Research in Applied Linguistics.

Hand out 4:
Selene Jiménez Segura. Types of Research.

The type of research you choose will highly depend on your research question, and on the kind of
data you collect to answer it. For example, if you were interested in learning how students’ identities
are constructed in an intercultural classroom, you would probably focus on a qualitative, exploratory
kind of research since most of your data might come from interviews and ethnographic observation.
In general, the different types of research relate to the data (how it is collected and processed) and the
general aim of your inquiry.

1. According to your research aim:

a) Exploratory/Explanatory.
b) Basic/Applied.
c) Inductive/Deductive.
Types of research.
2. According to how data is collected and treated:
a) Primary/secondary.
b) Descriptive/Experimental.
c) Quantitative/Qualitative/Mixed.

Also, it is important for you to consider the who, where, and when of your data collection (sampling,
timescale and location):
a) Probability sampling/ Non-probability sampling.
b) Cross-sectional/Longitudinal.
c) Documentary/Field or laboratory work.
d) Fixed/Flexible.

Types of research:
1. According to your research aim.

a) Exploratory:
- It aims to explore the phenomenon you are interested in.
- Focuses in an under-researched issue, i.e. the phenomenon you are interested in
is not fully studied.
- It is not looking to draw conclusive evidence nor a conclusive answer to the
research question.
- It is a “bottom up” kind of research.

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 Hand out 4:
Types of Research.

Explanatory:
- It aims to recognize the cause-effect relationships in the phenomenon of your
interest.
- It is mostly concerned with variables.
- The phenomenon or problem it tackles is already well-defined.

b) Basic:
- It aims to create knowledge (and theories) about the phenomenon of interest.
- It is not concern with applying what it is found.

Applied:
- It aims to solve a specific problem by developing techniques, products or
procedures.
- It has a more practical objective.

c) Inductive:
- It aims to develop a theory.
- It moves from specific observations to broad generalizations: Research Theory.
- It is common to conduct an inductive kind of research when there is non or not
much literature on the subject.
- Stages of an inductive research approach:
o Observation.
o Recognizing patterns.
o Developing a theory.
Deductive:
- It aims to test an existing theory.
- It moves from broad generalizations to specific observations: Theory Research.
- Stages of a deductive research approach:
o Beginning with an existing theory.
o Formulate a hypothesis.
o Data collection to test hypothesis.
o Rejection or support of the hypothesis.
Note: It is possible for a research to combine both inductive and deductive approaches
(mainly when it is a long term, large research project).

2. According to how data is collected and treated.

a) Primary:
- Data is collected directly by the researcher so it provides first-hand evidence.

Secondary:
- Data analyzed was not collected directly by the researcher, but has already been
gathered by someone else. It provides second-hand information.

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 Hand out 4:
Types of Research.

b) Descriptive:
- Data is gathered without controlling the variables involved. Variables are only
observed and measured.
- It is aimed to only describe the phenomenon of interest.
- It can answer questions about what, when, where and how something happens,
but not why it happens.
- It helps identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, correlations1 and categories.

Experimental:
- Since it aims to determine cause-effect relationships, data collected is taken by
controlling variables.
- Data is collected through experiments.

c) Quantitative:
- It aims to test theories and hypotheses.
- It is used when trying to confirm or test a theory or hypothesis.
- It focuses on measuring, so data is analyzed through math and statistics.
- It expresses through numbers and graphs.
- It involves a larger sample size.

Qualitative:
- It aims to explore ideas, and to develop theories or hypotheses.
- It is used when trying to understand something.
- Data is analyzed through interpreting, summarizing and categorizing.
- It expresses through words.
- It involves a smaller sample size.

Mixed:
- For some researches it is possible to have a combination of both qualitative-
quantitative or quantitative-qualitative approaches.
Note: It is important to understand qualitative and quantitative approaches as a
continuum, not as a dichotomy.

3. According to the sampling (i.e. How will you select the participants of your research?),
timescale (i.e. When and how often will you collect data from your subjects?) and location
(i.e. Where will the research take place?) for the data collection.

a) Probability sampling:
- Findings can be generalized to a broader population.
- It involves a random selection of participants.
- It allows you to make statistical inferences about the group.

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Correlation is not the same as cause-effect relationships.

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 Hand out 4:
Types of Research.

Non-probability sampling:
- Findings concern only the specific subjects of the research.
- It involves a non-random selection of participants following previously
stablished criteria.
- It does not aim to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to understand a
small population.
Note 1: Your sample must be representative.
Note 2: You must carefully and clearly explain how you selected your sample in both
your research project and your dissertation.
Note 3: Population is not the same as sample.
o Population: “[…] the entire group you want to draw conclusion about.”
o Sample: “[…] the specific group of individuals that you will collect data
from.”

b) Cross-sectional:
- Data is collected at a single moment in time.

Longitudinal:
- Data is collected at several points in time.
- It helps you track changes over time.

c) Documentary:
- It focuses on the study and analysis of written documents; they can be
contemporary or old.
- Data comes from written documents.

Field or laboratory work:

- Field work: Data is collected in a natural setting.
- Laboratory work: Data is collected in a controlled and constructed setting.

d) Fixed:
- Subjects, timescale and location are set before the data collection begins.

Flexible:
- Subjects, timescale and location develop through the data collection process.

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 Hand out 4:
Types of Research.

TWO MAIN RESEARCH TRADITIONS/PARADIGMS

(Nunan and Bailey, 2009 apud. Avineri, 2017)

PSYCHOMETRIC NATURALISTIC
Aim: Aim:
“[…] to test the influence of different “[…] to obtain insights into the complex-
variables on one another.” (Avineri, 2017:6) ities [of a social or natural phenomenon]
through uncontrolled observation and
description.” (Avineri, 2017:7)

+
THREE ASPECTS OF RESEARCH
(Grotjhan, 1987 apud. Avineri, 2017)

THE DESIGN. THE DATA COLLECTED. THE TYPE OF ANALYSIS.

Experimental. Quantitative. Statistical.
Quasi-experimental. <
Qualitative. Interpretive.
Nonexperimental.

Psychometric. Mixed. Naturalistic.

Experimental design. Nonexperimental design.
Quantitative data. Qualitative data.
Statistical analysis. Interpretive analysis.
QUANTITATIVE APPROACH QUALITATIVE APPROACH
TO RESEARCH. TO RESEARCH.

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 Brown’s (2004) twelve features of different research approaches (Apud. Avineri, 2017):
1. Data type (qualitative/quantitative).
2. Data collection methods (non-experimental/experimental).
3. Data analysis methods (interpretive/statistical).
4. Intrusiveness (non-intervention/high intervention).
5. Selectivity (non-selective/highly selective).
6. Variable description (variable definition/variable operationalization).
7. Theory generation (hypothesis forming/hypothesis testing).
8. Reasoning (inductive/deductive).
9. Context (natural/controlled).
10. Time orientation (longitudinal/cross-sectional).
11. Participants (small sample size/large sample size).
12. Perspective (emic/etic).
• Emic: In ethnographic observation, it means the researcher takes an insider’s
perspective of the phenomenon. It implies issues about objectivity and subjectivity.
• Etic: In ethnographic observation, it means the researcher takes an outsider’s
perspective of the phenomenon.

Sources:
AVINERI, Netta (2017) Research Methods for Language Teaching. London, U.K: McMillan
Education.
SÁENZ, Dolores (2014) Investigación académica con apoyo en tecnologías de información. [Versión
Kindle]. Monterrey, México: Instituto Tecnológico de Monterrey.
“Types of research” (Web resource). Retrieved from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/types-
of-research/