*Pjtfl

PLES^ •

^X <ee*- .
/f^. /At*
NGLISH GRAMMAR.

>PIOUS EXERGI8ES

PARSING AND SYNTAX.

ED ON THF BASIS OF f. F. Nk I fi's GRAMMAR,

;y joab brace, Jr.

PHILADELPHIA:
\Y PE] 134 CHESTNUT STR]
S & MARVi
Street.

1839.

_
^-3

UNITED STATES OF^-MERICA.

 ADVERTISEMENT.

Key to the Principles of Grammar.

H. Perkins has in press, and will soon publish, A

Key to the Principles of* Grammar. The Key will

contain, among other things, the corrected exercises,

hints on the method of teaching, and remarks on

some of the important points of Grammar.

Let none suppose, however, that the Key is a

second part of the Grammar, and that it will be

necessary for the pupil to possess both. The

Grammar, as such, is complete in itself, and the

Key is intended only for those who may choose to

avail themselves of the corrected exercises, and the

author's method of teaching.

 THE

PRINCIPLES
OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

COPIOUS EXERCISES

PARSING AND SYNTAX.

/^/S^/
ABBANGED ON T X E BASIS, OF LENNIE'S GRAMMAR,

BY JOAB 'BRACE, Jr.

PHILADELPHIA;
HENRY PERKINS, 134 CHESTNUT STREET.
BOSTON PERKINS & MARVIN,
:

114 Washington Street,

1839.
 ^p

Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1839, by

Henry Perkins,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, of the
Eastern District of Pennsylvania.

3 4 4 4
 PREFACE.

The English Grammar is usually one of the first

books that is placed in the hands of the school-boy.

The knowledge of our own language being of primary
importance, it has been supposed that grammar should
hold a place among the earliest studies ; and accord-
ingly, a science founded on nice metaphysical distinc-
tions, and generalizations which can be apprehended
only by a mature mind, has been ranked among the
studies suitable for childhood. As a consequence of
this misapprehension we have two classes of grammars.
By the first class the subject is treated of as a high
branch of philosophy ; by the others it is presented in
a state so diluted and simplified, that whatever else may
be learned from them, English Grammar cannot be.
In this little treatise it has been the object of the au-
thor to present the facts and principles of the language
in such a manner that with a faithful teacher the pupil

may become thoroughly acquainted with the mechanical

part of Grammar, and at the same time gain some in-

sight into its philosophy. He has attempted to do for

English what the Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard
has done for Latin. It is for others to decide on the
prudence and the success of the attempt.
4 PREFACE.

It has been already stated that this Grammar is ar-

ranged on the basis of Lennie's Grammar. In its ge-

neral outline, in the arrangement of the several parts,
and in the manner of presenting each, it does indeed cor-
respond in some degree, with Lennie's Grammar. On
the other hand the alterations and additions are so nu-
merous and so important as to give it no small claim to
the title of an original work.
Lennie's Grammar was published some years since
in Edinburgh. Its author was a teacher of age, of ex-

perience in teaching, and of uncommon professional

tact. We could expect no less than that it would be a
good Grammar. Such indeed it was. It was com-
mended by reviewers, and was somewhat extensively
adopted in the public schools. Every teacher has his
peculiar methods : Lennie had his, and he has incorpo-
rated them into his Grammar. Some of these peculi-
arities are valuable, but aside from these his Grammar
is not essentially different from many others.
In the Grammar which is now presented to the public
the author has ventured, after mature deliberation and
some experience, to differ widely and on very important
points from all other Grammars. Some of these altera-

tions may be barely mentioned here, not for the sake

of defending them, but to direct those who may examine
the work to its peculiarities.

Person, as applied to nouns, has been entirely omitted;

all nouns being considered as of the third person ; and
in the case of address (as ; I, John Adams, President,
&c.) as in apposition with the pronoun.
The Declension of nouns is omitted, and the pupil is
 PREFACE. 5

made to feel that the terms Nominative, Possessive, and

Objective are only names to denote that the noun bears
a certain relation to a verb or to some other word in the
sentence.
The Adjective Pronouns have been classed under
Adjectives. This was long since suggested by Dr.
Webster ; we are not aware, however, that he has been
followed by any other grammarian.
The Verb is perhaps the subject of the most important
alterations. Keeping it in mind that the legitimate ob-
ject of Grammar is to present the principles and usages
of the language as it is, and persuaded that this truth is
the only clue that can conduct us safely out of the la-
byrinth, the author has ventured on the following
changes.
That form of the verb which is usually denominated
the Past or Perfect (Active) Participle, has been removed
to the Passive, and called the Indefinite Passive Parti-
ciple : — Indefinite, because it may be used in reference
to Past, Present, or Future time, and Passive, because
it never admits an object after it.

The Subjunctive Mode has been dropped, and the

forms which are usually classed under it have been
treated of under the head of Conditional Tenses. It

may be said that there is as strong reason for a new ar-

rangement of the Potential as of the Subjunctive Mode.

This the author is ready to acknowledge, and he would
express a hope that by an approval of the present ar-
rangement the public may show themselves prepared
for the full development of the perfect plan.
Numerous other alterations might be specified, less
I*
 6 PREFACE.

extensive indeed than those already mentioned, but by

no means unimportant. It will however be sufficient

to state in general that there are many other variations

from other grammars, and as compared with Lennie's
that there is not a page, (with the exception of a part
of the exercises,) and scarcely an important remark that
has not been more or less changed.
In several of the definitions and in some of the Rules,
the author has adopted, as the best, the phraseology of
Andrews and Stoddard. The Rules of Syntax are ar-
ranged, as nearly as may be, in logical order.
The list of Obsolete words, &c, is chiefly prepared
from the notes of a course of Lectures by Professor
Goodrich.
Whatever may be its merits or its defects, the work *
is now before the public. The author not only expects,
but wishes that it may be closely scanned. If it is

worthy it will pass the ordeal safely, and if it is unwor-

thy the sooner it is condemned the better. Those cri-

ticisms which shall be made in a spirit of fairness and

candor will be kindly received, while those which are
prompted by jealousy, prejudice, or a bigoted adherence
to old systems although erroneous, will be alike forgiven
and forgotten.

1
Philadelphia, October 1, 1839.
 THE

PRINCIPLES

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
English Grammar teaches the principles of the
English language. These principles relate :

1. To its written characters, and the spelling of words.

2. To its pronunciation.
3. To the classification, derivation, and inflection of its words.
4. To the construction of its sentences.

5. To the quantity of its syllables, and its versification.

The first is called Orthography; the second, Orthoepy; the

third, Etymology ; the fourth, Syntax ; and the fifth, Prosody.
Orthography and Orthoepy are learned from dictionaries.

ORTHOGRAPHY.
Orthography treats of the letters and other characters
of a language, and the proper method of spelling words.
A letter is the least part of a Word.
There are twenty-six letters in English.
Letters are either Vowels or Consonants.
A Vowel is a letter, the name of which makes a full open
sound. —The Vowels are a, u, w, y.
e, t, o, The — Consonants are
b, c, d,f, g, h,j, kj /, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z.

A Consonant is a letter that has a sound less distinct than that

of a vowel ; as, /, m, p.
A Diphthong is the union of two vowels ; as, ou in out.
A proper Diphthong is one in which both the Vowels are
sounded ; as, oy in boy.
An improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the two
vowels is sounded ; as, o in boat.

7
 —

8 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
A Triphthong is the union of three vowels ; as, eau in beauty,
A Syllablea part of a word, or as
is much as can be sounded
at once; as, far in far-mer,
A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; as, fox,
A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables ; as Pe-ter,

A Trisyllable is a w ord
T
of three syllables ; as, but-ter-fly,

A Polysyllable is a word of many syllables.

ETYMOLOGY.
Etymology treats of the different kinds of words,
their classification, derivation, and inflection.

There are nine kinds of words ; Articles, Nouns, —

Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions,
Conjunctions, and Interjections ; these are called Parts
of Speech.
ARTICLES.
The words a or an and the are called articles. Jl
isused before a consonant. An is used before a vowel,
or silent h $ as, an age, an hour.
NOUNS.
A Noun is the name of any thing ; as, John, Lon-
don, book.
Nouns have Number, Gender, and Case.
OBSERVATIONS.
A used before the long sound of u, and before w and y as,
is
—
,•

A unit, a euphony, a ewe, a week, a year, such a one. An is used

before words beginning with h sounded, when the accent is on the
second syllable ; as, An heroic action ; an historical account.
A is called the indefinite article, because it does not point out a
particular person, or thing ; as, A garden ; that is, any garden.

The is called the definite article, because it refers to a particular

person, or thing ; as, The garden ; that is, our own garden.
A noun without an article to limit it, is taken in its widest
sense ; as, Man is mortal ; namely, all mankind.
A
is used before nouns in the singular number only. It is used —
before the plural in nouns preceded by such phrases, as, A few, a
great many,- as, a few books ; a great many apples.
 ;

NUMBER. 9

The is used before nouns in both numbers ; and sometimes before

adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree ; as, The more I
study grammar the better I like it.

NUMBER.
Number is the distinction of one from more.

Nouns have two numbers the Singular and the ;

Plural. The singular denotes one, the plural more

than one. j

1. The plural is generally formed by adding s to

the singular ; as, Book, books.
2. Nouns form the plural by
in s, sh, ch, x, or o,
adding es; as, Miss, Misses ; brush, brushes ; match,
matches ; fox, foxes; hero, heroes.
3. Nouns in y change y into ies in the plural as, ;

Lady, ladies: y with a vowel before it, is not

changed into ies ; as, Day, days.
4. Nouns in /, orfe, change/ or fe into ves in the
plural ; as, Loaf, loaves ; life, lives.

OBSERVATIONS.
Nouns ending in ch, sounding k, form the plural by adding s
only ; as, Stomach, stomachs.
Nouns in ss also form the plural by adding es ; as, Glass,

Nouns in io with the words junto, canto, tyro, grotto, portico,

solo, and quarto, have s only in the plural; as, Folio, folios
canto, cantos.
Nouns in ff, have their plural in s ; as, Muff, muffs ; except
staff, which has staves.

Dwarf, scarf; brief, chief, grief, kerchief, handkerchief mis-

chief; gulf turf, surf; fife, strife ; proof, hoof, roof, and reproof
never change f ox fe, into ves.
Nouns are either proper or common. — Proper nouns are the
names of persons, places, seas, and rivers, &c. ; as, Thomas, Scot'
land, Boston.*

* Proper nouns have the plural only when they refer to a race or family;
as,The Campbells ; or to several persons of the same name ; as, The eight
Henrys; the two Mr. Bells; the two Miss Browns', (or without the nit-
10 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
Common nouns are the names of things in general ; as, Chair,
table.

Collective nouns are nouns that signify many : as, Multitude,

crowd.
Abstract nouns are the names of qualities abstracted from their
substances ; as, Wisdom, wickedness.
Verbal or participial nouns are nouns derived from verbs ; as,
Reading.
EXERCISES ON NUMBER.
Write, or tell, or spell, the Plural of
Fox,* book, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, kiss, coach,
leaf,
inch, sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, wife, story,
church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, street, potato, peach, sheaf,
booby, rock, stone, house, glory, hope, flower, city, difficulty, dis-
tress.

Day, boy, relay, chimney ,f journey, valley, needles, enemy, an

army, a vale, an ant, a sheep, the hills, a valley, the sea, key, toy.

Correct the following errors.

A end, a army, an heart, an horn, an bed, a hour, a adder, a
honor, an horse, an house, an pen, a ox, vallies, chiranies, jour-
nies, attornies, a eel, a ant, a inch, a eye.

Exercises on the Observations.

Monarch, tyro, nuncio, punctilio, ruff, muff, reproof,
grotto,
fife, multitude, people, meeting,
portico, handkerchief, gulf, hoof,
John, Lucy, meekness, charity, folly, France, Matthew, James,
wisdom, reading.
meral) the Miss Roys ; but. in addressing letters in which both or all are
equally concerned, and also when the names are different, we pluralize
the title, (Mr. or Miss) and write Misses Brown ; Misses Roy ; Messrs. (for
Messieurs, Fr.) Guthrie and Tait.
* What is the plural of fox ? Foxes. Why ? Because nouns in s, sh, eh,
x, or o,form the plural by adding es. What is the plural of book? Books.
Why? Because the plural is generally formed by adding 5 to the singular.
—
- -What is the plural of leaf? Leaves. Why? Because nouns in/ or fe
change foxfe into ves in the plural. What is the plural of army? Armies.
Why? Because nouns in y change y into ies in the plural. -What is the
plural of day? Days. Spell it; d, a, y, s. Why not d, a, i, e,s? Because y
—
with & vowel before it is not changed into ies: it takes s only. What
is the difference between adding and changing-? —
K. No. 7, 8.
f Many eminent authors change ey in the singular, into ies in the plural,
thus, Chimnies with scorn rejecting smoke. Swift.
Still as thou dost thy radiant journies run. Prior.
But rattling nonsense in full vollies breaks. Pope.
The society of Procurators or 4Uorn%es. Boswe.U<
 :

NUMBER. 11

IRREGULAR NOUNS.
Some nouns are irregular in the formation of their plural
such as,

Singular. Plural, Singular. Plural.

Man men Tooth teeth
Woman women Goose geese
Child children Mouse mice
Foot feet Louse lice
Ox oxen Penny pence
The compounds of man form the plural like the simple namely, ;

by changing a of the singular, into e of the plural. Mussulmen is

sometimes used as the plural of Mussulman. The mistake pro-
bably originated in the supposition that the word was a compound
of man. Good use authorizes Mussulmans.
Singular. Plural.
Brother brothers, or brethren
Sow or swine sows, or swine
Die (for gaming) dice
Die (for coining) dies
Aide-de-camp aides-de-camp
Court-martial courts-martial
Cousin-german cousins-german
Father-in-law, &c. &c.
fathers-in-law,

Brethren is generally applied to the members of the same

society or church, and Brothers to the sons of the same parents.

OBSERVATIONS.
Names of metals, virtues, vices, and things that are weighed or
measured, &c. are in general singular; as, Gold, meekness,
drunkenness, bread, beer, beef, &c. except when the different sorts
are meant, as, Wines, teas.

Some nouns are used only in the plural ; such as, Antipodes,
literati, credenda, minutiae, banditti, data, folk.
The singular of literati, &c. is made by saying one of the
literati. Bandit, as the singular of banditti, is often used in news-
papers.
The words Apparatus, hiatus, series, brace, dozen, means, and
both numbers. Brace, dozen, &c. sometimes
species, are alike in
admit of the plural form ; thus, He bought partridges in Braces,
and books in Dozens, &c.
 —

12 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
News and alms are generally used in the singular number, but
sometimes in the plural Pains is generally plural.
The singular of some nouns is distinguished from the plural by
the article a; as, A
sheep, a swine.
Pease and fish are used when we mean the species ; as, Pease
are dear; fish is cheap; but when we refer to the number, we say,
Peas, fishes ; as, Ten peas ; two fishes.
Horse and foot, meaning cavalry and infantry, are used in the
singularform with a plural verb ; as, A thousand horse were
ready ten thousand foot were there. Men is understood.
;

Words from Foreign Languages.

Animalculum1 animalcula Focus foci
Antithesis antitheses Genius genii f
Apex apices Genus genera
C appendixes Hypothesis hypotheses
Appendix
£ appendices Ignis fatuus ignes fatul
Arcanum* arcana Index indexes, indices^
Automaton automata Lamina lamina?
Axis* axes Magus magi
Basis bases Memoran C memoranda, or
Calx calces dum £ memorandums
Cherub cherubim, cherubs Metamor-
< metamorphoses
Crisis crises phosis
Criterion criteria Monsieur messieurs
Datum data Phenomenon phenomena
Desideratum desiderata Radius radii
Diaeresis diaereses Stamen stamina, or stamens
Effluvium effluvia Seraph seraphim, seraphs
Ellipsis ellipses Stimulus stimuli
Emphasis emphases Stratum strata
C encomia Vertex vertices
Encomium
(_ encomiums Vortex vortices
. Erratum errata Virtuoso virtuosi
%

* Rule. Nouns
in urn or on have a in the plural ; and those which have
is in the singular have es in the plural.

f Genii, aerial spirits ; but geniuses, persons of genius. For what rea-
son L. Murray, Elphinston, Onlton, and others, pluralize such words as
genius and rebus, by adding ses to the singular, making them geniusses,
rebusses, instead of geniuses, rebuses, it is not easy to guess as words :

pnding with a single s are never accented on the last syllable, there can
be no good reason for doubling the s before es. Hence rule 2d, page 9th,
begins with "Nouns in s," because those in s include those in ss.
X Tndexes, when it signifies pointers, or tables of contents. Indices, when
It refers to algebraic quantities.
 —

GENDER. 13

It was thought unnecessary to give a list of such words of our

own ; as, snuffers, scissors, tongs, &c. because they are evidently
to be used as plural ; but it may be proper to observe that such
words as Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, ethics, pneumatics,
&c, though generally plural, are sometimes used as singular, as,
Mathematics is a science and so of the rest.
;

GENDER.
Gender is the distinction of sex.

There are three genders ; the Masculine, Feminine,

and Neuter.
The Masculine denotes the male sex ; as, A man,
a boy.
The Feminine denotes the female sex; as, A woman,
a girl.
The Neuter denotes whatever is without life ; as,
Milk.

There are three ways of distinguishing the sex.

1. By different words : as,

Male. Female. Male. Female.

Bachelor maid, spinster Horse mare
Beau belle Husband wife
Boar sow King queen
Boy girl Lad lass
Brother sister Lord lady
Buck doe Man woman
Bull cow Master mistress
Bullock Milter spawner
heifer, hef-er
Ox, or steer Nephew niece
Cock hen Ram ewe
Colt filly C songstress
Singer
Dog bitch (_ or singer
Drake duck Sloven slut
Earl countess Son daughter
Father mother Stag hind
Friar nun Uncle aunt
Gander goose Wizard witch
Hart roe 1 Sir madam
 ;

14 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY,

OBSERVATIONS.
Some nouns are either masculine ox feminine: such as parent,
child, cousin, infant, servant, neighbor, &c.

Some nouns, naturally neuter, are converted into the masculine,

or feminine gender as, when we say of the sun, He is setting
:

and of the moon, She is eclipsed.

2. By a difference of termination ; as,

Male. Female. Male. Female.
Abbot abbess Jew Jewess
Actor actress Landgrave landgravine
Administratoi f
administratrix Lion lioness
Adulterer adulteress Marquis marchioness
Ambassador ambassadress Mayor mayoress
Arbiter arbitress Patron patroness
Author (often) authoress* Peer peeress
Baron baroness Poet poetess*
Bridegroom bride Priest priestess
Benefactor benefactress Prince princess
Caterer cateress Prior prioress
Chanter chantress Prophet prophetess
Conductor conductress Protector protectress
Count countess Shepherd shepherdess
Deacon deaconess Songster songstress
Duke dutchess Sorcerer sorceress
Elector electress ~) sultaness, or
Sultan
Emperor empress 3 sultana
Enchanter enchantress Tiger tigress
Executor executrix Traitor traitress
Governor governess Tutor tutoress
Heir heiress Tyrant tyranness
Hero her-o-ine Viscount viscountess
Hunter huntress Votary votaress
Host hostess Widower widow

3. By prefixing another word ; as,

A coc^-sparrow, a hen-sparrow ; a Ae-goat, a she-goat ; a man"

servant, a maidservant ; a he-ass, a she-ass; a male-child, &c*
male descendants, &c.

* It does not appear to be necessary to use authoress, poetess ; for the

female noun or pronoun that almost invariably accompanies these words
will distinguish the gender in them as well as in writer, &c.
 ;

CASE. ADJECTIVES. 1.5

CASE.
Case is the relation one noun bears to another, or to a verb, or preposition.

Nouns have three cases ; the Nominative, Posses-

sive, and Objective.
When noun stands for that which performs the
a
action, or exists in themanner spoken of, it is said to
be the subject of the verb which denotes the action or
existence and is then in the Nominative case : as,
;

The boy runs ; the boy is punished. The noun boy

is here the subject, because it is that which runs, or
which is punished.
When a noun stands for that on which the verb acts,
or has a preposition joined with it, it is said to be the
object of the verb or preposition, and is then in the
Objective case; as, / love my books; the love of
books. The word books is the object.
When a noun has an Apostrophe, or an apostrophe
with an s, to show that it possesses something, it is
said to be in the Possessive case; as, A man's hat
ladies' bonnets.
In nouns, the Nominative and Objective are alike ;

but in the Pronouns they have different forms.

EXERCISES.
On Gender, Number, and Case.
Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, arms, wife, hats,
brush, goose, eagles' wings, echo, ox's horn,
sisters', bride's, bottles,
mouse, kings, queens, bread, child's glass, tooth, tongs, candle,
chair, Jane's boots, Robert's shoe, horse.

ADJECTIVES.
An adjective is a word which expresses the quality
of a noun ; as, A good boy.
Adjectives have three degrees of comparison; the
Positive, Comparative, and Superlative.
 ;;;

16 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.

The Positive expresses the simple quality; the Com-

parative a higher or lower degree of the quality ; and
the Superlative the highest ox lowest degree. K 33 37
~~ - - -

The comparative is formed by adding er to the posi-

tive ; and the superlative, by adding est ; as, Sweet,
sweeter, sweetest.—K - 32 -

' Dissyllables in y change y into i before er and est

as in Happy, happier, happiest.*

Adjectives compared Irregularly.

Positive. Comparative. Superlative.
Good, (well an Adv.) better best
Bad, evil, or ill worse worst
Little less least
Much or many more most
Late later latest or last
Near nearer nearest or next
Far farther farthest
Fore former foremost or first
Old older or elder oldest or eldest

OBSERVATIONS.
Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared, by adding er
and est ; and those of more than one by prefixing more and most
as,More numerous, most numerous; — or, by less and least; as,
Less merry, least merry.
Dissyllables ending with e final are often compared by er and
est ; as, Polite, politer, politest ; Ample, ampler, amplest.
*If a vowel precedes^, it is not changed into i, before er and est
as, Gay, gayer, gayest ; Coy, coyer, coyest.
Some adjectives are compared by adding most to the end of the
word Upper, uppermost.
; as, —
Some have no positive ; as, Exte-
rior, extreme.

Nouns are often used as adjectives ; as, A

gold-ring, a silver'
cup. Adjectives often become nouns ; as, Much good.
Some adjectives do not properly admit of comparison ; such as,
True, perfect, universal, chief, extreme, &c.
Muck is applied to things weighed or measured; Many to those
that are numbered. Elder and eldest to persons : older and oldest
to things.
 :

PRONOUNS. 17

When the positive ends in a single consonant, preceded by a

single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er and est ; as, Big,
bigger, biggest

My, thy, his, her, our, your, their, its, own, each, every, either,
neither, this, that, any, all, such, whole, some, both, one, other,
another, although sometimes called adjective pronouns, are pro-
perly adjectives.

None, which is sometimes classed with these, is properly a noun

it is the same in both numbers.
His and her are adjectives when placed immediately before
nouns; but when they stand by themselves, his is accounted the
possessive case of the personal pronoun he, and her the objec-
tive of she.

Its and own seem to be as much entitled to the appellation of

adjectives as his and my. t
-

Yon, with former and latter, are also adjectives. See Syntax,
R. 28.
That is sometimes a Relative, and sometimes a Conjunction.

That is a Relative when it can be turned into who or which 9

without destroying the sense ; as,
u The days that (or which) are
past are gone for ever."

That is a Conjunction when it cannot be turned into who or

which, and cannot be joined to a noun without destroying the
sense but marks a consequence, an indication, or final end as,
; :

He was so proud, that he was universally despised." He an-

swered, "That he never was so happy as he is now." " Live well,
that you may die well."

The phrase none other should be no other. Another has no

plural.

One, other, another have the same cases as nouns, Other is

used in the plural.

PRONOUNS.
A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as,
John is a good boy he obeys ; the master.

There are two kinds of pronouns ; Personal and

Relative.
2*
18 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
There are five Personal Pronouns ; /, thou, he, she,
and it, with their cases.

Singular. Plural.
JVtfTO, Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj.
*First Person,
to,or/.
T
mine me We ours us

{Thou thine thee

or •
or or You yours you
Yout yours you
3. m. He his him }
3./. She hers her > They theirs them
3. n. It its it )

Exercises on Personal Pronouns.

thou, we, me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they,
I,
thee, them, its, theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine,
his, I, me, them, us, it, we.

OBSERVATIONS.
*The person who speaks is said to be of the first person ; the
person spoken to, is of the second person ; and the person or thing
spoken of, of the third person.
Ye is often used instead of you in the nominative ; as, Ye are
happy.
j- You was originally the Plural Pronoun ; it has, however, come
to be used instead of the singular. That it is in reality plural'
appears from the fact that it is almost always joined with the plural
form of the verb. Other languages have the same peculiarity.
Mine and thine were formerly used instead of my and thy be-
fore a vowel or an h ; as, Blot out all mine iniquities ; Give me
thine heart.
Hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never be written, her's, ifs*
our'Sj your's, their s ,- but hers, its, ours, &c.
The compound
personal pronouns, Myself, thyself, himself, &c
are commonly joined either to the simple pronoun, or to any ordi-
nary noun to make it more remarkable. See K. 45. —
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 19

These pronouns are all generally in the same case with the noun
;"
or pronoun to which they are joined ; as, "She herself said so
"They themselves acknowledged it to me myself" "The masttr
himself got it"
Self, when is a noun, as, "Our fondness for self is
used alone,
hurtful to others." sometimes an adjective , as, Self-love, It
It is
is commonly used in composition with my, thy, him, &c. the two
making but one word, which should be called a personal pronoun,
because myself, thyself, &c. are just equal to / or me ; thou or
thee, &c
In some grammars the possessive case of the different personal
pronouns stands thus 1st, my or mine, our or ours 2d, thy or
: —
thine, your or yours —
3d, her or Mrs, their or theirs. There is
no impropriety in this method ; the one preferred, however, is per-
haps less liable to objection.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
A Relative is a word that refers to a word
Pronoun
before it, called the antecedent ; as, The master who
taught us, &c.
The simple relatives are who, which, and that ; they
are alike in both numbers, thus,
Singular, PluraL
Nom, Who. Nom, Who.
Poss, Whose. Poss, Whose.
Obj, Whom. Ohj. Whom.
Who is applied to persons ; as, The boy who*
Which is applied to inferior animals, and things
without life; as, The dog which barks; the book
which was lost.
That is often used instead of who or which: as,
The hoy that reads the book that was lost.
;

What is a compound relative, including both the

relative and the an/jcedent; as, This is what I wanted ;

that is, the thing which I wanted.

