See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/223842857

A method of formulating energy load profile for domestic buildings in the UK

Article  in  Energy and Buildings · June 2005

DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2004.09.007

CITATIONS READS

339 1,922

2 authors:

Runming Yao Koen Steemers

University of Reading University of Cambridge
119 PUBLICATIONS   2,258 CITATIONS    101 PUBLICATIONS   4,359 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Tranquillity by design: rethinking urban planning and architecture near airports to reduce the exposure to aircraft noise View project

Vertical greening in urban environments View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Runming Yao on 03 August 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 663–671
www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

A method of formulating energy load profile for

domestic buildings in the UK
Runming Yao*, Koen Steemers
The Martin Centre for Architectural and Urban Studies, Department of Architecture, University of Cambridge,
6 Chaucer Road, Cambridge CB2 2EB, UK
Received 20 July 2004; received in revised form 22 September 2004; accepted 24 September 2004

Abstract

There are varieties of physical and behavioral factors to determine energy demand load profile. The attainment of the optimum mix of
measures and renewable energy system deployment requires a simple method suitable for using at the early design stage. A simple method of
formulating load profile (SMLP) for UK domestic buildings has been presented in this paper. Domestic space heating load profile for different
types of houses have been produced using thermal dynamic model which has been developed using thermal resistant network method. The
daily breakdown energy demand load profile of appliance, domestic hot water and space heating can be predicted using this method. The
method can produce daily load profile from individual house to urban community. It is suitable to be used at Renewable energy system
strategic design stage.
# 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Domestic building; Load profiles; Energy-consumption; Appliance; Renewable energy (RE)

1. Introduction demand and supply becomes crucial. Therefore at RE

system strategic design stage, a very important element is to
In the UK, the non-domestic building sector contributes determine energy demands based on the consumption
19% and the domestic sector 27% to total UK CO2 patterns of individuals. The other important issue in sizing
emissions, hence buildings are critically important to the UK renewable energy system is the load profile. The varieties of
national response to climate change [1,2]. Britain will aim factors will determine the energy demand. The attainment of
for a 60% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050 as the optimum mix of measures and renewable system
part of efforts to curb global warming, according to deployment requires a simple method suitable for use at the
government energy white paper [3]. Renewable energy early design stage.
(RE) is expected to play an important role in meeting the The aim of this study is to develop a simple method of
target of 60% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by predicting households daily energy-consumption profile for
2050. Considerable effort is being directed to the deploy- planning and strategic design of RE system for residential
ment of RE technologies in an attempt to mitigate buildings in the UK.
greenhouse gas emissions. The diversity of load demands
at macro scale are such that there will always be an
intermittent demand ideally matched to the power available 2. Methodology
from the RE systems. At the macro scale, the power ratings
of the installed RE systems are substantially greater fraction In order to match load shape to the RE power generated
of the demand. In this case, the optimum match between by local RE system, it is essential to identify the pattern of
energy uses of a house and to predict domestic load profile.
* Corresponding author. Fax: +44 1223 331701. In 2000, 56% of UK domestic energy-consumption was used
E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Yao). for space heating, 24% for domestic hot water, 20% for

0378-7788/$ – see front matter # 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2004.09.007
664 R. Yao, K. Steemers / Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 663–671

