800’s this approach to learning languages was the accepted method and the
term the Grammar Translation Method was brought into being.

Many elements of this method are still in use today and can be observed in many
schools and colleges.

The method is very teacher dominated with learners taking a much more passive role.
Although this approach produced an appreciation for the literature of a target
language and an insight into the systems of foreign languages, it did not equip
learners with the ability to communicate through the spoken word.

New approaches to language learning were sought after and linguists started to look
more closely at how first languages are
Learned (L1) and to apply that knowledge to second language teaching. (L2)

The Direct Method

Teachers using the Direct Method tried to reflect lessons learned from the study of
child language acquisition. A more ‘natural’ way envisaged with translation seen as
completely unnecessary as meaning and direct association was encouraged to be made
between target language and object or action demonstrated by the teacher.

In common with the Grammar Translation method it was also teacher led.Language
was presented totally in the L2 and, in contrast to the Grammar Translation method;
the learners were expected to be able to work out the grammatical rules as they
progressed. The actual language presented was selected for its usability in everyday
contexts around a purely oral context in strictly controlled structures.Correct
pronunciation was insisted upon and there was much use of drilling (repetition).

This method was seen as a revolutionary, giant leap forward at the time but threw up
some problematic areas, one of which was that it required teachers to be native or near
native speakers. The majority of teachers of English, as is true of the present time,
were non-natives and not all were confident enough in their own spoken English to be
in the position to follow this method easily.

Also examinations were based on a proficiency in reading comprehension and writing

skills which were excluded from the direct method.

The Audio-Lingual Method

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During the 1940’s, when America became involved in World War II, the
U.S.government through the universities developed what became known as the
Audio-Lingual method. It had become necessary for military personnel to become
fluent in languages, particularly to work in the field of translation and interpreting.
Many of the principles behind Audio-Lingualism came from behavioural psychology
and in 1957Skinner published his book entitled ‘Verbal Behavior’
Language was seen as a set of habits or behavioural patterns which are reinforced by
making correct responses, again seen as primarily oral, and therefore speaking and
listening were at the forefront of the L2 learner’s training. The basis of language input
is taught by means of short dialogues and followed up by drilling.
Language is heard and then memorized along with its correct pronunciation.
Learners have little or no influence over the content/topics of the lessons and as long
as correct utterances are made it is not seen as important to have comprehension of
what they are saying.

The Communicative Approach

The communicative Approach gives us a wider perspective on language.

It particularly makes us consider it not only in terms of structures and vocabulary, but
also in terms of its communicative functions.

In contrast to the Audio-Lingual method, The Communicative Approach which first

appeared in the early 80’s, stated that meaning was an absolute priority and that
accuracy was secondary. Language is input in context with learners gaining
knowledge through trial and error. More responsibility is put on the learner and the
teacher’s role changes more into that of a provider of a range of beneficial learning
environments within the classroom. Reading and writing skills are now given equal
status along with speaking and listening.

Further reading:
Communicative Language TeachingISBN:0521281547

The Natural Way

In the mid eighties, Steven Krashen, who was a Professor of Linguistics at a
well-known American University, formulated a set of hypotheses suggesting that
when teaching foreign languages to adult learners we should as far as possible
replicate the means by which we all learn our mother tongue.

One of his main points was that we should allow learners to make sense of the new
input at their own personal rate.We shouldn’t expect all learners to progress in the
same way at the same speed.

Moreover learners will gain a passive understanding of the new language items some
time before they will be able to actually use them. Hence comprehension should
precede production. This is just what happens when an infant is learning his or her
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first language. Some children seem to pick up words more quickly than others but
they all get there in the end.
Also research demonstrates that young children understand far more language than
they can use actively in everyday conversation.
Many of Krashen’s ideas are still current and have been modified and adapted in the
way that we teach English as a foreign language today.

Further reading:

The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom

by Stephen D.Krashen, Tracy D.Terrell

Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition by Stephen D.

Krashen (Paperback)

The Humanistic Approach

One of the most exciting developments in the past five years or so has been the
emergence of a holistic view of language learning/teaching.
Labeled the Humanistic Approach it has parallels in complementary medicine in as
much as it urges us to reappraise how we see the learner/teacher relationship and the
kind of activities that we use in the classroom.

The learner is encouraged to take greater responsibility within the

learning responsibility within the learning process.
Learners are given choices as to what they want to learn and how they will learn it.
The teacher and students may negotiate and agree the contents of the syllabus, the
weekly schedule and the style and method of teaching.

It views learning as being a dynamic, vibrant activity with the student being actively
involved throughout. The lesson materials will often be focused on real life situations
and concerns so as to add the human dimension.
The humanistic teacher is concerned with the well being of the student as a whole and
not merely with their academic progress.
Students are urged to express their true thoughts, feelings and emotions about
themselves and each other within the lesson activities and exercises.
They will be encouraged to draw upon their own life experiences, and interests so as
to personalize the learning process.

In some classes appropriate music will be played in the background to generate a

soothing and relaxing atmosphere; in other essential oils may be vaporized to
engender purpose and confidence.

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 Now compare what you have written in the first box to what you have
just read.Which methodology/ies were you exposed to?

In the following units you will be given a variety of methods, skills and techniques to
try out for yourself. You will be encouraged to be pragmatic and eclectic in using
different methods with various classes and different types of students.
Just as the carpenter will select a particular size of chisel for the task at hand, so the
EFL teacher must ensure that his or her chosen methodology is appropriate to the
individual class or student’s linguistic needs and requirements.

Further reading:
Approaches And Methods In Language TeachingISBN:0521008433
FACTS AND FIGURES ABOUT ENGLISH

•There are 300 million mother tongue speakers of English

•There are 300 million people who use English as a second language
•A further 100 million people speak it fluently as a foreign language
•English is used as an official or semi-official language in over 60 countries
•Over two thirds of the world’s scientists write in English
•Over 80% of all the information stored electronically around the world is in
English
•50 million children study English as a foreign language at primary schools
around the world.
•At secondary level they are joined by another 80 million children
•Around the globe English is the main language of books, newspapers, airports
and air-traffic control, advertising, business, medicine, technology, diplomacy,
sports, pop music, and academic conferences
•In the USA alone some 500,000 foreign students register each year for study
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 purposes
•More than two thirds of the world’s mail is written in English
• English is top of the table for total numbers of speakers followed some way
behind by Chinese
•English has its origin in the Indo-European family of languages and is closely
related to German, Swedish, Icelandic, and Dutch.
•Many English words have totally changed meaning over the centuries –here are
a few examples with their earlier meaning:

Treacle wild animal

Villain Farm labourer

Cheater rent collector

Sly wise
Taxation fault finding
Naughty worth nothing

• Many English words have been taken from other languages. Here are a few
Examples:

Useful web sites

Methodologies http://simsim.rug.ac.be/staff/elke/recpast/recpast.html

Bookshop http://www.keltic.co.uk/

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

QUESTONS ON LESSON ONE

Q1.Is the teaching of English as a Foreign Language increasing or decreasing around

the world?

Q2. What was the most widely studied language five hundred years ago?

Q3.What is the most widely studied language today?

Q4.Which family of languages does English derive from?

Q5.What do we call the family of languages that English, German, Dutch, Swedish
and Danish belong to?

Q6.In how many countries is English an official or semi-official language?

Q7.Which methodology had its origins in the Second World War?

Q8.Who developed the methodology known as the 'Natural Approach’?

Q9.Which methodology is holistic in its approach?

Q10.Is it true or false that a number of words have changed in meaning over the years.

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Unit Two

Grammar
Terms and definitions

Write down here how many different types of nouns there are .

Now see if you have the same as below or more!!

NOUNS identify objects or people and can be classified as:
Proper Nouns:

These start with a capital letter such as names of places Harrogate, Thursday and
People
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e.g. John Smith, etc.

Common Nouns:
Names of objects such as table, chair; bus etc.

Collective Nouns:
These refer to groups of objects or people such as the army, the press, etc.

Countable Nouns:
These are things that can be counted singularly such as dog, telephone, etc. The plural
is usually made by adding ‘-s’.

Uncountable Nouns:
These are also called mass nouns and identify such things as money,
accommodation, hair, etc.

Compound Nouns:
These are two nouns combined to identify one object such as address book, living
room, show business, etc.

PRONOUNS: Pronouns are used to refer to nouns without repeating things

already spoken about. There are several different kinds of pronouns.

Personal Pronouns:
Consist of words to refer to oneself, other people or things that you are talking about
such as I, we, you, he, she, it, and they - when used to refer to the subject of a
sentence,and me, us, you, him, he, it and them - when referring to the object of a
sentence.

Possessive Pronouns:
These identify objects or people that ‘belong’ to someone such as mine, ours, yours,
his, hers and theirs.

Reflexive Pronouns:
These are used to refer back to the subject of an action such as myself, yourself,
himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves and themselves.

Task

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 List two examples of each of these different types of noun

Proper nouns

Common nouns

Collective nouns

Countable nouns

Uncountable nouns

Compound nouns

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Reflexive pronouns

ADJECTIVES: Describe people or things and give more information about

such things as the qualities of an object, thing or person.

Colour Adjectives:
These state the color of something e.g. blue, green, grey, etc.

Classifying Adjectives:
These describe which class a person or thing belongs to e.g. industrial, official,
historical, etc.

Qualitative Adjectives:
These are words such as big, happy, strong, etc., and can be graded to demonstrate
variable levels of the quality described. An example of an adjective being modified is
the use of the word very in this sentence:
‘Helen was very surprised when she opened the parcel’.
Other words (called modifiers) can be used to increase or lessen the meaning of
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adjectives such as rather, quite, extremely, etc.

Comparative Adjectives:
These, as the name suggests, compare qualities. Examples are words such as smaller,
prettier, etc. When a word has one syllable, the letter ‘-er’ is put at the end of the
adjective. ‘-er’ is also placed at the end if it is a two-syllable adjective which ends in
‘y’.Other two and three syllable adjectives use the word ‘more’ in front of them to
form a comparative, or more, the word more is placed in front of it e.g., dark - darker,
busy –busier, beautiful – more beautiful.

Superlative Adjectives:
These are used to express the limit described by an adjective. Words such as cleanest,
saddest, etc. Words of three syllables or more have the word “most” placed in front of
them e.g. ‘It was the most exciting play in London.’

Task

Complete the following exercise:

Verbs: Express action, process or state about the noun which you are talking
about.

Regular Verbs:
These have the same ending in common (-ed), such as the verbs:
Present tense Past tense Past participle
Walk walked walked
Knit knitted knitted
Wash washed washed
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Irregular Verbs:
These verbs have irregular endings, such as the verbs:

Present tense Past tense Past participle

Sit sat sat
Eat ate eaten
Fly flew flown

Auxiliary verbs:
These are the verbs which ‘help’ the main verbs and are the verbs:
be, do and have.

Auxiliary Modal Verbs:

These are verbs which also help the main verb but they also express the mood of the
sentence.
The modal verbs in English are:

Present tense Past tense

Can could
Will would
Shall should
May might
Must had to
Have to had to
Need to needed to
Dare to dared to

An example of how modal verbs change the mood or feeling of a sentence can be seen
if the following sentences are compared:
‘I can swim ‘I could swim’ ‘I may swim’ ‘I have to swim’ I will swim’
‘I should swim’ etc., etc

Task

Now think of some more examples. See how the mood/meaning changes

by simply changing the ‘mood’ verb.

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TENSES: basically express the time at which something happens. The verb
changes to show when something takes place (This is a generalization as tenses
can also be used to express more complex things).

Present Simple:
This can be used to talk about timetables, e.g. ‘The train leaves at 10.30’. It can also
express habit, e.g. ‘He eats breakfast at 6am every day’. General truths e.g. ‘She
works for the government’. Permanent states e.g. ‘She works for the government’.
Reactions/immediate thoughts e.g. ‘That dress looks nice’.
Commentaries e.g. ‘Milosovich runs with the ball, he turns …’ and historical e.g.
‘Shakespeare writes good stories’.

Present Continuous:
This can be to talk about
Future plans e.g. ‘ I am having a party on Saturday’
An action in progress at the moment of speaking e.g. ‘ He is reading a newspaper’.
Temporary actions or states e.g. ‘ She is living in Madrid until spring’.
Habit (usually annoying) e.g. ‘They are always moaning about the weather’.

Future Continuous:
An action which is in progress in the future e.g. ‘They will be flying over Paris this
time next week’.

Future Perfect:
An action which will be completed by a time further in the future e.g. ‘I will have
driven 200 kms by 4pm’.

Future Perfect Continuous:

Duration of an action as viewed from the future e.g. ‘She will have been making
blankets for charity for ten years by next month’.

Present Continuous for Future:

To express future intentions e.g. ‘ We are having a party on Saturday’

Present Simple for Future:

To express certainty about scheduled events e.g. ‘They arrive at six this evening’.

‘Be going to’ for Future:

To express certainty about the future e.g. ‘He is going to be late if he doesn’t hurry
up’.

Conditionals: These are used when you need to talk about possible situations
and their consequences.
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First Conditional:
To express certainty about the consequences of an action that is expected to happen
e.g.
‘ If you go to Paris, you will see the Eiffel Tower’. If + present, modal verb + present.

Second Conditional:
To express a purely hypothetical consequence of a hypothetical situation e.g. ‘If you
went to Paris, you would see the Eiffel Tower’.

Third Conditional:
To express consequences of past actions that cannot be changed e.g. ‘ If you hadn’t
eaten so much ice cream, you wouldn’t have felt so sick’.
If + past perfect, modal verb + present perfect’.

Zero conditional:
To express consequences of fact e.g. ‘ If you heat water, it boils’.

Subjects and Objects:

Subjects in sentences are the person/s or the thing which does the action (verb)
e.g.

‘Paul teaches English’.

Direct Objects in sentences are person/s or things that the action affects directly e.g.
‘ Paul teaches English’

Indirect Objects in sentences are person/s or things which are affected by both the
subject and direct object e.g. ‘Paul teaches English to me’.

Describing Parts of sentences:

Task
Look at the following sentence and try to name as many parts of the sentence as
you can e.g. as = conjunction, etc. The answers are at the end of this unit.

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 As she was crossing the street after she had picked up her dry cleaning from
‘Brian’s Dry Cleaning Wonder Shop’, Claire wondered if Shane hadn’t been in
such a hurry that morning, he would have remembered their anniversary.
Suddenly a red car came out of nowhere and she had to leap out of the way.

Present Perfect:
This can be used to talk about
Experience e.g. ‘ I have travelled all over the world’
Linking the past to the present (and the future) e.g. ‘ I have worked here for three
years.
Present result of a past action e.g. ‘He has painted the kitchen’

A student asks you why it is ‘I have worked’ and ‘He has painted’
What would you answer?

Present Perfect Continuous:

This can be used to talk about
Duration of an action in the present perfect e.g. ‘ I have been working here for several
years’.