OBSERVATIONS.
In asking questions, Who, which, and what are called interro-
gatives as, Who said that 1 What did he do 1
;
 — — ;

20 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
The relative isalways of the same gender, number, and person
with its antecedent, but not always in the same case.

Which has
properly no possessive case of its own. The objec-
with of before it supplies its place. Our best writers, however*
tive
now use whose as the possessive of which : as, "A religion whose
origin is divine." Blair.
That and what are the same in all the cases.

The relative sometimes refers to a whole clause as its antecedent

as, The bill was rejected by the Lords, which excited no small de-
gree of jealousy and discontent ; that is, which thing, or circum-
.stance, excited, Sec.

Who is applied to inferior animals, when they are represented

as speaking and acting like rational beings.
What and which are sometimes used as adjectives ; as, u I know
not by what fatality the adversaries of the motion are impelled :"
which things are an allegory. Which here is equal to these.
Whoever, whosoever, and whoso, are compound relatives equal
to He who ; or, The person that. K. 53. —
Whatever and whatsoever, with whichever and whichsoever, are
sometimes adjectives, and combine with nouns and sometimes :

compound relatives, equal to that which. These compounds,

however, particularly whoso, are now generally avoided* What-
ever and whoever are most used.

Promiscuous Exercises on Nouns, &c„

A man, he, who, which, that, his, me, mine, thine, whose, they,
hers, it, we, us, I, him, its, horse, mare, master, thou, theirs, thee,
—
you, my, thy, our, your, their, his, her this, these, that, those
each, every, either, any, none, bride, daughter, uncle, wife's, sir,
girl, madam, box, dog, lad, a gay lady, sweet apples, strong bulls,
fat oxen, a mountainous country.

Compare, Rich, merry, furious, covetous, large, little, good, bad,

near, wretched, rigorous, delightful, sprightly, spacious, splendid,
gay, imprudent, pretty.

The human mind, cold water, he, tho^, she, it, woody moun-
tains, the naked rock, youthful jollity, goodness divine, justice
severe, his, thy, others, one, a peevish boy, hers, their strokes,
pretty girls, his droning flight, her delicate cheeks, a man who,
the sun that, a bird which, its pebbled bed, fiery darts, a nu-
merous army, love unbounded, a nobler victory, gentler gales,
 §

VERBS. 21

nature's eldest birth, earth's lowest room, the winds triumphant,

some flowery stream, the tempestuous billows, these things,
those books, that breast which, the rich man's insolence, your
queen, all who, a boy's drum, himself, themselves, myself.*

VERBS.
When we say of any thing that it exists or acts in
any way, the word that expresses that action or exist-
ence is called a Verb.
Verbs are of three kinds, Active, Passive, and
Neuter.
An Active verb is one which requires an object after
it to complete the sense as, James strikes the table.t
;

A
Passive verb is one which affirms that the thing
spoken of is acted upon; as, The table is struck.
A Neuter verb is one which is neither Active nor
Passive ; as, I am, he sleeps, you run.%

AUXILIARY VERBS.
Theauxiliary or helping verbs, by which the modes
and tenses of other verbs are chiefly formed, are defec-
tive, having only the Present and Past Indicative; thus,

Pres. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, am, must.

Past Did, had, should, would, might, could, was, must.

And the Participles (of be) being, been —Be, do, have,
and will are often principal verbs.
Let is an active verb, and complete. Ought is a defective verb,
having only the Present and Past Indicative.

* The personal pronouns Himself, herself, themselves, &c. are used in

the nominative case as well as in the objective ; as, Himself shall come.
f Active verbs are called transitive verbs, because the action passes
—
from the actor to the object. K. 73, Note.
X Neuter verbs are called intransitive, because their action is confined
to the actor, and does not pass over to an object.
$ It was thought quite unnecessary to conjugate the verbs have and do y

Sec. through all their modes and tenses ; because a child that can readily
conjugate the verb to love, can easily conjugate any other verb.
22 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.

A verb has Modes, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons,

MODES OF VERBS.
Verbs have four modes namely, the Indicative,
;

Potential, Imperative, and Infinitive.*

The
Indicative mode simply declares a thing- ; as,
He loves; he is loved; or it asks a question; as,
Lovest thou me ?
The Potential mode implies possibility, liberty,
power, or obligation; as, The wind may blow:
will,
we may walk or ride ; I can swim ; he would not
stay ; you should obey your parents.
The Imperative mode commands, exhorts, entreats,
or permits as, ; Do remember thy Creator hear,
this ; ;

O my people ; go thy way.

The Infinitive mode expresses action or existence
in a generalmanner, without distinction of number or
person, and commonly has to before it ; as, To love*

OBSERVATION.
Every Active verb has a corresponding Passive.

TENSES, OR DISTINCTIONS OF TIME.

The Present tense expresses what is going on at
the present time ; as, / love you ; / strike the table.
The Past tense represents the action or event
either as past and finished ; as, He broke the bottle
and spilt the ink ; or it represents the action as unfi-,
nished at a certain time past ; as, My
father was coming
home when I met him.
The Perfect tense implies that an action has just
now, or lately been quite finished ; as, John has cut
his finger ; I have sold my horse.
The Pluperfect tense represents a thing as past y

* That which is commonly called the subjunctive mode is given sepa-

rately.
 VERBS. 23

before another event happened as, All the judges; had

taken their places, before Sir Roger came.
The Future represents the action as yet to come ;

as, I will see you again, and your heart shall rejoice*

The Future Perfect intimates that the action will

be fully accomplished, at, or before the time of another
future action or event as, I shall have got my lesson
;

before ten o'clock to-morrow.

Remarks on some of the Tenses.

THE PRESENT.
The present Tense is used to express a habit or custom , as,
1.
He takes snuff; She goes to church. It is sometimes applied to
persons long since dead, when the narration of their actions excites
our passions; as, "Nero is abhorred for his cruelty." "Milton is
admired for his sublimity."
2. In historical narration, it is beautifully used for the Past
Tense,- as, " Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters
Italy with five thousand men." — It is sometimes used with fine

effect for the Perfect ; as, " In the book of Genesis, Moses tells us
who were the descendants of Abraham," — for has told us.

3. Whenpreceded by such words as when, before, as soon as,

after, it expresses the relative time of a future action as, When ;

—
he comes, he will be welcome. As soon as the mail arrives, the
letters will be delivered.

4. In the continuate, progressive, or compound form, it expresses

an action begun and going on just now, but not complete as, I ;

am studying my lesson. He is writing a letter.

THE PAST.
The Past Tense used when the action or state is limited
is
by the circumstance of time or place ; as, " saw him yester-We
day" " We
were in bed when he arrived." Here the words
yesterday and when limit the action and state to a particular time.

Walker and others have divided the first future, into the future
* Mr.
foretelling,and the future promising or commanding. That this distinction
is absolutely necessary, as Mr. Walker affirms, is exceedingly questionable ;
for when a learner has occasion to Use the future tense, this division will
not in the least assist him in determining whether he ought to use will
rather than shall, &c. Therefore this division serves no purpose.
 ;;

24 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
After death allagents are spoken of in the past tense, because time
is limited or denned by the life of the person ; as, " Mary Queen
of Scots was remarkable for her beauty."

This tense is peculiarly appropriated to the narrative style;

because all narration implies some circumstance ; as, "Socrates
refused to adore false gods." Here the period of Socrates's life
being a limited part of past time, circumscribes the narration. It
is improper then to say of one already dead, " He has been much
admired ; he has done much good :" but, " He was much admired
he did much good."
Although the Past Tense is used when the action is cir-
cumstantially expressed by a word or sentiment that limits the
time of the action to some definite portion of past time, yet such
words as often, sometimes, many a time, frequently, and similar
vague intimations of time, except in natations, require the perfect,
because they admit a certain latitude, and do not limit the action
to any definite portion of past time, thus, " How often have we
seen the proud despised."

THE PERFECT.
ThePerfect Tense chiefly denotes the accomplishment of mere
facts without any necessary relation to time or place, or any other
circumstance of their existence ; as, Philosophers have endeavored
to investigate the origin of evil. In general, however, it denotes,

1. An action newly finished; as, I have heard great news.

The mail has arrived, but has brought no letters for you.

2. An action done in a definite space of time, (such as a day, a

week, a year,) a part of which has yet to elapse ; as, I have spent
this day well.

3. An action perfected some time ago, but whose consequences

extend to the present time ; as, We have neglected our duty, and
are therefore unhappy.
Duration or existence requires the perfect ; as, He has been
dead four days. We
say, Cicero has written orations, because
the orations are still in existence; but we cannot say, Cicero has
written poems, because the poems do not exist ; they are lost
therefore, we must say, " Cicero yjrote poems."

The
following are a few instances in which this tense is impro-
perly used for the past. " I have somewhere met with the epitaph
of a charitable man, which has very much pleased me." Spect.
No. 177. The latter part of this sentence is rather narrative than
 VERBS. 25

assertive ,•

— —
and therefore it should be which very much pleased
me, that is, when I read it. " When that the poor hath cried,
Caesar hath wept." Shaksp. The style is here narrative : Caesar
was dead. should
It therefore be, " When the poor cried, Caesar
wept." —"Though in old age, the circle of our pleasures is more
contracted than it has formerly been ; yet, &c." Blair, Serm. 12.
It should be, "than it formerly was," because in old age, the for-
mer stages of life, contrasted with the present, convey an idea, not
of completion, but of limitation, and thus become a subject of nar-
ration, rather than of assertion. —
" I have known him, Eugenius,
when he has been going to a play, or an opera, divert the money
which was designed for that purpose, upon an object of charity
whom he has met with in the street." Spect. No. 1 77. It should
;"
be, " When he V)as going," and " whom he met with in the street
because the actions are circumstantially related by the phrases,
when going to a play and in the street.

THE FUTURE PERFECT.

The Second Future should have will or shall in all the persons,
as in the first. Mr. Murray has excluded will from the^rs^ per-
son, and shall from the second and third, because they appear to
him to be incorrectly applied ; and in the examples which he has
adduced, they are incorrectly applied ; but this is not a sufficient
reason for excluding them altogether from every sentence. The
fault is in the writer ; he has applied them wrong, a thing that is
often done with will and shall in the first future, as well as in the
second.
If I am at liberty to use will in the first future, to intimate my
resolution to perform a future action, as, " I will go to church, for
I am resolved to go," why should I not employ will in the second
future, to intimate my resolution or determination to have an action
finished before a specified future time ] Thus, " I will have writ-
ten my letters before supper :" that is, I am determined to have
my letters finished before supper. Were the truth of this affirma-
tion, respecting the time of finishing the letters, called in question,
the propriety of using will in the first person would be unques-
tionable. Thus, You will not have finished your letters before
supper, I am sure. Yes, / will. Will what] "Will have
finished my letters."

manner, may with propriety be applied to the

Shall, in like
second and third person. In the third person, for instance, if I
say, " He will have paid me his bill before June," I merely foretell
what he will have done but that is not what I intended to say.
;

3
 — —
26 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
I to convey the idea, that since I have found h'm dilatory, I
meant
will compel him to pay it before June and as this was my mean-
;

ing, I should have employed shall, as in the first future, and said,
" He shall have paid me his bill before June."

It is true, that we seldom use this future we rather express the

;

idea as nearly as we can, by the first future, and say, " He shall
pay his bill before June but when we do use the second future,
:

it is evident, from the examples just given, that shall and will
should be applied in it,exactly as they are in the first. See 1 Cor.
xv. 24. Luke xvii. 10.

THE AUXILIARY VERBS.

The auxiliary verbs, as they are called, such as, Do, shall, will,
may, can, and must, are in reality separate verbs, and were ori-
ginally used as such, having after them, either the Past Participle,
or the Infinitive Mode, with the to suppressed, for the sake of
sound, as it is after hid, dare, &c. (See Syntax, Rule VIII.) Thus,
I have loved. We
may to love. He will to speak. I do to write.
I may to have loved. We
might to have got a prize. I would to
have given him the book. All must to die. I shall to stop. I
can to go.
These verbs are always joined in this manner either to the
Infinitive or participle ; and although this would be a simpler way
of parsing the verb than the common, yet, in compliment perhaps
to the Greek and Latin, grammarians in general consider the
auxiliary and the following verb in the infinitive or participle as
one verb, and parse and construe it accordingly.

Several of the auxiliaries in the Potential mode refer to present,

past, and future time. This needs not excite surprise ; for even
the present Indicative can be made to express future time, as well
as the future itself. Thus, " He leaves town to-morrow"
Present time is expressed in the following sentence. " I wish
he could or would come just now."
Past time is expressed with the similar auxiliaries; as, "It was
my desire that he should or would come yesterday." "Though
he was ill he might recover."
Future.-^l am anxious that he should or would come to-morrow.
If he come I may speak to him. If he would delay his journey a
few days, I might, could, would, or shpuld accompany him.
Although such examples as these are commonly adduced as
proofs that these auxiliaries refer to present, past, and future time.
 ;:

VERBS. 21
yet it is and should, with
pretty evident that might, could, would,
may, and can, merely express liberty, ability, will, and duty, with-
out any reference to time at all, and that the precise time is gene-
rally determined by the drift or scope of the sentence, or rather by
the adverb or participle that is subjoined or understood, and not by
these auxiliaries.
Must and ought, for instance, merely imply necessity, and obli-
gation, without any necessary relation to time.- for when I say,
" I must do it," must merely denotes the necessity I am under, and
do the present time, which might easily be made future, by saying,
1 ''
"I must do it next week: Here future time is expressed by next
week, and not by must. If I say, "I must have done it:" Here
must merely expresses necessity as before, and I have done the
past time. " These ought ye to do :" Here ought merely denotes
obligation, and do the present time. " These ought ye to have
done :" Here ought merely expresses duty or obligation, as before
but the time of its existence is denoted as past, by to have done,
and not by ought, as Mr. Murray and many others say.
As must will not admit of the objective after it, nor is even pre-
ceded or succeeded by the sign of the infinitive, it has been con-
sidered an absolute auxiliary, like may or can, belonging to the
Potential Mode.
Ought, on the contrary, is an independent verb, though defec-
tive, and always governs another verb in the infinitive.

will and SHALL.

Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and
promising ; as, I will not let thee go, except thou bless me. We
will go.
I will make of thee a great nation.
Will, in the second and third person, commonly foretells ; as, He wUl
reward the righteous. You, or they, will be very happy there.
Shall, in the first person, only foretells ; as, I, or we, shall go to-morrow.
In the second and third person, Shall, promises, commands, or threatens
as, They, or you, shall be rewarded. Thou shalt not steal. The soul
that sinneth shall die.
But this must be understood of affirmative sentences only: for when
the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse commonly takes place ; as,
Shall I send you a little of the pie'f i.-e. will you permit me to send it?
Will James return to-morrow? i. e. do you expect him?

When the second and third person are represented as the subjects of
their own expressions, or their own thoughts, SHALL foretells, as in the
firstperson ; as, " He says he shall be a loser by this bargain." " Do you
suppose you shall go?" and WILL promises, as in the first person; as,
"He says he will bring Pope's Homer to-morrow." You say you will
certainly come.
Of Shall, it may be remarked, that it never expresses the will or resolu-
28 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
Hon of Subject: Thus, I shall fall; Thou shalt love thy neighbor; He
its
shall be rewarded, express no resolution on the part of/, thou, he.
Did Will, on the contrary, always intimate the resolution of its Subject,
the difficulty of applying will and shall would be at an end ; but this can-
not be said for though will in the first person always expresses the reso-
;

lution of its Subject, yet in the second and third person it does not always
foretell,but often intimates the resolution of its Subject as strongly as it
does in the first person ; thus, Ye will not come unto me that ye may have
life. He will not perform the duty of my husband's brother, Deut. xxv.
7, see also verse 9. Accordingly would, the past time of will, is used in the
same manner; as, And he was angry, and would not go in, Luke xv. 28.
Should and would are subject to the same rules as shall and will ; they
are generally attended with a supposition ; as, Were I to run, I should
soon be fatigued, &c.
Should is often used instead of ought, to express duty or obligation ; as,
We should remember the poor. We ought to obey God rather than men.
Verbs.
To Love. •Active Verb.

Indicative Mode.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. person I love 1. We love
2. You* love 2. Yout love
3. He loves or loveth 3. They love

Past.
Singular. Plural.
I. I loved 1. We loved
2. You loved 2. You loved
3. He loved 3. They loved
Perfect.
Its signs are have, hast, has, or hath.
Singular. Plural.

1. I have loved 1. We have loved

2. You have loved 2. You have loved
3. He has or hath loved 3. They have loved
* In the second person singular, thou is used in the solemn style instead
of you; as, Thou lovest, thou hast, thou wilt.
| Ye is sometimes used instead of you, in the second person plural.
 .

VERBS. 29

Pluperfect.
Signs, had, hadst.

Singular. Plural.
1 I had loved 1 . We had loved
2. You had loved 2. You had loved
3. He had loved 3. They had loved
Future.
Signs, shall or will.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will love 1. We shall or will love
2. You shall or will love 2. You shall or will love
3. He shall or will love 3, They shall or will love

Future Perfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will have I. We shall or will have
loved loved
2. You shall or will have 2. You shall or will have
loved loved
3. He shall or will have 3. They shall or will have
loved loved

Potential Mode.
Present.
Signs, may, can, or must.

Singular. Plural.
1. I may, or can, or must 1. We may, or can, or must
love love
2. You may, or can, or 2. You may, or can, or
must love must love
-
3. He may, or can, or 3. They may, or can, or
must love must love
3*
SO ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
Past.
Signs, might, could, would, or should.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, or could, or 1. We might, or could, or
would, or should love would, or should love
2. You might, or could, or 2. You might, or could, or
would, or should love would, or should love
3. He might, or could, or 3. They might, or could, or
would, or should love would, or should love
Perfect.
Signs, may, can, or must have.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may, or can, or must 1. We may, or can, or must
have loved have loved
2. You may, or can, or 2. You may, or can, or
must have loved must have loved
3. He may, or can, or 3. They may, or can, or
must have loved must have loved
Pluperfect.
Signs, might, could, would, or should have.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, or could, or 1. We might, or could, or
would, or should have would, or should have
loved loved
2. You might, <fcc. have 2. You might, &c. have
loved loved
3. He might, &c. have 3. They might, &c. have
loved loved
Imperative Mode.
Singular. Plural.
2. Love, or love thou, or 2. Love, or love ye, or
do thou love* you, or do ye love
* The Imperative Mode is not entitled to three persons. In strict pro-
priety,it has only the second person in both numbers. For when I say,
Let me love ; I mean, Permit thou me to love. Hence, let me love, is con-
strued thus ; let thou me (to) love, or do thou let me {to) love. To, the
 ;

VERBS. 31

Infinitive Mode.
Present, To love Perfect, To have loved
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. Loving. Perf. Having loved.
Exercises on the Tenses of Verbs, and Cases of Nouns and
Pronouns.
We love him; James loves me; it amuses him; we shall con-
duct them ; they will divide the spoil ; soldiers should defend their
country friends invite friends ; she can read her lesson ; she may
;

play a tune ; you might please her ; you may ask him ; he may
have betrayed us ; we might have diverted the children ; John can
deliver the message.
I love; to love; love; reprove thou; has loved; we tied the
knot ; they could have commanded armies to baptise ; to have ;

loved ; loved loving to survey having surveyed ; write a letter

; ; ;

read your lesson ; you have obeyed my voice honor thy father. ;

QUESTIONS which should be put to the pupils.

How do you know that love is plural? Ans. Because we is plural.
How do you know that love is the first person ? Ans. Because we is the
firstpersonal pronoun, and the verb is always of the same number and
person with the noun or pronoun before it. K. 59. 61. —
Many of the phrases in this page may be converted into exercises of a
different kind ; thus the meaning of the sentence, We love him, may be
expressed by the passive voice ; as, He is loved by us.
It may also be turned into a question, or made a negative ; as, Do we
love him ? &c. We do not love him.

TO BE.
Indicative Mode.
Present Tense.
Singular* Plural.
1. I am* 1. We are
2. You are 2. You are
3. He is 3. They are
sign of the infinitive, is not used after let. See Syntax, R. VIII. No one
will say that permit (me to love) is the first person singular, imperative
mode then, why should let (me to love) which is exactly similar, be called
:

the first person? The Latin verb wants the first person, and if it has the
third, it has also a different termination for it, which is not the case in
the English verb K. 75. —
* Put loving after am, &c. and it becomes an Active verb in the progres-
sive form. Thus, I am loving, you are loving, he is loving, &c.
Put loved after am, and it becomes a Passive verb.
 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.

Past.
Singular. Plural.
1. Iwas 1. We were
2. You was 2. You were
3. He was 3. They were

Perfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. I have been 1. We have been
2. You have been 2. You have been
3. He has been 3. They have been

Pluperfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. I had been 1. We had been
2. You had been 2. You had been
3. He had been 3. They had been

Future.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will be 1. We shall or will be
2. You shall or will be 2. You shall or will be
3. He shall or will be 3. They shall or will be

Future Perfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will have 1. We shall or will have
been been
2. You shall or will have 2. You shall or will have
been been
3. He shall or will have 3. They shall or will have
been been
 VERBS. 33

Potential Mode.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may, or can, or must 1. We may, or can, or must
be be
2. You may, or can, or 2. You may, or can, or
must be must be
3. He may, or can, or 3. They may, or can, or
must be must be

Past.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, or could, or 1. We might, or could, or
would, or should be would, or should be
2. You might, or could, or 2. You might, or could, or
would, or should be would, or should be
3. He might, or could, or 3 They might, or could, or
would, or should be would, or should be

Perfect.
Singular. Plural.

1. I may, or can, or must 1. We may, or can, or must

have been have been
2. You may, or can, or 2. You may, or can, or
must have been must have been
3. He may, or can, or 3. They may, or can, or
must have been must have been

Pluperfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, or could, or 1. We might, or could, or
would, or should have would, or should have
been been
2. You might, or could, or 2. You might, or could, or
would, or should have would, or should have
been been
 ;;

34 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
Singular. Plural.
3. He might, or could, or 3. They might, or could, or
would, or should have would, or should have
been been

Imperative Mode.
Singular. Plural.
2. Be or be thou 2. Be or be ye or you

Infinitive Mode.
Present, To be Perfect, To have been

PARTICIPLES.
Pres. Being. P erf* Having been.

Exercises on the Verb To Be.

Am ; is ; we are ; has been

was ; are ; I was ; they were ; ;

had been we have been have been he had been ; you have
; ; ;

been she has been we were they had been.

: ; ;

I shall be ; we will be ; they shall be ; it will be ; we have

been ; they will have been ; we shall have been ; am ; it is.

I can be may be can be she may be you may be he

; ; ;
; ;

must be they should be might be he would be it could be

; ; ; ;

would be you could be he may have been was.

;
; ;

We mayhave been they can have been ; ; I might have been ;

you should have been would have been. ;

Be thou be ; ; to be ; being ; to have been ; be ye ; been ; be

having been to ; be.

Snow is white ; he was a good man ; we have been younger

she has been happy it had been late ; we are old you will be; ;

wise it will be time be cautious ; be heedful youth ; we may be

; ;

rich ; they should be virtuous ; you might be wiser ; they must

have been excellent scholars ; they might have been powerful.
In the Bible be is sometimes used for the Present indicative ; as : We
be true men, for, we are.
Mightest, couldest, &c. are used in the Bible, and sometimes in poetry
for mightst, couldst, &c.
 .

VERBS. 35

To be Loved. Passive Verb.*

Indicative Mode,
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. Iam loved 1. We are loved
2. You are loved 2. You are loved
3. He is loved 3. They are loved
Past.
Singular. Plural.
1. I was loved 1. We were loved
2. You was loved 2. You were loved
3. He was loved 3. They were loved
Perfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. I have been loved 1. We have been loved
2. You have been loved 2. You have been loved
8. He has been loved 3. They have been loved
Pluperfect.
Singular. Plural.
I had been loved 1 We had been loved
You had been loved 2. You had been loved
He had been loved 3. They had been loved
Future.
Singular. Piural.
1. I shall or will be loved 1. We shall or will be loved
2. You shall or will be 2. You shall or will be
loved loved
3. He shall or will be 3. They shall or will be
loved loved

* A Passive Verb is formed by putting tbe Passive Participle of any

verb after the verb to be through all its modes and tenses.— K. 75, 7§.
36 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.

Future Perfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. I or will
shall have 1. We shall or will have
been loved been loved
2. You shall or will have 2. You shall or will have
been loved been loved
3. He shall or will have 3. They shall or will have
been loved been loved

Potential Mode.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.

1. I may, or can, or must 1. We may, or can, or

be loved must be loved
2. You may, or can, or 2. You may, or can, or
must be loved must be loved
3. He may, or can, or 3. They may, or can, or
must be loved must be loved

Past.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, or could, or 1. We might, or could, or
would, or should be would, or should be
loved loved
2. You might, or could, or 2. You might, or could, or
would, or should be would, or should be
loved loved
3. He might, or could, or 3. They might, or could, or
would, or should be would, or should be
loved loved

Perfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may, or can, or must 1. We may, or can, or must
have been loved have been loved
 ;

VERBS. 37
Singular. Plural,
2. You may, or can, or 2. You may, or can, or must
must have been loved have been loved
3. He may, oror 3. can, They may, or can, or
must have been loved must have been loved
Pluperfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, or could, or 1. We might, or could, or
would, or should have would, or should have
been loved been loved
2. You might, or could, or 2. You might, or could, or
would, or should have would, or should have
been loved been loved
3. He might, or could, or 3. They might, or could, or
would, or should have would, or should have
been loved been loved

Imperative Mode.
Singular. Plural.
2. Be you loved 2. Be ye or you loved
Infinitive Mode.
Present, To be loved Perfect, To have been loved

PARTICIPLES.
Pres. Being loved. Perf. Having been loved.
Indef. Loved.