building deign, and its space-heating system are the

Nomenclature results of relatively ‘fixed’ decisions. The use of heating/
cooling energy for thermal comfort also related to the
A daily appliance energy-consumption per occupancy pattern and household income level. For
capita (kWh/day) example, most people will set internal comfort
Afloor floor area of the house (m2) temperature low when the house is in unoccupied
C thermal capacity (W/8C) period and during the night. People preferring warm
Cp specific heat capacity of water = 4.187 (kJ/ environment may set higher comfort temperature while
kg K) the others may set lower.
Eff luminance efficacy in workplane (Lum/W) From the description of above two types of energy
Ea daily delivered appliance energy-consump- load, we can see that both behavioral determinants and
tion of household physical determinants related energy-consumption are
Ehw daily domestic hot water load (kWh/day) more or less influenced by people’s occupancy pattern.
El daily electric lighting energy-consumption
(kWh/day) 2.1. Composition of household
H daily hours of lighting on during (Hour/day)
Imean average luminance level (lx) Between 1971 and 1991, there was a decline in the
Np number of the occupants (unit) average size of household in Great Britain, from 2.91
Nr number of rooms in the house (unit) persons to 2.48. It continued to decline though at a slower
Tin water temperature inlet the tank (8C) rate throughout the next decade, falling to 2.32 by 1998.
Tout water temperature outlet the tank (8C) Since then it has remained fairly-constant. In 2002, the
V daily volume of hot water consumed for each average number of persons per household was 2.31. Since
component (m3/day) 1971 there have also been changes in the composition of
households. In particular, these have included an increase in
Greek letters the proportion of one-person households, and of households
r density of water = 1000 (Kg/m3) (kWh/day) headed by a lone parent. Between 1971 and 1998, the overall
Kheat/cool auxiliary heating/cooling (W) proportion of one-person households almost doubled from
Kcond conductive heat transfer (W) 17 to 31%, and the proportion of households consisting of
Kvent solar gain (W) one-person aged 16–59 tripled from 5 to 15%. Over the last
Ksp internal space gain (W) five years, there have been no statistically significant
changes in the overall proportion of adults living in one-
lighting and appliance [1]. The use pattern varies depending person households, and among people aged 65 and over the
on the different factors, such as climate, household proportion living alone has remained relatively stable since
composition, family income, culture background, and the mid-1980s [5,6]. Table 1 lists the UK composition of
human factor, etc. In order to produce domestic load profile households in 2002 [5].
with taking into account various factors, a cluster analysis
method has been applied. The energy demand can be 2.2. Occupancy pattern of household
categorized into two types of determinants:
An energy-consumption labeling scheme was introduced
(1) Behavioral determinants: This type of energy-consumed for refrigeration appliances in 1995 by the European
has non-related/little-related to climate but strongly Community, but the comprehensive list of energy perfor-
related to households human factor. It has a high co- mance data for all major domestic appliances is not
relation to people’s habits and may slightly influenced published. Discrepancies exist in the published data
by season, for example, cooker, microwave oven, concerning ownership levels and there is little information
washing machine, fridge-freezer, kettle, television, on usage patterns for domestic appliances. The utilization of
dishwasher, etc. The relationship between electricity the appliances (e.g. factors influencing the frequency of use)
used in households and the behavior of end uses have needs to be considered in their culture contexts. Usage
been discussed widely [4]. Behavioral determinants,
such as the frequency of use per appliance, involve Table 1
relatively ‘flexible’ decisions, which are made on an Composition of households in the UK 2002
hourly/daily/weekly time scale [4]. Number of persons 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more
(2) Physical determinants: This type of energy-consumed, in the household
for example, heating/cooling and lighting energy, has Proportion of 31% 35% 16% 13% 4% 2%
high co-relation to climate and building design, however households with
has low co-relation to people’s habits. The physical the specified number of people
determinants of energy use, such as dwelling’s size, Source: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/.
 R. Yao, K. Steemers / Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 663–671 665

patterns associated with different sections of the population Table 2

and the variations in consumers’ knowledge/attitudes needs Occupancy pattern for a three-person household
to be identified. Possible links between cultural values and Scenarios Type Unoccupied period
energy use should be explored in order to identify feasible 1 Part-time working morning session 1/2 9:00–13:00
means for promoting energy-rational behaviour. The usage 2 Full-time working 9:00–18:00
3 Part-time working 2/3 9:00–16:00
pattern is related to the occupied period. For example, when
4 No working N/A
people are not at home, most appliances will not be used. In 5 Part-time working afternoon session 1/2 13:00–18:00
daily appliance electricity profile, the occupants use
virtually little power (stand by and fridge-freezer) during
the night, may wake up and have breakfast, vacate the house
Cooking appliances: electronic ovens, electric hobs,
during the morning and then return around mid-day for kettles, and microwaves, etc.
lunch, in the evening, the meal is cooked, television is
Wet appliances: washing machines, tumble dryers, and
watched, and showers are taken, etc. The different house- dishwashers.
holds has different life styles. The total load profile shape
Miscellaneous appliances: vacuum cleaners, irons, elec-
will of course vary from day to day and house to house. The tric showers, central heating pumps, PCs, etc.
factors influencing the occupancy pattern are as follows:
In 2000, electricity-consumption by brown goods acco-
(1) The number of occupants. unted for 14.3%, cold for 22.2%, wet appliances for 16.5%,
(2) The time of the first person getting up in the morning cooking appliances for 18.8%, lighting for 22.6%, and m-
and the last person going to sleep. iscellaneous appliances for 5.6% [2]. At present, British
(3) The period of the house unoccupied during the day. consumers are poorly informed with respect to the energy-
consumption of domestic appliance. Mansouri carried out
It is important to identify the cluster of households when the research on energy-consumption on UK domestic and
analyze the load profile, because the load profile depends supplied the average daily energy-consumption of each a-
very much on the occupancy pattern. In the case of lack of ppliances [4,7]. Mash has collected some information of
information about household occupancy pattern, we propose domestic household appliance energy-consumption from
five most common scenarios of household occupancy pat- various resources [8].
tern in the UK.
(1) Electric cooker: A survey (carried out in South East

