Types of Precipitation Formation Processes

Although moisture is always present in the atmosphere but it is condensed only when
air is cooled and saturated with some water vapors. Usually mechanism by which air is
cooled to cause precipitation is the lifting of air mass.

Based on lifting of air carrying vapors, precipitation is classified as follows:

1. Cyclonic precipitation
2. Convective precipitation
3. Orographic precipitation
1. Cyclonic precipitation
Definition

Cyclone is a type of atmospheric disturbance by mass of air circulating clockwise in

southern and anticlockwise in northern hemispheres.

What causes Cyclonic Type of Precipitation

 Cyclone is also a violently rotating wind storm.
 It is a large whirling mass all converging into a low pressure area, air will flow
horizontally from surrounding area, causing air in the low pressure area to lift.
The precipitation that results is called non-frontal cyclonic precipitation.
 If one air mass passes over another air mass, the precipitation is frontal cyclonic
precipitation.
 The air rushes horizontally into the low pressure area changing into whirling
mass because of rotary motion of the earth about its own axis. This cyclone is
very large mass of air ranging from 800 to 1600km in diameter and moving with a
velocity of 50 km/hr.
 The cyclonic precipitation occurs in the form of drizzle, intermediate rain or
steady rain.
 Precipitation caused by cold front is intense and of short duration.
 Precipitation caused by warm front is more continuous.
2. Convective precipitation:
Definition

It is due to the upward movement of warm air. Generally this type of precipitation occurs
in tropical region, where in hot days, the ground surface is heated unequally, and
causing the warmer air to lift up as the colder air comes to take its place. The vertical air
currents develop tremendous velocities and are dangerous for aircrafts.

 Precipitation occurs in the form of showers of high intensities and short duration،
 In summer most parts of Pakistan gets this type of precipitation.
3. Orographic precipitation:
Definition
This type of precipitation is caused by air masses striling some natural topographic
barriers like mountains. As it cannot move forward it rises up causing condensation and
precipitation.

 The greater amount of

precipitation falls on
the windward side.
 Orographic barriers
tend to increase both
cyclones and
orographic
precipitation because
of the lifting of air.
 Rainfall is composed
of steady rainfall.
 Southern slope of the
Himalayas is a good
example of this kind.
 Similarly, winds
coming from ocean
strike the western
slopes of coastal
ranges causing heavy rains.
 All three types of precipitations occur due to lifting of air.

How Precipitation Occurs

Precipitation takes place when a body of moisture cools sufficiently for it to become
saturated in water droplets and ice crystals, upon condensation. Air may be cooled in a
number of ways i.e. By meeting of air masses of different temperature

Or

By coming into contact with a cold object such as ground (mountains). The most
important mechanism is uplift of air, as air rises, its pressure decreases, it expands and
cools down. Its ability to hold water is reduced to a certain point. The air becomes
saturated and condensation occurs. The formation of cloud does not itself result in
precipitation as there must be a mechanism to provide a source of inflow of water. In
fact some clouds are associated with dry weather or light rain while other clouds are
indication of heavy rainfall.

To form precipitation
There are four conditions that must be present for the production of precipitation

1. Atmosphere must have moisture

2. Must be sufficient nuclei present to aid condensation
3. Weather conditions must be good for condensation of water vapor to take place
4. The product of condensation must reach the earth

Forms of precipitation
Various forms of precipitation are as follows:

1. Drizzle:
2. Rain
3. Glaze
4. Rime
5. Snow
6. Snowflakes
7. Hail
8. Sleet

Drizzle:

It consists of tiny liquid water drops between 0.1 and 0.5mm diameter. It is also called
mist. Drizzle fall from low strata’s and rarely exceeds 1mm/hr. Drizzle is normally
produced by low strati-form clouds and stratocumulus clouds. Due to small size, drizzle
evaporates before reaching the earth.
Rain:

Consists of liquid drops mostly > 0.5 in diameter. Rain is reported in three intensities.

 Light: for rates of fall up to 2.5mm/hr

 Moderate: From 2.5 to 7.5 mm/hr
 Heavy: Over 7.5 mm/hr
Glaze:

It is ice coating formed on exposed surface by freezing of super cooled water deposits
by rain or drizzle. Its specific gravity is as high as 0.8 to 0.9.