Task

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 Give some more examples of the present perfect using different verbs

Past Simple:
This can be used to talk about finished actions e.g. ‘It rained all day yesterday’.

Repeated actions e.g. ‘She went to work by bicycle every day last week’.
Two actions which happen one after another e.g. ‘ When he turned the tap on, he
burnt
himself.

Past Continuous:
This can be used to talk about:
Actions in progress in the past e.g. ‘I was getting more and more angry’.
Telling stories e.g. ‘The sun was shining and the birds were singing’.
Interrupted actions e.g. ‘ He was having a shower when the phone rang’.
Two actions in progress at the same time e.g. ‘While George was watching television,
Maggie was knitting a pair of socks’.

Past Perfect:

This can be used to talk about:

A past action which happened before another past action e.g. ‘ He had studied very
hard before he took the exam’.

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 How does past perfect differ from present perfect?

Past Perfect Continuous:

This can be used to talk about:
Duration of the action in past perfect e.g. ‘She had been looking for her contact lenses
for ages before they turned up’.

Future:
English does not have a future tense as such but uses a range of tenses and
phrases to express future.

These are:

Future Simple:

Usually formed with the modal verb ‘will’.

To express a future intention e.g. ‘I will go to school tomorrow’.
To express prediction e.g. ‘He will have an accident if he drives like that’.
To express a sudden decision e.g. ‘I know, I will get a take away’.
Note that other modal verbs can also be used e.g. I shall get a take away/I could get a
take away/I might get a take away etc.

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Task

Look back at the unit and write as many sentences as possible using different
tenses to express the future.

Useful websites:
http://www.ex.ac.uk/~damyhill/grammar/
http://www.herts.ac.uk/lis/subjects/humanities/ling/gram.htm

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Further reading:

English Grammar In Use Raymond Murphy ISBN: 0521436818

Practical English Usage Author: Swan, M. ISBN: 019431197X

COPYRIGHT RESERVED

As she was crossing the street after she had picked up her dry cleaning from
‘Brian’s Dry Cleaning Wonder Shop’, Claire wondered if Shane hadn’t been in
such a hurry that morning, he would have remembered their anniversary.
Suddenly a red car came out of nowhere and she had to leap out of the way.

As – conjunction

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She – pronoun
Was crossing – past continuous (auxiliary verb + verb)
The – article
Street – common noun
After - adverb
She – pronoun
Had picked up – past perfect (auxiliary verb + phrasal verb)
Her – possessive pronoun
Dry-cleaning – compound noun
From – preposition
Brian’s – proper noun (possessive)
Claire - proper noun
Wondered – past simple
If Shane hadn’t been in such a hurry that morning, he would have remembered
Their anniversary – third verb
Suddenly – adverb
A – article
Red – adjective
Car – common noun
Of – preposition
Nowhere – noun
And – conjunction
She – pronoun
Had to – past modal verb
Leap – verb
Out – preposition
Of – preposition
The – article
Way – noun

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 Questions on Lesson Two

Say what the names are of these tenses:

1. He has been working all day

2. She is going to have a great time in Barbados
3. The police are looking for a tall, dark-haired man with a limp
4. What have you done?
5. The men went into the dark tunnel reluctantly
6. It will have been raining on and off for two months
7. The girl was driving too fast
8. They had argued all day

Is the word ‘table’ an example of:

a. a proper noun
b. a collective noun
c. a common noun

Is the word ‘from’:

a. a possessive pronoun
b. a preposition
c. an article
What is the past participle of the verb ‘to wash’?
____________________________________________

Is the following:

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“If I were you, I’d take the train, not the bus

An example of:

a. first conditional
b. second conditional
c. third conditional

What kind of adjective is ‘blue’?

___________________________________________

What is the name given to verbs such as:

can/ will/ shall/ must

___________________________________________

Is ‘money’ a countable or uncountable noun?

___________________________________________

What is the superlative form of ‘sad’?

___________________________________________

Name two types of objects found in sentence.

He gave me the ball.

1. _________________________________

2. ______________________________

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Unit Three

TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR

Presenting a Structure
When a structure is presented to learners for the first time several things should be
kept in mind.

a) Always build new language onto language which is already known

For example, if you are going to teach the present continuous tense, use the
verbs which are already familiar to the learners. It is difficult enough trying to
listen to and then produce a completely new structure without having to learn
new vocabulary at the same time.

b) Make sure that you stick to the same form of the structure and don’t
digress to another form or function by mistake.

Task

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 Read the following words of a teacher in class trying to teach beginners. She/he is
teaching ‘can’ ‘can’t’ for ability.
What is the teacher’s mistake?
T: I can read (reads newspaper)
T: (takes off spectacles) Oh, I can’t see!
T: (pretends to swim) I can swim
T: (grabs leg as if has cramp) Oh, I can’t swim!
T: (points to ceiling and jumps up with arm stretched out) I can’t touch the ceiling
T: I can touch the desk (touches desk)
T (points to no smoking sign on wall) I can’t smoke ….

If you are teaching beginners the modal verb ‘can’, and function is using can for
ability, don’t suddenly introduce the sentence, ‘ Can I smoke’ or ‘I can’t smoke’,
as that changes the function to permission.

c) Always speak naturally and at a natural pace.

If you speak slowly and enunciate every word learners will not be able to
recognize normal speech. They need to hear contractions (haven’t/can’t/won’t,
etc.), as this is what we all use in everyday language. They also will produce
very unnatural speech patterns of pronunciation as well.

d) Use natural pronunciation.

If words are stressed unnaturally, learners will copy them. For example if the
expression ‘going to’ is being taught and the teacher stresses ‘going to’ because
she wants to make this clear, the learners will start to produce sentences which
sound very strange, e.g. ‘I am ‘going to’ have a party’ which would seem to
indicate unnecessary determination by the speaker.

e) Put the new language/structure into a clear context.

Learners need to understand the meaning of the structure as well as learning the
correct form. If the structure is taught without the meaning learners will be able
to say a correct sentence but not understand what they are saying. If learners are
taught the meaning without the correct form they will know what they are trying
to say, but not be able to communicate very accurately.

f) Use appropriate and interesting material to introduce the structure.

By using pictures, realia, overhead projections, etc. the learners will be more
focused and motivated and understand the structure better.
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g) Don’t give lectures.
Your role in the classroom is that of a guide or facilitator who shows the
learners how to discover the language not be instructed in it. It should be a joint
exploration whereby both teacher and learners share the input. Lead the learners
to knowledge by using elicitation and allowing them to work out things for
themselves.

Grading language
It is important to use language which is within the learner’s understanding when
teaching ‘new’ language or revising ‘old’ language. Therefore teachers should
‘grade’ or select the language that they use in the classroom.

For example if a group of learners (beginners/elementary) are being taught the

simple past tense, it would be of no use to them for the teacher to use language
which they had not yet encountered.

e.g.

This is using the far more advanced third conditional structure which the
learners probably would not learn for another 1000 hours of lessons!
The Glossary has a suggested list of graded structures and the levels at which
they are taught.

Glossary: - List structures learned at different levels

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BEGINNERS
1. To be – affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
Question tag
Also question words: Who? What? Where? Why?
2. Indefinite articles with occupations: I’m a doctor
3. This/that/ these/those
4. Singular and plural nouns, regulars and irregulars
5. Imperative and negative imperative
6. Adjectives and word order
7. Present continuous. He’s playing
8. To have (got)
9. a) Possessive adjectives: It’s my book
b) Whose?
10. Possessive pronouns

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11. Genitive with people (singular and plural)
12. Present simple: he works
13. Frequency adverbs: often, never, sometimes, always, etc.
14. There is/There was
15. There’s a/it’s a
16. Some/any /question and negative
17. Simple prepositions
18. I can
19. The time
20. Was/were
21. Simple past tense
22. Simple past tense in irregular verbs
23. The weather:
a. as adjectives: It’s cloudy, rainy, fine, etc.
b. As pres. cont./pres. simple contrast
It’s raining/It rains a lot
24. Future with ‘going to’
25. Adverb formation + ‘ly’
26. Adverb order (manner, place or time) He works hard/at home/ every
evening
27. A lot /much /many
28. A little/few
29. Future + will +negative
30. Questions +shall we
31. More complicated frequency adverbs + revision pres. Simple
32. Past continuous. Contrast past simple + while
33. 1st conditional

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ELEMENTARY
34. Present perfect + just simple and continuous
35. Present perfect + for
36. Present perfect + since
37. Present perfect contrasted with past simple
38. Present perfect +already
39. Present perfect + yet
40. Too + enough
41. Simple comparatives (short words)
42. Long word comparatives + more
43. Simple superlatives
44. Long word superlatives + more
45. Relatives. Who (subject) that (subject) omission (object)
46. Used to
47. Must/mustn’t
48. Must/needn’t
49. As. …as + adjective
50. As. …as + adverbs
51. The same … as
52. Can / will be able to
53. Want to …
54. Want + somebody + to
55. Prepositions of time
56. Reported commands
57. Reported commands in negative
58. Must / will have to
59. Must / had to
60. May, permission and possibility
61. Phrasal verbs
62. Present cont. for future
63. Although
64. Infinitive of purpose
65. So that
66. For + gerund
67. Unless + 1st conditional
68. Temporal conjunctions a) present simple – when I go …
b) Present perfect – When I’ve been
69.Need + gerund

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INTERMEDIATE
69. 2nd conditional
70. Adjectives and infinitive: It’s pleasant to …
71. Reported speech – future to conditional/present to past etc
72. Reported question- with Q. words/with if and whether
73. Adjective phrases + participle: A man carrying a gun …
74. Noun clauses: I don’t know what to do
75. Passives – simple / continuous tenses
76. Passive infinitive + can, must, should, need to, etc.
77. He must be a policeman (logical conclusion)
78. Think, hope, suppose, expect + so
79. Should for obligation
80. Or ought “ “
81. Use of ‘the’ for
Abstracts/plurals/uncountables/meals/countries/hospital/prison/bed
etc., after prepositions
82. Reflexive verbs
83. Past perfect – after conjunctions
84. Past perfect – following realized/remembered, visited
85. Past perfect continuous
86. Verbs and gerund
87. Verbs and infinitive
88. Verbs + prepositions + gerund
89. Future continuous
90. Say/tell
91. Difference between so + adjectives and such + noun
92. Have + do (habit): I don’t have lunch
93. Inversion … so can I / do I
94. Inversion … neither do I
95. Future perfect simple
96. Future perfect continuous
97. Word order + adverb phrases (manner, place, time)

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 ADVANCED
Mistakes andused to + gerund in various tenses
98. Be/get
99. Uses of either/neither
100. Make (construct)
101. Do (activity)
102. Suggest + subjunctive
103. I meant to but … / I was going to but …
104. Am meant to/ was supposed to …
105. Let + object + verbs
106. Make + object + verbs (contrast be made to).
107. I wish /if only
108. 3rd conditional
109. Remember + in/to
110. Try + in/ to
111. Stop + to/to
112. He must have gone out
113. He must have been going out
114. He can’t have gone/been going out
115. He might have gone/been going out
116. Needn’t have/didn’t need to
117. Surely/certainly
118. Fairly/rather
119. It’s high/about time we left
120. I’d rather you took (my old umbrella)
121. I saw a man cross/crossing the road

Mistake and Correction

When is it a mistake and when is it an error?
It is important to define these terms, as this will enable the teacher to decide whether
to correct or not. An error occurs when the learner does not have language
competence, or in other words does not know the correct language to use. This can be
either because it hasn’t been taught, or because it has been learned incompletely.
A mistake, however, may just be a ‘slip of the tongue’ and given the opportunity a
learner will probably be able to correct him or herself.

Errors and mistakes can have several different origins. They can be structural,
conceptual, phonological or a combination. Here are some examples of
errors/mistakes that learners make.
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Correction techniques

When a learner produces wrong language the teacher can ascertain whether it is a
mistake or error by indicating to the learner that something is not right. This can be
done non-verbally and is therefore less intrusive by use of facial expression, cupping
the hand behind the ear, showing by using finger techniques where a word is missing
or wrong word order, etc. The learner then has the opportunity of self-correction but if
not able to do so, most likely does not know the correct language. The teacher can
then throw the question open to the class and try to elicit peer-correction to find out if
this is a general problem that the whole class has or just an individual learner’s
problem.

Errors can be corrected by:

Using the board to explain the correct language either by writing the incorrect
sentence and underlining the error so that the learners can see the error and compare
this to the correct form.

Showing the place of the error by using finger techniques e.g. hold up as many fingers
as there are words in the sentence. Say the sentence at the same time as pointing at
each individual finger for an individual word. When you get to the missing word or
wrong word, hesitate and hold that finger to show where the error occurred in the
sentence.

This technique is also very useful for correcting pronunciation, indicating where stress
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should be.

Having reminders of common errors/mistakes that the class makes on the walls e.g. a
large sheet of paper with a big letter ‘-s’ drawn on it will help learners to put the third
person ‘-s’ on in utterances such as ‘He goes to school every day.’ or ‘The’, ‘A’ ‘AN’
will help those nationalities who have problems with articles.

Using reformulation of errors e.g.:

Learner: I must to visit my doctor tomorrow
Teacher: Oh, so you must visit your doctor tomorrow

Recycling language
It is a good idea to build on old language to help teach new structures. If too much
new language (both structure and vocabulary) is introduced the learners will soon
become confused and overloaded. Try to use vocabulary that the learners already
know; if, for example, you are presenting the second conditional for the first time, use
words and structures that are already familiar to the learners. They will have to know
the simple present, the simple past and some past modal verbs e.g. ‘If I won the
lottery, I would buy a big car’.

The learners would not have met the word ‘if’ before nor heard this sentence, so
including unknown vocabulary would increase the difficulty for them. All languages
have the concept of the second conditional but many have a completely different way
of expressing it. Japanese for example, has the same way of expressing both first and
second conditional and see no difference between the two.

Practice and Production

After presenting a new piece structure the learners should understand what the
structure means, what it sounds like and how it is formed. They then need to practice
saying it.
This can be done through using various ways of drilling. Drilling nowadays is
sometimes seen as being rather old-fashioned and belonging to the days of the
Audiolingual method, but is a useful tool for teachers to have at their disposal when
needed. It is more useful at the lower levels of beginner and elementary but can be of
use in higher classes.

Drilling is basically repetition. It is important that the teacher gives a consistent,

natural and accurate model for the learners to imitate. Usually the first stage is choral
drilling, that is to say, the whole class repeats together after the teacher gives the
model.

This helps the learners say the target language correctly and ‘fix’ it in their minds.
Teachers should always check at the presentation stage that learners will be producing
beautifully accurate sentences but not know or mis-understand what it is that they are
saying.
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The next stage is individual drilling which is when learners say the sentence by
themselves. This should not be done in rote around the classroom otherwise the
learners will not be focused on the language and the activity. It is better to do this at
random by either the teacher choosing learners or a simple technique of throwing a
ball at random around the group.