Exercises on the Passive Verb.

They we were loved you are loved it is loved
are loved ;
;
;

she was loved he has been loved you have been loved I have
; ; ;

been loved you had been loved we shall be loved you will
;
; ;

be loved; they will be loved; I shall have been loved; you will
have been loved.
He can be loved; you may be loved; she must be loved;
they might be loved ye would be loved ; they should be loved
;

I could be loved ; you can have been loved ; it may have been
loved; you might have been loved; you was loved; be thou
4
 — ;;;

38 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
loved ; be ye loved be you loved
; to be loved
; ; loved ; having
been loved to have been loved being loved.
; ;

Promiscuous Exercises on Verbs, and Cases of Nouns and

Pronouns.
Tie John's shoes ; this is Jane's bonnet ; ask mamma ; he has
learned his lesson ; she invited him ; your father may commend
you ; he was baptised ; the minister baptised him ; we should have
delivered our message; papa will reprove us ; divide the apples;
the captain had commanded his soldiers to pursue the enemy
Eliza diverted her brother ; a hunter killed a hare.
After the pupil is expert in going over the Tenses of the verb as they
are, he may be taught to omit all the auxiliaries but one, and go over the
verb thus Present Potential, I may love ; you may love ; he may love, &c;
:

and then with the next auxiliary, thus : I can love ; you can love ; he can
love, &c.

CONDITIONAL TENSES.
When we say, If you are cold, come to the fire
Unless you are willing, why do you consent; If ye
love me, keep my commandments, the verbs are and
love are in the Indicative Mode. They are indeed
preceded by conjunctions which render the sentences
conditional, but this alone is not a sufficient reason for
considering the verbs as belonging to a separate mode
if it is, then there is reason for classing the verbs
hates, is, and go, in the following sentences, under some
other modes than the Indicative Perhaps he hates
:

me, yet Iforgive him ; It may be that he is rich, but

he is not happy ; Probably I shall go, but I shall
return soon ; I believe that he is sick, yet recovering:
and if we are to undertake the formation of new modes
in this way, it will be difficult to say where we are to
stop.
There are, however, some conditional forms of ex-
pression which seem to require a distinct classification :

1. When we say, If you loved me, you would obey

me, we have a conditional proposition or a supposition
expressed by the conjunction if: it is also a supposi-
 — ;

VERBS. 39

tion made with reference to the present time If you —

loved meat the present time, or If you loved me now,
you would obey me but to express this present time
;

we use not the form of the present tense, love, but the
form of the past tense, loved ; taking the form of the
past tense to represent present time.
2. When we say, Had I been there, I could have
relieved him, we make a supposition relative to a past
time, and to express a simple Past we use the form
of the Pluperfect. It will also be noticed that in this,
as in the preceding case, the condition or supposition
which is stated is contrary to what is known to be the
fact. Thus, to say, If you loved me, you would obey
me, implies that you do not love me : to say, Had I
been there, I could have relieved him, implies that /
teas not there.
3. When we say, If he repent, or, If he repents, he
will be forgiven, we make the supposition in reference
to a future time, and to express that Future time we
take the form of the Present.
Cases of this kind may be ranged under three tenses,
which we will call a Conditional Present, Conditional
Past, and Conditional Future.
The forms of these Tenses in the verbs To Be and
To Love are as follows :

TO BE.
Conditional Present.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I were, or wT as* 1. If we were
2. If you were, or was 2. If you were
3. If he were, or was 3. If they were
OBSERVATIONS.
* The form you were, &c. is strictly grammatical
If I were, If
but the form If I was, If you was, &c. is used in common conver-
sation, and sometimes by good writers. Thus, in familiar conver-
sation, we should say, If I was going to New York, I should see
him, rather than, If I were going, &c
40 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.

OR,
Singular. Plural.
1. Were I 1. Were we
2. Were you 2. Were you
3. Were he 3. Were they
SECOND FORM.
Singular. Plural.

1. If I might or could be* 1. If we might or could be

2. If you might or could be 2. If you might or could be
3. If he might or could be 3. If they might or could be
OR,
Singular. Plural.

1. Might I or could I be* 1. Might we or could we be

2. Might you or could 2. Might you or could you
you be be
3. Might he or could he 3. Might they or could they
be be

Conditional Past.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I had been 1. If we had been
2. If you had been 2. If you had been
3. If he had been 3. If they had been
OR,
Singular. Plural.
1. Had I been 1. Had we been
2. Had you been 2. Had you been
3. Had he been 3. Had they been
OBSERVATIONS.
* These forms
are sometimes used in reference to Future time;
as, If I could leave the city to-morrow, I should reach home in a
week.
 .

VERBS. 41

SECOND FORM.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I might or could have 1. If we might or could
been have been
2. If you might or could 2. If you might or could
have been have been
3. If he might or could 3. If they might or could
have been have been
OR,
Singular. Plural.
1 Might I or could I have 1. Might we or could we
been have been
2. Might you or could 2. Might you or could you
you have been have been
3. Might he or could he 3. Might they or could they
have been have been

Conditional Future.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I am or be* 1. If we are or be
2. If you are or be 2. If you are or be
3. If he is or be 3. If they are or be

SECOND FORM.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I should be 1. If we should be
2. If you should be 2. If you should be
3. If he should be 3. If they should be

OBSERVATIONS.
* The form If I am, If you
are, &c. is the one used in conver-
sation,and almost universally by good writers the form If I be,
:

If you be, &c. from the obsolete present of the Verb be, is more
ancient, and is still used frequently. It is always given in gram-
mars as the correct form, but always in conversation, and usually
in easy writing, it is avoided as being too stiff and formal thus :

4*
42 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.

OR,
Singular. Plural.
1. Should I be 1. Should we be
2. Should you be 2. Should you be
3. Should he be 3. Should they be

To Love. Active Verb.

Conditional Present.
Singular. Plural.
If I loved 1. If we loved
If you loved 2. If you loved
If he loved 3. If they loved
OR,
Singular. Plural.
Loved I 1. Loved we
Loved you 2. Loved you
Loved he 3. Loved they
SECOND FORM.
Singular. Plural.
1 If I might,* or could,* 1. If we
might, or could, or
or did love did love
2. If you might, or could, 2. If you might, or could,
or did love or did love
3. If he might, or could, 3. If they might, or could,
or did love or did love
OR,
Singular. Plural.
1. Might I,* or could I,* 1. Might we, or could we,
or did I love or did we love
OBSERVATIONS,
we should never say in conversation, If he be in the city this sum-
mer, I shall see him ; but, If he is, &c. If it be y is often and very
incorrectly used as the Present Indicative.
* See the Note on page 40.
 VERBS. 43
Singular. PluraL
2. Might you, or could 2. Might you, or could you,
you, or did you love or did you love
3. Might he, or could he, 3. Might they, orcould they,
or did he love or did they love

Conditional Past.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I had loved 1. If we had loved
2. If you had loved 2. If you had loved
3. If he had loved 3. If they had loved
OR,
Singular. Plural.
1. Had I loved 1. Had we loved
2. Had you loved 2. Had you loved
3. Had he loved 3. Had they loved
SECOND FORM.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I might or could 1. If we might or could
have loved have loved
2. If you might or could 2. If you might or could
have loved have loved
3. If he might or could 3. If they might or could
have loved have loved
OR,
Singular. Plural.

1. Might I or could I have 1. Might we or could we

loved have loved
2. Might you or could 2. Might you or could you
you have loved have loved
3. Might he or could he 3. Might they or could they
have loved have loved
 .

44 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.

Conditional Future.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I love 1. If we love
2. If you love 2. If you love
3. If he love or loves 3. If they love

SECOND FORM.
Singular. PluraL
1 If I should love 1 . If we should love
2. If you should love 2. If you should love
3. If he should love 3. If they should love

OR,
Singular. Plural.
1. Should I love 1. Should we love
2. Should you love 2. Should you love
3. Should he love 3. Should they love

To Be loved. Passive Verb.*

Conditional Present.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I were or was loved 1. If we were loved
&c. &c.
or,
Singular. Plural.

1. Were I loved 1. Were we loved

&c. &c.

OBSERVATIONS.
The Conditional Tenses of the Passive Verb are formed by
*
adding the Indef. Passive Participle of any Verb to the Conditional
Tenses of the Verb Be.
 VERBS. 45

SECOND FORM.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I might* or could* 1. If we might or could be
be loved loved
Sic. Sic.

OR,
Singular. Plural.
1. Might I* or could I* 1. Might we or could we
be loved be loved
Sic. Sic.

Conditional Past.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I had been loved 1. If we had been loved
Sic. Sic.

OR,
Singular. Plural.

I. Had I been loved 1. Had we been loved

Sic. Sic.

SECOND FORM.
Singular. Plural.

1. If I might or could 1. If we might or could

have been loved have been loved
Sic. Sic.

OR,
Singular. Plural.

1. Might or could
I I 1. Might we or could we
have been loved have been loved
Sic. Sic.

OBSERVATIONS.
* See the Note on page 40.
 ;

46 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.

Conditional Future.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I am or be loved 1. If we are or be loved
&c. &c.
SECOND FORM.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I should be loved 1. If we should be loved

OR,
Singular. Plural.
1. Should I be loved 1. Should we be loved

Exercises on the Conditional Tenses.

Were I ; ; had he been if he might be if I am

might you be ; ;

should they be; could you have been; loved I; had I loved; if
they love should he love ; if he love ; if I was loved ; were he
;

loved ; if you were loved had I been loved.

;

he was here, I would ask him. Were I now at home, I

If
should be happy. Could they be here with us, we should enjoy
their society. He might go to-day, if he was disposed to. If you
do it you will be punished. If he should promise he wili certainly
perform. Had he known it he would have told me. Take heed
lest you sometime offend him. If he had asked, I would have
granted it. See that you do not do it again, for you will not
escape. Had he been paid, he would have been contented. If he
is there to-morrow, I shall see him.

OBSERVATIONS.
As
the forms of the Conditional Tenses are mostly the same as
the forms of tenses in the Indicative and Potential modes, the pupil
will in some instances be in doubt to which division the verb
belongs a few examples will show him how he is to decide the
:

question.
If he was here yesterday, I did not know it. Here, the verb was is
not in the Conditional Present, but in the Indicative Past. If it re-
ferred to the present time it would be in the Conditional Present;
but it refers to past time, and it is therefore in the Indicative Past.
 VERBS. 47
you could read yesterday, you can to-day. If you could here
If
refers to a. past time, and is therefore in the Potential Past if it :

referred to the present time, it would be in the Conditional Present.

He did not visit the place, unless he had been there before I
arrived. Had been, in this example, does not refer to a simple
past, but to a Pluperfect time, and it is therefore in the Pluperfect
Indicative, and not in the Conditional Past.
If he is here I do not see him. The verb is refers to the Present
time, and not to the Future, and is therefore in the Indicative Pre-
sent, and not in the Conditional Future. In the sentence, If he
is there when we arrive we shall see him, the verb is, referring to
a Future time, is in the Conditional Future.

In the same way the Conditional Tenses of the Active and Pas-
sive verb are to be distinguished from those tenses of the Indicative
and the Potential, which have the same form. The Conditional
Tenses usually follow conjunctions; they sometimes, however,
follow other verbs.

An Active or a Neuter Verb may be conjugated through all its

modes and tenses, by adding its Present Participle, to the verb
To be : This is called the P?*ogressive form because ; it expresses
the continuation of action or state : Thus,

Present. Past.
I am loving Iwas loving
You are loving You was loving
He is ioving, &c. He was loving, &c.
The Present and Past Indicative are also conjugated by the
assistance of Do,
which is called the Emphatic form ; Thus,

Present. Past.
I do love I did love
You do love You did love
He does love, &c. He did love, &c.

Rule I.

Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x, or o,form the third person sin-
gular of the Present Indicative, by adding es.v Thus,

He dress-es, march-es, brush-es, fix-es, go-es.

48 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
Rule II.

Verbs in y, change y info i before the terminations est, es, eth,

and ed but not before ing
; ; — Y, with a vowel before it, is not
changed into i : Thus,
Pres. Try, triest, tries or trieth.* Past, tried. Part, trying.
Pres. Pray pray est, prays or pray eth 4 Past, prayed. Part, praying.
,

Rule III.

Verbs accented on the last syllable, and verbs of one syllable,

ending in a single Consonant preceded by a single vowel, double
the final consonant before the terminations, est, eth, ed, ing;
but never before s Thus, :

Allot, allottest, allots, allotteth, allotted, allotting.

Blot, blottest, blots, blotteth, blotted, blotting.

Irregular Verbs.
A regular verb is one that forms its Past tense and
Indefinite Passive participle by adding d or ed to the
present ; as, Love, loved, loved.
An irregular verb is one that does not form both its

Past tense and Indefinite Passive participle by adding

d or ed to the present as, ;

Present. Past. Indef Pass. Participle.

Abide abode
Am was
Arise arose
Awake awoke nf awaked
Bear, to bring forth bore,§ bare born
Bear, to carry bore, bare borne
Beat beat beaten, or beat
Begin began begun
Bend bent r bent r

* Nevter Verbs, as they have no Passive form, can have no Passive

Participle. See page 53.
For remarks on the Indef. Pass. Participle, the form Been, and on the
verbal termination en, see the Key.
f Those Verbs which are conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly,
are marked with an R.
X This form of the third pers. sing. Indie. Present, is used in the
solemn style.
$ Bore is now more used than bare.
 VERBS. 49

Present. Past. 2nd. Pass. Part.

Bereave bereft r bereft r.
Beseech besought besought
Bid,/or- bid, bad, ba.de bidden
Bind, un~ bound bound
Bite bit bitten, bit
Bleed bled bled
Blow blew blown
Break broke broken
Breed bred bred
Bring brought brought
Build, re- builtf built
Burst burst burst
Buy bought bought
Cast cast cast
Catch caught r caught r
Chide chid chidden, or chid
Choose chose chosen
*
Cleave, to adhere clave r
Cleave, to split clove, or cleft cloven, or cleft
Cling *
clung
Clothe clothed clad r
Come, *
be- came
Cost *
cost
*
Crow- crew r
Creep *
crept
Cut cut cut
Bare, to venture c
durst
Dare, to challenge dared r dared
Deal dealt r dealt r
Big dug, or digged dug, or digged
Do, mis-un-$ did done
Draw, with- drew drawn
Drink drank drunk
Drive drove driven
*
Dwell dwelt r
Eat ate, or eat eaten
Fall, be- fell
*

* See note Page 48, and Page 53.

f Build, dwell, and several other verbs, have the regular form builded,
& welled, &c.
X The compound verbs are conjugated like the simple, by prefixing the
syllables appended to them thus, Undo,
: undid, undone.
5
50 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
Present, Pud. Lid. Pass. Pait.
Feed fed fed
Feel felt felt
Fight fought fought
Find found found
*
Y\ee,from a foe fled
Fling flung flung
*
Fly, as a bird flew
Forbear forbore forborne
Forget forgot forgotten, forgot
Forsake forsook forsaken
Freeze froze frozen
Get, be for- gotf got, gotten!:
Gild gilt r giltR
Gird, be-en- girt r girt r
Give, for-mis- gave given
Go *
went
Grave, en- r graved graven
Grind ground ground
Grow grew grown
Hang hung hung§
Hive had had
Hear heard heard
Hew, hewed hewn r
Hide hid hidden, or hid
Hit hit hit
Hoi J, be-wiih- held held
Hurt hurt hurt
Keep kept kept
Knit knit r knit, or knitted
Know knew known
Lade laded laden
Lay, in- laid laid
head, mis- led led
heave left left
Lend lent lent
Let let let
*
Lie, to lie dmvn lay

* See note Page 48, and Page 53.

f Gat and begat are often used in the Scriptures for got and begot.

X Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgot ten is still in good use.
$ Hang, to take away life by hanging, is regular; as, The Robber was
hanged, but the gown was hung up.
 VERBS. 51

Present, Post. Ind. Pass. Part.

Load loaded laden r
Lose lost lost
Make made made
Mean meant meant
Meet met met
Mow mowed mown r
Pay, re- paid paid
Put put put
Quit quit, or quitted quit r
Read read read
Rend rent rent
Rid rid rid
Ride rode ridden, or rode
Ring rang, or rung rung
Rise, a- rose *

Rive rived riven

Run ran *

Saw sawed sawn r

Say said said
See saw seen
Seek sought sought
Seethe seethed, or sod sodden
Sell sold sold
Send sent sent
Set, he- set set
Shake shook shaken
Shape, mis- shaped shapen r
Shave shaved shaven r
Shear shore r shorn
Shed shed shed
Shine shone r *

Shoe shod shod

Shoot shot shot
Showf showed shown
Shrink shrank, or shrunk shrunk
Shred shred shred
Shut shut shut
Sing sang, or sung sung
Sink sank, or sunk sunk

* See note Page 48, and Page 53.

f Or Shew, shewed, shewn —pronounced show, &c>
52 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
Present. Past Ind. Pass. Part.
Sit satj- *
Slay slew slain
Sleep slept *
Slide slid slidden
Sling slang, or slung slung
Slink slank, or slunk *
Slit slit, or slitted slit, or slitted
Smite smote smitten
Sow sowed sown ii

Speak, be- spoke, spake spoken

Speed sped sped
Spend, mis- spent spent
Spill spilt R spilt R
Spin spun, or span spun
Spit, be-% spit, or spat *

Split split split

Spread, be- spread spread
Spring sprang, or sprung sprung
*
Stand, with-§ &c. stood
Steal stole stolen
Stick stuck stuck
Sting stung stung
Stink stank, or stunk *

Stride, be- strode, or strid stridden

Strike struck struck, stricken
String Strang, or strung strung
Strive strove *

Strew, \be- strewed strewed, or

Strow strowed strown, strowed
Swear swore, or sware sworn
Sweat sweat sweat
Sweep swept swept
Swell swelled swollen r
Swim swam, or swum *

Swing swang, or swung swung

Take, be- &c. took taken

* See note, page 48, and page 53.

f Many authors use sate as the past time of sit ; but this is improper,
forit is apt to be confounded with sate, to glut.

X Strew and shew are now giving way to strow and show.
$ Bespit and withstand are active verbs, and have the Indef. Pass. Part.
bespit and withstood.
 VERBS. 53
«-

Present. Past Ind. Pass. Part.

Teach, mis-re- taught taught
Tear un- tore torn
Tell told told
Think, he- thought thought
Thrive throve *

Throw threw thrown

Thrust thrust thrust
Tread trod trodden
Wax waxed *

Wear wore worn

Weave wove woven
Weep wept wept
Win won won
Wind wound wound
Work wrought r wrought, worked
Wring wrung wrung
Write wrote written

For the convenience of the pupil, the following table is given :

itshows that form of the Neuter verbs which is used in forming

the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect tenses, and which
would be called the Indefinite Passive Participle, if Neuter verbs
could have the Passive.

j. rcsau. JTLUSl.

Abide abode abode

Am was been
Arise arose arisen
Cleave, to adhere clave b cleaved
Cling clung clung
Come, be- came come
Cost cost cost
Crow crew b crowed
Creep crept crept
Dare, to venture durst dared
Dwell dwelt b dwelt
Fall, be- fell fallen
Flee, from a foe fled fled
Fly flew flown
Go went gone
Lie, to lie down lay lain, or lien
Rise rose risen
Run ran run
5*
 ;;;

54 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
Present Past.
Shine shone r shone r
Sit sat sat
Sleep slept slept
Slink slank, or slunk slunk
Spit spit,or spat spit, or spitten
Stand stood stood
Stink stank, or stunk stunk
Strive strove striven
Swim swam, or swum swum
Thrive throve thriven
Wax* waxed waxen
Defective verbs are those which want some of their modes
tenses.
Pres. Past Pres. Past.
Can could Shall should
May might Will would
Must must Wis wist
Ought ought Wit or ? wot
quoth Wot 5

EXERCISES ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS.

Mention the Past Tense and Indefinite Passive Participle of
Take drive begin buy bring catch; bereave ; burst draw
; ; ; ; ; ;

drink get give feel forsake grow have hear hide keep
; ;
; ; ; ; ; ; ;

know lose pay ; ride ring shake seek sell see slay.
;
;
; ; ; ; ; ;

ADVERBS.
An adverb is a word joined to a verb, an adjective,
or another adverb, to express some quality or circum-
stance of time, place, or manner, respecting it as, ;

^ Ann speaks distinctly ; she is remarkably diligent,

and reads very correctly.
A LIST OF ADVERBS.
So ; no ; not ; nay ;
yea yes ;
too well ; up ; very ; forth
; ;

how ; why ; far ; now ; then ill soon ; much ; here

; ; there ; ;

where ; when ; whence ; thence still ; more most ; little ; less

; ;

* This word is used in the Bible, as, The sun waxed warm.
 ;

ADVERBS. 55

least ; ever ; never ; while whilst ; once ; twice ;

thus ; since ; ;

thrice ; quite ; rather ; again ; ago ; seldom ; often

first ; scarcely ;

indeed; exceedingly; already; hither; thither; whither; doubt-

less ; haply ;
perhaps ; enough ; daily ; always ; sometimes ;

almost alone ; peradventure ;

; backward forward upward ; ;
;

downward ; together ; apart ; asunder ; to and fro ; in fine.

OBSERVATIONS.
As and so, without a corresponding as or so, are adverbs.
The most of those words that end in ly, are adverbs of manner
or quality. They are formed from adjectives by adding ly as -

from foolish comes foolishly.

The compounds of here, there, where, and hither, thither, and
whither, are all adverbs except therefore and wherefore, occa-
:

sionally conjunctions.
Some adverbs are compared like adjectives ; as, often, oftener,
oftenest. Some words as, ashore, afoot, aground, &c. are all
adverbs.
When more and most qualify nouns they are adjectives ; but in
every other situation they are adverbs.
An adjective with a preposition before it, is an adverb ; as, in
general, in haste, &c. i. e. generally, hastily.
There are many words that are sometimes used as adverbs • as,
I am more and sometimes as
afraid than ever ; adjectives ,- as, He
has more wealth than wisdom.
Some words are both prepositions and adverbs ; as, about (prep.)
the house ; he rides about, (adv.)

Exercises on Adverbs, Irregular Verbs, &c.

Immediately the cock crew. Peter wept bitterly. He is here
now. She went away yesterday. They came to-day. They
will perhaps buy some to-morrow. Ye shall know hereafter. She
sung sweetly. Cats soon learn to catch mice. Mary rose up
hastily. They that have enough may soundly sleep. Cain
wickedly slew his brother. I saw him long ago. He is a very
good man. Sooner or later all must die. You read too little.
They talk too much. James acted wisely. How many lines can
you repeat 1 You ran hastily. He speaks fluently. Then were
they glad. He fell fast asleep. She should not hold her head
a-wry. The ship was driven ashore. No, indeed. They are all
alike. Let him that is athirst drink freely. The oftener you read
attentively, the more you will improve.
 . — ;

56 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.

OBSERVATIONS.
To-day, yesterday, and to-morrow, are adverbs.
Much is used,
1 as an adverb ; as, It is much better to give than to receive.
2. as an adjective ; as, In much wisdom is much grief.
3. as a noun ; as, Where much is given, much is required.

To, before the infinitive of verbs, is an adverb, according to

Johnson, and according to Murray, a preposition. The two toge-
ther may be called the infinitive.
Enough, (a sufficiency) is here a noun. Its plural, enow, is
applied, like many, to things that are numbered. Enough, an adj.
like much, should perhaps be applied only to things that are
weighed or measured. _.

PREPOSITIONS.
A
preposition is a word put before nouns and pro-
nouns, to show the relation between them and some
other word as, He sailed from Bristol to New York
;

in twelve days.

A LIST OF PREPOSITIONS.
About above ; according to
; across after ; against ; along
; ;

amid; amidst; among; amongst; around ; at; athwart. Bating;

before ; behind below beneath ; beside ; besides ; between be-
; ; ;

twixt beyond by.

; Concerning.; Down ; during. Except
excepting. For; from. In; into; instead of. Near; nigh. Of;
off; on; over; out of. Past. Regarding; respecting; round.
Since. Through throughout till ; to ; touching ;
; ;towards.
Under; underneath; unto; up; upon. With; within; without.

OBSERVATIONS.
Every preposition requires an objective case after it. When a'
preposition is not followed by a noun, depending upon it, it be-
comes an adverb as, He rides about. ;

Some words are used as prepositions in one place, and as adverbs

in another ; thus, Before is a preposition when it refers to place ;
as, He
stood before the door ; and an adverb when it refers to
time,- as, Before that Philip called thee, I saw thee. The word
before, however, and others in similar situations, may still be con-
sidered as prepositions, ifwe supply an appropriate noun ; as, Be-
fore the time that Philip, &c.
 ;

CONJUNCTIONS. 57

Towards is a prepisit'on, but toward is an adjective, and

means " Ready to do or learn compliant with duty; not fro ward."
;

Toward is sometimes improperly used for towards.

The Inseparable Prepositions are omitted, because an explana-
tion of them can impart no information without a previous know-
ledge of the radical word. Suppose the pupil is toid that con means
together, will this explain convene to him ] No he must first be :

told that vene signifies to come, and then CON, together. Would
zt not be better to tell him at once that convene means to come or
call together ?

Some grammarians distribute adverbs into classes ; such as

adverbs of negation, affirmation, &c.
—
prepositions into separable
and inseparable and conjunctions, into seven classes, besides the
—
two mentioned here. Such a classification has been omitted here,
because its utility is questionable.

CONJUNCTIONS.
A conjunction is a word which joins words and
sentences together as, You and I must go to ride
;

but Peter may stay at home.

A LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS.
Copulative. —
Also; and; because; both; for; if; since; that;
then ; therefore ; wherefore.
Disjunctive. —Although; as; as well as; but; either; except;
lest ; neither nor
; notwithstanding
; ; or ; provided ; so ; than ;
though ; unless ; whether yet. ;

Exercises on Conjunctions, &c.

Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. Blessed
are the meek ; for they shall inherit the earth. The life is more
than meat, and the body is more than raiment. Consider the
ravens ; for they neither sow nor reap ; which have neither store-
house nor barn ; and God feedeth them. You are happy, because
you are good.