Scenario 1: Unoccupied period is from 09.00 to 13.00. England in 1994) reveal that, on average, an electric hob
One of the occupants in this type of household may have a and oven were used for approximately 60 and 30 min/
part-time job in the morning session. day respectively, corresponding to a predicted annual

Scenario 2: Unoccupied period is from 09.00 to 16.00. electricity-consumption of approximately 670 kWh per
The occupants in the house all have full-time job. household [4,7]. Usage of hobs and ovens varied

Scenario 3: Unoccupied period is from 09.00 to 16.00. between different households, indicating that consump-
The family of this type of household may have a child to tion ranged from 260 to 1800 kWh/year per household.
look after when school closed. Further analysis indicated that the number of persons in

Scenario 4: The house is occupied all the time. The family the household was the clearest indicator of usage for all
of this type of household may have minor child to look appliances including cooking appliance [4]. Cranfield
after or is of retired couples and single. Survey of more than 500 households in Peterborough in

Scenario 5: Unoccupied period is from 13.00 to 18.00. 1997 (Bennet, 1998) indicated similar overall usage
One of the occupants in this type of household may have a patterns for cooking appliances: hobs and ovens being
part time job in the afternoon session. used on average for approximately 58 and 36 min/day
per household [7].
Table 2 lists the scenarios of possible occupied period in (2) Refrigeration appliance: Multiple ownership of refrig-
domestic house in the UK. In the unoccupied period, most eration appliance has become common in the UK.
appliances will not be used. Shopping patterns have been changed during the last
decade, because working patterns have diversified. The
2.3. Energy-consumption of domestic appliance associated reduction in the frequency of food shopping
has encouraged the purchase of refrigeration appliances.
Domestic appliances can be classed as: The households may have separate freezer for storing
the chilled food.

Brown goods: electronic consumer goods—TVs, VCRs, (3) Television sets and video recorders: Ownership level for
etc. black-and -white television sets have decreased, as they

Cold appliances: refrigerators, freezers, and combined have been replaced gradually by colour-television sets.
fridge-freezer. According to Mansouri’s survey, colour-television sets
666 R. Yao, K. Steemers / Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 663–671

were owned by 97% of the respondents. Video recorders Table 3

owned by 75%. The utilization period of television varies Average energy-consumption of appliances in the UK
by household’s lifestyle. According to Mansouri’s survey, Appliance Average annual Average annual Ownership
the average total viewing time per household is 5.17 h for consumption per consumption per level (%)
colour-television and 1.5 h for video recorder [4]. household capita (kWh/day)
(kWh/day)
(4) Wet appliance: The national ownership level of clothes-
washing machine, tumble driers and dish washers is 88, Electric hob 1.33 0.39 37
Electric oven 0.74 0.22 56
49 and 16%, respectively. Mansouri’s survey is 93, 54 Microwave oven 0.23 0.07 74
and 42%, respectively. It is slightly lower than the Refrigerator 0.82 0.33 53
national level due to regional variations. The frequency Fridge-freezer 1.9 0.56 58
of utilization of wet appliances depends on the number Freezer 1.9 0.55 55
of persons in the household. According to Mansouri’s Colour-television set 0.91 0.27 97
Video recorder 0.3 0.09 76
report, the highest average number of wash cycle per Clothes-washing 0.8 0.20 88
week was 8 cycles per household. The greatest tumble machine
dryer usage pattern is 3.4 cycles per week in winter and Tumble-drier 0.78 0.28 49
autumn. The highest average use of dishwasher is 0.95 Dishwasher 1.72 0.48 16
cycles per day [4]. Electric kettle 0.78 0.28 5
Iron 0.3 0.09 100
(5) Artificial lighting: Unlike domestic appliances, artificial Vacuum cleaner 0.15 0.04 100
lighting energy-consumption is highly influenced by Miscellaneous 1.1 0.33 100
season. The following equation can be used to calculate
electric lighting energy-consumption: drinking, washing, laundry, etc. The components of