The production stage or free stage is usually left towards the end of the lesson after
both the presentation and practice stages have been given. Lessons which consist of
these three stages are often referred to as PPP lesson types.
Production stages usually consist of activities which are designed to allow the learners
to freely use the target language in less controlled situations. An example of an
activity allowing learners to do this would be role-play, pair work, group work,
discussions, etc.
The role of the teacher during production is to very much take a back seat and just
monitor the learner’s speech, taking note of important errors and taking notes for
things to include in further lessons.

COPYRIGHT RESERVED
Further reading
Mistakes and Correction by Julian Edge

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Questions on Lesson Three

1. When teaching a structure, teachers should always slow down when

speaking T/F

2. Contractions should not be taught at an early stage T/F

3. Teachers should make use of a wide range of media e.g. realia, OHP’s etc.T/F

4. Elicitation means telling the students answers T/F

5. It is vital to teach both the correct form and meaning T/F

6. We should teach the 3rd conditional tense to beginner classes T/F

7. An error is a slip of the tongue T/F

8. Choral drilling involves the whole class repeating the item a number of times. T/F

9. The natural order of teaching is Presentation, Production, Practice T/F

10 Another word for production stage is free stage T/F

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Unit Four
TEACHING VOCABULARY

Choosing vocabulary
When selecting vocabulary for teaching several considerations should be born in
mind.
Research has shown that vocabulary is better retained if the learner can organize it in
some way. Ways of doing this include:

Similarity
There are many ‘international’ words such as sandwich, computer, telephone,
passport, bank, cigarette, etc. These can be useful to include in the early stages of
learning English in particular to boost learner’s confidence and demonstrate the extent
of preexisting knowledge.

There are also words, which have been ‘loaned’ from English and adopted into other
languages. Japanese has thousands of loan words with English origins, for example,
remon ti, milku, orenji jus, etc.

Cognates also exist between languages, as in nomme (French) name (German), nam
(Hindi).

As well as being aware of the similarities between languages, teachers of English

should also be aware of faux amis or false friends. These are words which appear to
be the same but which have different meanings in other languages.

Examples include:
‘Sympathetic’ which in Latin based languages such as French and Spanish means
‘nice’.
‘Constipation’, again in Spanish means ‘a blocked nose’.
‘Embarrassed’ in Spanish means ‘pregnant’

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Association
Words can be categorized by collocation that is words found together in the same
place.
Words with a strong collocation include:
Bits/pieces, fish/chips, handsome/man, flock/sheep, etc.
Another way of categorizing words is by using synonyms, or words with similar
meaning. Examples are:
Reach/arrive, youth/youngster, child/kid, radio/wireless, cheap/inexpensive

Hyponyms have a ‘head’ word such as ‘seat’. This covers words like chair, stool,
bench, etc., and which are under the head word. A hyponym of transport, for example
is train,
bus, lorry, bicycle, etc.

Transport

Lexical sets are sets of words which have some kind of relationship with each other
and therefore make it easier for the learner to recall vocabulary. An example of a
lexical set can be of furniture: chair, table, cupboard, desk, etc.

How to Teach Vocabulary

Task

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 What do learners need to know about vocabulary?
Write down your ideas here. . .

There are many different ways of presenting and teaching vocabulary, but whichever
method is chosen there are some basic principles which are good to keep in mind.

*Always introduce words as spoken first, not in written form. If learners meet a
word for the first time as written, they will try to say the word as it looks not as
it sounds.
Vocabulary must be put into a meaningful context and then the learners should
have lots of practice in using the words.
*Words will be forgotten if the learners do not have lots of revision.
*Make sure that learners have really understood the words.
If vocabulary is introduced in a memorable way to begin with, it is more likely
to be remembered.

Using Pictures.

Blackboard drawings
This is an obvious way to introduce new words, especially if they are concrete
nouns. These can be quickly drawn on the board as and when they are required. You
do not have to be an artist to be able to do simple stick drawings which show the
meaning of words.

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Flashcards
Pictures can be cut out of magazines and stuck onto card. These are best covered
with protective plastic, as they are useful to keep and use again and again.
Catalogues are an excellent source of free material. If the pictures are to be useful to
illustrate the meaning of vocabulary to a whole class, then they must be of an
adequate size. Smaller pictures are useful during pair and group work activities.
(These are often called cue cards). Flashcards and cue cards can be put onto the
board or classroom walls using sticky tack as a semi-permanent reminder of the
target vocabulary.

Overhead projector transparencies

These can be used for more complicated drawings, which would take too long to
draw directly on the board during a lesson, or it is possible to buy photocopiable
OHTs, which can be used for copying published illustrations, which have
photocopiable content.

Labeling pictures
A useful technique is matching words to pictures or parts of pictures. (See Diagram
A) Either the words can be given or they must be found from the learner’s
memories or from their colleagues.

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Diagram A

Mind maps
Mind maps (see Diagram B) can help to build up word association and/or lexical sets.

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 Diagram B

Realia
Real objects or realia brought into the classroom is a very effective way of teaching
vocabulary and perhaps one of the most natural. Learners will retain words much
more if they have had the opportunity of using not only the sense of hearing and
sight but also of touch. We can associate words also with smell and taste if possible.
The more senses we use in learning, the easier it becomes to remember.

Mime and Gestures

Actions lend themselves very much to being taught through mime and/or gestures.
Tenses can be illustrated through using a gesture of pointing backwards over the
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shoulder, as can present; pointing straight down to the floor, and future, pointing
forwards. Continuous tenses can be shown through gesture by making a spiral
movement with the index finger. Negatives and positives can also be demonstrated
by shakes or nods of the head.
Actions such as ‘leaning’, ‘smoking’, etc are easily shown through mime.

Translation
Translation can be used if the class is monolingual and the teacher knows the
language well. Often there will only be an approximation and not a one-to-one exact
translation available. Care should be taken not to over use the L1 as it is not always
the best way to learn a language by using another one.

Games and Puzzles

There are numerous games and puzzles, which can be used to teach, practice and
test learner’s vocabulary skills. Here are just a few examples of the most common:
Odd man out
Quizzes
Dominoes
Snap
Find someone who
Bingo
Board games
Charades
(See diagram C)

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Diagram C

Writing
After vocabulary has been presented orally and practised, it may need to be written
on the board to:
a: show the spelling
b: enable the learners to make a record of what they have learned.
It is helpful for the learners if different colours are used to highlight stressed
syllables.

Using Dictionaries
Learners should be encouraged to use a good monolingual dictionary, both in the
classroom and outside for homework.
There are many dictionaries in the market written with the E.F.L. learner in mind
Two of the most popular ones are Collin’s COBUILD and the Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary.
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The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary includes very clear definitions and easy
to understand examples. There are also 16 study pages covering grammar, word
building, phrasal verbs and cultural aspects.

An entry for a word in a monolingual dictionary will give a much wider range of
information than a bilingual one. Below is an example of a typical entry in a
monolingual dictionary.

Doze v to sleep lightly:

[V] dozing fitfully: phrasal verb: doze off to begin sleeping lightly; I dozed off
during the film
doze n (usu sing) a short, light sleep, I had a little doze on the train.

Key:

gives the phonetic transcription showing the pronunciation

V or n indicates whether it is a verb or a noun
[V] Gives the verb code showing here that the verb works alone
(usu sing) means usually singular

A word of warning here – whilst teachers want to encourage a good use of
dictionaries, we should not make our learners over-dependent on them. Learners
should be encouraged to develop strategies for working out the meaning of
words in a text, for example, by the context surrounding them.

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Task

What would the definition of the word ‘have’ look like in the

dictionary. Make notes of what information you would expect to

find in the dictionary.

Now look up the word ‘have’ in the dictionary

Activities using Dictionaries

Picture Gaps
This exercise can be used at all levels, for both adults and children. The learners must
look in their dictionary for a suitable missing word in a text which has been replaced
by a picture. (see diagram D)

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Diagram D

Call my Bluff

(All levels) This activity is based on a well-known radio and television word game.
The learners are divided into two teams, A & B. Each team looks up a previously
unknown word in the dictionary and then writes down the correct definition. They
then write two more definitions of their own based upon the style of dictionary entries.
When both teams are ready, team A invites team B to listen to the three definitions of
the word and guess which one is correct. Team B then does the same with their
chosen word. Points are awarded for correct guesses.

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Alphabet game – (All levels)
The teacher writes the alphabet on the board and then one person leaves the room.
While they are outside the learners choose a word from the dictionary that everyone
knows. The person then comes back into the room and has to guess the word e.g.:
‘Sausage’
‘No, it’s shorter and it’s earlier in the dictionary than S’
‘Ghost’
‘The first letter is right, but it’s longer than ghost’
and so on until the word has been found.

Making Crosswords
In groups or pairs the learners use the dictionary definitions to create their own
crossword puzzles or higher-level learners can write their own definitions.

Word boxes/books
A very useful activity is for new words which come up in class to be kept either in the
learner’s own personal word books or for the new word to be written onto record
cards
and kept in a box in the classroom. One side should have the word written on it and
the
other could have the word written in phonetic script and a definition along with an
example sentence. A translation may also be used at the beginning or end of lessons
as
‘filler’ or for revision purposes.

COPYRIGHT RESERVED

More Grammar Games : Cognitive,...

Teaching and Learning Vocabulary by I. S. P. Nation; Paperback

Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling
Instruction (2nd Edition) -- by
Donald R. Bear (Author), et al; Paperback

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Questions on Lesson Four

1. Give an example of a cognate as mentioned in the lesson

2. Give an example of a false friend as mentioned in the lesson

3. What are lexical sets?

4. When teaching vocabulary, why is lots of revision necessary?

5. What is the technical name given to words found in the same place, e.g. beautiful
girl, handsome man etc?

6. When introducing a vocabulary item for the first time, should we teach
a) the spoken form or
b) the written form?

7. State three ways in which vocabulary can be taught

8. What is meant by a monolingual dictionary?

9. How is a monolingual dictionary different from a bilingual dictionary?

10. Briefly outline two classroom activities using dictionaries.

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Unit 5
Please go to:www.typeit.org to download the phonetic font tool you will need to be able to read
and complete the tasks for the course if you are doing this course via a download or internet.

TEACHING PRONUNCIATION

The Phonetic Chart

The phonetic chart is an extremely useful tool to have when teaching/learning a language. It is
very common for learners of English to be already familiar with the chart.

There are 44 sounds in English; 24 consonants, 12 vowels and 8 diphthongs. (See diagram
A).
When written down, the phonemes are put between two slashes such as /m/or /d/
Each symbol represents a SOUND in English not a letter.

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Diagram A

THE ORGANS OF SPEECH

Consonants, as already mentioned, consist of 24 sounds. These can be classified according to

the ways that they are produced by the organs of speech. (See Diagram B).
Sounds are categorized as to their place and manner of articulation, and whether they are
voiced or unvoiced.

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DiagramB

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The Place of Articulation

Bilabial sounds are made with both lips touching each other. Bi – meaning two and labial
meaning lips. /b/, /p/, /m/ and /w/ are bilabials in English.

Labiodental sounds, as the name suggests – labio meaning lip and dental meaning teeth, are
made with the lower lip and upper teeth. /f/ and /v/ are labiodentals.

Dental and alveolar. Sounds made with the teeth and/or the alveolar ridge include /t/, /d/.
/θ /,/n/, /s/, /l/ and /r/.

Palato – alveolar sounds are made by placing the front of the tongue against the hard palate
and alveolus. These sounds include /ʃ/s/ tʃ/ dʒ/

Palatal. The back of the tongue touches the hard palate. /j/ is a palatal sound.

Velar sounds such as /k/, /g/ and / ŋ / are made when the back of the tongue is placed against
the soft palate or velum.

Glottal and Vocal chords. This is as far back as possible and where the /h/ sound is made. It
is also where a glottal stop is produced – the well-known Cockney pronunciation of words such
as /bɔdl / meaning ‘ bottle’ is produced using a glottal stop.

The Manner of Articulation

Having looked at the Place of Articulation, or where sounds are made, how they are made or
the Manner of Articulation can also now be considered. When thinking about manner we
describe how the airflow from the lungs is restricted by different organs in the mouth and throat
and whether sounds are aspirated or voiced.

Plosives and Stops. The air from the lungs can be stopped for a very short instant and unlike
any other sounds cannot be extended et al. /p/. /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/ and /g/

Nasals as the name suggests have the air stopped in the mouth and forced through the nose.
Nasal sounds are /m/, /n/ and / ŋ / .

Fricatives. Here the air escapes but through a restricted space there is friction between the
tongue and an upper part of the mouth. / f/ . v/θ/δ/ . s/ z/ ʒ/ h/
Affricates. These are more restricted than a fricative but not quite a stop / tʃ/ dʒ/

Roll. The English /r/ is usually an alveolar roll.

Laterals. The tongue is held against an upper part of the mouth without any friction and the air
escapes around the sides. These are the /l/ sounds.

Semi – vowels. The air is restricted but without friction. /j/ and /w/ are semi – vowels.

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Aspiration takes place when a puff of air escapes in sounds such as /p/ or /h/. You can feel
the aspiration if you put the back of your hand in front of your mouth and say ‘park’ where the
/p/ is heavily aspirated.

Voicing. Unvoiced sounds are when the vocal chords are not used at the start of the
production
of a sound. Voiced sounds are when the vocal chords are used and produce vibration. The
difference is demonstrated by touching the vocal chords and feeling the contrast between the
/s/ and /z/ sounds.

All vowel sounds are voiced, as are most nasals, rolls and laterals. Consonants, which are
unvoiced, have a ‘partner’, which is voiced.

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Vowels
When making vowel sounds the air is unrestricted and usually held for a longer time when
compared with consonant sounds.

Monophthongs consist of 12 vowel sounds.

Diphthongs consist of 8 sounds which are made up of 2 vowel sounds which glide from one to
the other. These are:

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Phonetic Transcription

The chart has many uses in the classroom. When new vocabulary is introduced, for example,
the learners can hear the word, then produce the word and then see how it sounds by the
teacher writing it on the board. If a learner is producing a word with an incorrect pronunciation
the teacher can first write the learner’s pronunciation up and then the contrasting correct
version.

Example:

Learner

Teacher

This is also useful at sentence level

Example

Learner

Teacher

See if you can read the following:

(Answer on the last page of this lesson)

Stress, Rhythm and Intonation

The consonants and vowels are known as ‘segmental’ sounds. Other sound features, which
affect meaning, are stress, rhythm and intonation, which are known as ‘suprasegmental’ or
‘prosodic’ features.

Unlike most language in the world, English is a ‘Stress-timed’ language as opposed to a

‘Syllable-timed’ one. This means that stress or emphasis is placed at fairly regular intervals in
a sentence not on the syllables themselves. (‘Is used before the syllable for primary stress).