OBSERVATIONS.
When for can be turned into because, it is a Conjunction.
Several words which are marked as adverbs in Johnson's Dic-
tionary, are in many Grammars marked as conjunctions ; such as,
Albeit s eke,- moreover ,• likewise ,- otherwise,- nevertheless ; then,-
therefore; wherefore. They are properly adverbs.
58 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
But in some cases is an adverb ,- as, " We are but (only) of
yesterday, and know nothing."
Sometimes the same words are used as conjunctions in one
place, and as prepositions or adverbs in another place as, Since ;

(conj.) we must part, let us do it peaceably 1 have not seen him ;

since (prep.) that time ; Our friendship commenced long since (adv.)

INTERJECTIONS.
An Interjection is a word which expresses some
emotion of the speaker ; as, Oh, what a sight is here !

Well done!
A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS.
Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alack away aha! begone hark ho ha
! ! ! ! ! !

he ! hail ! halloo ! hum hush huzza hist hey-day lo O

! ! ! ! ! ! !

strange ! O brave ! jpshaw see well-a-day, &c.

! !

Correct the following Errors,

1saw a boy which is blind. We saw an ass who brayed at us.

I saw a flock of gooses. They will stay this two days.
This is the horse who was lost. We was not there.
This is the hat whom I wear. I loves him.
John is here, she is a good boy. He love me.
The hen lays his eggs. Thou have been busy.
Jane is here, he reads well. He dare not speak.
I saw two mouses. She needs not do it.
The dog follows her master. We was sorry for it.
This two horses eat hay. Thou might not go.
John met three mans. He dost not learn.
We saw two childs. If I does that.
He has but one teeth. Thou may do it.
The well is ten foot deep. The book were lost.
Look at the oxes. Thou will better stop.
This horse will let me ride on her. The horses was sold.
I can stay this two hours. The boys was reading.
I have two pen-knifes. I teaches him grammar.
My lady has got his fan. He are not attentive to it.

Two pair of ladies's go out.

gloves. Thou shall not
Henry the Eighth had six wifes. If I bees not at home.
1 saw the man which sings. Thou can do nothing for me.
 ;

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 59

EXERCISES IN PARSING.
The following exercises in Parsing are arranged on a plan new and
important.
Some of the most material points, and those that are apt to puzzle the
pupil, have been selected, and made the subject of a set of Exercises.
By this means, the same point must come so often under his eye, and be
so often repeated, that it cannot fail to make a strong impression on his
mind ; and even should he forget it, it will be easy to refresh his me-
mory by turning to it again.
To give full scope to the pupil's discriminating powers, the exercises
contain all the parts of speech, promiscuously arranged, to be used thus.
1. After the pupil has learned the definition of a noun, exercise him in
going over any part of the exercises in parsing, and pointingout the nouns
only. This will oblige him to exercise his powers of discrimination in
distinguishing the nouns from the other words.
2. After learning the definition of an adjective, exercise him in select-
ing all the adjectives from the other words, and telling why they are
adjectives.
3. After getting all the pronouns very accurately by heart, let him point
out them, in addition to the nouns and adjectives.
4. Then the verb, without telling of what sort it is, or of what number,
or person, or mode, or tense, till he can distinguish with great readiness.
it

5. In the same way, after learning the definition of an adverb, preposi-

tion, and conjunction, exercise him orally with short sentences containing
adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, and then on those in the book.
6. In the last course, after he has learned the rules of Syntax, he should
go over the exercises again, and tell every thing about nouns and verbs,
&c
—
Explain to the pupil what parsing is; that it is describing the words
in a sentence, telling of what sort, i. e. what part of speech each one is
what is its gender, number, mode, tense. &c. ; what other word it depends
upon or is in any way connected with, and giving the rules at every step.
In the Exercises on Parsing. the sentences on every page are numbered
by small figures, to enable the reader to find out any sentence in the Key
which he may wish to consult.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.
No. a.
1. A
good conscience and a contented mind will make a man
happy. 2. Philosophy teaches us to endure afflictions, but Chris-
tianity to enjoy them, by turning them into blessings. 3. Virtue
ennobles the mind, but vice debases it. 4. Application in the early
period of life, will give happiness and ease to succeeding years.
5. A good conscience fears nothing. 6. Devotion promotes and
strengthens virtue calms and regulates the temper and fills the
; ;

heart with gratitude and praise. 7. Dissimulation degrades talents

60 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
and learning, obscures the lustre of every accomplishment, and
sinks us into universal contempt.
8. If we
lay no restraint upon our lusts, no control upon our
appetites and passions, they will hurry us into guilt and misery.
9. Discretion stamps a value upon all our other qualities it in-
;

structs us to make use of them at proper times, and turn them

honorably to our own advantage: it shows itself alike in all our
words and actions, and serves as an unerring guide in every occur-
rence of life. 10. Shame and disappointment attend sloth and
idleness. 1 1. Indolence undermines the foundation of every virtue,

and unfits a man for the social duties of life.

12. Knowledge gives ease to solitude, and gracefulness to re-
tirement. ought to form our address, to regulate
13. Gentleness
our speech, and to diffuse itself over our whole behavior. 1 4. Know-
ledge makes our being pleasant to us, fills the mind with enter-
taining views, and administers to it a perpetual series of gratifica-
tions. 15. Meekness controls our angry passions; candor our
severe judgments. 16. Perseverance in labor will surmount every
difficulty. 1 7. He that takes pleasure in the prosperity of others,

enjoys part of their good fortune. 18. Restlessness of mind dis-

qualifies us both for the enjoyment of our peace, and the perform-
ance of our duty. 19. Sadness contracts the mind; mirth
dilates it.

20. We
should subject our fancies to the government of reason.
21. Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospects
of many a youth. 22. Affluence may give us respect in the
eyes of the vulgar ; but it will not recommend us to the wise and
good. 23. Complaisance produces good nature and mutual bene-
volence, encourages the timorous, and soothes the turbulent.
24. A constant perseverance in the paths of virtue will gain
respect. 25. Envy and wrath shorten life; and anxiety bringeth*
age before its time. 26. Bad habits require immediate reformation.

No. b.

1. Economy is no disgrace:
better to live on a little, than
it is

to outlive a great deal. 2. A

virtuous education is a better inhe-
ritance than a great estate. 3. Good and wise men only can be
real friends. 4. Friendship can scarcely exist where virtue is not
the foundation. 5. He that swells in prosperity, will shrink in
adversity. 6. To despair in adversity, is madness. 7. From

* In the solemn style, verba have in the 3d pers. sing, of the pres. Indi-
cative, the termination eth; as, loveth, heareth; or, th ; as, hath, doth.
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 61

idleness arises neither pleasure nor advantage : we must flee there-

fore from idleness, the certain parent of guilt and ruin.
8. You must not always rely on promises. 9. The peace of
society dependeth* on justice. 10. He that walketh* with wise men
shall be wise. 11. He that sitteth* with the profane is foolish.
12. The coach arrives daily. 13. The mail travels fast. 14. Rain
falls in great abundance here. 15. He sleeps soundly. 16. She
dances gracefully. 17. I went to London. 18. He lives soberly.
19. He
hurried to his house in the country. 20. They smiled.
21. She laughed. 22. He that liveth* in pleasure is dead while
he liveth.* 23. Nothing appears to be so low and mean as lying
and dissimulation. 24. Vice is its own punishment, and virtue is
its own reward. 25. Industry is the road to wealth, and virtue to
happiness.

No. C.

1. Virtue must he formed and supported by daily and repeated

exertions. 2. You may be deprived of honor and riches against
your will ; but not of virtue without your consent. 3. Virtue is
connected with eminence in every liberal art. 4. Many are brought
to ruin by extravagance and dissipation. 5. The best designs are
often ruined by unnecessary delay. 6. All our recreations should
be accompanied with virtue and innocence. 7. Almost all diffi-
culties may be overcome by diligence. 8. Old friends are pre-
served, and new ones are procured by a grateful disposition.
9. Words are like arrows, and should not be shot at random.

10. A desire to be thought learned often prevents our improve-

ment. 11. Great merit is often concealed under the most unpro-
mising appearances. 12. Some talents are buried in the earth,
and others are properly employed. 13. Much mischief has often
been prevented by timely consideration. 14. True pleasure is
only to be found in the paths of virtue and every deviation from
;

them will be attended with pain. 15. Thatf friend is highly to

be respected at ail times, whose friendship is chiefly distinguished
in adversity^
16. There not a more pleasing exercise of the mind than
is

gratitude : accompanied with such an inward satisfaction, that

it is

the duty is sufficiently rewarded by the performance. 17. The

mind should be stored with knowledge, and cultivated with care.
18. A pardon was obtained for him from the king. 19. Our most

* See Note on page 60.

f Concerning that, see Notes on page 17.*
6
62 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
sanguine prospects have often been blasted. 20. Too sanguine
hopes of any earthly thing should never be entertained. 21. The
table of Dionysius the tyrant was loaded with delicacies of every
kind, yet he could not eat. 22. I have long been taught, that the
afflictions of this life are overpaid by that eternal weight of glory
which awaits the virtuous.
is required to bear good fortune than bad.
23. Greater virtue
24. Riches and honor have always been reserved for the good.
25. King Alfred is said to have divided the day and night into
three parts: eight hours were allotted to meals and sleep, eight
were allotted to business and recreation, and eight to study and
devotion. 26. All our actions should be regulated by religion and
reason. 27. Honors, monuments, and all the works of vanity and
ambition, are demolished and destroyed by time; but the reputation
of wisdom is transmitted to posterity. 28. These two things can-
not be disjoined ; a pious life and a happy death.

No. d.
1.Forget the faults of others, and remember your own. 2. Study
universal rectitude, and cherish religious hope. 3. Suit your de-
sires to things, and not things to your desires. 4. Cherish virtuous
principles, and be ever steady in your conduct. 5. Practise humi-
lity, and reject every thing in dress, carriage, or conversation, which

has any appearance of pride. 6. Allow nothing to interrupt your

public or private devotions, except the performance of some humane
action.

7. " Learn to contemn all praise betimes,

For* flattery is the nurse of crimes."
8. Consider yourself a citizen of the world ; and deem nothing
w hich
T
regards humanity unworthy of your notice. 9. Presume
not in prosperity, and despair not in adversity. 10. Be kind and
courteous to all, and be not eager to take offence without just
reason. 11. Beware of ill customs; they creep upon us insi-^

diously, and by slow degrees.

12. " O man, degenerate man, offend no more!
!"
Go-f- learn of brutes, thy Maker to adore

13. Let your religion* connect preparation for heaven w ith an

r

honorable discharge of the duties of active life. 14. Let your words*
agree with your thoughts, and* be followed by your actions.

* See Note on for, page 57.

f Go and learn are both in the imperative.

X See Note page 63.

 —

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 63

15. Letyour thoughts, words, and actions be tinctured* with

all
humility, modesty, and candor. 16. Let him who wishes for an
effectual cure for a!l the wounds the world can inflict,* retire from
intercourse with men to intercourse with his Creator.
17. Let no reproach make you* lay aside holiness; the frowns
of the world are nothing to the smiles of heaven. 18. Let reason
go before enterprise, and counsel before every action. 19. Hear
Ann read her lesson. 20. Bid her get it better. 21. You need
not hear her again. 22. I perceive her weep. 23. I feel it pain
me. 24. I dare not go. 25. You behold him run. 26. We
observed him walk off hastily.
27. And that tongue of his, that bade the Romans
Mark* him, and write his speeches in their books,
Alas ! it cried —give me some drink, Titiuius.

28. Deal with another as you'd have

Another* deal with you ;

What you're unwilling to receive,

Be sure you never do.
29. Abstain from pleasure and bear evil. 30. Expect the same
filial duty from your children which you paid to your parents.

No. e.

Do, did, and have, are auxiliary verbs when joined to another verb ; when
not joined to another verb, they are principal verbs, and have auxiliaries
like the verb to love.

1 . He who
does not perform w hat he has promised is a traitor
T

to his friend. 2. Earthly- happiness does not flow from riches;

but from content of mind, health of body, and a life of piety and
virtue. 3. Examples do not authorise a fault. 4. If we do not
study the Scriptures, they will n<wer make us wise. 5. The butler
did not remember Joseph. 6. You did not get enough time to
prepare your lessons. 7. Did you see my book 7 8. Do you go
to-morrow? 9. I do not think it proper to play too long. 10. Did
he deceive you ? 11. He did deceive me. 12. I do not hate my
enemies. 13. Wisdom does not make a man proud.

14. He who does the most good,-)- has the most pleasure.

* The next verb after hid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let, perceive^
behold, observe, have, and know, is in the Infinitive, having to understood;
as, "The tempest-loving raven scarce dares (to) iring- the dubious dusk."
I have known him (to) divert the money, &c. To is often used after the
compound tenses of these verbs ; as, Who
dare to advance, if I say stop 1 —
Them did he make to pay tribute.
f Have, hast, has, hath, had, and hadst, are auxiliaries only when they
have the Indef. Pass. Participle of another verb after them.
 —
64 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.
15, Instead of adding to the afflictions of others, do whatever you
can them.
to alleviate 16. If ye do these things, ye shall never
fall. 17. If thou canst do any thing, have compassion on us, and
help us. 18. He did his work well. 19. Did he do his work
well] 20. Did you do what I requested you to do ? 21. Deceit
betrays a littleness of mind, and is the resource of one who has
not courage to avow his failings. 22. have no bread. We
No./.
The verb to be has very often an adjective after it; and some adjectives
seem so closely combined with it, as to lead the pupil to suppose that
it is a passive verb.

1. Prudence and moderation are productive of true peace and

comfort. 2. If the powers of reflection were cultivated* by habit,
mankind would at all times be able to derive pleasure from their
own breasts, as rational as it is exalted. 3. Learning is preferable
to riches but virtue is preferable to both. 4. He who rests on a
;

principle within, is incapable of betraying his trust, or deserting

his friend. Saul was afraid of David. 6. And the men were
5.
afraid. 7. One would have thought she should have been con-
tented.
8. Few things are impracticable in themselves. 9. To study
without intermission is impossible: relaxation is necessary; but
it should be moderate. 10. The Athenians were conceited on
account of their own wit, science, and politeness. 11. are We
indebted to our ancestors for our civil and religious liberty. 12. Many
things are worth inquiry to one man, which are not so to another.
13. An idle person is a kind of monster in the creation, because
all nature is busy about him. 14. Impress your minds with
reverence for all that is siicred. 15. He was unfortunate, because
he was inconsiderate. 16. She is conscious of her deficiency, and
will therefore be busy. 17. I am ashamed of you. 18. She is
sadly forlorn.

No. g.
f What is equal to that which —or the thing which.

1. Kegard the quality, rather than the quantity of what you

read. 2. If we
to-morrow what ought to be done to-day,
delay till

we overcharge the to-morrow with a burden which belongs not to

* Were cultivated, a passive verb.

—
fit represents two cases; sometimes two nominatives; sometimes —
—
two objectives; sometimes a nominative and an objective; and some- —
—
limes an objective and a nominative. Sometimes it is an adjective.
 — — ! —

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 65

it 3. is most fit: custom will make it the most

Choose what
agreeable. Foolish men are more apt to consider what they
4.
have lost, than what they possess, and to turn their eyes on those
who are richer than themselves, rather than on those who are
under greater difficulties.
5. What cannot be mended or prevented, must be endured.
6. Be attentive to what you are about, and take pains to do it
well. 7. What you do not hear to-day, you will not tell to-mor-
row. 8. Mark Antony, when under adverse circumstances, made
this interesting remark " I have lost all, except what I gave away."
:

9. Mark what it is his mind aims at in the question, and not what*
words he utters.
10. By what means shall I obtain wisdom?
See what* a grace was seated on his brow

No. h.
The compound relatives, whoever and whosoever —are equal to he who,
or,any one tcho.
% Whatever and whatsoever are equal to the thing which.

Whatever gives pain to others, deserves not the name of plea-

1.

sure. 2. Whoever lives under an habitual sense of the Divine

presence, keeps up a perpetual cheerfulness of temper. 3. What-
soever is set before you, eat. 4. Aspire after perfection inf what-
ever state of life you choose. 5. Whoever is not content in poverty,
would not be so in plenty ; for the fault is not in the thing, but in
the mind. 6. Whatever is worth doing, is worth doing well.

7. By whatever arts you may at first attract the attention, you

-f-

can hold the esteem, and secure the hearts of others, only by
amiable dispositions, and the accomplishments of the mind.
8. Whatever delight, or whatever solace is granted by the celestials
to soften our fatigues —
in thy presence, O Health, thou parent of
happiness all those joys spread out and flourish. 9. -\ Whatever
!

your situation in life may be, nothing is more necessary to your

success, than the acquirement of virtuous dispositions and habits.
10. Whatever be the motive of insult, it is always best to over-
-j-

look it, and revenge it in no circumstances whatever.

* What here, and generally in questions, is an adjective, like many in

"many —
a flower.'* Sometimes it is an interjection; as, What!
What sometimes used as an adverb for partly ; thus, What with think-
is
ing, what with writing, and what with reading, I am weary.
| Some may prefer to say that whatever is an adjective here, for it quali-
fies arts ,&c; and where no noun is after it, it agrees with thing understood.
Thus, Whatever may be the motive, &c, that is, Whatever thing may he^
% They represent two cases like what, as on page 64.
6*
 :

66 ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY.

No. L
Active and Neuter verbs are often conjugated with their Present Partici-
ple, joined to the verb to be.*

1. While I am reading, you should be listening to what I

read. 2. He was delivering his speech when I left the house.
3. They have been writing on botany. 4. He might have been
rising to eminence. 5. I have been writing a letter, and I am just
going to send it away. 6. She was walking by herself when I
met her.We are perishing with hunger I am willing there-
7. ;

fore to surrender. 8. We should always be learning. 9. A good

man is always studying to be better. 10. We were hearing a
sermon yesterday.

No. j.
I. The poets often use an adjective as a noun, and sometimes join an adjec-
tive to their new-made noun,
II. They sometimes improperly use an adjective for an adverb.
1. And where He must be joy.
vital breathes there
Who shall attempt with wandering feet
The dark, unbottomed, infinite abyss,
And through the palpable obscure find out
His uncouth way, or spread his airy flight,
Upborne with indefatigable wings,
Over the vast abrupt, e'er he arrivej-
The happy isle 1 Paradise Lost, b. ii. 404.
2. Thus Adam his illustrious guest besought
And thus the god-like angel answered mild.
The lovely young Lavinia once had friends,
And fortune smiled deceitful on her birth.
When even at last the solemn hour shall come
To wing my mystic flight to future worlds,
I cheerful will obey there, with new powers,
;

Will rising wonders sing.

The rapid radiance instantaneous strikes
The illumined mountain. Gradual sinks the breeze
Into a perfect calm.
Each animal, conscious of some danger, fled
Precipitate the loathed abode of man.

Many words both in inn- and ed are mere adjectives.

*
f The poets often omit the preposition. It should be, " E'er he arrive
at the happy isle." And again, "Here he had need all circumspection,"
for, need of all circumspection.
 SYNTAX.
Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats of the

proper arrangement, connection, and dependence of

words in a sentence.*

A sentence is an assemblage of words making com-

plete sense : as, John is happy.
Sentences are either simple or compound.
A simple sentence contains but one subject and one
iinitet verb ; as, Life is short*
A compound sentence contains two or more simple
sentences connected by one or more conjunctions ; as,

Time is short, but eternity is long.

A phrase is two or more words used to express a
certain relation between ideas, without affirming any-
thing; as, In truth; To be plain with you.
The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the
subject, the verb, and the object^

* Syntax principally consists of two parts, Agreement or Concord and

Government-
Agreement the correspondence
is which one word has to another, in
number, gender, ease, or person.
Government is that power which one part of speech has over another,
in determining its mode, tense, number, person or case.
One word is said to depend upon another, when its mode, tense, num-
ber, person, or ease is determined by that word.

One word said to belong to another

is when it is closely connected with
it in grammatical construction.

f Finite verbs are those to which number and person Delong. The
Infinitive mode has no respect to number or person.

t See page 15.

67
 »

6S ENGLISH SYNTAX*
Rule I. A verb must agree with its nominative m
number and person;* as, Thou readest ; He reads;
We read* ,

EXERCISES.
I love reading* A
soft answer turns away wrath. We
are but
of yesterday and know nothing. Thou shalt not follow a multitude
to do evil. The days of man are but as grass* All things are
naked and open to the eyes of him with whom we have to do. All
'things were created by him. In him we live and move. Frequent
commission of crimes hardens his heart. In our earliest youth the
contagion of manners is observable. The pyramids of Egypt have
stood more than three thousand years* The number of our days-
is with thee, A judicious arrangement of studies iaciiitates im-
provement-

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
A variety
of pleasing objects charm the eye. A few pangs of
conscience now and then interrupts his pleasure, and whispers to*
him that he onee had better thoughts. There is more cultivators
of the earth than of their own beasts. Nothing But vain and fool-
ish pursuits delight some persons. Not one of those whom thou
sees clothed in purple are happy* There^s two or three of us who>
have seen the work*

OBSERVATIONS.
The
1 . subject of the verb should be in the nominative ; thus*
Him and her were married, should be, He and she mere married*
—
Correct these Examples*. Him and her were of the same age„
Him and me are going to school*
2. The Nominativef, though generally placed before the verb, is oftor*
it ; especially when the sentence begins with Here,lhcre^
placed after
&c, or when if or though is understood; and when a question is asked*.
Among the many enemies of friendship may be reckoned «

suspicion and disgust. Among the great blessings and wonders

of the creation, may be classed the regularities of times and seasons.

* When the nominative is connected with a pronoun, thus, /, the Presi-

dent of the United States; We, the pupils of this school, the verb is of the
same person as the pronoun; but when the noun stands alone, as, 77.
boy runs, the verb is in the third person.
f The noun, which is the subject of the verb, is in the Nominatiye case.*,
(see page 15,) and is therefore often called the Nominative to the Verb ;
the teacher may at pleasure direct the pupil to caU.it the KomiuaJLio^ as
the Subject, or the Subject-Nominative*.
 ENGLISn SYNTAX. 69
Then were they in great fear. Here stands the oak. And
there sat in a window a certain young man, named Eutychus.
Then shall thy light break forth as the morning. Then shalt thou
see clearly. Where is thy brother ] Is he at home ?
There are delivered in the Holy Scriptures many weighty argu-
ments for this doctrine. Were he at leisure, I would wait
upon him. Had he been more prudent, he would have been
more fortunate. Were they wise, the}' would read the Scrip-
tures daily7. I would give more to the poor, were I able.
Could we survey the chambers of sickness and distress, we should
often find them peopled with the victims of intemperance, sensuality,
indolence, and sloth. Were he to assert it, I would not believe
it, because he told a lie before. Gaming is a vice pregnant
with every evil and to it are often sacrificed wealth, happiness,
;

and every thing virtuous and valuable. Is not industry the

road to wealth, and virtue to happiness I

3. The nominative is often at a great distance from the verb.

That man who is neither elated by success, nor dejected by

disappointment, whose conduct is not influenced by any change
of circumstances to deviate from the line of integrity, possesses true
fortitude of mind. That fortitude which has encountered no
dangers, that prudence which has surmounted no difficulties, that
integrity which has been attacked by no temptations, —
can at best
be considered but as gold, not yet brought to the test, of which,
therefore, the true value cannot be assigned.

The man who retires to meditate mischief, and to exasperate

his own rage; whose thoughts are employed only on means of dis-
tress, and contrivances of ruin whose mind never pauses from
;

the remembrance of his own sufferings, but to indulge some hope

—
of enjoying the calamities of another ; may justly be numbered
among the most miserable of human beings; among those who are
guilty without reward who have neither the gladness of prosperity,
;

nor the calm of innocence. He whose constant employment i3

detraction and censure ; who looks only to find faults, and speaks
only to publish them ; will be dreaded, hated, and avoided.

He who through vast immensity can pierce,

See worlds on worlds compose one universe,
Observe how system into system runs,
What other planets circle other suns,
What varied beings people every star,
May tell why Heaven has made us as we are.
 ;

70 ENGLISH SYNTAX.

Rule IT. The infinitive mode, or a part of a sen-

tence, is often the nominative to a verb ; as, To play
is pleasant.
EXERCISES.
To be ashamed of the practice of precepts which the heart
approves and embraces, from a fear of the censure of the world,*
marks a feeble and imperfect character. To endure misfortune
with resignation, and bear it with fortitude, is the striking cha-
racteristic of a great mind. To rejoice in the welfare of our
fellow creatures, is, in a degree, to partake of their good fortune
but to repine at their prosperity, is one of the most despicable traits
of a narrow mind.
To be ever active in laudable pursuits, is the distinguishing
characteristic of a man of merit* To satisfy all his demands, is
the way to make your child truly miserable. To practise virtue,
is the sure it. To be at once merry and malicious,
way to love
is the sign of a corrupt heart and a weak understanding. To
bear adversity well is difficult, but to be temperate in prosperity is
the height of wisdom. To advise the ignorant, relieve the
needy, and comfort the afflicted,-)- are duties that fall in our way,
almost every day of our lives.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
To be carnally minded are death, but to be spiritually minded
are life and peace. To live soberly, righteously,, and piously, are
required of all men. That warm climates should accelerate the
growth of the human body and shorten its duration are very rea-
sonable to believe. To be temperate in eating and drinking, to
use exercise in the open air, and to preserve the mind from
tumultuous emotions, is the best preservatives of health. That it
is our duty to promote the purity of our minds and bodies, to be

just and kind to our fellow creatures, and to be pious and faithful
to him who made us, admit not of any doubt in a rational and
well informed mind.