When rain or drizzle comes in contact with cold ground at around 0° C, the water drops
freeze to form an ice coasting called glaze.

Rime:

It is white opaque deposit of ice granular mass or less separated by trapped air and
formed by rapid freezing of super cooled water drops. Its specific gravity may be as low
as 0.2 to 0.3.

Snow:

It is composed of ice crystals formed by the process of sublimation. The average

specific gravity of snow is 0.1. The density of freshly fallen snow varies greatly - ranges
from 0.06 to 0.15 gm/ cm3 (average density 0.1 gm/cm3).

185 to 500mm of snow is generally required to equal 25mm of liquid water.

Snowflakes:

Bigger particles of snow formed by combination of snow crystals in atmosphere and fall
as heavy masses. They may reach several centimeters in dia.
Hail:

Precipitation in the form of ball of ice produced in convective clouds.

Hailstones may be spherical, conical or irregular in shape and from 5 to 125mm in dia.
They are composed of alternative layers of glaze and Rime. Their specific gravity may
reach 0.8. The largest hailstone in US fell of size 44cm circumference and 776g weight.

Sleet:

Consists of transparent globular solid grain of ice formed by freezing of raindrops or

freezing of largely melted ice crystals fully through a layer of sub-freezed air, near the
earth surface. These are simply frozen raindrops.  As it falls toward the ground, it
goes through a layer of warmer air somewhere between the cloud and the ground.  If
that layer is thick & warm enough, the snowflake melts and becomes a rain drop. That
liquid rain drop falls back into colder air (temperature below 0° C or 32° F), and
refreezes into a small, hard ice pellet.

Sleet can accumulate on the ground and look like snow, but you cannot make a sleet-
man like a snowman! If the cold layer of air near the ground is not thick enough, the rain
does not freeze again until it gets to the ground. That is when you have freezing rain!
How to Measure Rainfall / Precipitation
All the forms of precipitation are measure on the basis of vertical depth of water that
would accumulate on a level surface of precipitation remained where it fell. In metric
system precipitation is measure in millimeters and tenths. Any open receptacle with
vertical side can be used as a gauges for measuring rainfall. These refined receptacles
with vertical side can be used as a gauges for measuring rainfall.

Rain gauges for measurement of precipitation are of two types

1. Recording rain gauges

2. Non-Recording rain gauges

1. Non-recording rain gauges:

Non-recording rain gauges are commonly used. They do not record the data and collect
only rain and this collected rain is then measured in a graduated cylinder.

Depth of rain = volume of rain collected in cm3/area of aperture of gauges in cm3

This type of gauges measures precipitation for only a specified period. Any open
receptacle with vertical sides may be used for precipitation measurement but because
of varying wind and splashing effect. The measurements are not compatible unless the
receptacles of same size, shape and exposed in a similar manner. The US national
weather service gauges is type of non recording gauges.

It consists of:

 Collector (receiving 8" 20.3 cm diameter)

 Overflow can
 Cylindrical measuring tube of area of 1/19th of collector
 Measuring scale

Measuring tube is placed in overflow can and with measuring sticks; the depth of rainfall
can be measured. As area of M-Tube is 1/10th of collector, therefore 1" depth of rain in
M-Tube corresponding to 0.1" of rainfall. In case of snow the M-Tube and the collectors
are removed and the snow is collected, melted and poured in M-Tube and measured.

2. Recording gauges:
Are those which automatically record rainfall without any bottle reading. The worker is
not required to record the reading but instead mechanical arrangements are there by
which total rainfall is recorded automatically on graph paper. A graph of total rainfall VS
time which is known as mass curve of rainfall is plotted by the gauges.

Its three types commonly used are:

1. Tipping bucket gauges

2. Weighing type gauges
3. Float recording gauges

1. Tipping bucket gauges:

In TBG the collector is funneled into two

compartment buckets. When one
compartment of bucket is filled with rain
water it becomes over balanced and tips
such that the other compartment takes its
place beneath the funnel.

As the bucket is tipped it automatically

activates an electronic circuit. This type of
gauges is not suitable for measuring snow
(without heating the collector).