Think of the sound of a sentence in an Italian accent where stress hits every syllable – ‘What
‘do’ you’ want? As opposed to English stress which would be – ‘What do you ‘want?

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Word stress
Words can change meaning and form by changing the stress. The word, record, can be either
a noun as in ‘record’ or a verb as in record, for example:

Stress patterns also change in a word’s derivatives –

Re’pute ‘reputable repu’ tation’

‘photograph pho’tography hoto’graphic

Rhythm

As already mentioned, stress-timed languages have roughly equal measures of timing

regardless of the amount of syllables which must be fitted in. Stress in words is more or less
fixed and so this greatly alters the length of many syllables, often to such an extent that they
virtually disappear altogether.
Take the following example:

‘four ’large ‘old ’oil ’cans =5 syllables

‘sev’en’ty ‘re’mar’ka’ble ‘Vic’tor’i’an ‘wa’ter ’bot’tles =15 syllables

Both phrases have 5 stressed syllables and so will take about the same time to say despite the
number of syllables. If English were a syllable timed language –

Four large old oil cans

would take only as long to say as

Seventy remark-

Stress timing gives English its characteristic rhythm which speakers of syllable timed
languages often find very difficult to learn.

Good dictionaries will give guidance on stress in words but rhythm has to be learned by good
teaching and listening/imitating. Symbols can help this process.

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‘Dogs eat’ bones O O O
The ‘dogs will ‘ eat the ‘bones o O o O o O
The ‘ dogs will have ‘ eaten the ‘ bones o O o o O o o O

Task

Mark the primary and secondary stress on the following sentence:

How many chocolates have you eaten?

Now do this again on the same sentence but with the following
1. Disbelief:
2. Not knowing what has been eaten
3. Asking who has eaten the chocolates
4. Curiosity

Intonation

Mistakes in grammar, vocabulary and other aspects of pronunciation, even where they
interfere with comprehension will be overlooked and easily forgiven by the native speaker.
Mistakes in intonation are often not. It is often assumed that intonation patterns are universal
but that is far from true. It is vital that learners are aware of intonation patterns but it is doubtful
whether it is of

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much value being formally taught Imitation is probably the best method.

Mother Tongue Interference

Interference from the mother tongue with regards to pronunciation will naturally happen with all
learners. It only becomes a problem if it impedes intelligibility, and this does not normally
happen with segmentals – the individual sounds of phonemes. If a speaker tells you that they
came to England by sheep instead of ship, it does not usually cause misunderstanding as the
context of the sentence helps with comprehension.

What usually causes incomprehensibility is mistakes in stress and rhythm.

There are several practice activities which can help learners to discriminate between sounds.
Two words which have only one phoneme different is called a ‘ minimal pair ‘.

Below are some very commonly confused phonemes:

The teacher says five words at random and the learners have to indicate which words they
hear.

The teacher can either write up the words and number them 1 or 2, eg:

1 2
Slip sleep
dip deep
sin seen
it eat
sick seek

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The learners can write down the numbers as they hear them. They could call out the numbers
or show one or two hands the responses could also be shown by colour coding paper cups red
or blue at the bottom inside the cups and the learners hold them up. In this way nobody except
the teacher will see the responses.

This same technique can be used with stressed pairs such as noun and verb pairs.

‘ produce – pro’duce

‘ increase - in’crease

Intonation and stress practice can be shown using hand gestures or drawn on the board.

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 Answer to transcription :
Where in the world have you been?

You may like to visit the following web sites for more information about phonology:

http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/cassette.htm

http://www.celt.stir.ac.uk/staff/HIGDOX/STEPHEN/PHONO/PHONOLG.HTM

COPYRIGHT RESERVED

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Questions on Lesson FIVE

1. How many vowel sounds are there in English?

2. How many consonant sounds are there in English?

3. How many diphthongs are there?

4. Name a lateral sound

5. What are the two affricative sounds in English?

6. Name three bilabial sounds

7. What is meant by the term ‘Palatal’?

8. What is the term for words which differ in meaning due to a different phoneme eg cut/cot
sing sung

9. Mark where the main stress falls when pronouncing these words:
advertising photography

10. Transcribe this sentence into normal English script

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Unit Six

MATERIALS AND AIDS

Using flashcards, pictures and realia

Flashcards are an extremely useful classroom tool. They are inexpensive and easy to
produce with a great variety of uses. Magazines, junk mail, brochures, leaflets, tourist
information offices, etc. are a good source of different kinds of pictures which can be
cut out and pasted onto card and then covered with self adhesive plastic to protect
them.

Flashcards should be large enough for the whole class to see clearly when the teacher
stands in full view of all the learners in the classroom. Pictures, which are too small to
be used as flashcards, can be used as cue cards for individual learners, pairs or groups.

It is a good idea to keep flashcards organized in topic areas. They can be categorized
in areas such as food, clothes, actions, occupations, buildings, places, etc – the list is
endless.

Realia, bringing real objects into the classroom as opposed to pictures, can be a very
effective way of helping the learners remember language more easily. All the senses
can be used in this case when learners can not only see the object, but also touch, hear,
smell and taste where appropriate. Research has shown that the more senses involved
in the learning process, the better we retain information.

Flashcards, pictures and realia can be used to present and practise all areas of
language, grammar, vocabulary and all skills areas. The following are just a few ideas
to illustrate how versatile these can be:

BEFORE AND AFTER PICTURES

Aim: Practice of comparatives/present perfect

Materials: Several pairs of pictures showing ‘before’ and ‘after’ types of

illustration eg before going to the hairdressers and after (hair very
untidy and hair looking beautiful)
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Give each learner one or two pictures at random, but try not to give anybody a
matching ‘pair’. The learners mingle together and without showing their picture to
any other learner describe what they have in their pictures to each other and find their
partner.

When they have done this, they sit down next to each other and write or make six
sentences verbally using comparatives and present perfect tense to talk about their
pair(s) of pictures. They then join another pair of learners and exchange the
information again.

FEELY BAGS

Aim: To teach adjectives of description/vocabulary of domestic items.

Materials: Fairly unusual objects such as garlic press/eye bath/bottle opener, etc.
Enough bags for each object/learner.
Place the objects in the bags.
The learners, in pairs, must in turn feel in the bags and describe the object to their
partner who tries to guess what the object is.

STORY TIME

Aim: To practise past tenses. (suitable to be adapted for any tense)

Materials: 50+ assorted pictures depending on size of class.

The pictures are spread out on a table. In groups of three, the learners choose a set of
5 to 6 pictures and create a story using the pictures as a basis, in any order. They then
join with another group who ask Yes/No questions to discover the story. The first
group then does the same.

Task

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Using some or all of the pictures below, write a short story in a few sentences.

What kind of language did you use?

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KIM’S GAME

Aim: To teach vocabulary

Materials: Small pictures of the items of vocabulary needed. A large cloth to cover
pictures. (Also suitable for realia)
Place all the pictures on a table and teach/revise names of objects. Cover with a cloth
and make sure the learners cannot see, remove one or more of them. Reveal the
remaining pictures and ask learners to name the missing ones. Do this until all the
pictures have been used.
STREET SCENE

Aim: To practise past continuous tense

Materials: Drawing or picture of a street scene with various people doing different
things e.g. waiting at a crossing/getting on to a bus/washing a car, etc.

Either give out a copy to all the learners or transfer the picture onto OHP transparency
and show on the board. Tell the learners they have 2 minutes to look at the picture and
then turn over, or switch off the OHP. They then have to tell their partners what was
happening in the picture, e.g. “A woman was getting on a bus/a boy was crossing the
road, ” etc.

HOW TO ORGANISE THE BOARD

Good board organization is essential to help the learner’s acquisition of language.

Learners will copy almost everything which is displayed on the board and
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organize their notebooks in the same manner.

If possible, having a corkboard area on either one or both sides of the board for
additional workspace is very desirable.

Teachers should try not to use the board standing with their backs to the learners for
more than a few seconds at a time. The learners will start talking to each other about
all kinds of topics, most likely not in English and will not be preparing themselves
psychologically for the lesson. It is always best to try and involve all the learners in
whatever it is going up on the board by asking them questions and getting them to
predict and guess what it is you are writing/drawing on the board.

Handwriting should be of appropriate size – not too small or too large (or you will not
be able to fit everything in) and written in a straight line. The writing should be clear
and easy to understand, especially for those nationalities who use a different script.

Use of the correct upper and lower case when appropriate is necessary as well as
correct punctuation. It is best to avoid cursive script, as this can be problematic for
many learners to read. Correct spelling is also essential!

Different colored pens or markers are very useful for highlighting different features of
language such as new vocabulary, structures, prefixes and suffixes, prepositions, etc.
If different coloured markers are not available, underlining or using symbols is a
useful substitute.

Don’t forget – learners should also have lots of opportunities for using the board. This
gives a more democratic atmosphere in the classroom and also enables the teacher to
find out how much the learners know.

In addition to writing, the board is also useful to stick pictures onto or to use as a
surface for the OHP. Posters, maps and photographs can also be displayed on the
board.
Drawings can be done on the board, but make sure that they do not take too long.

Providing they are recognizable this will be sufficient. You do not need to be any kind
of artist. Learners themselves are often very good artists and can draw on the board
instead of the teacher.

If there is a magnetic board, this can be used to great effect with the aid of fridge
magnets and alphabet magnets. These can be purchased from larger supermarkets and
toyshops.

When planning a lesson. The use of the board must be taken into consideration at the
same time. Many teachers allocate one side of the board for any new vocabulary
which they plan to teach or which comes up during the lesson.
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One area can be reserved for any drawings or pictures and a separate area for
structural work. The board can be divided into an H or into an X shape
Learners soon get to expect and recognize the purposes of different area of the board
which will aid their learning.

USING THE OVERHEAD PROJECTOR

The OHP must be the most useful and versatile piece of equipment in a classroom.

Not all schools and institutions have access to an OHP, but if there is one it can be of
great assistance to teachers.

One of the advantages of using an OHP is that teachers do not have to turn their backs
to the learners while they use the board. They can elicit the language and involve the
learners at the same time as writing or drawing.

Another advantage is that transparencies can be prepared before the lesson and
therefore save a considerable amount of time during the lesson. This is very useful if
the teacher is not too sure of his or her own spelling!

Pictures and illustrations can be put onto the OHP in advance as well as written
material.

Exercises can also be transferred onto OHP’s and then done as a whole class activity
with everyone in the classroom focused on the same question at feedback time.

This is invaluable for times when the photocopier has broken down and copies are not
available. The OHP’s are permanent and can be stored indefinitely and used time and
time again. This saves a lot of preparation time and frustration for the teacher who
will always have several different lessons available at a moment’s notice.

ACTIVITIES USING THE OHP

Stories lend themselves very well to this type of presentation where there is a series of
pictures showing different scenes one by one with the learners discussing or writing
the sequence of events. The vocabulary can be pre-taught as each picture is revealed.

The OHP can be very useful when presenting or practising modal verbs of deduction.
A picture is shown out of focus and very slowly revealed. Language used by the
learners would be “It could be a …”, “It might be …”, “It may be …”, “It must be
a …” etc Teaching directions is another function which can be done very effectively
with an OHP.

A map is shown up on the board and small cut out cardboard figures are moved
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around on top of the OHP to show up on the board and directions are asked for and
given.

OHP sheets can be overlaid on top of each other on the OHP. An activity which uses
this technique is building up identity kits which use the language of description. The
teacher prepares various OHP sheets which have differing facial features on each one.

Several

blank face shapes can be produced and different shapes of noses, eyes, mouths, etc.
the learners are given pictures or photographs of people and have to imagine that they
were witnesses at the scene of a crime and saw the murderer/burglar/mugger, etc.,
whose face is in the picture or photo given to them. They then put the picture/photo
away and cannot look at it again. They describe the person to a ‘policeman’ who has
to make an identikit using the descriptions given. The picture/photo is then compared
to the OHP face.

THE USE OF VIDEO

The use of video has become standard in most institutions. There are specially made
video courses on the market for all levels and types of learners, both adult and
children,

general English and ESP. (English for Special Purposes). These are usually quite
expensive and come with ready-made workbooks and teacher’s notes.

Off-air video is used quite extensively and includes a very wide-ranging wealth of
materials from news broadcasts to cartoon programs.

Video clips are normally of very short duration; a few minutes at the most and can be
used for a wide variety of purposes.

TECHNIQUES AND ACTIVITIES FOR USING THE VIDEO

1. The screen can be masked using a piece of card which is sticky tacked onto it. The
sound only is then listened to and treated as a listening comprehension task. The
learners can predict What is happening? How many people? Where they are? etc.

2. The sound can be turned down so that the learners cannot hear and the dialogue
reconstructed to fit the scene.

3. The picture can be freeze-framed and the learners work on vocabulary tasks such as
descriptions of people/objects. Prediction of what is said/what happens next ? can be
made.
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4. Mirroring can be used by having half the learners facing away from the screen and
the other half facing the screen. The learners who can see the screen then copy what
they see happening and the other group who cannot see the screen then have to
guess what is happening on the screen and what kind of program it is. The sound
is turned off for this activity.

5. Gestures and body language can be observed and practised using suitable video
materials. Particularly good materials come from stand up comedian shows which
are very visual with regard to body language.

6. Video quizzes, which are made by the learners themselves, require two rooms and
two video players but are very productive. Each group of learners has a different
video of a film or news broadcast etc. Any type of material can be used for this
activity, but it must only be a couple of minutes in duration. Each group watches the
materials in different rooms and then creates a series of questions about their video.

7. These can be about vocabulary, a listening test, facts, etc. They should make
different types of questions such as true/false, multiple choice, gap fills, etc. the
group then change rooms and answer the questions made by the other group.

8. Off-air advertisements are also very effective for teaching all areas of language.

9. Superlatives are frequently used, for example, in this type of material – the
best/whitest/cleanest/most beautiful… etc. Learners can watch advertisements and
analyze the language and then make their own advertisement for T.V; if there is a
video camera available to be able to record the learner’s work and show it
afterwards for ideas for improvement and error correction.

COPYRIGHT RESERVED

Useful web sites:

http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Werff-Pictures.html

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Questions on Lesson Six

1. What is the name we give to real things we use for teaching in the classroom?

2. What do we call pictures which have been pasted onto card for classroom use?

3. What is a feely bag?

4. Why should teachers not write on the board with their backs to the learners?

5. We should sometimes get our students to write on the board. True or False?

6. Name two shapes which are used to divide the board into working areas.

7. What does OHP stand for?

8. What is the main advantage of using an OHP in the classroom?

9. What does ESP stand for?

10. Video clips should be of short duration True/False

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Unit Seven

TEACHING PRODUCTIVE SKILLS; SPEAKING AND WRITING

SPEAKING SKILLS

Task

What is correct English? What is more important – accuracy or fluency?