Rule III. Two or more nominatives in the singu-

lar* connected by and, require a verb or pronoun in

* When nothing hut an infinitive precedes the verh, then it is the infi-
nitive that is the subjectof it ; as, To play is pleasant. But when the infi-
nitive has any adjuncts, as in the sentence, To drink poison is death, it is the
part of a sentence for it is not to drinlcthat is death, hut to drink poison,*
;

t Two or more infinitives require a verb in the plusak

 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 71

the plural; as, James and John are good boys; for
they are busy.*
Two or more nominatives in the singular, separated
by or or nor, require a verb or pronoun in the singu-
lar ; as, James or John is sick.i

EXERCISES.
Mary and Ann home. James and his brother are
are not at
cold. She and her were in the garden yesterday. He and
father
I are going to town. Religion and virtue give dignity to human
nature. Love and esteem are the first principles of friendship.
Fame and reputation are things he will not court, but will deserve.
Socrates and Plato were the most eminent philosophers of Greece.
The rich and poor meet together. Life and death are in the power
of the tongue. The time and place for the conference were agreed
on. Idleness and ignorance are the parent of many vices. John
and I read better than you.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Wisdom, virtue, and happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity.
Luxurious living and high pleasures begets a languor and satiety
that destroys all enjoyment. Out of the same mouth proceedeth
blessing and cursing. John and James is here. Mary and her
cousin has come. John and Thomas says he intends to study
Latin. Neither he nor his brother were there. Either he or James
are going. Neither she nor her sister have been there. He knows
not what spleen, languor, or listlessness are. Neither precept nor
discipline are so forcible as example.Either the boy or the girl were
present. Neither character nor dialogue were yet understood'. The
modest virgin, the prudent wife, or the careful matron, are much
more serviceable in life than petticoated philosophers. It must be
confessed that a lampoon or a satire does not carry in them robbery
or murder. Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch,
which moves merely as they are moved. Man's happiness or
misery are, in a great measure, put in his own hands. When

* And is the only conjunction that combines the agency of two or more
into one; for. as well as, never does that; but merely states a sort of com-
parison ; thus, " Caesar, as well as Cicero, was eloquent."— With is some
times used for and.
•f Or and nor are the only conjunctions applicable
to this rule.
These rules apply also to infinitives, when used as nominatives to
verbs.
72 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune affect us, the sincerity of
friendship is proved. I, or thou, or he are the author of it.

Rule IV. When a noun of multitude conveys

unity of idea, the verb and pronoun should be singu-
lar ; as, The class ivas large.*
When a noun of multitude conveys plurality of idea,
the verb and pronoun should be plural; as, people My
do not consider ; they have not known me.
EXERCISES.
The people is Every class was busy by itself. The
dispersed.
army consists of sixty thousandmen. The poor people go bare-
foot. The crowd quarreled among themselves. There is no
people careless of its own defence. Mankind are naturally jealous
of their rights. The meeting was well attended. The people
have no opinion of their own. Send the multitude away, that
they may go and buy themselves bread. The people were very
numerous. The council were not unanimous. The flock, and not
the fleece, is, or ought to be, the object of the shepherd's care.
When the nation complains, the rulers should listen to its voice.
The regiment consists of a thousand men. The multitude eagerly
pursue pleasure as their chief good.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
The parliament are dissolved. The fleet were seen sailing up
the channel. Why
do this generation seek after a sign 1 The
shoal of herrings were immense. The remnant of the people were
persecuted. The committee was divided in its sentiments. The
army are marching to Cadiz. Some people is busy, and yet does
very little. Never were any nation so infatuated. But this people
who knoweth not the law are cursed. The people rejoices in that
which should give it sorrow. The fleet is all arrived, and is moored
in safety. When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to
their voice. The fleet were seen sailing up the bay.

* A nounof multitude is a noun that denotes many individuals ; thus,

classand crew are nouns of multitude, because there are many scholars
in a classand many sailors in a crew.
A noun of multitude conveys unity of idea, when all the individuals
which it denotes are considered tog-ether: when we say, The class is large,
the noun of multitude, class, conveys unity of idea, because we mean that
all tte scholars together make a large class.
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 73
A noun of multitude conveys plurality of idea when all the individuals
,

which it denotes are considered separately : when we say, The crew were
all sick, the noun of multitude, crew, conveys plurality of idea, because
we mean that every one of the crew was sick.

Rule V. When singular nominatives of different

persons are separated by or or nor, the verb agrees
with the person next it as, Either thou or I am in
;

fault ; I, or thou, or he, is the author of it.*

EXERCISES.
Either I or thou art greatly mistaken. He or I am sure of this
week's prize. Either Thomas or thou hast spilt the ink on my
paper. John or I have done it. He or thou art the person who
must go to London on that business. Either he or I am going.
Either I or you are to blame. I, or thou, or he, is the author of it.

George or I am the person. Either you or I am greatly mistaken

in our opinion on this subject. I or you are the person who must
undertake the business proposed.

Rule VI. A singular and a plural nominative,

separated by or or nor, require a verb in the plural;
as, Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved.t
The plural nominative should be placed next the verb.

EXERCISES.
Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him. He or they
were offended at it. Whether one or more were concerned in the
business, does not yet appear. The cares of this life, or the deceit-
fulness of riches, have choked the seeds of virtue in many a pro-
mising mind. Neither the king nor his ministers deserve to be
praised. Either she or her sisters were commended. Whether he
or they were present is uncertain.
—
Obs. 1. When the verb to be stands between a singular and
a plural nominative, it agrees with the one next it, or with the one
which is more naturally the subject of it; as, " The wages of sin
is death"

* The verb, though expressed only to the last person, is understood in

its proper person to each of the rest, and the sentence when the ellipsis is
supplied stands thus, " Either thou art in fault, or I am in fault.
f The same observation maybe made respecting the manner of supply-
ing the ellipsis under this rule, that was made respecting the last. A par-
donable love of brevity is the cause of the ellipsis in both.
7
74 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
A great cause of the low state of industrywas the restraints put
upon it. His meat was locusts and wild honey. His chief occu-
pation and enjoyment was controversy. Heading and writing were
his chief occupation. Locusts and wild honey were his meat. A
feeble, a harsh, or an obscure style is always faulty.

Obs. 2. —When a pronoun refers to two words of different per-

sons, coupled with and, it becomes plural, and agrees with the first

person when I or we is mentioned ; and with the second, when 1

or we is not mentioned ; as, '"John and I will lend you our books"
" James and you have got your lessons"

Thou and he between you. James and I are attentive

shared it

to our studies. You and

he are diligent in reading your books,
therefore you are good boys. He and I attend to our business.
James and you have got your lessons. He and you honor your
parents.

Rule VII. An active verb has an objective case

depending upon it, either expressed or understood ; as,
We love him ; he loves us.

EXERCISES.
You love me. We can find her. I will follow thee. You
must not follow me. must reprove her. She loves you not.
I
He loves us. Him and them we know, but who art thou]
Her that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. You only have
I known. Let you and me the battle try. Him who committed
the offence thou shouldst correct, not me who am innocent.
Esteeming themselves wise, they became Upon
fools. seeing me
he turned pale.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
She loves he. He
mistook we for them. It hurt they very
much. They rebuke before all. They that help me
that sin
I will reward. He was attached to those who he thought true to
his part)7 Having exposed hisself too much to the fire of the
.

enemy, he soon lost an arm in the action.

The man who he raised from obscurity is dead. Who did they
entertain so freely 1 They are the persons who we ought to
respect. Who having not seen we love. They who opulence has
made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, are not happy.
Obs. 1. —The participle being a part of the verb, can have an
objective after it.
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 75

Exposing himself to danger. Loving a friend. Having eaten

the fruit, he was taken sick.

Obs. 2. —Neuter verbs do not admit of an objective after them.

Correct these Examples.

It will be very difficult to agree his conduct with the principles
he professes. Go, flee thee away into the land of Judea.

Obs. 3. —Active verbs do not admit of a preposition after them.

Correct these Examples,

I shall premise with two or three general observations. He
ingratiates with some by traducing others.
Obs. 4. —The objective after an active verb, especially when a
relative, is often understood.

He that moderates his desires, enjoys the best happiness this

world can afford. Few
reflections are more distressing than
those our own ingratitude. The more true merit
we make on
a man has, the more does he applaud it in others. It is not
easy to love those we do not esttem. Our good or bad fortune
depends on the choice we make of our friends. An over cautious
attention to avoid evils often brings them upon us and we fre- ;

quently run headlong into misfortunes by the very means we pursue

to avoid them. He eats regularly, drinks moderately, and reads
often. She sees and hears distinctly, but she cannot write.
Let him labor with his hands, that he may have to give to him
that needeth.
Obs. 5. — The objective generally comes after the verb on which
it depends ; but when a relative, and in some other cases, it comes
before it.

Me ye have bereaved of my children. Them that honor

me I will honor. Him whom ye ignorantly worship declare I
unto you. Them that were entering in ye hindered. Me
he restored to mine* office, and him he hanged. Those who
have labored to make us wise and good, are the persons whom we
ought particularly to love and respect. The cultivation of taste
is recommended by the happy effects which it naturally tends to
produce on human life. These curiosities we have imported
from China.
Obs. 6.-—The verbs To tell, to give, to teach, and some others,
take after them two objectives, the one of a person, the other of a
thing.

* Mine, used here for my, as thine is for thy.

76 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
And he gave him tithes of all. Who gave thee this authority ?
Ye gave me meat. He gave them bread from heaven. Give me
understanding. Give me thine* heart \ Friend, lend me three
loaves. Sell me thy birth-right. Sell me meat for money. I will
send you corn. Tell me thy name. He taught me grammar. If
thy brother shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault
between thee and him alone. Bring me a candle. Get him a pen.
Write him a letter. Tell me nothing but the truth.
Obs. 7. —Part of a sentence is often used as the objective after
a verb.
You will soon find that the world does not perform what it pro-
mises. Did I not tell you that you would bring him to ruin. Do
all that I command you. Hear what I say to you.
—
Obs. 8. Some passive verbs admit of an objective after them;
as, John was first denied apples, then he was promised them, then
he was offered them.

Rule VIII. A verb in the infinitive mode depends

upon another verb, or upon an adjective, participle,
noun, or pronoun ; as, Forget not to do good. Worthy
to be loved. He has a desire to learn.
To, the sign of the infinitive, is not often used after
the verbs, bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let,
perceive, behold, observe, have, and know.J
EXERCISES.
Strive to learn. They obliged Newton did not
him to do it.

wish to obtrude his discoveries His penetration and

on the public.
diligence seemed to vie with each other. Milton cannot be said to
have contrived the structure of an epic poem. Let him read all the
lesson. The clergyman observing some people sleep at church,
reproved them. I beheld him walk. You need not run. Endea-
voring to persuade. We ought to forgive injuries. They need
* See the Note on the preceding page.
f Friend is the nominative. Supply the ellipsis thus, O thou who art
my friend, lend me, &c.
X To is generally used after the passive of these verbs, except let ; as,
He was made to believe it ; He was let go ; and sometimes after the active,
in the past tense, especially of have, a principal verb ; as, I had to walk all
the way. See p. 63.
The infinitive is often independent of the rest of the sentence ; as, 7\»
proceed ; To confess the truth, I was in fault.
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 77

not call upon her. I dare not proceed so hastily. I have seen
some young persons conduct themselves very discreetly. He bade
me go home.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Cease do Learn do well. I bade him to read distinctly.
evil.
They dare not Xo trust him. We
have heard him to sing. It is
the difference of their conduct which makes us to approve the one,
and to reject the other. We
heard the thunder to roll. It is a
great support to virtue, when we see a good mind to maintain its
patience and tranquillity under injuries and afflictions, and to cor-
dially forgive its oppressors. Let me to do that. I bid my servant
to do this, and he doeth it. I need not to solicit him to do a kind
office.

Rule IX, Neuter and passive verbs often have a

noun or pronoun coming after them, corresponding to
the subject* before them, referring to the same person
or thing, and in the same case; as, The man is a
rogue. That lady is my teacher. I believe him to
be a minister.
EXERCISES.
It was I who
wrote the letter. Be not afraid, it is I. It was
not I. It was he who got the first prize. I am sure it was not we
that did it. It was they who gave us all this trouble. I would not
act the same part again, if I were he. He so much resembled his
brother, that at first sight I took it to be him. Search the Scrip-
tures ; for in them ye think ye have eternal life and they are they ;

which testify of me.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
I am her. Thou art him. If I were him. If it were
them. It
is me. We
took you to be he. is she. Whom
It was him and
her that spoke evil of me. I suppose it was them who called. If
it was not him, whom could it be ] I saw one whom I took to be
she. Let him be whom he may, I am not afraid of him. Who
do you think him to be ] Whom
do men say that I am 1 She is
the person who I understood it to have been. think ye Whom
that I am 1 Was it me that said so ] I am certain it was not
him. I believe it to have been they. It might have been him.

* See page 15.

7*
78 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
It is impossible to be them. It was either him or his brother that
gained the first prize.

OBSERVATIONS.
1. The mode, or a part of a sentence, may be the case
infinitive
before or after the verb, or both ; as, His maxim was, Be master
of your anger : here the words kis maxim is the nominative before
was, and be master of your anger, is nominative after.
2. The pupil may call one of these cases the nominative or objective
before the verb, and the other the nominative or objective after the
verb. Thus, in the sentence, The man is a rogue, man is the
nominative before the verb, and rogue is the nominative after the
verb.
3. At the beginning of a sentence we often place here or there be-
fore the verb, instead of its proper subject thus, There are mere
:

cultivators of the earth than of their own hearts. Here are two
of us who have seen him. It is an elegant idiom, and probably
originated in the use of the hand in pointing.

Rule X. A noun or pronoun annexed to another

noun or pronoun, denoting the same person or thing,
is put in the same case as, Paul the apostle ; David
;

the king.
The nouns or pronouns are said to be in apposition.

EXERCISES.
Solomon the son of David, the king of Israel, wrote many pro-
verbs. Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity. Ye
eagles, playmates of the blast Pompey fought with Caesar, the
greatest general of his time. It was John, he who preached re-
pentance. Adams and Jefferson, they who died on the 4th of July,
were both signers and firm supporters of the declaration of Inde-
pendence. And they were all baptized of him in the river Jordan.

Rule XL The possessive case depends upon the

noun which expresses the thing possessed ; as, John's
book; his heart.
EXERCISES.
Pompey's Virtue's reward.
pillar. A
man's manners frequently
influence his fortune. Asa's heart was perfect with the Lord. A
mother's tenderness and a father's care, are nature's gifts for man's
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 79

advantage. Helen's beauty was the cause of Troy's destruction.

Wisdom's precepts are the good man's delight.

Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen.

He asked his father's, as well as his mother's advice.
Jesus' feet. Moses' rod. Herodias'* sake. Righteousness'
sake. For conscience' sake.

Rule XII. Adjectives belong to the nouns and pro-

nouns, which they qualify or described as, good A
boy; a sweet peach.
EXERCISES.
He a good man.
is This apple is ripest. The bad boy will be
punished. Every boy must study well if he would be a wise man.
The cloth was woven of the finest wool. It is an invariable law
of our present condition, that every pleasure which is pursued to
excess is converted into poison. All float on the surface of a river,
which, with a swift current, is running to the boundless ocean.
—
Obs. 1. Though the adjective generally comes before the noun,
it is sometimes placed after it.
But I lose myself in him, in light ineffable.
Pure serenity apace
Induces thought and contemplation still.

Obs. 2. —A always understood, when not expressed,

noun is
after adjectives, such as, few, many, this, that, all, each, every,
either.

* To prevent too much of the hissing sound, the s after the apostrophe
is generally omitted when the first noun has an s in each of its two last
syllables, and the second noun begins with s, as. Righteousness' sake, For
conscience' sake, Francis' sake.
It has lately become common, when the nominative singular ends in s,
or ss, to form the possessive by omitting the s after the apostrophe; as,
James' book. Miss' shoes, instead of James's book, Miss's shoes. This is
improper. Put these phrases into questions, and then they will appear
ridiculous. Is this book James'? Are these shoes Miss'? Nor are they
less ridiculous without the interrogatory form ; as This book is James'
5

&c— K. 182, 183.

We sometimes use of instead of the apostrophe and s; thus we say, The
wisdom of Socrates, rather than Socrates' s wisdom. In some instances
we use the o/and the possessive termination too ; as, It is a discovery of
Sir Isaac Neicton's, that is, one of Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries. A
picture of my friend, means a portrait of him but a picture of my friend's
:

means a portrait of some other person, and that it belongs to my friend.

f Participles, like adjectives, belong to the nouns or pronouns which
they describe ; as, The flying clouds.
 80 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
Those only are truly great who are really good. Few set a
proper value on their time. Those who despise the admonitions
of their friends, deserve the mischiefs which their own obstinacy
brings upon them. Among the many social virtues which attend
the practice of true religion, that of a strict adherence to truth is
of the greatest importance. Love no interests but those of truth
and virtue. Such as are diligent will be rewarded. I saw a thou-
sand. Of all prodigality, that of time is the worst. Some are
naturally timid and some bold and active ; for all are not alike.
;

—
Obs. 3. The adjectives each, every, either, neither, belong to
nouns of the singular number only as, Each of his brothers is in
;

a favorable situation Every man is accountable for himself; Either

;

of them is good enough.*

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Let each esteem others better than themselves. Every one of
the letters bear date after his banishment. Each of them, in their
turn, receive the benefits to which they are entitled. Every person,
whatever be their station, are bound by the duties of morality and
religion. Neither of those men seem to have any idea that their
opinions may be ill-founded. By discussing what relates to each
particular in their order, we shall better understand the subject.
Are either of these men your friend 1
f And Jonathan the son of Shimeah, slew a man of great stature,
who had on every hand six fingers, and on every foot six toes.
t Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took either of them his
censer. The king of Israel and the king of Judah, sat either of
them on his throne.

Rule XIII. Pronouns agree in gender, number,

* Each relates to two or more objects, and signifies both of the two, or
every one of any number taken singly.
I Every relates to more than two objects, and signifies each one of them
all taken individually. It is quite correct to say, Every six miles, &c.

Either signifies the one or the other, but not both. Neither imports not
either.

X Either is sometimes improperly used instead of each; as, On either side

of the river was there the tree of life: instead of, on each side of the river.
Whole should never be joined to common nouns in the plural; thus,
Almost the whole inhabitants were present should be, Almost all the in-
;

habitants; but it may be joined to collective nouns in the plural; thus,

Whole cities were swallowed up by the earthquake.
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 81

and person, with the nouns for which they stand ; as,
John is here ; he came an hour ago. Every tree is
known by Us fruit.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
John a good boy, she does what is right. ^ James loves her
is

master. That boy forgot her book. Jane and Ann are naughty,
for she are disobedient. Answer not a fool according to her folly.
A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty; but a fool's wrath is
heavier than it both. Take handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and
let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh; and
it shall become small dust. Can any person, on their entrance into
life, be fully secure that they shall not be deceived 1 The mind
of man cannot be long without some food to nourish the activity
of his thoughts.

Rule XIV. The relative agrees with its antecedent

in gender, number, and person; as, Thou who readest ;
The book which was lost.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Aboy which is diligent will improve. He has got the place at
whom he aimed. He is a wise man which speaks little. You see
the low estate to whom I am reduced. I love the master which
taught me. Those which seek Wisdom will certainly find her.
This is the friend which I love. That is the vice whom I hate.
This moon who rose last night. Blessed is the man which walketh
in wisdom's ways. Thou who has been a witness of the fact, can
give an account of it. The child which* was lost is found, f The
tiger is a beast of prey, who destroys without pity. Who of those
men came to his assistance ]

* It is difficult to see why it is harsh or improper, as Mr. Murray says,

to apply tcho to children, because they have little reason and reflection;
but if it is, at what age should we lay aside which and apply who to them?
That seems preferable to either. In our translation of the Bible, who and
that are both applied to children, but never which. See 2 Sam. xii. 14, 15.
Matt. ii. 16. Rev. xii. 5.

| Which is applied to inferior animals, and also to persons in asking

questions.
There seems to be no satisfactory reason for preferring that to who after
same and at/, except usage. There is indeed as good authority for using
after all, as for using that.
<u,ho Addison, for instance, uses all who several
times in one paper.
 !

S2 ENGLISH SYNTAX.

OBSERVATIONS.
That is used instead of Who or Which.
1. After adjectives in the superlative degree, — after the words
Same and All, and often after Some and Any.
2. When the antecedent consists of two nouns, the one requiring
Who, and the other Which ; as, The man and the horse that we
saw yesterday.
3. After the interrogative Who ; as, Who that has any sense
of religion would have argued thus 1

Correct these Examples,

It is the best got. Solomon was the wisest man
which can be
whom ever the world saw. It is the same picture which you saw
before. And all which beauty, all which wealth e'er gave, &c.
The lady and lap-dog which we saw at the window. Some village
Hampden, which, with dauntless breast. He is the worst scholar
whom I ever saw. This is the same book which you had yester-
day. We met the man which we saw on Monday. Who, who
can acquire knowledge would neglect it

Rule XV. When the relative is preceded by two

antecedents of different persons, it and the verb gene-
rally agree in person with the last as, Thou art the ;

boy that was late yesterday.*

EXERCISES.
I am the man who commands who adopts
you. I am the person
that sentiment, and maintains it. Thou
a pupil who possesses art
a bright mind, but who has cultivated it but little. I am a man
who speaks but seldom. Thou art the friend that has often relieved
me, and that has not deserted me now in the time of peculiar need.
Thou art he who driedst up the Red Sea before thy people Israel.j*

* Sometimes the relative agrees with the former antecedent; as, I am

verily a man who am a Jew. Acts xxii. 3.
The propriety of this rule has been called in question, because the rela-
tive should agree wirh the subject of the verb, whether the subject is
next the relative or not. This is true, but it is also true that the subject
is generally next the relative, and the rule is calculated to prevent the
impropriety of changing from one person of the verb to another, as in the
3d example.
f When we address the Divine Being, it is more direct and solemn to
make the relative agree with the second person. In the Scriptures this is
T
generally done. See i\ eh. ix. 7, &c. This sentence may therefore stand
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 83

Obs. The relative ought to be placed next its antecedent, to

prevent ambiguity thus, The boy beat his companion, whom every
;

body believed incapable of doing mischief; should be, The boy.

whom every body believed incapable of doing mischief, beat his
companion.
Correct these Examples.

dismissed his minister without any inquiry, who had

The king
never before committed so unjust an action. The soldier, with a
single companion, who passed for the bravest man in the regiment,
offered his services.

Rule XVI. The relative is the nominative to the

verb, when it stands immediately before the verb.
When not close to the verb, it is in the objective, and
depends either on the verb that comes after it, or on a
preposition.

EXERCISES.
The value of any possession is to be chiefly estimated, by the
relief which it can bring us in the time of our greatest need. The
veil which covers from our sight the events of succeeding years, is
a veil woven by the hand of mercy. The chief misfortunes that
befall us in life, can be traced to some vices or follies which we
have committed. Beware of th jse rash and dangerous connexions
which may afterwards load you with dishonor. True charity is
not a meteor which * occasionally glances, but a luminary, which,
* in its orderly and regular course, dispenses a benignant influence.

We usually find that to be the sweetest fruit, which the birds

have picked. Wealth cannot confer greatness; for nothing can
make that great, which the decree of nature has ordained to be
little. Justice consists not merely in performing those duties which
the laws of society oblige us to perform, but in our duty to our
Maker, to others, and to ourselves. True religion will show its

as it is. In the third person singular of verbs, the solemn eth seems to
become the dignity of the Almighty better than the familiar es ; thus, I
am the Lord thy God who teachet/i thee to profit; who leadetli thee by the
way that thou shouldest go; is more dignified than, I am the Lord thy
God who teaches thee to profit who leads thee.
;

* An adverb, or a clause between two commas, frequently comes betv/een

the relative and the verb. The rule at the top is but a general rule ; for
in poetry, in particular, the relative, though not close to the verb, is some-
times in the nominative. — -See first line of poetry, page 66.
 84 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
influence in every part of our conduct ; it is like the sap* of a living
tree, which pervades the most distant boughs.

Rule XVII. When the antecedent and relative are

both in the nominative, the relative is the nominative
to the verb next it, and the antecedent is generally the
nominative to the second verb.
EXERCISES.
He who performs every part of his business in its due place and
season, suffers no part of time to escape without profit. He who
does good for the sake of virtue, seeks neither praise nor reward,
though he is sure of both at the last. He who is the abettor of a
bad action,, is equally guilty with him that commits it. He who
overcomes his passions, conquers his greatest enemies. The con-
solation which is derived from a reliance upon Providence, enables
us to support the most severe misfortunes.
That wisdom which enlightens the understanding and reforms
the life, is the most valuable. Those and those only, who have
felt the pleasing influence of the most genuine and exalted friend-
ship, can comprehend its beauties. An error that proceeds from
any good principle, leaves no room for resentment. Those who
raise envy will easily incur censure. He who is a stranger to in-
dustry, may possess, but he cannot enjoy ; he only who is active
and industrious, can experience real pleasure. That man who is
neither elated by success, nor dejected by disappointment, whose
conduct is not influenced by any change of circumstances to deviate
from the line of integrity, possesses true fortitude of mind.

Rule XVIII. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles,

adjectives, adverbs, and sometimes other wordst as, ;

He sleeps soundly ; he swam quite across the river.

Obs. Adverbs are, for the most part, placed before adjectives,
after verbs, active or neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary
and the verb; as, He is very attentive; She behaves welly and is
much esteemed.^

* Sap, the objective governed by to understood after like, and antecedent

to which.
f Adjectives qualify nouns and pronouns, and sometimes verbs ; adverb9
qualify all other words.
J This is but a general rule. For it is impossible to give an exact and
determinate one for the placing cf adverbs on all occasions. The easy
flow and perspicuity of the phrase ought to be chiefly regarded.
 ;;

ENGLISH SYNTAX. 85

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
We should not be overcome totally by present events. He un-
affectedly and forcibly spoke, and was heard attentively by the
whole assembly. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous, therefore,
to remonstrate. Not only he found her employed, but pleased and
tranquil also. In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear care-
fully requires to be consulted as well as the sense. He never has
been at court
* The women contributed all their rings and jewels voluntarily
to assist thegovernment. Havingf not known, or having not con-
sidered, the measures proposed, he failed of success. He was de-
termined to invite back the king, and to call together his friends.
$ Ask me never so much dowry. Charmers charming never so
wisely.

Rule XIX. Prepositions govern the objective case

as, To whom much is given, of him much shall be
required.