2. Weighing type gauges:

It consists of a storage bin, which is weighed

to record the mass. It weighs rain or snow which falls into a bucket, set on a platform
with a spring or lever balance. The increasing weight of the bucket and its contents are
recorded on a chart. The record shows accumulation of precipitation.

3. Float recording gauges:

The rise of float with increasing catch of rainfall is recorded. Some gauges must be
emptied manually while others are emptied automatically using self starting siphons. In
most gauges oil or mercury is the float and is placed in the receiver, but in some cases
the receiver rests on a bath of oil or mercury and the float measures the rise of oil or
mercury displaced by the increasing weight of the receiver as the rainfall catch freezes.
Float may get damaged by rainfall catch freezer. Storage gauges are used in remote
areas where frequent servicing is not possible. Weighing type storage gauges operate
for 1 or 2 months without any servicing required.

Weighing type storage gauges are designed to operate for entire season without
attention. WTSG located in heavy snowfall areas should have collectors to prevent wet
snow from clinging to the inside of walls and clogging the orifice. The orifice should be
above the maximum snow depth expected. Gauges are initially dry and require moisture
for funnel and inside surfaces. During rainfall of 5" to 6"/hr (12.5 to 250 mm/hr) the
bucket of tipping bucket gauges tips every 6 to 7 seconds and takes about 0.3 seconds
to complete the tipping procedure, during which some water is still pouring into already
filled compartments. The recorded ratio is 5% too low.

 Error caused by wind in gauges reading

 When gauges are installed on the ground, it is inclined against the wind and thus
catches less precipitation. Towards the wind it will catch more precipitation.
 Obstruction due to trees, buildings and un-even topography.

Snowfall measurement:

Snowfall is often measured with regular rain gauges. Snowfall is measured by the depth
of snow using snow survey. Such survey is particularly useful in mountains.

Installation of gauges
While installing rain gauges following points should be kept in mind.

1. Flatter ground
2. Avoid steep hill side
3. Avoid sloping down towards prevailing wind
4. Site should not be too closed to building or forested area.
5. All obstruction should be avoided.
6. Interpretation of precipitation

Estimation of Missing Precipitation Data

This situation will arise if data for rain gauges are missing (e.g. due to instrument
failure). Data from surrounding gauges are used to estimate the missing data. Three
approaches are used:

Arithmetic mean:

Use when normal annual precipitation is within 10% of the gauge for which data are
being reconstructed

Where:
Pm = precipitation at the missing location
Pi = precipitation at index station I
N = number of rain gauges
The Normal ratio method:

Normal ratio method (NRM) is used when the normal annual precipitation at any of the
index station differs from that of the interpolation station by more than 10%. In this
method, the precipitation amounts at the index stations are weighted by the ratios of
their normal annual precipitation data in a relationship of the form:

Where:

Pm = precipitation at the missing location

Pi = precipitation at index station
Nm = average annual rain at ‘missing data’ gauge
Ni = average annual rain at gauge
N = number of rain gauges

Reciprocal Inverse Weighting Factor Approach

Procedure:
 Divide area around gauge of interest into four quadrants
 Using records at nearest station in each quadrant
 Compute missing precipitation amount:

Where:
Pi = rainfall recorded by gauge i
Xi = distance from gauge i to missing data point
Consistency of Precipitation Data

A double-mass curve is used to check the consistency of a rain gauge record:

 compute cumulative rainfall amounts

for suspect gauge and check gauges
 plot cumulative rainfall amounts
against each other (divergence from
a straight line indicates error)
 multiplying erroneous data after
change by a correction factor k where

Precipitation Analysis

 Areal precipitation estimation

 Depth-area analysis
 Precipitation frequency
 Intensity-duration analysis
 Intensity-duration- frequency analysis

Areal Precipitation Estimation


1. Arithmetic mean method
2. Thiessen method
3. Isohyetal method
Arithmetic mean method

Theissen Method

 Divide the region

(area A) into sub-
regions centred about
each rain gauge;
 Determine the area of
each sub-region (Ai)
and compute sub-
region weightings (Wi)
using: Wi = Ai/A
 Compute total aerial
rainfall using