Write down your thoughts here:

Accuracy versus Fluency

Perhaps the most important outcome of any language exchange is that of

communication which does not always have to be completely accurate in grammatical
form. The utterance ‘He always want go the cinema’ would not pose any
communicative problem for those listening to it although it is inaccurate. If, however,
a speaker were so inaccurate that communication was completely impeded then
obviously

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grammatical accuracy would have to be improved.

On the other hand, it would try the patience of the listener if the speaker were very
hesitant with long pauses where they were trying to find the correct words to say and
therefore be very poor regarding fluency. So a balance must be found between
accuracy and fluency to allow a good level of communication to take place.

In a PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production) model lesson, the learners are

concentrating on accuracy very much in the presentation and practice stages on
accuracy.

The production stage is used to develop fluency when the grammatical form is secure
in the learner’s knowledge.

It therefore follows that there would be a higher level of correction in the first two
stages of a lesson than in the production stage where the learners are developing their
fluency skills. If there seemed to be a need for a lot of correction to take place during
this final stage then it is likely that the target language had not been taught or learned
very well in the first two stages.

An important factor to remember when presenting the target structure during the first
stage is that you must, of course, be accurate yourself. This applies to both native and
non-native teachers alike. Structures such as ‘I would of said if I’d of known’ are not
(as yet!) considered to be correct and would be marked as wrong in any English
language exam. There are many structures which are peculiar to particular dialects
which also have to be taken into consideration as to their usefulness to learners. In
Liverpudlian dialect, for example, the use of the word ‘youse’ as in ‘youse sit there’
or ‘youse must be joking’ would have to be thought about before deciding to
consciously teach it. Although there are many different types of English in existence it
is generally accepted that a Standard English is desirable. There are different standard
Englishes in Britain, America, Australia, South Africa, etc.

There must also be consistency of pronunciation and meaning attached to a structure

so that learners do not become confused.

Communication Activities

There are many resource books available to teachers of English as a foreign language
designed to supplement or sometimes replace main course books. (Refer to the
booklist under resource books). Most main course books these days follow a
‘communicative’ syllabus, both adult and young learner course alike. Learners are
encouraged to participate as much as possible in modern class situations with the role
of the teacher becoming a facilitator, allowing the learners to make the language their
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own by ‘experiencing’ it as well as ‘learning’ it.

Spoken communication activities can be put into several different categories; the
main

ones being:
Discussions
Debates
Problem solving
Information gap
Role-play
Simulation
Instructions

Task

What kind of language skills and knowledge are useful when having a
discussion?
Make notes here:

Discussions can be used in the classroom to practise many speaking skills, but need
quite a lot of preparation if they are to be successful. The learners will find it
quite difficult to express themselves in a foreign language in a discussion situation if
they have neither the language not the techniques used in the L2. It is useful to spend
several lessons before the discussion building up to it and teaching these first.

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Learner will need to be able to function in the following situations:

Know how to interrupt – politely and effectively.

Know how to negotiate meaning – clarification, checking understanding, setting

parameters, etc.

Know how to change the subject

Know how to express agreement/disagreement

Know how to express contradiction

Know how to express sarcasm/irony

Know how to persuade.

Plus, many other skills.

The build up to a discussion can involve shorter activities which practise these skills.
One such activity is described here which can be used at all levels with an appropriate
change to the actual phrases used.

Interrupting
1) Brainstorm with the class all the phrases they know about interrupting. Write
these on the board. Add one or two more that they haven’t thought of. Make sure
they know whether the phrases are formal or less formal.

2) Give a talk for a few minutes telling the learners to interrupt you as many times
as possible. Make sure that you rebuff all their interruptions.

3) Ask the learners to work in pairs/groups and write down how you dealt with the
interruptions. Help them as necessary.

4) In pairs the learners then do the same; A giving a talk and B interrupting. They
then swap roles.
You will find many examples of these kinds of activities in resource/course books.

Debates
Debates are very similar to discussions and need the same kind of preparation. They
do, however, differ in the fact that opposing viewpoints are expressed and then put to
the vote. A hypothesis is given to the learners such as

‘Drivers should drive on the right in Britain’

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which is then debated.

Problem solving
Balloon debate types are usually successful in language teaching classrooms. In the
original balloon debate, each learner represents a famous person or has an occupation
such as doctor, politician, etc. They must then imagine that they are all in a hot air
balloon which is losing height and will crash if they don’t rid the balloon of excess
weight. One person must jump or be thrown overboard to save the others. Each
learner must then in turn convince the others that it would be too great a loss for the
world if they had to jump. A vote is taken at the end of all the speeches to choose the
person.

Similar situations can be used such as choosing useful items to salvage from a burning
aircraft after a plane crash in the desert, who would be the last to leave a sinking ship
and so on.

Information gap
This type of activity promotes real communication as one learner has information that
another learner needs to complete a task and vice versa.

An example of an information gap activity is one where learner A has a picture of a

room without any furniture in it and learner B has a picture of the same room with the
furniture in. Sitting so that they cannot see each other’s pictures learner B describes
the picture and learner A draws in the furniture as described.

Role-play

The learners can be given role cards and asked to play a particular character or role in
a communication activity. Situations such as playing shopkeepers, waiters, etc., can
all be beneficial towards helping learners in the world outside the classroom.
Role cards should be kept as minimal as possible and not involve the learner in a
reading comprehension exercise!

Simulations
Simulations are usually on a bigger scale than role-play and are designed to imitate
English language situations in which the learners may find themselves. They are used
quite extensively on Business English courses reflecting what happens during
business meetings, presentations, etc. A simulation could consist of a group of
learners around the conference table trying to make decisions about a new road going
through the local town/countryside. The learners can represent themselves or be given
roles to play.

Instructions
Giving clear instructions can be quite difficult, even for native speakers. Again in
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pairs or groups, the learners have to give instructions to another person or group in
order for an end product to be achieved. An example of this could be putting a puzzle
together, making a model from bricks, objects, or being able to operate a piece of
machinery or a computer.

Writing

The Stages of Writing

With children or non-roman script users, beginning to learn writing it usually starts
with training the hand to write in the directions in which the letters are formed.

When this is accomplished and the learners are familiar with the script, the first stage
of writing is usually copying. This can be copying from the board, copying from a
Textbook, etc. It is important at all levels that a teacher has good, clear board work.

This can be extended into gap filling exercises where the jumbled, missing words are
provided at the bottom or side of the text or the learner to choose and then copy into
the text.

Copying can also include exercises in which the words in a sentence are jumbled up
and the learners must write them again using the correct word order eg

because – she is putting – she wants – on her coat – go out –to

Answer: She is putting on her coat because she wants to go out.

The next stage would be guided writing. This can involve different activities to help
the learners understand organization of text, punctuation, etc.

Below are some activities which would help learners to prepare for writing. These
types of activities can be found in all modern course books.

1. An example text type is given to the learners who then have to write a similar
text based upon that model.

2. Learners brainstorm their ideas and put them into the order in which they will
appear in the text.

3. Gap fills activities where the learner fills in the missing words, which are not
provided.

4. Study of linking phrases and words.

5. Comparison of different styles of writing – newspaper talk, formal letter, etc.

6. Preparing a draft text as homework or class work.

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7. Rewriting a paragraph using linking words/expressions.

8. Writing the missing half of a dialogue.

9. Writing stories based on picture cues.

10. Composition to be written from notes

11. Change of register in a dialogue – re-writing the dialogue from another

perspective.

Free writing
At this stage the learners should be able to create good text types without any support.
However, all writers can improve on their techniques and crafting a piece of writing is
an on-going process. At this level the learners’ needs must be taken into account and
the practice geared towards specifics.

Correction of written work.

It can be very non-productive and demotivating for a learner to have work returned
covered in red marks showing all the mistakes. Perhaps a better way would be to use a
more neutral contrasting colour to the original and to just indicate where the mistakes
occur and what type of mistake they are. Not all of the error has to be pointed out if
these are too numerous to point out, but maybe just the more important ones.
Learners should be encouraged to proof read their own work so that they can make
progress in their written work.

Task
Correct the mistakes in this student’s work

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 When I were in the school, sometime I no like it so much. Because somtime the
teacher were not so well with us.

However, that is now no such a difficulty as I leave in a flat by my own is good,

no?

I as well have the boyfriend who is keep me company and a little dog, that is so
sweet!

Is on Mondays I go the swimming and all the week busy all the moments so I now
not so lonely feels.

Many teachers use the following system to indicate mistakes.

^ a word on this line has been omitted

/ a word on this line ought to be omitted
P a mistake in punctuation
S a mistake in spelling
// needs a new paragraph
T tense error
G a grammatical error
W wrong word
WO wrong word order
R repetition to be removed
? I don’t know what you are trying to say
V good point, good use, well put, etc,

COPYRIGHT RESERVED

Useful web sites

http://www.englishlearner.com/teachers/speaking.html

http://www.tefl.net/

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Questions on Lesson Seven

1. Accuracy is more important than fluency in the presentation and practice stages
of a lesson T/F

2. The production stage is intended to develop fluency in the learners. T/F

3. It is normally acceptable to present dialect forms when presenting new

language. T/F

4. There is only one Standard English in the world. T/F

5. The teacher must be consistent in pronunciation when introducing a structure.

T/F

6. Name four spoken communication activities.

7. What is a simulation?

8. What do we call the first stage in writing?

9. Name five examples of guided writing activities.

10. What do we call the final stage when learners practise generating written text
without support?

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Unit Eight

Teaching the Receptive Skills – Listening and Reading

Different types of listening skills.

Task

Think about all the things we listen to and the situations in which we do. Write
them here:

Consider some of the many situations that involve listening and it becomes clear that
we listen to speech in many different ways. Below is a list of some situations in which
we need to listen:

Informal conversations

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 Telephone conversations
Chatting at social gatherings.
Radio/TV broadcasts
Announcements at airports/railway stations
Listening to speeches/lectures
Receiving directions/instructions
Formal situations, such as interviews/inspections/meetings, etc
Being given professional advice-lawyers/doctors/teachers, etc.

There are many more that can occur, but it is obvious just from this

short list that we will listen differently in one situation compared to

another. Listening for the particular time of departure/landing for a

plane in a busy noisy airport will not be the same as listening to a

song for example.

Listening to an announcement will require intensive listening skills, while listening

to a story on the radio will need extensive listening skills.

Intensive listening is more challenging with the language often a little beyond the
learner’s level. It is also of a shorter duration than extensive listening material and is
listened to several times. It will contain certain facts that the learner is expected to
extract and be very task based as the learners listen for a very specific purpose.

Extensive listening, on the other hand, is generally more relaxed and the language is
usually within the learners’ capacity. There is more attention to the content in general
and it is of longer duration but is usually only listened to once for general
understanding and pleasure.

Learners should have practice in all types of listening situations to help them develop
both kinds of listening skills and also have integration with some or all of the other
skills areas.

The materials used in the classroom to practice listening should perhaps be as natural
as possible. This principle is reflected in many modern course books where authentic
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or semi-authentic listening materials are in the accompanying cassettes.

This also brings up the question of the use of the teacher’s own naturalness of speech
used with the learners. Slow, unnatural speech does not help the learner when they
want to listen to the news on the radio or make a telephone enquiry in English.

Most of the listening we do is probably in less formal conversational situations rather

than long, uninterrupted flows of speech. During these there will be more use made of
colloquial and informal expressions and more use of ‘fillers’
A lot of our informal speech consists of, for the learner, what appears to be
meaningless noise. That is words and phrases that have no direct meaning in the
conversation.

Learners need to be able to recognize this ‘noise’ and to understand its function so
that they can make the appropriate response.

Learners also need a great deal of practice hearing the different sounds in English
particularly when there is no distinction in the sounds in their native language.

The Arabic /b/ and /p/ sounds exactly the same as does the Japanese /r/ and /l/. So
pubs and pups sound no different as with lorry and lolly. The meaning often has to be
guessed by the context which is not always possible.

Teaching Listening

When choosing listening activities there are some points to consider. Firstly the
teacher must decide the reasons for listening. We do not usually listen to anything
unless there is a purpose so the learners should know why they are listening to
something.

The teacher should also inform the learners of what they are expected to do - they
must be given some kind of task to do and not just told to listen to something.

Below is an example of a lesson extract where listening activities are taking place:
The teacher writes the following questions on the board for extensive listening or gist
practice.

- How many train stations does the announcer mention?

- Can you identify any?
- What time does the train for Coventry leave?

The learners listen and answer the questions orally in pairs, then in two groups.

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The teacher then gives the learners a handout of a chart to fill in with more specific
questions before the tape is played again twice-Intensive listening practice.

READING

The Stages of Reading

Learning the Script

There may be different categories in which learners who need to learn the script fall
into.

Firstly, they may be adults or children. Children may be learning their own script and
language alongside that of a foreign language.

For adults, nationalities such as Chinese, the script may go from right to left, top to
bottom and have been learned primarily through sight and memory.

Task
To grasp the difference which learners with another script have, try to read the following
text as quickly as you can from right to left.
.hpmuirt fo tuohs a evag acilegnA, seenk sih ot ylwols knas rekaterac eht sA

Most people will be quite a bit slower at reading the script backwards, (it is also quite
difficult to write!)

The first step, then, is to train or re-train the learner’s eye muscle movement. With
children this is done at the pre-reading stage through puzzles and games which draw
the child’s eye from left to right.

Even if the learners have the roman script, they may still experience differences
between sound and spelling. The letter ‘c’ for example may sound like ‘ch’ or the
letter ‘z’ may sound like ‘ts’.

The first stage of reading is to be able to decipher the script. The symbols on the page
can be associated with particular sounds.

If the reader stops at this stage, reading aloud, able to say what the words sound like,
but has no idea of the meaning, this is often referred to as ‘barking at print’.
The second stage of reading is when the reader can add meaning to the
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symbols/sounds and so can read aloud with understanding.

The next stage, stage three, will be when the reader can form the sounds silently in the
mind without having to use lip movement and use direct sight-reading. Reading
increases in speed and takes in larger blocks of words. The reader can predict very
often what will follow before actually seeing it.

Reading Activities and Materials

A fluent, competent reader uses a variety of skills in their reading. They will have an
idea of the style, register and anticipate the kind of vocabulary which will appear in
the text. There will be a pre-knowledge, for example, of what will follow in a formal
report and a different expectation of the contents found in a romantic novel.

Unlike spoken language, written English has a much more restricted ‘code’ of usage.
One of the main skills of reading is the ability to scan.

Scanning is needed when the reader is looking for specific information in a text.

Searching for a particular team’s football results or the time of a train on a timetable
would need this skill. It is not necessary to read all the words in a text when looking
for one piece of information.

Skimming is another reading skill which is often used.

This involves reading quickly through a text to find the gist or the overall meaning.
Many learners feel that they won’t be able to understand a text unless they read and
know every single word in it. They may spend unnecessary time worrying over one
word in a text which may have very little significance in the text’s general meaning.
Skipping words is a frequent occurrence when native speakers read a text. This is
when words or whole passages are omitted as it is recognized that they have little
importance for the reader’s purposes for reading the text.