 domestic hot water are as follows:
Imean Np
E1 ¼  H  Afloor  (1)
Eff Nr

bath/shower: the traditional method of personal hygiene
where El is the daily electric lighting energy-consump- in the UK;
tion (KWh/day); Imean the average luminance level,
wash hand basin: for personal hygiene;
domestic building is 150 lux; H the hours of artificial
dish washing: by hand and machine;
lighting on; Eff the luminance efficacy in workplane
clothes washing: wash machine.
(lum/W); Afloor the house floor area (m2); Np the number
of occupants; Nr the number of rooms in the house. The energy used for domestic hot water depends on many
The electric lighting on/off pattern also depends on factors, such as the required water temperature, the volume
daylight and occupancy pattern. If the internal required requirement per person, and the household size. Individual
lighting level less than the available daylight illumi- households have a wide variation in consumption, though
nance level then artificial lighting will be switched on, household size has been shown to be a factor. Mash adapted
when the room is occupied. In winter, people get up in the results from Hall and Butler and obtained delivered
the morning and need the lights on for the activities but figures of the hot water consumption per person per day [8].
in summer no lighting required due to the daylight. They are listed in Table 4. We use this figures for the cal-
Daily lighting energy-consumption can be calculated culation of DHW energy profile. The daily energy-con-
using the above equation. sumption can be calculated using the following equation:
(6) Others: The other electricity appliances are kettle, iron,
and vacuum cleaner, etc. The usage pattern of this kind Cp rVðTout  Tin Þ
Ehw ¼ (2)
of appliances also depends on the household occupancy 3600
pattern and lifestyle. where Ehw is the domestic hot water load (kWh/day); Cp the
By reviewing the previous statistic work, the informa- specific heat capacity of water (4.187 kJ/kg K); r the density
tion of daily average end use electric appliance energy of water (1000 kg/m3); V the daily volume of hot water
consumption for an average size household, per capita consumed for each component (m3/day); Tout the water
daily energy-consumption and the ownership level are
listed in Table 3. The daily appliance energy-consumption
Table 4
for different sizes of household can be calculated based Domestic hot water consumption in the UK household
on the per capita daily energy-consumption data.
Appliance/use DHW consumption Water
(l/capita day) temperature (8C)
2.4. Energy-consumption of domestic hot water Bath/shower 10.6 40
Wash hand basin 15.8 35
Domestic hot water (DHW) accounts for about 20% of Dish washing 14.9 55
the total primary energy-consumption by housing. It is used Clothes washing 50% 11.7 60
Clothes washing 50% 11.7 10
within a house for a variety of different purposes such as,
 R. Yao, K. Steemers / Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 663–671 667

Table 5
Energy-consumption for domestic hot water of a three-person family
Appliance/use DHW load consumption
(KWh/day)
Bath/shower 1.1
Wash hand basin 1.4
Dish washing 2.3
Clothes washing 50% 2.0
Clothes washing 50% 0

output temperature (8C); Tin the water input temperature

(10 8C) (Table 5).
Fig. 1. Framework of generating specific scenarios profile.
2.5. Method of generating domestic load profile

To model appliance energy-consumption profile for a P2, . . ., Pn: random profile for each appliance; Psi: specific
typical household, we need to get the information of daily profile for each occupancy scenario.
usage of each appliance. That is:
2.5.2. Typical profile

daily energy-consumption for each appliance; Specific profile only represents one of five scenarios of

ownership of each appliance; occupancy pattern, and it could not reflect the general

occupied period. situation of an average household. In order to get a general
shape of load profile, a typical domestic household electric
The calculation of daily energy-consumption of each appliance profile can be generated by aggregating these five
appliance can use the following equation: specific profiles. Fig. 2 is the framework of generating a
X typical household electric appliance load profile.
Ea ¼ N  A (3)
In Fig. 2, Ps1, Ps2, . . ., Ps5: specific profile of each
where Ea is the daily delivered appliances energy-consump- scenario; PT: typical profile for an average household.
tion of household; N the number of occupant; A the appli-
ance energy-consumption per capita. 2.5.3. Urban context profile
The UK statistical data of daily appliance energy- To get a regional/national load profile, information of the
consumption of average household and of per capita are composition of household in the region/nation is essential.
listed in Table 4. The UK national composition of household is listed in Table
1. Fig. 3 illustrates the framework of generating regional/
2.5.1. Specific profile national load profile.
The above section introduced the way of obtaining/ In Fig. 3, Pn1, Pn2, . . ., Pn6: typical profile for different
generating daily average end use energy-consumption of an composition of household, e.g. 1-person, 2-person,. . ., 6-
ordinary household in the UK. To model the daily energy person family profile; N1, N2, . . ., N6: percentage of stated
load profile of appliance, we consider the worse case that number of people in household in the region; PA: regional
means all the appliance are supposed to be used in this day. load profile.
Season influence is not considered for appliances. Random
profile of each appliance for the specific scenario can be
generated using Random Number Generator technique. 3. Heating load
The aggregation of all appliances’ random profiles will
generate a daily electric appliances load profile for a Load profile for space heating depends on the building
stated scenario. This profile is called Specific Profile because thermal characteristics, orientation, internal air temperature
it is relevant to a specific occupancy scenario. For each
scenario, the daily load profile can be different from day
to day and peaky. Computer random operation repeats 20
times for each scenario and the aggregated random profile
appears as a relatively smooth curve throughout the day. Fig.
1 shows the framework of generating specific appliance load
profile.
In Fig. 1, A1, A2, . . ., An: name of appliance; E1, E2, . . .,
En: average daily energy-consumption of each appliance; P1, Fig. 2. Framework of generating typical profile.
668 R. Yao, K. Steemers / Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 663–671