Isohyetal Method
Potentially most accurate
approach, but subjective

 Plot gauge locations

on a map;
 Subjectively interpolate between rain amounts between gauges at a selected
interval;
 Connect points of equal rain depth to produce lines of equal rainfall amounts
(isohyets);
 Compute aerial rain using:

Infiltration Indexes
1. Infiltration index is the average rate of loss such that the volume of rainfall in
excess of that rate will be equal to direct runoff.
2. Estimates of runoff volume from large areas, having heterogeneous infiltration
and rainfall characteristics, are made by use of infiltration indexes.
3. Infiltration indexes assume that infiltration rate is constant throughout the storm
duration. This assumption tends to underestimate the higher initial rate of
infiltration while overestimating the lower final rate.
4. Infiltration indexes are best suited for applications involving either long-duration
storms or a catchment with high initial moisture content. Under such conditions,
 the neglect of the variation of infiltration rate with time generally justified on
practical grounds.
5. Two types of indexes: Phi-index and W-index are used.

Hydrologic Soil groups

All soils are classified into four hydrologic soil groups of distinct runoff-producing
properties. These groups are labeled A, B, C and D. Following is the brief of  their runoff
and infiltration properties:

A Lowest runoff potential (Greater than0.03 in/hr)

B Moderately low runoff potential (0.15 – 0.30 in/hr)
C Moderately high runoff potential (0.05 – 0.15 in/hr)
D Highest runoff potential (0 – 0.05 in/hr)

Land use and Treatment

1. The effect of the surface conditions of a watershed is evaluated by means
of land use and treatment classes.
2. Land use belongs to watershed cover, including every kind of vegetation, litter
and mulch, fallow  (bare soil), as well as nonagricultural uses such as water
surfaces (lakes, swamps), impervious surfaces (roads, roof, and the like), and
urban areas .
3. Land treatment applies mainly to agricultural land uses, and it includes
mechanical practices such as contouring or terracing and management practices
such as grazing control and crop rotation.
4. A class of land use/treatment is a combination often found in a literature.

Ground surface (Hydrologic) condition

Hydrologic condition is based on combination of factors that affect infiltration and runoff,
including:

1. Density and canopy of vegetative areas,

2. Amount of year-round cover,
3. Amount of grass or close-seed legumes in rotations,
4. Percent of residue cover on the land surface 
5. Degree of roughness

Poor: Factors impair infiltration and tend to increase runoff

Good: Factors encourage average and better than average infiltration and tend to
decrease runoff
Estimation and Analysis of Missing
Precipitation Data
 Estimation of Missing Precipitation Data
 Consistency of Precipitation Data or Double Mass Index

Methods for Estimation of Missing Rainfall Data

 Some precipitation stations may have short breaks in the records because of
absence of the observer or because of instrumental failures. It is often necessary
to estimate this missing record.
 In the procedure used by the U.S. Weather Bureau, the missing precipitation of a
station is estimated from the observations of precipitation at some other stations
as close to and as evenly spaced around the station with the missing record as
possible.
 The station whose data is missing is called interpolation station and gauging
stations whose data are used to calculate the missing station data are called
index stations.

There are two methods for estimation of missing data.

1. Arithmetic Mean Method

2. Normal Ratio Method

1. Simple Arithmetic Mean Method

According to the arithmetic mean method the missing precipitation 'Px' is given as:

Where 'n' is the number of nearby stations, 'Pi' is precipitation at ith station and 'Px' is
missing precipitation.

In case of three stations 1, 2 and 3,

Px = (P1 + P2 + P3)/3

Naming stations as A, B and C instead of 1, 2 and 3

Px = (Pa + Pb + Pc)/3

Where Pa , Pb and Pc are defined above.

2. Normal Ratio Method

According to the normal ratio method the missing precipitation is given as:

Where Px is the missing precipitation for any storm at the interpolation station 'x', Pi is
the precipitation for the same period for the same storm at the "ith" station of a group of
index stations, Nx the normal annual precipitation value for the 'x' station and Ni the
normal annual precipitation value for 'ith' station.

For example, for the symbols defined above for three index stations in a catchment

area. 

If the normal annual precipitation of the index stations lies within ±10% of normal annual
precipitation of interpolation station then we apply arithmetic mean method to determine
the missing precipitation record otherwise the normal ratio method is used for this
purpose.