Prediction takes place for native speakers subconsciously. Style, vocabulary and
format are all understood before the text is read. This also happens during the reading
process as words are predicted before they are actually seen by the reader on the page.
Understanding reference pronouns is vital to the reader’s understanding of the text.
Consider the following:

Mr. and Mrs. Brown were very happy before they married.

‘They’ in this sentence is the reference pronoun. It seems to refer to Mr. and Mrs.

Brown if it is looked at just within this sentence. However, if we look at more of the
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text - at the preceding sentence it changes our understanding of the text altogether.

Mary Brown married the local drug dealer. Mr. and Mrs. Brown

were very happy before they married.

Now we can see that ‘they’ is referring to Mary Brown and the local drug dealer.
Many learners have problems with who or what reference pronouns are referring to
and misinterpret meaning accordingly.

Reference pronouns fall into two categories; anaphoric and cataphoric.

The example of ‘they; above is an anaphoric pronoun as it refers back to a noun. A

cataphoric pronoun will refer forwards to a noun, such as in the sentence.

When it saw the mouse, the elephant panicked

Here there is a cataphoric reference pronoun ‘it’, referring forward to a noun
(elephant).

Recognition of discourse markers is important as well. These are words and phrases
which link and show the connections in and between sentences and paragraphs in
texts.

Below are some examples of these linking words and phrases:

Function Example

Contrast - but, however, on the other hand, even so, etc.

Addition - and, also, what is more, in addition, as well as, etc.

Sequencing - first(ly) , second(ly) , finally, etc.

Reading Materials

What do we read?

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Here are the main text types that are read every day:
Novels, short stories, plays
Poems, limericks, nursery rhymes
Letter, postcards, faxes
Newspapers, magazines
Articles, reports, pamphlets, business letters.
Reviews
Handbooks, textbooks
Guidebooks
Advertisements, travel brochures, catalogues
Instructions, notices, rules and regulations
Menus, pricelists, tickets
Comic strips, cartoons
Statistics, diagrams, charts
Timetables, maps

Telephone directories, dictionaries, phrasebooks

and so on …………………

All of these text types can be useful in the classroom and provide a wide range of
activities which use different kinds of reading skills.

The golden rule is: Always grade the task to suit the level of the learners. The
same text could be used at different levels but with a different level of difficulty.

Elementary level activities can include:

Two methods – ‘look and say’ ‘phonic’

1. ‘Look and say’ is where words are written underneath pictures and then the
pictures are removed. This encourages the learners to look at the shape of the
word.

2. Phonic introduces words according to the rules of spelling and breaks down the
words into the individual letters e.g. c+a+t = cat – meaning.

3. Jumbled sentences can be used after oral dialogue work where the words on cards
are mixed up and the learners have to put them back into the correct order. This is
helpful for word order and sentence construction.

4. Word bingo. The learners have words instead of numbers to play the game and so
have to read the words as the teacher calls them out.

5. Matching words with pictures.

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6. At this level try to encourage reading for gist. Simple headlines can help to give
an overview and vocabulary predicted.

7. Work on prefixes and suffixes is a useful activity at this level.

8. Punctuation exercises are helpful in allowing the learner to see where sentences
end etc.

Intermediate level activities can include:

1. Paragraph work such as cutting up paragraphs and asking the learners to

rearrange them into a logical order. This helps with recognition of discourse
markers.

2. Writing headlines for reports will help with understanding for gist.

3. Scanning activities such as reading timetables, advertisements, headlines, texts

and football scores.

4. Information transfer activities can be from reading a text and then constructing a
paragraph, diagram or picture. This would show the teacher immediately whether
the text had been understood.

5. Anaphoric reference work on pronouns can be done using an OHP with gap fill
type exercises.

6. Dictionary skills work can help with spelling and sequencing.

7. Reading from notes made during classroom activities.

8. Using specially written ‘readers’ in class. These are edited books written for
language learners at different levels.

9. Learners can be given time limits to find information in a text and so be

encouraged to increase their reading speed.

10. Integrating the four skills can be done by reading in preparation for a discussion,
for example, or reading to re-writing a text.

Advanced level activities can include:

1. Practising predictive skills at both word and phrase level. The learners can be
given a passage with gaps.

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2. Prediction can be made from word collocation and/or clues of meaning.

3. The style can be looked at. The author’s purpose – is the text sarcastic, neutral,
biased, etc.

4. More intensive reading can be done at this level – looking for specific
information.

5. Reading a summary of a text and then having a discussion afterwards.

6. More complex paragraph work with analysis of order.

COPYRIGHT RESERVED

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Questions on Lesson Eight

1. List five typical situations where we need to listen

2. What are the two main listening skills that we teach?

3. Which skill is more challenging and of short duration?

4. What is the result of the teacher using short, unnatural speech forms?

5. What is the first stage of reading?

6. What is the formal word that describes the process of reading for gist or overall
meaning?

7. What are discourse markers?

8. Name two elementary reading activities.

9. Name two intermediate level reading activities.

Name two advanced level reading activities.

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Unit Nine

LESSON PLANNING

Teaching Different Types of Classes

Teaching at Different Levels

Complete beginners learning English are quite rare these days, as usually most people
in the world have had some kind of exposure to English in some form, often through
music. There are many points that beginners bring to the classroom with them, which
are listed below.

Beginners
Start with a clean sheet
Lots of enthusiasm
They usually come without any previously learned bad habits
Can often make rapid progress
Will often form a homogenous group
Can be easily discouraged
Little experience sometimes to draw upon
Easy to make incorrect assumptions about
May disappear from your classes
Not always able to express true needs and intentions

Intermediate learners are by far the most common level in most teaching situations.
They too have their own particular points to consider when teaching at this level.
Intermediate
Have a basis to build upon
Can express attitudes towards course and teacher
May have got stuck on the so–called plateau
* Can be know–it-alls
* Confuse familiarity with structures and lexis with mastery
* Will often bring bad learning habits and experiences to class
*Is too broad a category and will contain many differing strengths and weaknesses

Advanced learners bring other qualities to class.

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Advanced

Can cope with a wide range of contexts, registers and linguistic settings
May feel they have nothing more to learn
Able to fully express abstract ideas as well as in the more concrete domain
Can be a problem with mixed levels
May not accept language presentation
May require streaming and much individual attention

Monolingual Classes
Most of the world’s English learning and teaching takes place in monolingual classes,
where the learners all share the same mother tongue. Non-native speakers who usually
share their learners’ language also do most of the world’s English language teaching.

This can be of enormous advantage as the teacher will understand completely the
difficulties and problems.

There are, however, disadvantages of teaching monolingual classes: mainly that of

encouraging more use of the target language, particularly when doing any kind of
group and pair work. Often when learners are engaged in interesting, motivating tasks,
they will slip into their native language to achieve results more quickly.

Errors and mistakes will be fairly similar, of course, and be more predictable. The
teacher can spend more time on errors which will be shared by the whole class. On
the other hand, the group can sometimes reinforce errors.

Multilingual Classes.
Every year tens of thousands of people come to Britain for the common purpose of
learning English. English language classes may contain learners with a wide variety
of language backgrounds. The learners will have to communicate in English in this
type of situation, which can be very advantageous for them. Some learners will,
however, experience not as much contact with native speakers as they would have
liked. There is much scope for communicative activities in the classroom in which the
learners can exchange cultural information between each other. From the teacher’s
point of view there will be less opportunity to concentrate on a particular nationality’s
pronunciation or other problem areas.

One-to-One Classes

As well as teaching groups of learners, there are also many one-to-one teaching
opportunities which exist. These are often conducted with people who are learning
Business English; who have particular requirements and usually need a short intensive
course that can be fitted into their busy working schedule. This type of teaching is
usually the highest paid and most rewarding financially. This type of work is usually
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found in the home country of the customer as not so many business clients can find
time to devote solely to learning a language. Schools and colleges do exist in Britain
and other English speaking countries that run Business courses.

It is not necessary to have a business background to become a good Business English

teacher, just as it is not a requirement if you wish to become involved in Technical,
Medical or other ESP (English for Special Purposes) areas.

Another area is ESL (English as a Second Language) which differs from EFL in that
the learners have usually immigrated into an English speaking country and need to
study the language initially for survival purposes and then to integrate more fully into
the host community. Teaching in this area is often begun initially on a volunteer basis
and is a good way of gaining experience for beginner teachers. Teaching can take
place in the learner’s own home on a one-to-one basis or in classes at local centers.

A wealth of materials has been published to support any of the teaching situations
mentioned above and is easily obtainable.

Pair and Group Work

Having an element of pair and group work is essential in most lessons. It provides the
learners with opportunity for increasing their talking time, involves them in a genuine
reason for using the language, gives valuable practice and allows the teacher to assess
the success or otherwise of the learning/teaching process as well as the chance to
diagnose and plan for future work to be done.

Organizing pair/group work can be done in different ways. The teacher may like to
put learners with others whom they do not usually have the chance to talk to.

Different

nationalities may be put together so that no two speakers of the same language are in a
pair, or the teacher may decide to put strong learners with weaker ones or vice versa.
The teacher needs to know the learner’s personalities well enough to be able to make
decisions about who works with whom. The teacher might decide just to choose at
random and this also sometimes works well; other times it could be better to pair
people off together for the sake of harmony. Occasionally in a class there may be a
learner who is less popular for a variety of reasons and it can be quite difficult to
manage the pairings and groupings. Most teachers tend to ‘share’ a more difficult
learner around the class so that no one person works together all the time with the
same learner.

There are activities which make putting learners into pairs or groups more interesting
than just the teacher pointing at learners and choosing who works with whom.

Before the class the teacher can prepare slips of paper with matching names or objects
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or area of grammar or vocabulary. An example of this could be as below.

Famous Characters
Tom Jerry
The Queen Prince Phillip
Batman Robin
Popeye Olive Oyl
ETC.

Grammar pairings could include Phrasal verbs, verbs and prepositions, etc.
Vocabulary may have beginnings and endings of idioms or proverbs, compound
nouns which have been separated e.g. house/work, bed/room, etc. objects could
include anything which has a partner such as opposites, synonyms etc.

The teacher puts all the slips of paper in a hat and the learners choose at random and
then have to mingle with each other to find their partner/s.

Pair work can be used to practise question and answer forms and dialogues. This is
good when accuracy is the main aim. If the teacher wants the learners to use the
language for communicative purposes then some kind of information gap is needed.
This is where each of the learners in the pair has differing information that the other
needs, for example an exchange between a tourist and a travel agent. There could be a
situation where there is a necessity to describe an object for identification, at a lost
property office, etc. Whichever situation is chosen, there must be a genuine need for
communication, otherwise the learners will not have the motivation to complete the
task.

In group work, there will be the need to negotiate and put forward ideas, persuade,
etc.

Activities such as producing an advertisement/designing a poster or producing a

newsletter are all good activities to promote the need for communication.

The Contents of a Lesson

The length of a lesson varies enormously from one institution to another; from 45
minutes to 2 or more hours. Planning the lesson is vital in order to ensure that time is
not wasted and the learners receive the maximum benefit from the work arranged. It is
also very important to plan so that the bell ringing for the end of the lesson does not
interrupt activities. The learners will feel a sense of frustration and under-achievement
if this happens. Planning will make sure that the teacher has all the necessary
equipment at hand to make the lesson effective. It can be disappointing for the teacher
to discover that she/he could have got point over much better if not for the lack of
variety in the activities they do in class, especially young learners or long classes. If
they always do the same type of activity every lesson as well they will soon become
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bored and lose concentration and motivation (as will the teacher). The lesson should
be planned with teacher domination at a minimum. This can be seen before the lesson
takes place on any lesson plan and action taken to include more learner participation.
When considering writing a lesson plan there are certain elements which need to be
considered. Most lesson plan formats will have some or all of the following:

Name of the teacher

* Name of the class
Date
* Level of learners

*Number of learners
* Time of lesson
* Aims of lesson – structural and skills areas
* Assumptions made – relevant pre-knowledge of learners
* Anticipated problem areas – eg pronunciation/concept/mother-tongue interference,
etc
* Materials needed
*Stages
* Classroom management – seating arrangements/ pairing/grouping, etc.
* Approximate timing for each stage
* Board plans
* Interaction (see Diagram B)

Diagram B

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Aim (skills area):

Assumptions/Problem Areas:

Classroom Management:

Materials/Aids:

Stage:
Board Work:

INT:
Time:
Comments:

Details of Lesson go here:

The Stages of a Lesson

Traditionally lessons have a beginning, middle and end and have perhaps three or four
main stages. There are different ways of staging lessons but there are perhaps two
main approaches to this. One way is the more old-fashioned PPP type plan. This is
presentation, practice and production which is always done in this order:

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Presentation will be more teacher-led with the target structure or language being
given to the learners who are relatively passive at this stage and who try to listen and
understand meaning and context provided by the teacher.

The Practice stage will traditionally consist of quite guided activities led by the
teacher who will use drill and/or dialogue practice to encourage accuracy of the target
language.

The Production stage will consist of situations set up by the teacher where the
learners have the opportunity to use the language in a freer way without the teacher
intervening except as necessary. A sample PPP lesson plan has been included in this
lesson (see Diagram A)

Another, more modern, approach, is the ARC model which seems to fit in more with
what is going on in contemporary classrooms. This stands for A – Authentic use; R –
Restricted use; C – Clarification and focus.

One of the main differences between the PPP approach and ARC is that ARC can be
carried out in any order that seems appropriate.

Authentic use would be for as genuine communication as possible and include

activities for fluency practice. These activities would be more skills based where
restricted use activities would include practice of form and geared more towards
accuracy and/or testing. Clarification and focus is where the learners are helped
towards discovering language for themselves and/or being given the rules by the
teacher.

If, for example, the first stage of the lesson began by the learners engaging in an
Authentic activity such as asking each other their schedule for the week, the teacher
may go around monitoring and listening into the conversations at the same time
taking notes on the weaknesses in the learner’s language. The next stage may be a
Clarification and focus session; here the teacher may elicit or explain certain
examples and rules that were noted as being weak spots. There may or may not follow
a Restricted use stage which would consist of drilling if necessary or other language
accuracy practice activities. Then a similar authentic use activity could follow to give
the learners the opportunity to use the acquired new language in a freer situation. The
lesson would have followed an ACRA format.

This type of structure can be used in any order, as previously stated, as the teacher
perceives learner needs it may be that the learners know a particular structure but are
experiencing problems in pronunciation. Here the teacher may begin with a Restricted
use pronunciation activity and then have an Authentic use stage followed by building
on the known language with Clarification and focus on another structure or new
vocabulary items. This then would be an RCA model.