Fig. 3. Framwork of generating regional profile.

control, and local climate, etc. The space heating load has
been simulated using thermal resistant method based on the
energy balance [9,10]. The equations can be illustrated as
follow:
dT
C ¼ Fheat=cool þ Fcond þ Fvent þ Fsolar þ Fsp (4)
dt
C is the thermal capacity of the stated node, Fheat/cool the Fig. 4. Typical appliance load profile of an average size domestic house-
hold.
auxiliary heating/cooling energy of the room, Fcond the
conductive heat transfer through the building envelope (wall
and window); Fvent the ventilation heat transfer through the
building, Fsolar the solar gain, Fsp the internal gain from
electrical lighting, people and appliance. The detail simula-
tion equation was illustrated in the reference paper [9,10].
This model was validated with the popularly used thermal
simulation tool esp-r.
To calculate domestic heating load, four typologies of
houses are selected, which are flat, semi-detached, detached,
and mid-terraced house. In order to take into account
occupant’s habits, control algorithm related to occupancy
pattern has been embedded within the thermal model. For
this case study, we select a floor area of 80 m2, south–north
orientated medium weight dwelling. The control strategy for
this example is that the heating set point is 19 8C, when
occupied and 15 8C when unoccupied and during sleeping
period. Computer simulation has been performed to generate
hourly dynamic load profile. The greatest energy-consump-
tion occurred in January. For each typology of dwelling, Fig. 5. Typical DHW load profile of an average size domestic household.
there are five specific load profiles of five occupancy
scenarios. A typical load profile for one typology of dwelling
can be produced by aggregating the load profile of five
occupancy scenarios. A large scale of load profile for the
urban context can be produced based on the typical profiles
by taking into account the proportion of each typology of
dwelling in the region.

4. Example of UK average household

An example of a typical load profile for UK average size

household has been performed using the method presented
above. The daily energy-consumption load profiles of
electric appliance, DHW and space heating have been
calculated for a winter weekday case.
Fig. 4 shows the modeling results of a UK average
household appliance load profiles. The thin line represents Fig. 6. Temperature and load profiles of semi-detached house.
 R. Yao, K. Steemers / Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 663–671 669

Fig. 9. Co-relation of model method and statistic method.

5. Validation

Fig. 7. Typical heating load profile of a tipical dwelling.

5.1. Thermal model

The space heating load profile was produced using the

thermal model developed at the Martin Centre [9,10]. The
model has been validated by the well-validated simulation
software Esp-r.