Consider that record is missing from a station 'X'.

Now let

N = Normal annual precipitation. (Mean of 30 years of annual precipitation data)

P = Storm Precipitation.

Let Px be the missing precipitation for station 'X' and Nx , the normal annual
precipitation of this station, Na, Nb and Nc are normal annual precipitations of nearby
three stations, A, B and C respectively while Pa, Pb and Pc are the storm precipitation
of that period for these stations.
Px = (Pa + Pb + Pc)/3

Where Pa , Pb and Pc are defined above.

2. Normal Ratio Method

According to the normal ratio method the missing precipitation is given as:

Where Px is the missing precipitation for any storm at the interpolation station 'x', Pi is
the precipitation for the same period for the same storm at the "ith" station of a group of
index stations, Nx the normal annual precipitation value for the 'x' station and Ni the
normal annual precipitation value for 'ith' station.

For example, for the symbols defined above for three index stations in a catchment

area. 

If the normal annual precipitation of the index stations lies within ±10% of normal annual
precipitation of interpolation station then we apply arithmetic mean method to determine
the missing precipitation record otherwise the normal ratio method is used for this
purpose.

Consider that record is missing from a station 'X'.

Now let

N = Normal annual precipitation. (Mean of 30 years of annual precipitation data)

P = Storm Precipitation.

Let Px be the missing precipitation for station 'X' and Nx , the normal annual
precipitation of this station, Na, Nb and Nc are normal annual precipitations of nearby
three stations, A, B and C respectively while Pa, Pb and Pc are the storm precipitation
of that period for these stations.

Now we have to compare Nx with Na , Nb and Nc separately. If difference of Nx - Na,

Nx - Nb, Nx - Nc is within 10% of Nx then we use simple arithmetic mean method
otherwise the normal ratio method is used.
Example
Find out the missing storm precipitation of station 'C' given in the following table:

Station A B C D E
Storm precipitation (cm) 9.7 8.3 ---- 11.7 8.0
Normal Annual precipitation (cm) 100.3 109.5 93.5 125.7 117.5

Solution
In this example the storm precipitation and normal annual precipitations at stations A, B, D and
E are given and missing precipitation at station 'C' is to be calculated whose normal annual
precipitation is known. We will determine first that whether arithmetic mean or normal ratio
method is to be applied.

10% of Nc = 93.5 x 10/100 = 9.35

After the addition of 10% of Nc in Nc, we get 93.5 + 9.35 = 102.85

And by subtracting 10% we get a value of 84.15

So Na, Nb, Nd or Ne values are to be checked for the range 102.85 to 84.15.

If any value of Na, Nb, Nd or Ne lies beyond this range, then normal ratio method would be
used. It is clear from data in table above that Nb, Nd and Ne values are out of this range so the
normal ratio method is applicable here, according to which

Pc = (1/4)(93.5 x 9.7/100.3 + 93.5 x 8.3/109.5 + 93.5 x 11.7/125.7 + 93.5 x 8.0/117.5) = 7.8 cm

Example
Precipitation station "X" was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm occurred. The
storm totals at three surrounding stations A, B and C were respectively 10.7, 8.9 and 12.2 cm.
The normal annual precipitation amounts at stations X, A, B and C are respectively 97.8, 112,
93.5 and 119.9 cm. Estimate the storm precipitation for station 'X'.
Solution
Pa = 10.7 cm Na = 112 cm

Pb = 8.90 cm Nb = 93.5 cm

Pc = 12.2 cm Nc = 119.9 cm

Px = ? Nx = 97.8 cm

10% of Nx = 97.8 x 10/100 = 9.78 cm.