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Diagram A

PPP Lesson Plan

Teacher: A Smith
Class: Room 5
Level: Lower Int.
Time: 5 mins
Aim: Intro ‘used to’ Speaking/listening for accuracy
Assumptions: Knowledge of simple past. Knowledge of verb forms
Anticipated problem : Pron. of/ju:st/ will probably produce /ju:sed/

Materials:

Stage Time Interaction

Warm up
1. Elicit from L’s ’who, what, where ’about in 5mins T-ss Picture.
2. Intro.2nd picture. Elicit comparisons highlighting 5 mins ‘then’ and ‘now’ aspects

Presentation
1. Using comparisons, give model of ‘used to’& put
pics. on board model pron. “/hi:ju:st/ to have a
bread, but now he doesn’t “Repeat with all pics.” 10 mins T-ss

Practice
1. Drill structure, as a class, then individually. Use 10 mins T-ss
Pics. on board as cue

Production
1. Set scene in re-union party. L’s mingle and fill in
questionnaire about colleagues and what they do/are15 mins ss-ss
like now and what they ‘used to’ do/have/be.
2. L’s in groups of 4 sit in gossip groups and give 15 mins ss-ss
Feedback to each other on questionnaires

Diagram C

OBSERVING TEACHING AND LEARNER TALK

Decide which aspect of learner talk you are going to make notes on eg:
The number of times a particular L. speaks in a lesson
The number of times an L. initiates an exchange
Example of correct language used by L
Example of un-English stress pattern
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Example of communication strategies the L. uses when a word or phrase is unknown
Examples of meaningful vs. meaningless language

After the lesson give feedback on the above to your colleague. Remember to focus
only on one aspect.

Next lesson focus on teacher language. Write down and focus on one aspect of the
following.
What the teacher says immediately after an L. has spoken
The ways the teacher praises an L
Examples of teacher instructional language that is over the heads of the L
Good instructions
Examples of slow, stilted or unnatural talk by the teacher

Getting Feedback:

A good teacher will look back at their lessons and try to improve constantly. All
teachers need to do this, no matter whether they have taught for 1 week or 20 years.
After the lesson things to think about in general are whether the learners achieved the
aim, were they all actively involved and what could the teacher learn that can be used
to improve the next lesson. Many teachers have personal aims such as how they can
encourage learner autonomy or better correcting.

There is much to be learned by asking for feedback on your lessons. This can be from
a colleague who has observed the lesson, your own self-appraisal or perhaps most
importantly, from the learners themselves.

Reflection is a very important part of teaching as without it there would not be teacher
development or finding the way forward. Looking back at the lesson should be done
with a positive attitude, not looking for problems but challenges.

If you invite a colleague to observe, you could ask them to look for particular points
that you feel are most helpful and that you yourself want to improve upon. You may,
for example, want to focus on teacher and learner talk. It is a good idea to produce
some kind of form for your colleague to follow. There is an example of this type of
instruction form on Diagram C.

Self-appraisal can be done by asking a colleague to video your lesson and then
analyzing the tape after the lesson at your leisure, or if this is not possible audio tape
the lesson. For beginner teachers the following questions can be asked and thought
about:

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*Make a list of the roles that you played during the various stages of the lesson and
think about who did what.
*Write down at least 15 things that you did during the lesson and what would
happen if you had not done them.
*Think of 6 things or more that you liked about the lesson and why
*Do the same for 6 or more that you did not like and why
*Write down what you would change next lesson and why

Learner feedback is usually best done by giving the learners a questionnaire to fill out
after the lesson. This also gives them some writing practice. If learners are asked
directly by the teacher about what they thought about the lesson, they very often will
give answers that they think the teacher wants to hear. A simple type of question form
could contain the following.

*What did you like about the lesson?

*What didn’t you like about the lesson?
*Was the lesson interesting or boring?
*Was the language new to you?
*Did you feel comfortable and able to ask questions?
*Were you able to take part as much as you wanted to?
*Are there any other things you would like to say about the lesson?

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Questions on Lesson Nine

1. Which level of students is a teacher most likely to encounter?

a) Know-it-alls
b) Those unwilling to accept presentation of language
c) Those without previously learned bad habits

2. What is the term for learners who all share the same mother tongue?

3. Is the majority of EFL teaching around the world by native or non-native speakers?
of English?

4. What do ESP and ESL stand for?

5. What do you understand by the term ‘information gap’?

6. State six elements which you would expect to be included in a lesson

7. In traditional PPP lessons, what does the final “P” stand for?

8. Does the ARC format require the stages to be carried out in a particular sequence?

9. Why is it useful to get feedback?

Why is it better to use a form rather than to ask the students to comment on a lesson?

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Unit Ten

TEACHING YOUNG LEARNERS AND TEENAGERS

BASIC PRINCIPLES

Young Learners
The term ‘young learners’ in TEFL usually means children aged up to 11/12 year old.
We shall talk about children of 12/13+ under the heading of ‘teenagers’.
Even though it is very obvious, we must remember that children are not adults. They
are still learning about the world – still learning a sense of space and time. There is no
point in asking a 6-year-old child to imagine what it was like living 1000 years ago, or
to imagine travelling to Africa. Teachers must be very aware of the developmental
stages of children and not ask the impossible of them.

Children in this age group are still learning to classify things and relate things to each
other. A 7-year-old child is still learning that a cup is like a bottle because they both
hold liquids.

It is only near the top of this age range that a child will become capable of abstract
thought. All children achieve these stages, but at different ages. You might find that
some children can do things, which other children cannot. These differences are not
due to a lack of ability, but to a different rate of development.

It is therefore necessary to treat all children as individuals and make your own
judgments as to whether a particular activity is suitable for your particular class of
children.

Do not expect children to be able to do things in English before they have learned
to do them in their own language.

They cannot, for example, copy from the board if they have not yet started to read and
write in their own language, or tell the time if they are not yet doing so in their own
educational system.

Children do, however, have a great capacity for acquiring language through exposure
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to language, e.g., looking and listening, as well as through formal teaching. Your job
is to provide opportunities for both. You can use a small amount of language which
you have not systematically taught. The children will acquire meaning through your
repetition and the context you use it in.

Children learn by doing. They learn through using their senses more than adults do.
They will enjoy role-play more if they can dress up for it and use real objects.

Children learn by using the language – listening to it, speaking it, reading and
writing it.

Children learn best when they are motivated: by being interested in an activity.
By seeing an end result which gives them a feeling of achievement (so display their
work); by being involved in activities which are relevant to them (so use their
interests, experiences, background and environment).

Children are easily discouraged and lose interest if the task is too difficult. Make
sure that the tasks you set are within their ability.

Some do’s and don’ts


Don’t think of children in terms of levels. They may not acquire a mastery of
structures as systematically as adults.

Set your ‘class rules’ from the first day. It is easier to be firm at the beginning
and then relax.

Learn the names of the children as soon as you can. You can do this by asking
the children to fold a piece of paper, write their name on it in big letters and put
it in front of them.

Encourage the children to speak. Let them talk about their own interests and
families – remember by doing this you are personalizing the learning process.

Give clear simple instructions – teach phrases that you will need – ready, steady
go, hands up those who, open your books at page etc.

Try to use English even when you don’t have to eg for general administration –
go to the office, close the door please etc.

Try to always use natural language. This will foster real communication.

If you have to, then be prepared to use the mother tongue of the children to give
instructions, especially where they are complex. However, remember that
children can often follow instructions even when the language used is more
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difficult than anything they have so far learned.

Encourage the children to listen to real English. Television, labels, comics are all
good sources for this. They all display authentic English.

Don’t always expect a spoken response. Children can indicate comprehension by
a gesture or by carrying out a set of instructions.

Where possible draw upon what the children are doing in their mainstream
curriculum, eg learning about other countries, measuring, growing things, etc.
Do, however, stay one step behind the mainstream teacher rather than in front.

Create a resource box. Children can be asked to contribute to the box. – old
clothes, cereal packets, old toys etc can all be useful. Make sure that they are
safe and cannot cause injury.

Children tend to have a short concentration span. Change activities regularly to
ensure that you maintain their interest. Don’t continue to the bitter end just
because it is in your plan. Be prepared to be flexible. When children lose
concentration they stop learning.

When children are working in groups don’t just sit and watch. Go around and
monitor; help the weaker children, check the language used and correct where
appropriate.

Continually check that the children are doing what you have asked them to do.
When speaking to the class, make sure that everyone is listening to you. Provide
plenty of repetition. Children do not always listen even when they seem to be
doing so.

Try to get the children to use short forms – ‘I’ll, Can’t, ‘s etc, this is easier if you
do it from use start and use the short forms yourself.

Correct children’s pronunciation but don’t let correction stand in the way of
communication.

When writing use clear print with younger children. You can move on to using
joined up letters with older children.

When children finish a piece of work, make sure that you acknowledge it and
give praise where possible. Children respond well to praise but never to sarcasm
and excessive criticism.

Children are forming their views on language learning and indeed learning in
general. Your positive attitude towards them is essential if they are to develop
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and maintain self-esteem and a productive view of themselves as learners.

Communicate where possible with parents and encourage parents to share in the
learning partnership. Tell them what you are doing in your lessons and why.

Make learning English a joyful activity. Don’t forget you are not merely a
teacher of English. Rather you are ‘a teacher of children’.

Task

Look at the picture below which has been taken from a young learners’
course
book. What can it be used to teach?

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Teaching Teenagers

At this age young teenagers are not children nor are they mini-adults. They are in
transition between childhood and adulthood. This will affect how they perceive
teaching and learning. At some stage they will enter puberty displaying features such
as aggression, shyness or self-consciousness. They will respond to a sympathetic
approach rather than a confrontational one. Students may have learned English in
primary school while others may have attended private classes. You will probably
find therefore, a wide range of abilities within a single class.

Peer pressure and group dynamics are crucial at this age - try using this to facilitate a
good learning environment.

Teenagers will have a low boredom threshold so use activities and remember that they
will need a sense of achievement, not failure, in order to maintain motivation.
Make learning English a rewarding activity to develop a positive approach to
language learning, The motto at this age is being fair and friendly.

Write neatly. The learners will not be able to make guesses from untidy writing as
easily as they can in their own language.

Remember that students at this age are very impressionable and will be influenced by
your ideas and attitudes.

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Teaching on Holiday Courses

If you are involved in teaching very young learners who have come to Britain to study
English, say the 5-12 age range, it will almost certainly be within a residential setting.
You may be employed to teach the youngsters and also to supervise their leisure and
social activities. They will be accompanied by specialist teachers, who will be
responsible for primary and pastoral care.

The older range, 13 upwards. are likely to stay in host families and again will come to
Britain with teachers who share the mother tongue of the group.

You may still, however, be asked to help organize sport and social activities as part of
your job description.

The reasons that children and teenagers come to Britain to study are varied. Some
may have parents who are ambitious for their children, while others may see it as an
opportunity for a couple of weeks without the children. Therefore, motivation is not
always as high as the teacher would wish. Teenage groups may view the experience
as a chance to have a good holiday, with improving their English fairly low on their
priority list. It is vitally important, in this case, to ensure that lessons are interesting,
enjoyable and accordingly, motivating. This is achieved by drawing heavily wherever
possible on the interests and culture of the age range you are working with. It is far
better to allow them to practise the structures they have than to spend large amounts
of time revising and teaching new grammar. Lessons should be primarily oral and
materials used must be designed for the particular age range being taught. Some
organizations try to use adult materials with teenage groups, usually to poor effect.

There are plenty of resource

books which offer games and activities that will stimulate and motivate most groups.
Songs are a very good media in a classroom with teenage groups as they are task and
project based learning.

Topics such as music, fashion, relationships, sport, etc, can be explored and exploited
beneficially.

With good materials and a lively approach teaching teenagers can be a most enjoyable
experience.

SONGS

A good source of song materials can be found in most big stationery, toy or music
shops

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if you are based in the U.K. Traditional children’s songs can be used, as they are, or
adapted.

Songs can incorporate movement, such as: ‘Heads, shoulders, knees and toes’, ‘I’m a
little teapot’, ‘The Farmer’s in his Den’, etc. There are lots of songs to teach counting,
such as: ‘Five little ducks went swimming one day’, etc, etc., in fact there are
children’s songs which cover everything from structure to vocabulary. Most
children’s course books will include a number of rhymes and songs designed to
reinforce language.

Teenagers will probably already be familiar with English pop songs, which the
teacher can use for enjoyable listening practice.

A common activity is to use the text of the song as a cloze test – where the words are
deleted as appropriate – and the learners listen and fill in the gaps. (See Diagram B)

Diagram B

IMAGINE

Imagine there’s no ______________, it’s __________________ if you try,

No _________________ below us, above us only _____________.

Imagine all the people living for today.

Imagine there’s no _________________, it isn’t _______________ to do.

________________ to kill or die for, and no________________, too.

Imagine all the people, living _______________ in _______________.

You, you may say I’m a _____________________.

But I’m not the only one,

I hope ____________ _____________ you’ll _____________ us.

And the world will be as one.

Imagine no _____________________, I wonder if you can,

no ______________ to grieve, no _______________,

a brotherhood of men.
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Imagine all the people ________________ all the world.

You, you may say I’m a __________________,

But I’m not the only one,

I hope _________ ________ you’ll join us

And the world will live as one

Task

Choose a song and design an activity to go with it. Remember to think about your
teaching aims

Useful web sites

http://www.esl-lounge.com/songstop.html

http://www.musicalenglishlessons.com/index-ex.htm

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Questions Lesson 10

1. What age range does the term 'young learners' refer to?

2. Approximately when do children become capable of abstract thought?

3. Why is it vital to set children tasks that are not too difficult?

4. Are the following statements true or false?

a. children normally have a short concentration span

b. best friends should always work together
c. we should not always expect a spoken response when teaching children
d. translation can be used when appropriate

5. Why is it important to provide stimulating and interesting lessons when working

with teenagers?

6. Can English pop songs be used with teenagers?

7. Is it wise to use adult material with teenage classes?

Can lessons be built around topics such as fashion, hobbies and interests etc?
Yes/No?

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Unit 11

Using Course books Effectively

Task: Consider the following questions about course books:

Have you ever used a course book, either as a language teacher or as a student
studying a foreign language?

If yes, how was the course book used:

a) every stage of the lesson?

b) only certain parts of the lesson?

c) not at all in the class, only for self-study at home?

If a course book was used, was it followed unit by unit rigidly or were certain
units selected and in a different order?

4. Do you think the course book helped or hindered the teacher?

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a course book?

Time up!
Obviously, the first four questions depend on your own experience of language
learning or language teaching.

Question 5 – Advantages:

They provide readily available material for the teacher.

They normally follow a logical progression – students and teacher can see what
material has been covered and what material is going to be covered. This gives a
sense of direction.

They allow the student to study alone.

They can review past lessons and preview future lessons.

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They provide an automatic 'control' of how much language is introduced at a time
.
They can provide a 'window to the world' from inside the classroom.

Any more?

Question 5 – Disadvantages:

Students may preview something you don't want them to see just yet, thus taking
away the element of surprise.