EXERCISES.
I traveled with him. We gave a book to them. Get it from
them again. Between him and me you stood. From her and her
sister you need expect nothing.With whom do you sit 1 From
whom was book bought 7 To whom will you give that pen ?
that
Will you go with me ] Without me ye can do nothing. With-
hold not good from those to whom it is due. With whom do you
live 1 Great friendship subsists between him and me. He can

* The adverb is sometimes placed with propriety before the verb, or at

some distance after it ; as, The women voluntarily contributed all their
rings and jewels, &c. They carried their proposition farther.
f Not, when it qualifies the present participle, comes before it.
t Never is often improperly used for ever; thus, "If I make my hands
never so clean," should be, "Ever so clean."
Two words which end in ly succeeding each other are indeed a little
offensive to the ear, but rather than write bad grammar, it would be better
either to offend it, or avoid the use of exceedingly in this case altogether
and instead of saying, "He used me exceedingly discreetly," say , " He used
me very discreetly;" or, if that is not strong enough, vary the expression.
Sometimes adjectives are used as adverbs; as, Slow tolls the village
clock.
Some other words and phrases, such as, a little, a great deal, are often
used as adverbs ; as, The letters which I receive, give me not a little plea-
sure. I do not care a sixpence whether you come or go.
8
86 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
do nothing of himself. They willingly, and of themselves, endea-
vored to make up the difference. He laid the suspicion upon some-
body, I know not whom, in the company.

—
Obs. 1. The preposition should be placed immediately before
the relative which depends upon it.*

Correct these Examples.

Who do you speak to 1 Who did they ride with ? Who dost
thou serve under 7 Flattery can hurt none, but those who it is
agreeable to. It is not I thou art engaged with. It was not he
that they were so angry with. Who didst thou receive that intel-
ligence from 1 The person who I traveled with has sold the horse
which he rode on during our journey. Does that boy know who
he speaks to ] I hope it is not I thou art displeased with.

—
Obs. 2. It is inelegant to connect two prepositions, or one and
an active verb, with the same noun.

Correct this Example.

He is quite unacquainted with, and consequently cannot speak

upon, that subject.

OBSERVATION 3.

To — is used after a verb of motion ; as, We went to Spain.

At— is used after the verb to be ; as, I was at Paris.
In— is used before names of countries and large cities ; as, I live
in London, in England.
At — is used before villages, towns, and foreign cities ; as, He re-
sided at Valley Forge ; at York ; at Rome.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He going for London next week. She went for Boston some
is

time ago. We
were once detained two years at England. You
was in the place before John. They have just arrived in Leith,
and are going to Dublin. They will reside two months at England.
I have been to London, after having resided at France ; and I now
live in Bath. I was in the place appointed long before any of the
rest. W^e touched in Liverpool on our way for New York. He

* The preposition is often separated from the relative ; but though this
is perhaps allowable in familiar conversation, yet, in solemn composition,
the placing of the preposition immediately before the relative is more per-
spicuous and elegant.
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 87
resides in Mavisbank in Scotland. She has lodgings at George's
Square.*

Rule XX. Conjunctions connect verbs which are

in the same mode and tense as, Do good and seek
;

peace.
Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns which are
in the same case as, He and / are happy.
;

EXERCISES.
I will go and tell him. well. Being
She spells and pronounces
idleand making a noise are improper. He and I were there. Let
him and me read. Your brother and she were here at tea. Be-
tween you and me. They and we were at school together. He
reads and writes well. He or I must go. Neither he nor she can
attend. Anger glances into the breast of a wise man, but rests
only in the bosom of fools. My brother and he are tolerable gram-
marians. The parliament addressed the king, and was prorogued
the same day. If he understands the subject, and attends to it, he
can scarcely fail of success. Did he not tell thee his fault, and
entreat thee to forgive him ? And dost thou open thine eyes upon
such a one, and bring me into judgment with thee 1 You and we
enjoy many privileges. Professing regard, and acting differently,
mark a base mind.
Obs. 1. — Conjunctions frequently connect different modes and
tenses of verbs ;but in these instances the nominative is generally
repeated ; as, He may return, but he will not continue.
Correct these Examples.
Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily produce
virtue. Our season of improvement is short; and, whether used
or not, will soon pass away. She is not beautiful, but handsome.
I never want credit, though often money.
—
Obs. 2. The nominative is generally repeated, even to the
same mode and tense when a contrast is stated with but, not, or
though, &c.

Correct these Examples.

She was proud, though now humble. He is not rich, but is
respectable.

* One inhabitant of a city, speaking of another's residence, says, He

resides in Bank street or if the word number is used, at No.
*, Prince —
street.
88 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
Obs. 3. —Some conjunctions have their correspondent conjunc-
tions; thus,
Neither requires Nor after it as, Neither he nor his brother was in.
;

Though Yet as, Though he was rich, yet for our sakes, &c.
,•

Whether Or Whether he will do it or not, I cannot tell.

Either Or* Either she or her sister must go.
As As Mine is as good as yours.
As So As the stars so shall thy seed be. As the one
dieth, so dieth the other.
So As He is not so wise as his brother. To see thy
glory so as I have seen it, &c.
So That I am so weak that I cannot walk.
EXERCISES.
It is neither cold nor hot. It is so clear that I need not explain it.

The relations are so uncertain, that they require a great deal of

examination. The one is equally as deserving as the other. I must
be so candid as to own, that I have been mistaken. He would neither
do it himself, nor let me do it. He was so angry that he could not
speak. As thy days, so shall thy strength be. Though he slay
me, yet will I trust in him.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Neither his father or his mother was there. John is not as dili-
gent as his brother. There was something so amiable in his looks
as affected me much. I think mine so good as yours. As his
application is, will his progress be. He is not as wise and as
learned as he pretends to be. He must go himself, or send his
servant. There is no condition so secure as cannot admit of
change. He is not as eminent, and as much esteemed, as he
thinks himself to be. Neither despise the poor, or envy the rich,
for the one dieth so as the other. As far as I am able to judge,
the book is well written. His raiment was so white as snow.

Rule XXI. The interjections Oh! and Ah! &c.

generally require the objective case of the first personal
pronoun, and the nominative of the second ; as, Ah

—
* The poets frequently use Or or, for Either or ; and Nor — —nor, for
— —
Neither nor. In prose not nor is often used for neither nor. — The yet
after though is frequently and properly suppressed.
Or does not require either before it when the one word is a mere expla-
nation of the other as, It cost six shillings, or one dollar.
;
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 89

me ! O thou fool ! O ye hypocrites Woe's thou,!

would be improper ; it should be, Woe's thee that is, ;

Woe is to thee.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Ah ! unhappy thee, who are deaf to the calls of duty and of
honor. Oh! happy* us, surrounded with so many blessings.
Woe's I, for I am a man of unclean lips.

Rule XXIL It is improper to use both a noun

and its pronoun as a nominative to the same verb as, ;

Man that is born of a woman, he is of few days, and

full of trouble ; — tomit he.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
The king he is just. The men they were there. Many words
they darken speech. My banks they are furnished with bees.
The books they are torn. The boy he was negligent. The plea-
sures which arise from doing good, they alone are pure. Who,
instead of going about doing good, they are perpetually intent upon
doing mischief. Disappointments and afflictions, however disa-
greeable, they often improve us. Simple and innocent pleasures
they alone are durable.
$ Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighboring prince
would have wanted a great deal of that incense which has been
offered up to him. § Man, though he has great variety of thoughts,

* In some cases we use the objective of the second personal pronoun,

as well as that of the first, after the interjection; thus, Ah ! thee, my babe,
if thy father die, i. e. Ah! what will befall thee, or, ah! what will come
upon thee. Ah me ! my son, and Ah thee ! my son, are also correct.
As Interjections, owing
to quick feelings, express only the emotions of
the mind, without stopping to mention the circumstances that produced
them ; many of the phrases in which they occur are very elliptical, and
therefore a verb or preposition must be understood. Me, for instance, in
Ah me, is governed by befallen or upon understood; thus, Ah, what mis-
chief has befallen me, or come upon me.
Oh isused to express the emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise.
O used to express wishing, exclamation, or a direct address to a person.
is

f In some cases where the noun is highly emphatical, the repetition of

it in the pronoun is not only allowable, but even elegant ; as, The Lord
he is the God. 1 Kings xviii. 39; see also Deut. xxxi. 6.
% It ought to be, If this rule had been observed, a neighboring, &c.
$ It ought to be, Though man has great variety, &c.
8*
 ;

90 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
and such, from which others as well as himself might receive profit
and delight, yet they are all within his own breast.
* For he bringeth down them that dwell on high ; the lofty city
he layeth it low.
The friends thou hast, and their adoption tried,
Grapple them to thy soul with hooks of steel.

Rule XXIII. A pronoun after than, or as, either

agrees with a verb, or depends on a verb or preposition
as, He is wiser than I (am) ; She loved him more than
(she loved) me.t

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He is as old as her. She is as old as him. We are stronger
than them. They were more prudent than us. The farm was
better cultivated by his brother than he. He
younger than me.is
She is kinder to him than I. me. He
John can write better than
is as good as her. Thou art a much greater loser than me by his
death. She suffers hourly more than me. They know how to
write as well as him but he is a better grammarian than them.
;

The undertaking was much better executed by his brother than he.
They are greater gainers than us. She is not so learned as him.
If the king give us leave, we may perform the office as well as
them that do.
Obs. The word containing the answer to a question, must
be in the same case with the word which asks it as, Who said ;

that ? / (said it) Whose books are these 1 John's (books.)

Correct these Examples.
Who left the door open 1 Me. Who spilt the ink ? Him.
Who came out of the garden last 1 Them. Whom did you see
walking in the garden 1 He and she. Who betrayed her com-
panion 1 Not me. Who revealed the secrets he ought to have

* Rule. It is improper to use both a noun and its pronoun as an object

after the same verb ; thus, in Deut. iv. 3, Your eyes have seen what the
Lord did because of Baal-peor, for all the men that followed Baal peor, the
Lord thy God hath destroyed them from among you them is superfluous,
;

as a transposition of the last clause will show ; thus, For the Lord hath
destroyed all the men from among you that followed Baal-peor.
+ When who immediately follows than, it is used improperly in the
objective case ; as, " Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned ;"-—
than whom is not grammatical. It ought to be. than who ; because who is
the nom. to was understood. Than whom is as bad a phrase as, "He is
taller than him.**
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 91

concealed ? Not him ; it was her. Whom did you meet 1 He.
Who bought that book 1 Him. Whom did you see there 1 He
and his sister. Whose pen is this 1 Mine's.

Rule XXIV. When two persons or things are

contrasted, that refers to the first mentioned, and this
to the last ; as, Virtue and vice are as opposite to each
other as light and darkness ; that ennobles the mind,
this debases it.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Wealth and poverty this tends to excite
are both temptations
;

pride, that discontentment. Religion raises men above themselves,

irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes that binds them down to
;

a poor pitiable speck of perishable earth, this exalts them to the

skies. * And the cloud came between the camp of the Egyptians and
the camp of Israel, and it was a cloud and darkness to them, but it
gave light to these. Moses and Solomon were men of the highest
renown the latter was remarkable for his meekness, the former
;

was renowned for his wisdom. I have always preferred cheerful-

ness to mirth ; the former I consider as an act, the latter as a habit
of the mind. Body and soul must part; the former wings its way
to its almighty source, the latter drops into the dark and noisome
grave.

Rule XXV. It is improper to place a clause of a

sentence between a possessive case and the word which
governs it thus, She began to extol the farmer's, as
;

she called him, excellent understanding should be, ;

She began to extol the excellent understanding of the

farmer, as she called him.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he was called,
senseless and extravagant conduct. They implicitly obeyed the
protector's, as they called him, imperious mandates. Beyond this,

* Former and latter are often used instead of that and this. They are
alike in both numbers.
That and this are seldom applied to persons; but former and latter are
applied to persons and things indiscriminately. In most cases, however,
the repetition of the noun is preferable to either of them.
92 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
the arts cannot be traced of civil society. These are David's, the
king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people's psalms. very We
often laugh at the fool's, as he is called, buffoonery. They care-
fully attended to the squire's, as they call him, orders. This is
Paul's the Christian hero, and great apostle of the Gentiles' advice.
Obs. Whichsoever and whatsoever are often divided by the
interposition of the corresponding word thus, On whichsoever side
;

the king cast his eyes should be, On which side soever the king, &c.
;

Correct these Examples.

Howsoever no real merit. In
beautiful they appear, they have
whatsoever light we view him, his conduct will bear inspection.
On whatsoever side they are contemplated, they appear to advan-
tage. Howsoever much he might despise the maxims of the king's
administration, he kept a total silence on that subject.
* Whoso keepeth the fig tree shall eat the fruit thereof.

Rule XXVI. In the use of verbs, and words that

in point of time relate to each other, the order of time
must be observed ; for example, I remember him these
many years, should be, I have remembered him, &c.t
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
I have compassion on the multitude, because they continue with
me now three days. And he that was dead sat up, and began to
speak. The next new year's day I shall be at school three years.
The court laid hold on ail the opportunities which the weakness or
necessities of princes afford it, to extend its authority. Ye will
not come unto me that ye might have life. His sickness was so
great, that I often feared he would have died before our arrival. It
would have given me great satisfaction to relieve him from that
distressed situation. He ought to do it a year ago. If they believe
not Moses and the prophets, neither will they believe though one
rose from the dead. His disciples asked him what might this
parable be. And hath put all things under his feet, and gave him
to be the head over all things to the church.

Obs. After the past tense, the present infinitive (and not
the perfect) should be used ; as, I intended to write to my father,

* Whoso is an old word used instead of he that ; as, Whoso mocketh the
poor reproacheth his Maker; it should be, He that mocketh, &c.
f The best general rule that can be given, is, To observe what the sense
necessarily requires.
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 93

and have written

not, I intended to ; —
for however long it now is
since thought of writing, to write was then present to me, and
I

must still be considered as present when I bring back that time,

and the thoughts of it.
Correct these Examples.

always intended to have rewarded my son according to his

I
merit. We
have done no more than it was our duty to have done.
From the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to have
been a man of letters. It was a pleasure to have received his ap-
probation of my labors. I intended to have written you last week.
It is very long since I ordered the shoemaker to have made new
boots for me. I expected to have gained the prize this week.

Rule XXVII. When the present participle is used

as a noun, requires an article before it, and of after
it

it ; as, The sum of the moral law consists in the obey-

ing of God, and the loving of our neighbor as our-

selves.*

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
The obeying our parents is the first duty of nature. Neglecting
of our duty will ultimately produce pain. Learning of languages
is very difficult. The learning any thing speedily requires great
application. By the exercising our faculties they are improved.
By observing of these rules you may avoid mistakes. By obtain-
ing of wisdom thou wilt command esteem. This was a betraying
the trust reposed in him. The not attending to this rule is the
cause of a very common error.
—
Obs. 1. The present participle with a possessive before it
sometimes admits of of after it, and sometimes not as, Their ob-
;

serving of the rules prevented errors. By his studying the Scrip-

tures he became wise.

* These phrases would be right, were the article and of both omitted;
as, The sum of the moral law consists in obeying God, and loving our
neighbor, &c. This manner of expression is, in many instances, prefera-
ble to the other. In some cases, however, these two modes express very
different ideas, and therefore attention to the sense is necessary ; as. He
confessed the whole in the hearing of three witnesses, and the court spent
an hour in hearing their depositions.
When a preposition follows the participle, of is inadmissible as, His
;

depending on promises proved his ruin. His neglecting to study when

young rendered him ignorant all his life.
94 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
Correct these Examples,
Our approving their bad conduct may encourage them to become
worse. For his avoiding that precipice he is indebted
to his
friend's care. What the reason of John rising so early ]
is This
man raging is unpleasant. Ann behaving well gained her esteem.
Obs. 2. — A noun before the present participle is put in the pos-
sessive case ; as, Much will depend on the pupil's composing fre-
quently.
Sometimes, however, the sense forbids it to be put in the pos-
sessive case; thus,What do you think of my horse running to-
day 1 means, Do you think I should let him run 1 but, What do
you think of my horse's running ? means, he has run, do you think
he ran well ]
Correct these Examples.
What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so
hastily1 I remember it being done. What do you think of our
garden being robbed last night ? He thought my book being sold
was wonderful. What do you think of my ship's sailing to-
morrow ]

Rule XXVIII. The indefinite passive participle

must not be used instead of the past tense, (of the active
verb,) either in forming the compound tenses or when
it stands alone ; I have wrote, should be, / have
thus,
written. I seen him, should be, I saw him.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He
has wrote his copy. would have wrote a letter. He had
I
mistook his true interest. The
coat had no seam, but was wove
throughout. The French language is spoke in every kingdom in
Europe. His resolution was too strong to be shook by slight
opposition. The horse was stole. They have chose the part of
honor and virtue. The Rhine was froze over. She was showed'
into the drawing-room. My people have slid backwards. He has
broke the bottle. Some fell by the way-side, and was trode down.
The price of cloth has lately rose very much. The work was very
well execute. His vices have weakened his- mind, and broke his
health. He would have went with us, had he been invited. No-
thing but application is wanting to make you an excellent scholar.
This is well wrote. He had mistook me. Smiles were interwove
with sighs. He had spoke two hours before that. The house was
situate at the head of the street.
 ;

ENGLISH SYNTAX. 95

Herun off yesterday. He drunk too much beer. They begun

to sing with joy. He soon begun to be weary of having nothing
to do. He was greatly heated, and he drunk with avidity. The
bending hermit here a prayer begun. And end with sorrows as
they first begun.
A second deluge learning thus o'er-run
And the monks finish'd what the Goths begun.

Rule XXIX. The comparative degree, and the

adjective other, require than after them, and such re-
quires as ; as, Greater than I ; No other than he ;
Such as do well.*
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He has little more of the scholar besides the name. Be ready
to succor such persons who need thy assistance. He is fiercer nor
a lion. It is no other but himself. She gave such an answer that
astonished us all. I will sooner part with life as with liberty.
Sweeter nor honey. They had no sooner risen but they applied
themselves to their studies. Those savage people seemed to have
no other element but war. Such men that act treacherously ought
to be avoided. He gained nothing farther by his speech, but only
to be commended for his eloquence. This is none other but the
gate of paradise. Such sharp replies that cost him his life. To
trust in him is no more but to acknowledge his power.

Obs. 1. — When
two objects are compared, the comparative is
generally used but when more than two, the superlative]- ; as, This
;

is the younger of the two ; Mary is the wisest of them all.

Correct these Examples.

James isthe wisest of the two. He is the weakest of the two.
Ann is the tallest of the two. John is the more learned of the

* Stick, meaning either a consequence, or so great, requires that ; as, His

behavior was such, that I ordered him to leave the room. Sitch is the in-
fluence of money, that few can resist it.
When the two objects form a group, or are not so much opposed to each
other as to require than before the last, some respectable writers use the
superlative, and say, u James is the wisest of the two." "He is the weak-
est of the two." The superlative is often more agreeable to the ear; nor
is the sense injured. In many cases a strict adherence to the comparative
form renders the language too stiff and formal.
t A comparison in which more than two are concerned, may be ex-
pressed by the comparative as well as by the superlative, and in some cases
better ; but the comparative considers the objects compared as belonging
 96 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
three. She was the most handsome of all her sisters. I under-
stood him the best of all others who spoke on the subject. Eve
was the fairest of all her daughters. He is the likeliest of any
other to succeed. Jane is the wittier of the three, not the wiser.

Rule XXX. Double comparatives and superlatives

are improper ; thus, Mine is a more better book, but
John's is the most best; should be, Mine is a better
book, but John's is the best.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
The is the most sweetest in the grove.
nightingale's voice James
is a worser scholar than John. Tray is the most swiftest dog.
Absalom was the most beautifulest man. He is the* chiefest
among ten thousand. His work is perfect his brother's more
;

perfect ; and his father's the most perfect of all. Mine is a more
sweeter apple than yours. I saw the most elegantest house yes-
terday that I ever saw. I think that more true. He is more uni-
versally esteemed. The extremest boundary of the earth. His
rule was most false.

Rule XXXI. Adjectives should not be used as

adverbs, nor adverbs as adjectives ; as, Remarkable
well, for remarkably well ; and, Use a little wine for
thine often infirmities, instead of thy frequent infirmities.

exercises to be corrected.
They They behaved the noblest. He fought
are miserable poor.
bolder than his brother. He lived in a manner agreeably to the
dictates of reason and religion. He was extreme prodigal, and his
property is now near exhausted. I am extreme willing to assist

to different classes; while the superlative compares them as included in

one class. The comparative is used thus: "Greece was more polished
•j than any other nation of antiquity." Here Greece stands by itself as,
—
opposed to the other nations of antiquity She was none of the other
—
nations She was more polished than they. The same idea is expressed
by the superlative when the word other is left out ; thus, " Greece was the
most polished nation of antiquity. " Here Greece is assigned the highest
—
place in the class of objects among which she is numbered the nations
—
of antiquity she is one of them.
. * Chief, universal, -perfect, &c. imply the superlative degree without est,
or most. In language sublime or passionate, however, the word perfect
requires the superlative form to give it effect. A lover enraptured with
his mistress would naturally call her the most perfect of her sex.
Superior and inferior always imply comparison, and require to after
them.
 — ;

ENGLISH SYNTAX. 97

you. She is particular neat. I like apples uncommon well. He

is exceeding rude. Her soon arrival gave universal joy. She
arrived unexpected. They lived conformable to the rules of pru-
dence. He speaks very fluent, reads excellent, but does not think
very coherent. They came agreeable to their promise, and con-
ducted themselves suitable to the occasion. They hoped for a soon
and prosperous issue to the war.
Obs. 1. From should not be used before hence, thence, and
whence, because implied.
it is In many cases, however, the omis-
sion of from would render the language intolerably stiff and disa-
greeable.
—
Obs. 2. After verbs of motion, hither, thither, and whither
should be used, and not here, there, and where,
Obs. 3. — When
and vjhile should not be used as nouns, nor
where as a preposition and a relative i. e. for in which, &c.
;

Correct these Examples.

From whence come ye 1 He departed from thence into a desert
place.Where are you going 1 Bid him come here immediately.
We walked there in an hour. He drew up a petition, where he
too frequently represented his own merit. He went to London
last year, since when I have not seen him. The situation where I
found him. It is not worth his while.

Rule XXXII. Two negatives in the same sentence

areimproper ;* thus, I cannot by no means allow it
should be, I can by no means allow it, or, I cannot by
any means allow it.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
I cannot read no more. I cannot eat no more. Do not let
nobody in. Nothing never pleased me more. I have not got no
book. I have not seen no one. Be honest, nor take no semblance
of disguise. He is not very sensible I do not think. I have not,
nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust. There cannot be
nothing more insignificant than vanity. I cannot drink no more.

* Sometimes the two negatives are intended to be an affirmative; as,

Nor did they not perceive him; that is, They did perceive him. In this
case they are proper.
When one of the negatives, (such as dis, in, un, im, &c.) is joined to
another word, the two negatives form a pleasing and delicate variety of
expression; as, His language, though simple, is not inelegant; that is, It
is elegant.

9
 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
He cannot do nothing. Wehave not done nothing to-day. He
will never be no taller. They could not travel no farther. Covet
neither riches nor honors, nor no such perishing things. Nothing
never affected her so much. Do not interrupt me thyself, nor let
no one disturb me. I am resolved not to comply with the pro-
posal, neither at present nor at any other time.

Rule XXXIII. Certain words and phrases must

be followed by appropriate prepositions such as, ;

Accuse of Dissent from

Abhorrence of Eager in
Acquit of Engaged in
Adapted to Exception from
A gree able to Expert at or in
Averse to Fall under
Bestow upon Free from
Boast or brag of* Glad of or at
Call on Independent of
Change foi Insist upon
Confide in\ Made of
Conformable to Marry to
Compliance with Martyr for
Consonant to Need of
Conversant with, in Observance of
Dependent upon Prejudice against
Derogation from Profit by
Die of or by Provide with
Differ from Reconcile to
Difficulty in Reduce under or to
Diminution of Regard to
Disappointed in or of Replete tcith
Disapprove of% Resemblance to
Discouragement to Resolve on

* Boast is often used without of; as, For if I have boasted any thing.
| The same preposition that follows the verb or adverb gen erally follows
the noun which is derived from it; as, Confide in, confidence in; disposed
to tyrannize, a disposition to tyranny; independently of,

t Disapprove and approve are frequently used without of.

 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 99

Swerve from True to

Taste for or of Wait on
Think of or on Worthy of*
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He was dependent of the papal crown. He accused the
totally
minister for betraying the Dutch. You have bestowed your favors
to the most deserving persons. His abhorrence to gaming was
extreme. I differ with you. The English were very different then
to what they are now. In compliance to his father's advice. He
would not comply to his measures. It is no discouragement for
the authors. The wisest princes need not think it any diminution
to their greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon
counsel. Is consonant with our nature 1
it Conformable with
this plan. Agreeable with the sacred text. Call for your uncle.-j-
He was eager of recommending it. He had no regard after his
father's commands. Thy prejudice to my cause.
more than It is
they though tt for. There is no need for it. Reconciling himself
with the king. No resemblance with each other. Upon such
occasions as fell into their cognizance. I am engaged with writing.
We profit from experience. He swerved out of the path. He is
resolved of going to the Persian court. Expert of his work. Ex-
pert on deceiving. The Romans reduced the world§ to their own
power. He provided them of every thing. insist for it. He We
seems to have a taste of such studies.
Agreeably with your desire, I send the box. Call for John when
you are in town. He was averse from the match. Painting was
adapted for his taste. She was married on her cousin. He finds
difficulty of getting his lesson. James was engaged with writing
his lesson. He has a taste of drawing. I have no need for it.

* Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted, after -worthy.