5.2. Appliance model

The UK Electricity Associate Load research Team carried

out load profile research and the results are based on the
sample of 1300 customers. We take a 3-person winter
weekday profile to compare with the model method proposed
in this paper. The regional electric load profile of a 100
households in a proposed community has been produced.
There is a good agreement between the load profile using
Fig. 8. Typical daily energy demand profile in January. simple method (SMLP) proposed in this paper and the
statistical profile by UK Electricity Associate Load Research
(see Fig. 9). The correlation coefficient of these two profiles is
0.84. Fig. 10 is the comparison of the two profiles. The grey
specific appliance load profile of each occupancy scenario line is produced by SMLP, and the dark line is provided by UK
and the thick line represents the typical appliance load Electricity Associate [11]. The daily electricity-consumption
profile. from modelled data is about 10 KWh in the winter for an
Fig. 5 shows the modeling results of DHW load profile. average family, and about 13 KWh from a national load
The thin line illustrates the specific DHW load profile of profile. The national profile result is slightly higher than the
each occupancy scenario. The dark line illustrates the typical model data due to the different resources. This is because
DHW load profile of this average size household. national profile data includes a proportion of electricity
Fig. 6 illustrates the daily space heating load profiles in
winter for a semi-detached house. Profile1 to Profile5 are
specific profiles of five occupancy scenarios. The thin line
represents the internal air temperature. The thick line
represents the energy demand. Typical profile represents the
space heating profile of this type of house. Using the same
method, four typical space heating load profiles of four types
of houses have been produced (see Fig. 7). In Fig. 7, the
average profile stands for the regional daily space heating
profile.
Fig. 8 is the breakdown daily energy-consumption in
January for an average size household. This result will be
very useful for the RE system planning and strategic design. Fig. 10. Comparison of load profiles.
670 R. Yao, K. Steemers / Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 663–671

Fig. 11. Interface of the input and output.

heating during the night. However the modelled data is just 7. Conclusion
related to the domestic appliance.
This paper introduced a simple method of prediction of
daily load profile (SMLP). Cluster analysis method has been
6. Interface applied based on the proposed scenarios of occupancy
patterns. The method can be applied at both macro (national,
In order to make the method to be used easily and feasible regional) and micro (individual houses) levels. To calculate
to any users, the computer interface has been developed (see the electric appliance load profile, the required input data are
Fig. 11). This will enable the designers to predict individual daily average end-use energy-consumptions. To calculate
house, community or regional electricity load profile so that domestic hot water profile, the required input data is daily
for the RE system planning and design. average hot water consumption of the household. Therefore
The input data are categorized as: it is important the accuracy of this information. The season
factor will influence the average daily-consumption for each

Location of the community. component. This paper illustrates a method and makes an

Domestic households information, such as the number of example for winter case. The method can extend to other
persons in the family, un-occupied period, activity period, seasons by alert average daily-consumption of related
etc. seasons. A three-person household has been selected as an

Appliance usage information, such as items of the example of the implication of this method. For the heating
appliance, usage hours, and period, etc. load calculation, the thermal resistant method has been used

House information, such as building types, orientation, with integration of occupancy pattern control algorithm. A
size, etc. regional load profile for a 100 households has been
generated and the load trend is very close to the national
The program can provide breakdown domestic energy- statistic data. SMLP method can be used at the RE system
consumption for any specific period. The simulation time early design stage. It can also help the electricity supplier to
serials interval can be set on 1, 5, 15 min, and half-hour predict the likely future development of electricity demand
interval, which depends on the design requirement. in the whole sector of the community.
 R. Yao, K. Steemers / Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 663–671 671

Acknowledgements [4] I. Mansouri, M. Newborough, D. Probert, Energy-consumption in UK

households: impact of domestic electrical appliance, Applied Energy
54 (3) (1996) 211–285.
The work of this paper is originally based on the project [5] http://www.statistics.gov.uk/ National Statistic.
‘Microgrids—Distribution on-site Generation’ funded by the [6] The energy information (Refrigerators and Freezers) regulation 1994,
UK Tyndall Centre. The further development of computer- Statutory Instruments, No. 3076, HMSO, London, 1994.
based version is funded by Cambridge-MIT Institute [7] I. Mansouri, Dynamics of energy use in UK households: end-use
monitoring of electric cookers, Cranfield University, School of
‘Sustainable Building Design’ project. The authors appreciate
Mechanical Engineering, Bedfordshire, UK.
the administrative support from Samantha Lawton and the [8] R. Marsh, Sustainable housing design: an integrated approach, Ph.D.
assistant from visiting Ph.D. student Mr. Qing Luo. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1996.
[9] N. Baker, R. Yao, LT Europe—an integrated energy design tool, in:
Proceedings of the Design with the Environment PLEA 2002 Con-
ference, Toulouse France, pp. 669–673.
References [10] R. Yao, N. Baker, M. McEvoy, A simplified thermal resistance
network model for building thermal simulation, Sim2002, in: Pro-
[1] DTI & National Statistics, Energy-consumption in the UK, 2001. ceedings of the eSim, September 11–13, Montreal, Canada, 2002, pp.
[2] DTI & National Statistics, UK energy in brief, July 2002. 135–140.
[3] DTI Energy White Paper-our energy future creating a low energy [11] Electricity Associate, Load research-domestic Sector, http://www.
economy, 2002. electricity.org.uk.

View publication stats