They usually follow a format from unit to unit which can be tedious.

They often contain a lot of controlled language practice but not enough freer practice
activities.

They can often contain a lot of contrived reading and listening material to suit the
language aim of a particular unit and not enough authentic material.

They are usually written for a general audience and not your class. That means
the course book can only meet the needs of certain students.

The material can sometimes be seen as a little bland in order to avoid offending
certain types of students. This may mean that controversial subjects, which may
apply to the 'real world', are ignored.

Course books can date very quickly. Today's celebrities and fashions can be
'past their sell by date' within a few years.
Any more?

Can you add any other points on the subjects of course books?

Exploiting A Course book

When planning a lesson the best thing to do is work backwards:

NEEDS & AIMS& ACTIVITIES& MATERIALS

Consider the following points when you are planning a lesson.

1.What are the needs of my students? (Structural competence? Functional?

Vocabulary extension? Skills?)

2. From the student's needs, decide what your aims are. Ask yourself what will
the students be able to do at the end of the lesson that they couldn't do at the
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beginning?

3. What activities will take the students towards these aims? Start with freer
practice, through less controlled practice to controlled.

4. What will your 'marker sentence' be? This is a sentence which illustrates the
particular structure or function under analysis. For example, you might be teaching
the structure 'used to' - to talk about actions you did on a regular basis in the
past but now finished. Your situation might be a millionaire who has lost all his
money. We are now talking about his previous lifestyle.

Your 'marker sentence' might be something like

'He used to drive a Rolls Royce.'

Your students will now hear you give the model with the correct stress and intonation
pattern and then have a chance to say it chorally (the whole class together) and finally
say it individually. This provides excellent controlled practice.

Think about the possible vocabulary that you will need to exploit this situation and
give the students enough prompts to produce similar sentences.

– Rolls Royce? caviar? gambling? casino? yacht? mansion? cigars? a girlfriend?

5. Once you have thought about these points, you now have the shape of
your lesson. Now, decide what materials will you need. How much of it
can you obtain from the course book?

5. You should not follow the unit from the course book just as it stands.
Neither should you reject the material completely because of one small section
you do not like.

As a teacher you must be able to:

CHOOSE & CHANGE & REFUSE & SUPPLEMENT

These are important skills for an English teacher and ones that will improve with
experience. Don't be afraid to experiment and try out new things. Your students
will love you if you can vary your materials and bring in fresh ideas to your
class.

Teachers present language, course books practice.

Don't be a slave to your materials let them serve you and the needs of
your students.
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PLANNING A COURSE

It is very important to give your students an integrated language course rather

Than a random selection of language learning activities.

1. Find out what your students need.

Task: How can you find out what your students need? Think about this
for two minutes before you continue

Time up!

You can use questionnaires, discussion activities, homework writing tasks. Ask
the students why they are learning English and what they want to do with the
language.

Try to assess their needs in terms of:

Which is more important to them, accuracy or fluency?

What priority do they put on the following skills: listening, speaking, reading and
writing?

Are there any special skills they need eg. speaking on the telephone,taking
messages, writing business letters,

Are they studying for an exam – own school or college exam or an external
exam such as the Cambridge exams - PET, FCE, CAE or ILETS. What skills
do they need to acquire for these exams?

2. Find out what your students can and can't do.

Provide fluency activities and see how well they can do them. Give them
written homework to test their writing skills.
Get to know your students strengths and weaknesses by providing maximum
listening and reading opportunities.
Test their knowledge on areas of grammar. You might be surprised at how
much they know or sometimes they don't know. Most students will be quite happy
to do standard grammar exercises to check themselves.

3. Assess how suitable the course book is.

You may have no choice in the course book you use, so look at very carefully. If there
is something you feel is missing, incorporate your own ideas or look for
materials from other sources.
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Ask yourself:

Does the course book provide a good balance of skills?

Is there a good balance of new language and opportunities for recycling the language
that the students already know?

Is there enough scope for freer practice?

Is it relevant to the needs of the students?

Is there a variety of lesson types?

How long will each unit take to cover?

Does it allow self-study activities for the students?

Try to plan your lessons in advance. Decide on a rough outline for a series of lessons
for a week or a few days ahead. Then fill the details as you go proceed.

Keep a record of what you have done and retain lesson plans. This will help you
to see where you are going and what needs to be reviewed at a future date. This
will also ensure you are providing a balanced course.

You may teach in conjunction with another teacher for a class. It's very
important that you work with your colleague to co-ordinate the course and divide
the materials fairly.

There's nothing worse than standing in front of a class ready to begin when your
students tell you,

'Oh, we've done that lesson. We did it with Tony last week!'.

Planning your lessons is extremely important and at the start of your EFL career
it will be very time-consuming. However, it gets easier as you get more
experienced. You will be able to tell how the lesson is going and how to manage
your time effectively.

Course book Evaluation

This is a checklist of the things to consider when evaluating an EFL

Course book.

Name of course book? ................................ For level ?....................................

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Target audience: (Adults/ Children) .................................

What kind of book is it? ......................

a. Main course book? ..........

b. Supplementary material?

for which skills? ........................

Is there a good balance of skills? ...................................................

Method? ..................................................................... structural?

functional?

Balance of activities? ........................................................

Length of course? ...................... Contact hours per unit? ................

Layout? ..................................... units/ lessons/ modules? ..................

Teacher's overall impression of the material? .............................

Clarity of language being presented? ........................................

Support material? ..............................................................

Visuals? ............................. Photcopiable materials? ............................

Workbook? ....................... Testbook?. ........... ...... Resource book? ....

Teacher's book? ............... Teaching notes? .......... Answer Key? ...........

Website?.............................. Cassettes? ................ Tape scripts? .............

CDs?........................... DVDs ........................(format?)

Self-study material? ................................ Homework tasks? .......................

Durability? ...................................... Cost per student? ...............

Problems? ....................... Gaps? ..................... Usability? ...............

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Questions On Lesson 11

Using the sample extracts below which are taken from a beginner level course book,
state in less than 250 words whether you would like to work with this material or not
and the reasons why.

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 CERTIFICATE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Unit 12

Introduction to using the web

In recent years there has been an explosion in the demand to learn English. This has in
part been fuelled by the move towards a globalised economy.

People of all ages and from a wide variety of backgrounds have identified that a good
working knowledge of English can be the key to improved job prospects, movement
up the career ladder, and a better standard of living and accompanying quality of life.

Parents now realize that it is vital for their children to have English as a second
language in order to complete in the workplace.

In Switzerland, for example, in the French speaking cantons English is replacing

German as first foreign language to be studied at school, and in the Swiss German
speaking cantons the same thing is happening with English pushing French aside as
the second language.

Many of the larger multi-national companies have established English as the language
of the workplace, no matter where the office is in Berlin, Tokyo, New York, or
Geneva.

Worldwide, there has been a huge demand for TEFL/TESOL teachers- both qualified
and unqualified - to take up the tens of thousands of teaching posts that have been
created both in the state and private sectors.

While classroom based or on-site teaching has boomed, there has also become a
recognition that there are large numbers of would be students who are unable to attend
classroom based programs This has developed alongside the new technologies both in
terms of the available hardware and software that has promoted a big increase in the
numbers of students seeking online courses not only in English as a Second or
Foreign Language but also in a vast array of other subject areas as well

There are already a number of schools and companies that employ online tutors along
with agencies that match student and teacher. If you think you may be interested in
Online Teaching, please visit www.eflonline.co.uk

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Let us now have a look at what the web has to offer in the way of materials and tools
A very good place to begin is the Publishers web sites where you will find a wealth of
materials often linked to course books. These can be used alone or as supplementary
materials whilst following a particular course.

The BBC also has an excellent selection of materials for ELT.

Pictures are in abundance on the Internet and it is a good idea to keep them in your
picture library filed away for easy access. You can create a simple picture library by
just putting them in a new folder on your desktop and creating categories.

Lesson Ideas

Treasure Hunt
Prepare a quiz consisting of say, 15 questions and ask the students to find the answers by using the
Internet. They can do this in pairs/groups or individually.

News Reporters
Put the students into groups or pairs and ask them to visit an English newspaper web site. Give
different sites to each pair/group.

They then read, make notes and report back verbally as if reading the radio or television news
broadcasts on the same story or different stories to the other groups.

Grammar Search

Give the students again in pairs or groups a grammatical exponent, for example,
second conditional, and ask them to research on the web and report back verbally to
the class or create a classroom poster.

Topic research

The same as above can be done with different types of students, for example,
teenagers, on topics which will interest them. A particular celebrity or pop star can be
researched and a presentation made afterwards.

Song Lyrics

The web is a very good place to download and print off song lyrics which can then be
used in gap filling exercises etc.

Shopping

The web abounds in online catalogues which can be used in classroom activities.
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Put students into groups and give them an imaginary situation and a set amount of
money to spend.

Setting up a student flat together for example or creating a fashion show, planning a
special dinner etc.

Planning a trip

Let students use the web to plan a trip around the world or to a particular country.
They can research the tourist attractions, accommodation, etc.

A variation would be in a multilingual classroom to research each other’s countries.

The Internet is full of limitless possibilities and teaching materials.

Remember the WWW is a tool to enhance instruction. You can employ many of the
same teaching methods and activities as before just on a different medium and using
resources from around the world.

Merlot: if you are looking for lessons this is a great place to go. Merlot offers a noted
collection of peer reviewed web lessons and resources.

Languages: tons of great FL methodology info links here. Includes hot topics such as
multiple intelligences, distance learning, learning styles and more. Also provides
language specific links.

Weboscope: if you haven't yet found the instructional resources you are looking for in
French, this one is worth checking out. Links to many sites offering online
instructional materials as well as authentic materials for you to incorporate.

Internet Foreign Language Studies Workshops: although it is geared to German this

site links to a variety of activities and projects which demonstrate computer assisted
language learning from language labs to the Internet.

Lesson Plans and Resources - ESL, Bilingual, and FL Teachers: : a wonderful

selection of resources by Professor Marty Levine of California State.

Web Projects: several articles with guidelines for online student projects. You can
also check out student websites and projects such as the Famous Japanese Personages

Project: organized by Tom Robb, the author.

Interclass Projects on the Internet: here you will find an explanation of interclass
projects as well as links to description of already developed projects.

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International Accents and Diacriticals: Theory, Charts, & Tips: look here for all the
Key code info necessary to meet your keyboarding needs.

ePALS Classroom Exchange: meet other classrooms from around the world in this
easy to use web chat environment. Enter as a visitor and if you enjoy it, register your
school for free.

Intercultural E-Mail Classroom Connections: Looking for E-pals for your students?
Here's the place to begin. This free service helps teachers and classes link with
partners in other countries and cultures for email classroom pen-pal and project
exchanges.

International Tandem Network: Language learning in tandem partnerships.

Polyglot: Language Exchange: this site offers individuals opportunity for pen pals or
chat rooms without it being a full class project.

Teaching with the Internet: Patricia Pecoy has a wonderful site offering links to
language associations, language learning and technology resources, and much more.
Another great resource is Pat's Teachers' Aides section. Don't miss it.

New Tools for Teaching : links include documents on the effectiveness and
possibilities for incorporating the Internet into your instruction; how it works, what it
costs, time involved, etc.

Language Interactive: web forms and CGI Scripts for Language Learning. A useful
guide to writing your own computerized language learning exercises. Includes some
downloadable scripts for those who would prefer to not write their own.

Interactive Exercise Makers: a Mellon grant led to the making of this wonderful FL
resource. You can find templates for all types of web-based learning activities
including cloze exercises, multiple choice, text glossing, matching, drag and drop, and
much more.

Teachers-Pet: a series of macros for Word available for free download that turn your
Word documents into flashcards, gap-fill exercises, multi-choice exercises, and much
more.

Hot Potatoes: University of Victoria Language Centre offers this software solution to
creating interactive web-based teaching materials. Check it out!

Virtual Chase - Information Quality: for instructors and students wanting to cite or
create web pages. This website offers way to evaluate web - based materials.

Community Learning Network: Network Nuggets Languages is a wonderful resource

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of links for teaching languages as well as offering a list serve that will inform you of
the many interesting educational sites they find.

PedagoNet: includes a database of materials for learning and an online request for the
materials you need.

EDSITEment: a growing collection of humanities resources on the web. Updated

regularly so visit often.

Lesson Plans Page: if you are still looking for lesson plans, here is another well
organized site for you search.

Computer Assisted Language Learning: a great insight on using CALL can be found
here in addition to general language learning resources. Nice work Jim!

On-Line Resources and Journals: ELT, Linguistics, and Communication : a fairly

extensive list of publications and Internet resources of interest to language instructors,
particularly ESL/EFL.

FL Teach: foreign language teaching academic list. A great resource of ideas and
academic discussion.

Teaching Resources from Ohio University: links to teaching with technology

resources as well as links by language.

Teach-nology: a fabulous resource for making quick worksheets, rubrics, games, and
viewing materials created by other teachers.

Blue Web'n: learning applications library. This comprehensive and well organized site
is for educators, parents and students alike. Includes a search feature or a clickable
table for lessons, projects, resources and much more in all disciplines!

Kidlink : for those of you teaching 10-15 year old kids this is a wonderful link to
network your students with others around the world. Discussions of how they see the
world and future include topics of ecology, science, art, and anything else they find
important. A wonderful place to explore.

Children's Songs and Nursery Rhymes: Mamalisa presents children's songs and
nursery rhymes from all over the globe presented both in English and their native
languages.

Some even offer a musical tune. Try these to spice up your class.

Links for Teachers: If you haven't found what you are looking for yet, you might try
this site.
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EdHelper: over 200 language learning lessons here among other resources:

ESL Lab: full of listening comprehension activities for use with your students. Neatly
organized by difficulty level. Listen to the audio segment and answer the questions
based on what you hear.

Takako's Great Adventure: a great way to put an authentic voice in our students head
while they are doing reading activities. There are also worksheets to go with each
exciting day of Takako's adventure taking the student from the "what happened" level
to a deeper inference level of comprehension.

Learning English on the Web: online activities are broken down into listening and
speaking, reading with understanding, and grammar and writing. In addition there are
some great links to other ESL/EFL resources.

Useful Resources, Lesson Plans, and Teaching Materials for Teachers : This site is
geared toward ESL but the ideas could be useful for all languages. Here you will find
lesson plans for the web as well as teaching materials, resources, and links to student
projects.

The English Department: lots of reading comprehension exercises based on current

media.

Interactive JavaScript Quizzes for ESL Students: all kinds of self correcting practice
quizzes for grammar, vocabulary, and punctuation.

Online Assessment tests: these tests posted by the Churchill school offer beginner to
advanced online tests.

http://www.teflgames.com/games.html

http://www.handoutsonline.com/

Oxford University Press Teachers’ Club

http://www.oup.com/elt/teachersclub/?cc=gb

There are no questions for this unit. Please continue on to the final

exam.

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