Many of these words take other prepositions after them to express other
meanings ; thus, for example, Fall in, to concur; to comply. Fall off, to
forsake. Fall out, to happen. Fall upon, to attack. Fall to, to begin
eagerly to eat ; to apply himself to.
f Call for — is to demand, to require. Call on, is to pay a short visit, to
request ; as, While you call on him — I shall call for a bottle of wine.

t authorities for think of and think on are nearly equal. The latter,
The
however, abounds more in the Scriptures than the former; as, Think on
me when it shall be well with thee Think upon me for good Whatso-
: :

ever things are true, &c. think on these things. But think of is perhaps
more common in modern publications.
$ Reduce under, is to subdue. In other cases, to follows it; as, To
reduce to practice, to fractions, &c.
100 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
She was disappointed of her shoes, for they did not fit her. We
profitfrom what we have seen. She has always had a taste of
music. He died for thirst. He found none on whom he could
safely confide. I dissent with the examiner. It was very well
adapted for his capacity. He acquitted me from any imputation,,
You are conversant* to that science. They boast in their great
riches. Call of James to walk with you. When we have had a
true taste for the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish for
those of vice. I will wait of you. He is glad of the calamitiesf
of a neighbor. She is glad at his company. A
strict observance
after times and fashions. This book is replete in errors. These
are exceptions to the general rule. He died a martyr to Chris-
tianity. This change is to the better. His productions were
scrupulously exact, and conformable with all the rules of correct
writing. He died of the sword. She finds a difficulty of fixing
her mind. This prince was naturally averse^ from war. A
freeman
grows up with an aversion from subjection.

Rule XXXIV. All the parts of a sentence should

correspond each other, and a regular and dependent
to
construction throughout be carefully preserved. For
example, the sentence, " He was more beloved, but
not so much admired, as John," is inaccurate; because
more requires than after it, which is nowhere found
in the sentence. It should be, He was more beloved
than John, but not so much admired.
A proper choice of words, and a perspicuous arrange-
ment, should be carefully attended to.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
The reward is his due, and it has already, or will hereafter, be
given to him. He was guided by interests always different, some-
times contrary to those of the community. The intentions of some

* We say conversant with men in things. Addison has conversant

among- the writings of the most polite authors, and conversant about world-
ly affairs. Conversant with is preferable.

f Glad of is perhaps more proper, when the cause of joy is something

gained or possessed; and glad a?, when something befalls another; as,
Jonah was exceedingly glad of the gourd; He that is glad at calamities,
shall not be unpunished.
% Averse and aversion require to after them rather than from ; but both
are used, and sometimes even by the same author.
 ;

ENGLISH SYNTAX. 101

of these philosophers, nay of many, might and probably were good.

No person was ever so perplexed, or sustained the mortifications
as he has done to-day. He was more bold and active, but not so
wise and studious as his companion. Then said they unto him,
what shall we do that we might work the works of God 1 Sin-
cerity is as valuable, and even more valuable, than knowledge.
The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one another.
But from this dreary period the recovery of the empire was
become desperate no wisdom could prevent its fall.
;

Rule XXXV. A is used before nouns in the sin-

gular number only. The* is used before nouns in
both numbers.
The article is omitted before a noun that stands for
a whole species; and before the names of minerals,
metals, arts, &c.
The last of two nouns after a comparative should
have no article when they both refer to one person
as, He is a better reader than writer.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
A man is mortal. A sun rises in the east. I persecuted this
way unto the death. The flour is cheaper now. Absalom rode
on the mule. Have you studied the geography yet 1 Of the which
I say nothing. The money is as scarce as ever. Has Ann learned
the music. Reason was given to a man to control his passions.
The gold is corrupting. A
man is the noblest work of the creation.
Wisest and best men are sometimes betrayed into errors. We
must act our part with a constancy, though reward of our constancy
be distant. There are some evils of life, which equally affect prince
and people. Purity has its seat in the heart : but extends its influ-
ence over so much of outward conduct, as to form the great and
material part of a character. At worst, I could but incur a gentle
reprimand. The profligate man is seldom or never found to be the
good husband, the good father, or the kind neighbor, j- He has

* The is used before an individual representing the whole of its species,

when compared with another individual representing another species ;
thus, The dog is a more grateful animal than the cat ; i. e. Ml dogs are
more grateful than cats.
f A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or omis-
sion of the article a. If I say, he behaved with a little reverence I praise
;

bira a little. If I sav, he behaved with little reverence ; I blame him.

9*
102 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
been much censured for paying a little attention to his business.
So bold a breach of order, called for little severity in punishing the
offender.

Rule XXXVI. An omission of some

ellipsis, or
words, frequently proper.
is Thus, instead of saying,
He was a learned man, he was a wise man, and he
was a good man ; we say, He was a learned, wise,
and good man.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Ahouse and a garden. The laws of God, and the laws of man.
Avarice and cunning may acquire an estate but avarice and cun-
;

ning cannot gain friends. His crimes had brought him into extreme
distress, and extreme perplexity. He has an affectionate brother
and an affectionate sister. By presumption, and by vanity, we
provoke enmity, and we incur contempt. Genuine virtue supposes
our benevolence to be strengthened and to be confirmed by princi-
ple. He is temperate, he is disinterested, he is benevolent. Per-
severance in laudable pursuits, will reward all our toils, and will
produce effects beyond our calculation. We often commend im-
prudently, as well as censure imprudently. Destitute of principle,
he regarded neither his family nor his friends, nor his reputation.
He insulted every man and every woman in the company. The
temper of him who is always in the bustle of the world, will be
often ruffled, and will be often disturbed. * He regards his word,
but you do not regard it. They must be punished and they shall
be punished. We succeeded, but they did not succeed.

Rule XXXVII. An ellipsis is not allowable when,

it would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be

attended with an impropriety for example, "

; speak We
that we do know, and testify that we have seen," should
be, We
speak that which we do know, and testify that
which we have seen.

* The auxiliaries of the compound tenses are often used alone ; as, We
have done it, but thou hast not ; i. e. thou hast not done it.
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 103

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
* A noble spirit disdaineth the malice of fortune ; his greatness
of soul is not to be cast down. A house and-j- orchard. A horse
and ass. A learned and amiable young man. I gladly shunned
who gladly fled from me. A
taste for useful knowledge will pro-
vide for us a great and noble entertainment when others leave us.
They enjoy also a free constitution and laws. The captain had
several men died in his ship of the scurvy. I must, however, be
so candid to own I have been mistaken. The sacrifices of virtue
will not only be rewarded hereafter, but recompensed even in this
life. Oh, Piety! Virtue! how insensible have I been to thy
charms ! That is a property most men have, or at least may attain.
There is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their
own characters. Why
do ye that which is not lawful to do on the
Sabbath days ? Neither was he, nor any other persons, suspected
so much dissimulation. The evil of indolence is that we are often
beset with. He was banished the country. Those that sow and
reap will rejoice together.

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
TO BE CORRECTED.
John Come here, James. Where are you going,
writes pretty 4
Thomas ? never do so no more. The train of our ideas
I shall
are often interrupted. Was you present at last meeting ? He
seed not be in so much haste. He dare not act otherwise than he

* A noble spirit disdaineth, &c. should be, A man of a noble spirit dis-
daineth, &c This will render the sentence consistent with the rules of
grammar and with common sense: to talk of the soul of a spirit is ridi-
culous.
f The once expressed, the repetition of it becomes unne-
article being
cessary, except different form of it is requisite ; as, A house and
when a
an orchard; and when some peculiar emphasis requires a repetition; as,
JVot only the year, but the day and the hour were appointed.
% Let the pupil read the sentence correctly first: John writes prettily.
Then teach him to give the reason for the correction, thus, Pretty should
be prettily, beeause adjectives should not be used as adverbs. Rule 31.
How do you know that pretty should be an adverb here ? Beeause it is
joined to the verb writes, and expresses the manner in which John writes,
or how he writes. Come hither, James : Here should be hither, because, after
verbs of motion, hither, thither, and whither, should be used, and not here,
there, and where. Rule 3L
104 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
does. Him whom they seek is George or I is the
in the house.
person. They or he is blamed. The troop consist of
much to be
fifty men. Those set of books was a valuable present. pillar A
sixty foot high. His conduct evinced the most extreme vanity.
These trees are remarkable tall. He acted bolder than was ex-
pected. This is he who I gave the book to. Eliza always appears
amiably. She goes there to-morrow. From whence came they 1
Who do you lodge with now 1 He was born at London, but he
died in Bath. If he are sincere I am satisfied* Her father and her
were at church. The master requested him and I to read more
distinctly. It is no more but his due. Flatterers flatter as long,
and no longer than they have expectations of gain. John told the
same story as you told. This is the largest tree which I have
ever seen.

Let he and I read the She is free of pain. Those

next chapter.
sort of dealings are unjust.David the son of Jesse was the young-
est of his brothers. You be very kind to him, he said. Well,
says I, what does thou think of him now T James is one of those
boys that was kept in at school, for bad behavior. Thou, James,
did deny the deed. Neither good nor evil come of themselves*
We need not to be afraid. He expected to have gained more by
the bargain. You
should drink plenty of goat milk. It was him
who spoke Does you like milk 1 Is it me that you mean ?
first.

Who did you buy your grammar from 1 If one takes a wrong
method at first setting out, it will lead them astray. Neither man
nor woman were present. I am more taller than you. She is the
same lady who sang so sweetly. After the most straitest sect of
our religion, I lived a Pharisee. Is not thy wickedness great 1
and thine iniquities infiniteThere was more sophists than one
1

If a person have lived twenty or thirty years, he should have some

experience. If this were his meaning, the prediction has failed*
Fidelity and truth is the foundation of all justice. His associates
in wickedness will not fail to mark the alteration of his conduct
Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me.
And when they had lift up saw no man, save
their eyes, they
Jesus only. Strive not with man
without cause, if he has done
thee no harm. I wrote to, and cautioned the captain against it.
Now both the chief priests and Pharisees had given a command-
ment, that if any man knew where he were, he should show it,
that they might take him. The girl her book is torn in pieces*
It is not me who he is in love with. He which commands him-
self, commands the whole world. Nothing is more lovelier thau
virtue.
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 105
The peoples happiness is the statesmans honor. Changed to a
worser shape thou canst not be, I have drunk no spirituous liquors
this six years. He is taller than me, but I am stronger than him.
Solid peace and contentment consists neither hi beauty or riches,
but in the favor of God. After who is the King of Israel come
out ? The reciprocations of love and friendship between he and
I, have been many and sincere. Abuse of mercies ripen us for
judgment. Peter and John is not at school to-day. Three of
them was taken into custody. To study diligently, and behave
genteelly, is commendable. The enemies who we have most to
fear are those of our own hearts. Regulus was reckoned the most
consummate warrior that Rome could then produce. Suppose life
never so long, fresh accessions of knowledge may still be made.

Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible, can tell me what
became of Elijah. Neither the master nor the scholars is reading.
Trust not him, whom, you know, is dishonest. I love no interests
but that of truth and virtue. Every imagination of the thoughts
of the heart are evil continually. No one can be blamed for taking
due care of their health. They crucified him, and two others with
him, on either side one, and Jesus in the midst.

I have read Popes Homer, and Drydens Virgil. He that is dili-

gent you should commend. There was an earthquake which made
the earth to tremble. And God said to Solomon, Wisdom and
knowledge is granted unto thee, &c. I cannot commend him for
justifying hisself when he knows that his conduct was so very
improper. He was very much made on at school. Though he
was a sou, yet learned he obedience by the things which he suf-
fered. If he is alone tell him the news ; but if there is anybody
with him, do not tell him. They ride faster than us. Though
the measure be mysterious, it is worthy of attention. If he does
but approve my endeavors, it will be an ample reward. Was it
him who came last 1 Yes, it was him.
Forever in this humble cell,
Let thee and I my fair one dwell.

Every man should act suitable to his character and station in

life.His arguments were exceeding clear. I only spoke three
words on that subject. The ant and the bee sets a good example
before dronish boys. Neither in this world, neither in the world
to come. Evil communications corrupts good manners. Hannibal
was one of the greatest generals whom the world ever saw. The
middle station of life seems to be the most advantageously situated
&r gaining of wisdom,
106 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
These are the rules of grammar, by the observing" which yon
may avoid mistakes. The king conferred upon him the title of a
dul^e. Myexercises are not well wrote, I do not hold my pen
well. Grammar teaches us to speak proper. She accused her
companion for having betrayed her. I wiil not dissent with her.
Nothing shall make me swerve out of the path of duty and honor.
Who shall I give it to 1 Who are you looking for ] It is a
diminution to, or a derogation of their judgment. It fell into their
notice or cognizance. She values herself for her fortune. That
is a book which I am much pleased with. I have been to see the
coronation, and a line sight it was. That picture of the emperor's
is a very exact resemblance of him. Every thing that we here
enjoy, change, decay, and come to an end. It is not him they
blame so much.
Nopeople has more faults than they that pretend to have none.
The laws of Draco is said to have been wrote with blood. It is so
clear, or so obvious, as I need not explain it. She taught him and
I to read. The more greater a bad man's accomplishments are,
the more dangerous he is to society, and the more less fit for a
companion. Each has their own faults, and every one should
endeavor to correct their own. Let your promises be few, and
such that you can perform.
His being at enmity with Caesar and Antony were the cause
of perpetual discord. Their being forced to their books in an age
at enmity with all restraint, have been the reason why many have
hated books all their lives. There was a coffee-house at that end
of the town, in which several gentlemen used to meet of an even-
ing. Do not despise the state of the poor, lest it becomes your
own condition. It was his duty to have interposed his authority
in an affair of so much importance. He spent his whole life in
the doing good. Every gentleman who frequented the house, and
conversed with the erectors of this occasional club, were invited to
pass an evening when they thought fit. The winter has not been
so severe as we expected it to have been. The rest (of the stars)'
in circuit walls this universe. Sir, if thou have borne him hence,
tell me where thou hast laid him.

A lampoon, or a satire, does not carry in them robbery or

murder. She and you were not mistaken in her conjectures. My
sisterand I, as well as my brother, are employed in their respective
occupations. He repents him of that indiscreet action. It was.
me, and not him, that wrote it. Art thou him 1 I shall take care
that no one shall suffer no injury. I am a man who approves of

wholesome discipline, and who recommend it to others

-
% hut I axa
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 107

not a person who promotes severity, or who object to mild and

generous treatment. He has hit me in a right place enough.
Prosperity, as truly asserted by Seneca, it very much obstructs the
knowledge of ourselves. To do to others as we would that they
should do to us, it is our duty. This grammar w as purchased at r

Perkins' the bookseller's. The council was not unanimous.

Who spilt the ink upon the table 1 Him. Who lost this book?
Me. Whose pen Johns. There is in fact no impersonal
is this ?

verbs in any language. And he spitted on the ground, and anointed

his eyes. Had I never seen ye, I had never known ye. The ship
Mary and Ann were restored to their owners. If we consult the
improvement of mind, or the health of body, it is well known exer-
cise is the great instrument for promoting both. A man may see
a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read them in a
description.
I had no sooner placed her at my right hand, by the fire, but
she opened to me the reason of her visit. A prudent wife, she
shall be blessed. The house you speak of, it cost me five hundred
dollars. Did I not tell thee, O thee infamous wretch that thou !

wouldst bring me to ruin 1 Not only the counsels and attorneys,

but the judge's opinion also, favored his cause. It was the men's,
women's, and children's lot, to suffer great calamities. That is the
eldest son of the king of England's. Lord Feversham the general's
tent. This palace had been the grand Sultan's Mahomet's. They
did not every man cast away the abomination of their eyes.
* I am purposed. He is arrived. They were deserted from
their regiment. Whose works are these 1 They are Cicero, the
most eloquent of men's. The mighty rivals are now at length
agreed. The time of William making the experiment, at length
arrived. If we alter the situation of any of the words, we shall
presently be sensible of the melody suffering. This picture of the
king's does not much resemble him. These pictures of the king
were sent to him from Italy. He who committed the offence, thou
shouldst correct, not I, who am "innocent.
But Thomas, one of the Didymus, was not with
twelve, called
them when Jesus came. I a long and
offer observations, that
checkered pilgrimage have enabled me to make on man. After I
visited Europe, I returned to America. Clelia is a vain woman,
if we do not flatter, she will be disgusted. In his conduct was

* Rule. improper to use a neuter verb in the passive form. Thus, I

It is
am purposed —He
is arrived should be, I have purposed He has arrived.
: —
From this rule there are a number of exceptions j for it is allowable to
say, He is come. She is gone, &c.
108 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
treachery, and in his words faithless professions. The orators did
not forget to enlarge themselves on so popular a subject. He acted
conformable with his instructions, and cannot be censured justly.
No person could speak stronger on this subject, nor behave
nobler, than our young advocate, for the cause of toleration. They
were studious to ingratiate with those who it was dishonorable to
favor. The house framed a remonstrance, where they spoke with
great freedom of the king's prerogative. Neither flatter or contemn
the rich or the great. Many would exchange gladly their honors,
beauty, and riches, for that more quiet and humbler station, which
thou art now dissatisfied with. High hopes, and florid views, is a
great enemy to tranquillity. Many persons will not believe but
what they are free from prejudices. I will lay me down in peace,
and take my rest. have only found in Spencer. The
This word I
king being apprized of the conspiracy, he fled from Jerusalem.
A weaken the mind.
too great variety of studies dissipate and
James was resolved such a cruel amuse-
to not indulge himself in
ment. They admired the countryman's, as they called him, candor
and uprightness. The pleasure or pain of one passion, differ from
those of another. The court of Spain, who gave the order, were
not aware of the consequences. There was much spoke and wrote
on each side of the question ; but I have chose to suspend my
decision.

Religion raises men above themselves; irreligion sinks them

beneath the brutes ; that binds them down to a poor pitiable speck
of perishing earth ; this opens for them a prospect to the skies.
Temperance and exercise, howsoever little they may be regarded,
they are the best means of preserving health. To despise others
on account of their poverty, or to value ourselves for our wealth,
are dispositions highly culpable. This task was the easier per-
formed, from the cheerfulness with which he engaged in it. These
counsels were the dictates of virtue, and the dictates of true honor.
As his misfortunes were the fruit of his own obstinacy, a few per-
sons pitied him. And they were judged every man according' to
•heir works. Riches is the bane of human happiness. I wrote to
my brother before I received his letter.
When the president appeared, I was for some time in doubt
whether it could be himAre you living contented in
or not.
spiritual darkness? The company was very numerous. Shall
the throne of iniquity have fellowship with thee, which frameth
mischief by a law Where is the security that evil habits will be
I

ever broken ? They each bring materials to the place. Nor let
no comforter delight my ear. She was six years older than him.
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 109

They were obliged to contribute more than us. The Barons had
more to rely on, besides the power of their families. The
little

sewers must be kept so clear, as the water may run away. Such
among us who follow that profession. Nobody is so sanguine to
hope for it. She behaved unkinder than I expected. Agreeable
to your request I send this letter. She is exceeding fair. Thomas
is not as docile as his sister. There was no other book but this.
He died by a fever. Among whom was Mary Magdalene, and
Mary the mother of James. My sister and I waited till they were
called. The army were drawn up in haste. The public is re-
spectfully informed, that, &c. The friends and amusements which
he preferred corrupted his morals. Each must answer for them-
selves. Henry, though at first he showed an unwillingness, yet
afterwards he granted his request.

Him and her live very happily together. She invited Jane and
I to see her new dress. She uttered such cries that pierced the
heart of every one who heard them. Maria is not as good as her
sister Ann. Though he promises ever so solemnly, I will not be-
lieve him. The full moon was no sooner up, in all its brightness,
but he opened to them the gate of paradise. It rendered the
progress very slow of the new invention. This book is Thomas',
that is James'. Socrates's wisdom has been the subject of many
a conversation. Fare thee well, James. Who, who has the judg-
ment of a man, would have drawn such an inference T George
was the most diligent scholar whom I ever knew. I have observed
some children to use deceit. He durst not to displease his master.
The hopeless delinquents might, each in their turn, adopt the ex-
postulatory language of Job. Several of our English words, some
centuries ago, had different meanings to those they have now.
And I was afraid, and went and hid thy talent in the earth lo, ;

there thou hast that is thine. With this booty he made off to a
distant part of the country, where he had reason to believe that
neither he nor his master were known. Thine is the kingdom,
the power, and the glory. I have been at London.

Which of the two masters, says Seneca, shall we most esteem ? ,

He who strives to correct his scholars by prudent advice and mo-
tives of honor, or another who will lash them severely for not
repeating their lessons as they ought ] The blessing of the Lord
it maketh rich, and he addeth no sorrow with it. For if there be
first a willing mind, it is accepted according to that a man hath,
and not according to that he hath not. If a brother or a sister be
naked and destitute of daily food, and one of you say unto them,
Depart in peace, be ye warmed and filled notwithstanding, if ye
;

10
110 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
give them not those things which are needful to the body ; what
doth it profit 1

But she always behaved with great severity to her maids; and
ifany of them were negligent of their duty, or made a slip in their
conduct, nothing would serve her but burying the poor girls alive,
He had no master to instruct him he had read nothing but the
:

writings of Moses and the prophets, and had received no lessons

from the Socrates's,* the Plato's, and the Confucius's of the age.
They that honor me, I will honor. For the poor always ye have
with you.
The Christians of the gentile world made a simple and
first
entire transitionfrom a state as bad, if not worse, than that of entire
ignorance, to the Christianity of the New Testament. And he said
unto Gideon, every one that lappeth of the water with his tongue,
as a dog lappeth, him shalt thou set by himself. The general had
not behaved with that courage as was expected. Milton seems to
have been well acquainted with his own genius, and to know what
it was that nature had bestowed upon him more bountifully than

upon others. And on the morrow, because he would have known

the certainty wherefore he was accused-)- of the Jews, he loosed
him from his bonds.

Here rages force, here tremble flight and fear,

Here storm'd contention, and here fury frown d.

The Cretan javelin reach'd him from afar,

And pierced his shoulder as he mounts his car.

Noris it then a welcome guest, affording only an uneasy sensa-

tion, and brings always with it a mixture of concern and compas-

sion. He onlyt promised me a loan of the book for two days. I
was once thinking to have written a poem.
Avery slow child will often be found to get lessons by heart as
soon as, nay sometimes sooner, than one who is ten times as intel-
ligent. It is then from a cultivation of the perceptive faculties,
that we only can attain those powers of conception which are
essential to taste. No man is fit for free conversation for the
inquiry after truth, if he is exceedingly reserved if he is haughty
;

* The Possessive case must not be used for the plural number. In this
quotation from Baron Haller's Letters to his Daughter, the proper names
should have been pluralized like common nouns ; thus, From the Socrateses,
the Platoes, and the Confuciuses of the age.
f Accuse requires of before the crime, and by before the person accusing.
J This sentence expresses one meaning as it stands. It may be made
to express four by placing only after wie, or loan^ or book} or days.
 ; ;

ENGLISH SYNTAX. Ill

and proud of knowledge; if he is positive and dogmatical in

his
his opinions he is one who always affects to outshine all the
; if
company if he is fretful and peevish if he affects wit, and is full
; ;

of puns, or quirks, or quibbles. Conversation is the business, and

let every one that please add their opinion freely.

The mean suspicious wretch whose bolted door

Ne'er moved in duty to the wandering poor
With him I left the cup, to teach his mind,
That Heaven can bless if mortals will be kind.
are many more shining qualities in the mind of man, but
There
there none so useful as discretion. Mr. Locke having been
is

introduced by Lord Shaftesbury to the Duke of Buckingham and

Lord Halifax, these three noblemen, instead of conversing with the
philosopher on literary subjects, in a very short time sat down to
cards.

It is your light fantastic fools, who have neither head nor hearts,
in both sexes, who, by dressing their bodies out of all shape, render
themselves ridiculous and contemptible. And how can brethren
hope to partake of their parent's blessing that curse each other.
The superiority of others over us, though in trivial concerns, never
fails to mortify our vanity, and give us vexation, as Nicole ad-
mirably observes. Likewise also the chief priests, mocking, said
among themselves, with the scribes, He saved others ; himself he
cannot save. Noah, for his godliness, and his family, were the
only persons preserved from the flood. It is an unanswerable
argument of a very refined age, the wonderful civilities that have
passed between the nation of authors, and that of readers. And
they said among themselves, who shall roll us away the stone from
the door of the sepulchre. And when they had looked, they saw
that the stone was rolled away for it was very great.
: greatA
stone that I happened to find, after a long search, by the sea-shore,
served me for an anchor. It is true what he says, but it is not
applicable to the point.

The senate of Rome ordered that no part of it should be rebuilt

itwas demolished to the ground, so that travelers are unable to say
where Carthage stood at this day.
Thus ended the war with Antiochus, twelve years after the
second Punic war, and two after it had been begun. Upon the
death of Claudius, the young Emperor Nero pronounced his funeral
oration, and he was canonized among the gods, who scarcely de-
served the name of a man. Galerius abated much of his severities
against the Christians on his death-bed, and revoked those edicts
112 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
which he had formerly published, tending to their persecution, a
little before his death. The first care of Aurelius was to marry his
daughter Lucilla once more to Claudius Pompeiilnus, a man of
moderate fortune. But at length, having made his guards accom-
plices in their design, they set upon Maximin while he slept at
noon in his tent, and slew both him and his son, whom he had
made his partner in the empire, without any opposition. Aurelian
defeated the Marcomanni, a fierce and terrible nation of Germany,
that had invaded Italy, in three several engagements.

AMBIGUITY.
You suppose him younger than I.

This may mean, either that you suppose him younger than I am, or that
you suppose him to be younger than I suppose him to be.

Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip, the father of

Alexander, as well as himself, for whom he first opened the way
into Asia.
Here we are apt to suppose the word himself refers to Parmenio, and
means that he had not only served Philip, but he had served himself at
the same time. This, however, is not the meaning of the passage. If we
arrange it thus, the meaning will appear. " Parmenio had not only served
Philip the father of Alexander with great fidelity, but he had served Alex-
ander himself, and was the first that opened the way for him into Asia."

Belisarius was general of all the forces under the emperor Jus-
tinian the First, a man of rare valor.
Who was a man of rare valor? The emperor Justinian we should sup-
pose, from the arrangement of the words ; but this is not the case, for it
was Belisarius. The sentence should have stood thus, " Belisarius, a man
of rare valor, was general of all the forces under the emperor Justinian
the First."

Lisias promised to his father never to abandon his friends.

Were they his own friends or his father's whom Lisias promised never
to abandon ! If his own, it should be, Lisias promised and said to his
father, I will never abandon my friends. If his father's, it should be,
Lisias promised and said to his father, I will never abandon your friends.

OBSOLETE WORDS.
Lack ; as, One thing thou lackest ; obsolete except in allusion
to Scriptural subjects.
Tarry ; as, Tarry ye here awhile ; obsolete except in allusion to
Scriptural subjects.
Peradventure ; as, Peradventure he will accept of me ; obsolete
except in Scripture.
 ;

ENGLISH SYNTAX. 113

Hearken ; as, Hearken to my voice ; obsolete except in Scripture.