Nx - Na = 97.8 - 112 = -14.2 cm Þ More than + 10% of Nx (no need of calculating Nx - Nb and
Nx - Nc

Px = (1/3)( 97.8x 10.7/112+ 97.8x 8.90 /93.5 + 97.8x 12.2 /119.9)

Px = 9.5 cm

Estimation of Missing Precipitation Data

This situation will arise if data for rain gauges are missing (e.g. due to instrument failure). Data
from surrounding gauges are used to estimate the missing data. Three approaches are used:

Arithmetic mean:

Use when normal annual precipitation is within 10% of the gauge for which data are being
reconstructed

Where:
Pm = precipitation at the missing location
Pi = precipitation at index station I
N =  number of rain gauges

The Normal ratio method:

Normal ratio method (NRM) is used when the normal annual precipitation at any of the index
station differs from that of the interpolation station by more than 10%. In this method, the
precipitation amounts at the index stations are weighted by the ratios of their normal annual
precipitation data in a relationship of the form:

Where:

Pm = precipitation at the missing location

Pi = precipitation at index station
Nm = average annual rain at ‘missing data’ gauge
Ni = average annual rain at gauge
N = number of rain gauges

Reciprocal Inverse Weighting Factor Approach

Procedure:
 Divide area around gauge of interest into four quadrants
 Using records at nearest station in each quadrant
 Compute missing precipitation amount:

Where:
Pi = rainfall recorded by gauge i
Xi = distance from gauge i to missing data point

Consistency of Precipitation Data

A double-mass curve is used to check the consistency of a rain gauge record:

 compute cumulative rainfall amounts

for suspect gauge and check gauges
 plot cumulative rainfall amounts
against each other (divergence
from a straight line indicates
error)
 multiplying erroneous data after
change by a correction
factor k where

Precipitation Analysis
 Areal precipitation estimation
 Depth-area analysis
 Precipitation frequency
 Intensity-duration analysis
 Intensity-duration- frequency analysis

Areal Precipitation Estimation

1. Arithmetic mean method
2. Thiessen method
3. Isohyetal method
Arithmetic mean method

Theissen Method

 Divide the region (area A) into sub-

regions centred about each rain
gauge;
 Determine the area of each sub-region
(Ai) and compute sub-region
weightings (Wi) using: Wi = Ai/A
 Compute total aerial rainfall using

Isohyetal Method

Potentially most accurate approach, but

subjective

 Plot gauge locations on a map;

 Subjectively interpolate between rain amounts between gauges at a selected
interval;
 Connect points of equal rain depth to produce lines of equal rainfall amounts
(isohyets);
 Compute aerial rain using:

Infiltration Indexes
1. Infiltration index is the average rate of loss such that the volume of rainfall in
excess of that rate will be equal to direct runoff.
2. Estimates of runoff volume from large areas, having heterogeneous infiltration
and rainfall characteristics, are made by use of infiltration indexes.
3. Infiltration indexes assume that infiltration rate is constant throughout the storm
duration. This assumption tends to underestimate the higher initial rate of
infiltration while overestimating the lower final rate.
4. Infiltration indexes are best suited for applications involving either long-duration
storms or a catchment with high initial moisture content. Under such conditions,
the neglect of the variation of infiltration rate with time generally justified on
practical grounds.
5. Two types of indexes: Phi-index and W-index are used.
 Hydrologic Soil groups
All soils are classified into four hydrologic soil groups of distinct runoff-producing
properties. These groups are labeled A, B, C and D. Following is the brief of  their runoff
and infiltration properties:

A Lowest runoff potential (Greater than0.03 in/hr)

B Moderately low runoff potential (0.15 – 0.30 in/hr)
C Moderately high runoff potential (0.05 – 0.15 in/hr)
D Highest runoff potential (0 – 0.05 in/hr)

Land use and Treatment

1. The effect of the surface conditions of a watershed is evaluated by means
of land use and treatment classes.
2. Land use belongs to watershed cover, including every kind of vegetation, litter
and mulch, fallow  (bare soil), as well as nonagricultural uses such as water
surfaces (lakes, swamps), impervious surfaces (roads, roof, and the like), and
urban areas.
3. Land treatment applies mainly to agricultural land uses, and it includes
mechanical practices such as contouring or terracing and management practices
such as grazing control and crop rotation.
4. A class of land use/treatment is a combination often found in a literature.

Ground surface (Hydrologic) condition

Hydrologic condition is based on combination of factors that affect infiltration and runoff,
including:

1. Density and canopy of vegetative areas,

2. Amount of year-round cover,
3. Amount of grass or close-seed legumes in rotations,
4. Percent of residue cover on the land surface 
5. Degree of roughness

Poor: Factors impair infiltration and tend to increase runoff

Good: Factors encourage average and better than average infiltration and tend to
decrease runoff