Motion, for move ; as, I motion that the bill be reconsidered.

Name, for mention ; as, I named it to you.
Progress, for advance ; as, The President progressed
through the
country. It is still more improper to use this word as it is some-
times used in reference to revivals ; as, The work was progressing*
Clad, for clothed. It is used by the poets ; as, Clad in armor
but it then expresses something more than would be expressed
by clothed.

Stricken, for struck. It is retained by the poets ; as, I was a

stricken deer.
It behooves , the use of it is a blemish in Hume's history.

Folk and folks, ought never to be used but in burlesque.

Obligated, for bound ,- as, I felt obligated to him.
Methinks and methought. These are retained by the poets.

Jeopardize, for jeopard ; as, Men who jeopardized their lives.

Memorize, for commit to memory. It was formerly used by the

English poets, for to make memorable.
Het, for heated! She het the water.
Lit, for lighted. The lamp was lit
Lit, for alighted. The bird lit on that tree.

Plead, for pleaded. He plead the cause ably.

Proven, for proved. It is retained by the poets; as, When
hearts whose truth was proven.
Swoln, for swelled. Retained by the poets ; as, The mountain
stream, swoln to a torrent
Substance, for property.
Without, for unless ; as, I will not go without you do.
Except, for unless ; as, I will not let thee go except thou bless
me.
Then, as an adjective ; as,' The then administration ; instead of
the then existing administration.
Bating, for omitting.

Either, for each. There were on either side the river.

Pending, for during ,• as, Pending these discussions.
10*
 ;
:

114 ENGLISH SYNTAX.

AMERICANISMS.
Allot upon, for count upon,- as, I allot much on returning
home soon.
Admire to ; as, I admire to see a man frank. We should say,
I admire frankness, admire a frank man.
or, I

Applicant, for student ; as, A severe applicant.

Appreciate, for to rise in value. Hamilton introduced it as the
contrary of depreciate.
Balance, for remainder as, I spent a part of the evening with
,•

a friend, and the balance at home.

Calculate, for design or intend ; as, I calculate to return soon.
Calculation, for intention. It is my calculation to visit his
country seat, on my way.
Reckon, for think or believe ; as, I reckon it will rain to-morrow.

Guess, for think or believe. It is used in England properly

but in this country its signification has been so perverted that good
writers drop it altogether. Imagine is a good substitute.
Cleverly, for well in health ,• as, How is your friend to-day ?
He is getting along cleverly.
Considerable, used as a noun ; as, He is considerable of a poet
as an adverb ; as, He is considerable sick.

Creatures, for the animals on a farm ,- thus, in England they

say, " Wemust take care of the stock." In this country we say,
" We must take care of the creatures."
Rock. The meaning of the word
is, a large mass of stone ; but

in the eastern part of New

England, and in the southern states, it
is used to signify small stones ; thus, Those children are throwing
rocks at each other.
Creek, for a small river. It is properly an arm of the sea.

Avails, for proceeds ; as, The avails of the work are devoted, &c.
To a degree, for to a great degree.
Derogatory, for derogatory to ; as, His conduct is very dero-
gatory.
Desk, for pulpit. In Episcopal churches the desk is the place
where prayers are read, and the pulpit the place where the sermon
is preached and as we have but one place for both, we confound
;

the two names —

it ought to be avoided.

Classical. This has been used by some as the adjective of

 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 115

class, instead of the adjective of classic ; thus, A classical study is

used to signify a study pursued by a class, instead of a study
belonging to the classics.
Scholastic, belonging to the schoolmen, who were persons who
wrote subtile and philosophical disquisitions; as, The scholastic
theology, i. e. the theology of the schoolmen. This has been per-
verted to the signification, belonging to a school ; as, The scholastic
year is ten months. Thus it is made the adjective of school, which
'
is highly improper.

Incident, for liable as, The man is incident to certain evils.

,-

The proper meaning of the word is falling upon. The evils

might be incident to him ; he could not be incident to them.
Smart, for able. We
point out a person to an Englishman as
a smart man, and he In England the term signifies,
is amazed.
that a person is extraordinary in his manner of dress ; that he aims
at elegance in his appearance in this country it means a man of
:

intelligence.

Temper, for passion as, He showed a great deal of temper.

,-

In this country the phrase means, he showed a great deal of passion.

In England it means, he showed a great deal of moderation. The
latter is correct, and we use the derivatives correctly thus, to tem- ;

per is to calm temperance is moderation, not high excitement.

•

Honorary, for honorable ; as, An honorary action for, An ;

honorable action. To say, An honorary degree, is correct ; it

means, not an honorable degree, but one which is conferred for the
sake of honoring the individual on whom it is conferred.

Right, for very as, It rains right hard ; He is a right good

,•

man. It is used in this way in the southern and middle states.

It is also used in the same way in the Scriptures ; as, And that
right early.
Mighty, for powerful; as, It took a mighty hold on him. This
use of it might be sometimes allowed ; but it has been already
overused, and has thus been rendered too common, and will for
this reason be avoided by all good writers.

Chance has a strange signification in the southern and middle

states ; as, A smart chance of rain. It is there used to signify any
thing that happens accidentally, as it were ; any thing that comes
not in regular order.
Like, for as ; as, Strike like I do ; I feel like I should be sick.
Heap, for a great deal ,• him a heap.
as, I like

Raised, is used thus in the western states I was : obliged to raise

116 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
the hymn myself; meaning, I was obliged to commence the singing
of the hymn, &c.
Lift, for to take up ; as, To lift a contribution. Used thus in
the western states.
Badly, for a great deal; as, I want to see you badly.
Musical, for humorous ; as, He is a very musical man. This
phrase was used thirty or forty years ago.
Expect, used in reference to past or present actions ; as, Has the
mail arrived ] I expect it has now we cannot expect a thing
:

which has taken place. The word expect should be used only with
the future. The future is something of which we are ignorant,
and we are also ignorant whether the mail has arrived, and there-
fore we are apt to speak of it as we do of the future.

Universal, for universalist ; as, A universal preacher.

Stalled ; as, The horses got stalled, i. e. fastened in the mire.
Stall is derived from the German word stellen, to fix: hence, to
stall cattle is to fix cattle in their place for the night, and not to fix
in the mire.

Rolling, for undulating ; as, A rolling country.

Predicate ; that part of a proposition containing the affirma-
tion; as, Man is mortal. Here mortality is predicated of man.
But some say, My argument is predicated on these principles in —
the sense of founded. We
may say, predicated of, but not pre-
dicated on.
Span, for pair; as, A span of horses. To say, The span of
an arch, is proper, because it signifies the union of the two parts
which spring from the abutments this is the proper meaning of ;

the word as derived from espannire, to unite.

Keep, for lodge ; as, Where do you keep ? Hence we have,

keeping-room, for drawing-room, or, withdrawing-room. Parlor .

is also the proper word for the room where the family reside ; from
parleur, to talk.
Likely, for promising ,- as, A likely horse A likely negro.
; Its
true meaning is probable.
Poorly, for unwell; as, He is very poorly.
Raise, The English speak of raising cattle —we speak of raising
men ; as, He was
bred and raised, or educated; we also say, to
raise a committee for, to appoint.

Awful, for disagreeable ; as, He has an awful nose.

Grand, used vulgarly as, A grand fellow.
;
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 117

Ugly, for bad, or ill-tempered ; as, An ugly fellow. The true

meaning is, destitute of personal beauty.
To take the floor, we say in America. In England, to occupy
the floor, or, the attention of the House.
Sauce means a compound to give relish ; we use it to mean
vegetables.

Hack, for hackney coach ; as, He is gone to ride in a hack. In

England, hack means a worn-out horse.

Offset, for set-off. As an offset to that argument, is the Ameri-

can phrase. As a set-off, &c. is the English phrase.
Sidehill, for hillside.

Lay, used as the participle of to lie ; as, I was laying on the

floor.

Set, used as a neuter verb ; as, Set down. Set is active ; as, To
set out trees. Sit is neuter ,- as, To sit down.
Rising ,- as, Rising of six years.
Approbate, for to approve ,- as, He was approbated as a preacher.
Country, for part of a country ; as, The western country, for
the western part of the country. The country is the whole extent
of the nation.
Back and forth, for backwards and forwards ; as, He was walk-
ing back and forth.
Belittle, meaning, to make small, or degrade.

Grocery, for grocery store ; as, He set up a grocery. Grocery

is the thing sold.
Betterment, for improvement.
Bread stuffs, for grain. Introduced by Hamilton.
Carriage, for chaise. A carriage is any four-wheeled vehicle.

Deputize, for to depute. The former perhaps is as good a word,

but it is not authorized by the use of good writers.
Composuist, for one who composes. Used in the eastern col-
leges. To write composition is improper, for composition is the
thing written, and the phrase therefore means, to write writing.
To write a composition, is correct.

Dutyable, for liable to duty.

Educational, for pertaining to education.

Eventuate, for to result.

To fall trees,, for to fell trees.
US ENGLISH SYNTAX.
My fellow countrymen, for my countrymen.
Illy, for ill ; as, He was illy prepared.*

Seaboard, for seacoast.

Monetary, for monied; as, Monetary system; for, monied sys-
tem. Introduced by Hamilton.
Missionate, for to go as a missionary. term invented in this A
country.
Preventative, for preventive. Most nouns formed from verbs
end in ative, but use has decided that this should not.
Repetitious, a word coined here and one for which we have no
;

perfect substitute. Thus, if we say of a person's style, that it is

repetitious, we mean not that it is prolix, which signifies too many
superfluous ideas nor that it is verbose, which signifies too many
;

words but that it is marked by a frequent repetition of the same

;

thought.
Spell, for turn ; as, A cold spell of weather ; We will give him
a good spell.

Turnpike, for turnpike road; as, I walk on the Lancaster

turnpike. The turnpike is the bar which turns on the pike in
the gate.
Meeting, for meeting-house. The English only have fallen
into this error. Thus they say, We
have just built a meeting.
To fellowship, agree with, or, to have fellowship with
for to ;
as, I cannot fellowship with that opinion.
Publishment, for declaration of the banns of marriage. In-
vented in this country.
Truthful, used vulgarly : no word but veracious to supply its
place.
To write over, instead of under ; as, He wrote over the signa-
ture of Junius ; because, say they who use this phrase, what he
wrote was over the signature. Under my hand and seal, is the
true old-fashioned English phrase, and it is correct, for the hand
and seal comes down on the writing.
Renewediy, for again ; as, We
come renewedly into Thy pre-
sence used thus in prayer, and very incorrectly.
:

Authority, for authorities ; as, Authority of a college. This

would convey an Englishman an idea of some peculiar preroga-
to
tive of the college, (if he understood it at all.) Civil authority
has become technical in Connecticut.

* There are many other adjectives which qualify as adverbs. See

page 85.
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 119

Selectman, also, is peculiar to Connecticut.

Bottom land, for meadow, or, flat land on the side of a river.

Any, for at all ; as, Was he injured any ?

Got and Get, to signify mere possession ; as, Have you got a
knife 1 instead of, Have you a knife ?
HaoVnt ought, for ought not ; as, You had'nt ought to.

Clear out, for go away, is very vulgar.

Hold on, for wait or stop, is very vulgar.

If for though ; as, I feel as if it was so.

So as to, awkwardly combined ; as, He did it so as to, for, he so

did it as to.

Such a large, for so large a as, Such a large company,

,• for, so
large a company. Such and a ought to be separated.
Community, for the community. The word has not yet be-
come technical so as to admit of being used without the article.
It is proper to say, injurious to society ; but not proper to say,
injurious to community.
Peek, for peep ; to look by stealth. A New England perversion.
To slam, for to shut violently.
Peel and slice, for flreshovel.

To swap, for to exchange.

Big, for great. Thus, in the West we hear, The big Sandy ;

The big man The big tent. ;

Have, used too frequently as, T want to have you come ; ; I did'nt
liave an opportunity Will you let me have your chaise.
;

Carry, for take, and hang, for fasten ; as, Carry the horse to
the blacksmith's, and hang him to the post.
Heft, for weight ,- derived from heavy.
To Heft ,- to lift for the purpose of ascertaining the weight ; as,
I hefted it.

Gawk ,-
a Scotch word ;as, A great gawky.

Muggy, for murky; as,The air is muggy.

Some, for somewhat ,- as, Some better.

Get a going and Set a going, have become very vulgar. They
are occasionally used in England.
All of a piece ; as, It is all of a piece with his conduct. An
old English phrase. It should be avoided.
Under the sun. Used too much.
120 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
Chalked out, for marked out.

Leave, used as a neuter verb ; as, When did you leave ? for,
When did you leave home ] It should always have the object
following it. This error appears to be creeping in of late.
Leave, for let ; as, Leave me be. Leave that alone.
Inform, used as a neuter instead of an active verb ; as, Captain
S. informs that the arrival, &c. instead of, informs us.
You don't, for you don't say so ; vulgar.
So be that, for provided that ; as, I will, so be that I can.
He tries his hand ; a vulgar phrase.
Takes place and took place / too much used.
It is the case, or, It is the case that ; too much used.
Supply, used as a neuter verb ; as, He is supplying at Brook-
lyn, for, supplying the pulpit.

Duly, for my duty ; as, I wish I could learn what duty is.

Consider ;consider that it is a wise measure. This faulty

as, I
use of consider, (in omitting as,) was introduced by Lord Brougham.

Consider, is almost always followed by as ; it may sometimes,

though rarely, be omitted. The error is, that it is too often omit-
ted ; as, I consider it true, for, as true.

Jurisprudence, for law ; peculiar to America.

Differ from, not with, I may differ with a second person from

a third person, but I cannot differ with another alone.

Militates against, not with.
To arrive to, instead of, to arrive at; as, The conclusion to
which we have arrived.
Averse from, instead of, averse to,

Ef/ualty as, is always wrong. We should say, equally with.

Worthy, for worthy of; as, Objects worthy attention.
In, for itito ; as, I got in the stage ; Came in town. In some
parts of the country we hear, I have not seen you in six months,
for, for six months. It is a frequent remark among educated men,

that the Americans seem to have no into.

This ivilderness world, used among clergymen.

Other like ; as, Other like than I expected.
Wilt Thou be in our ?nidsi, for in the midst of us. This use
has sprung up within four or five years, among clergymen.
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 121

In conformity to, for in conformity with. But we must say,

to conform to, not to conform with.
In accordance to, for in accordance with.

Esteem of, was used by old writers : we say, esteem for ; the
latter is correct.

Confide on, for confide in.

Independent on, for independent of.

Those seeking, for those who seek.

Those living on the other side of the river, for those who live.

They began ascending, for they began to ascend.

Different than, for different from. Used by English writers.

Shifting horses, for changing.

Sundown, for sunset.

Lot, for homelot.

Chosen by lot, is very properly used in conversation.
Clapboard, for pale.

The following are- words not adopted in England,

but used so extensively here that they cannot be ban-
ished from our language.
Boatabk waters. Waters on which boats pass, and ships do
not
Boating ,- conveying in boats.

Bankbill, for banknote. Bankbill in England is a post note,

and does not pass into the general currency.
Brush, for small limbs of trees.
Chequers, for draughts.
Shingles, the rough loose gravel covering the beach.
Clever, in England, means intellectual adroitness and dexterity
next below that of real genius. Here, clever means moral excel-
lence; there it refers wholly to the intellect.

Clothier. In America, one who dresses cloth. In England, one

V)ho manufactures cloth.

Caucus ; a meeting held for consultation in a large city, derived

from, a room occupied by caulkers.
Congress, congressional.
 ;

122 ENGLISH SYNTAX.

Hudson river, we say in America, putting the name first ; rivet
Thames, they say in England, putting the name last. We do the
same in respect to European names.
Berks, Worcester, or Hampshire county, we say in America
in England they say Berks, Worcester, or Hampshire, omitting
the word county.
Groceries, in America ;
grocery, in England.
We burn coal, in America ; We burn coals, in England.
For sale, in America On sale, in England.
;

To sell at auction, in America To sell by auction, ; in England

i. e. hy auction or increase of price.
Cracker ; a hard cake.
Com, The corn laws in England prohibit the importation of
wheat, rye, oats, when wheat is below 64 shillings the quarter.
Com there denotes all kinds of grain.
Staging, for scaffolding.
To deed land, for to convey land.
Driver, for coachman.
Freshet, meaning, rise in river.
Notify of, for notify to.

Girdle trees ; in England they never have occasion to do it

Hub, for nave.

Locate, for to place.

Location, for situation.
Lot, for field.
Fall, for autumn.
Portage, for carrying place ; Portage of a river.

Rapids, applied to rivers.

Scow, for lighter ; a flat-bottomed boat. Scow is derived from

the Dutch.
Stage, for stage-coach. In England, stage is the space gone
over*, as, To ride one stage.
Clergymen, in England, is confined to ministers of the esta-
blished Church.

Store, in England, is a place where goods are stored.

Shop, in England, is the place where goods are sold.
1
Bookstore, for bookseller s shop.
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 123

Merchant, in America, is applied to any respectable dealer ; in

England it denotes a commercial man.

Subscriber, for undersigned.

Wilt, for wither.
Wharves, for wharfs. The English say wharfs.

TAUTOLOGY.

Tautology, or the repetition of a thought or word,

already fully expressed, is improper.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
The latter end of that man shall be peace.

Whenever I try to improve, I always find I can do it.

I saw it in here.
He was in here yesterday when I spoke to him.
Give me both of them books.
They both met.
I never fail to read, whenever I can get a book.
You must return back immediately.
First of all I shall say my lesson.

Before I do that, I must^rs^ finish this.

He plunged down into the water.

Read from here to there.

Lift up your book. He mentioned it over again.

This was the worst accident of all others.
I ran after him a little way but soon returned back again.
;

I cannot tell for why he did it.

Learn from hence to study the Scriptures diligently.

Where shall I begin from when I read 1

We must do this last of all. Hence therefore I say.

I found nobody else but him there.

Smoke ascends up into the clouds.

We hastily descended down from the mountain.

He raised up his arm to strike me.
We were mutually friendly to each other.
 —— — —————————— —— — —
124 ENGLISH SYNTAX.
It should ever be your constant study to do good.
As soon as I awoke I rose up and dressed myself.
I leave town in the latter end of July.
I am conscious to myself.

IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS,
Do you mind how many chapters are in Job ] remember.
The wool is cheaper ;
—but the cloth is as dear as ever —omit
the in both places.
They gained five shillings the piece by it a piece,
A letter conceived in the following words expressed.
He behaved in a very gentlemanny manner gentlemanly.
A momentuous circumstance momentous.
You will some day repent it one day repent of it.
At the expiry of his lease expiration.
had ever so much in my offer
If I choice.

Have you any word to your brother message.

The cock is a noisy beast fowl.
Direct your letters to me at Mr. T's, Philadelphia address.
He took a fever was seized with a fever.
He was lost in the river drowned.
If I am not mistaken If I mistake not.
He proposes to buy an estate purposes.
I shall notice a few particulars mention.
Will I help you to a bit of beef shall.

Will we see you next week 1 — shall.

A stupenduous work stupendous.

A tremenduous work tremendous.
I mind none of them things those.

Don't let on to any body do not mention it to any one.

He stops there stays, dwells, lodges.

My every hope, should be All my hopes.

Frequent opportunity. Frequent opportunities.
He put it in his pocket. He put it into his pocket
All over the country. Over all the country.

Be that as it will. Be that as it may.

 — ———— ——— ———
ENGLISH SYNTAX. 125

About two years back. About two years ago.

It lays on the table. It lies on the table.

I turned them topsy-turvy. I overturned them.

I catch'd it I caught it.

Overseer over his house. Overseer of his house.

Opposite the church. Opposite to the church.
A new pair of gloves. A pair of new gloves.
A young beautiful woman. A beautiful young woman.
Where do you come from ! Whence do you come 1
Where are you going ] Whither are you going]
For such another fault. For another such fault.

Of consequence. Consequently.
Having not considered it. Not having considered it.

I had rather not. I would rather not.

I'd as lief. I would as soon.
For good and all. Absolutely and entirely.
This here house, says I. This house, said I.

Where is it 7 says I, to him. Where is it 1 said I, to him.

I propose to visit them. I purpose to visit them.
He spoke contemptibly of me. He spoke contemptuously of me.
I heard them pro & con. I heard both sides.
I an't hungry. I am not hungry.
I want a scissors. Iwant a pair of scissors.
A new pair of shoes. A pair of new shoes.
I saw him some ten years ago. I saw him ten years ago.
I fell in with him. I met with him.
The subject matter. The subject.

I add one more reason. I add one reason more.

I cannot go the day to-day. Take a drink draught.
Sweet butter—;fresh. A pair of partridges a brace.
I got timous notice timely. A milk cow milch.
A summer's day summer day. He lays in bed till nine lies.

An oldish lady elderly. Give me them books these.

Close the door shut. This 'ere boy this boy.

Let him be alone. It is bran new quite.

1 1*
 ——— —— — — ————— ;

126 ENGLISH SYNTAX.

Will I help you 1 — shall. That 'ere man that man.
Shall James come again 1 will. His is far neater much.
I an't angry —J am not. That's no possible not.
That 'are house that house. I shall go the morn to-morrow.
I see'd him yesterday saw. Is your papa in ? within.
Did you tell on him of. Come, say away come, proceed.
Iknowed that knew. Shall they returnsoon— Will.
She turned sick grew. Will we go home now 1 Shall. —
He is turned tall grown. He don't do it well does not.

Avoid the following phrases. Fell to work; wherewith all —

quoth he ; do away long winded chalked out pop out must
; ;
;
;

needs; got rid of; handed down; self same; pell mell; that's
your sort tip him the wink pitched upon.
;
;

MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
1. When and is understood, the verb must be plural ; as, Wis-
dom, happiness, (and) virtue, dwell with the golden mediocrity.

Some when two singular nouns, coupled with and,

think, that
are nearly the same in meaning, the verb may be singular; as,
Tranquillity and peace dwells there. Ignorance and negligence
has produced this effect. This, however, is improper ; for tran-
quillity and peace are two nouns or names, and two make a plural;
therefore the verb should be plural.
2. Two or more nominatives by and,
in the singular, connected
require a verb in the singular number, when
they denote only one
person or thing ; as, That able scholar and critic has been emi-
nently useful.
3. Many writers use a plural noun after the second of two nu-
meral adjectives thus, The first and second pages are torn. This
;

is improper it should be, The first and second page, i. e. the first
:

page and the second page are torn are, perhaps ; because inde- :

pendently of and, they are both in a torn state. Generation, hour,

and ward are singular in Exodus xx. 5. Matt. xx. 5. Acts xii.
10.— See Rule III.

And and Not.

4. When joined to and, the negative clause forms a
not is
parenthesis, and does not affect the construction of the other clause
or clauses therefore, the verb in the following and similar sen-
;

tences should be singular. Genuine piety, and not great riches,

 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 127
makes a death-bed easy i. e. Genuine piety makes a death-bed
;

easy,and great riches do not make it easy. Her prudence, not

her possessions, renders her an object of desire. —See Rule III.

Every, And.
5. Whenthe nominatives connected by and are qualified by
Every, the verb should be singular as, Every man and woman
,-

was astonished at her fortitude. Every boy and girl was taught
to read.— See Rule XII. Obs. 3.

With and And.

6. When a singular nominative has a clause joined to it by
with, it is often difficult to determine whether the verb should be
singular or plural, especially as the best authors use sometimes
the one and sometimes the other for example, some would say,
:

My uncle, with his son, was in town yesterday. Others would

say, My uncle, with his son, were in town yesterday.
If we take the sense for our guide, and nothing else can guide
us in a case of this kind, it is evident that the verb should be plural;
for both uncle and son are the joint subjects of our affirmation, and
are declared to be both in the same state.
When we perceive from the sense, that the noun before With is
exclusively the real subject, then the verb should be singular thus, ,-

Christ, with his three chosen disciples, was transfigured on the

mount. Here the verb is singular, because we know that none
but Christ was transfigured the disciples were not joint associates
;

with him; they were mere spectators. There seems to be an

ellipsis in such sentences as this, which, in the present example
might be supplied thus Christ, (who was attended) with his three
:

chosen disciples, was transfigured on the mount.

Murray, however, thinks that the verb should be singular in the
following and similar sentences. " Prosperity, with humility, ren-
ders its possessors truly amiable." " The side A, with the sides B
and C, composes the triangle." On the contrary, the verb should
certainly be plural. For, in the first sentence, it is not asserted
that prosperity alone renders its possessor truly amiable, but pros-
perity and humility united, and co-operating to produce an effect
in their joint state, which they were incapable of achieving in their
individual capacity.
If true, as Murray says, that " the side A" in the second sen-
tence, is the true nominative to the verb, then it follows, of course,
that the two sides, B
and C, have no agency or no share in form-
ing the triangle, and consequently that the side A alone composes
 ;

128 ENGLISH SYNTAX.

the triangle. It is obvious, however, that one side cannot form a
triangle or three-sided figure, and that the sides B and C are as
much concerned in forming the triangle as the side A, and there-
fore the verb should be plural.

Upon the whole, we may venture to give the two following

general rules.
1. That wherever the noun or pronoun after With either exists
or acts jointly with the singular nominative before it, the verb
should be plural,- as, "She with her sisters are well." "His
purse, with its contents, were abstracted from his pocket." " The
general with his men were taken prisoners." In these sentences
the verb is plural, because the words after With are as much the
subject of discourse as the words before it, —
her sisters were well
as well as she ; the contents, as well as the purse, were abstracted
and the men, as well as the general, were taken prisoners. If, in
the first example, we say —
is well, then the meaning will be, she
is well when in company with her sisters : and the idea that her

sisters are well, will be entirely excluded.

2. When the noun after with is a mere involuntary or inanimate

instrument, the verb should be singular ; as, The captain with
his men catches poor Africans and sells them for slaves. The
hunter with his hounds kills a fox. Here the verb is singular,
because the men and hounds are not joint agents with the captain
and the hunter ; they are as much the mere instruments in their
hands as the gun and pen in the hands of He and She in the fol-
lowing sentences. He with his gun shoots a hare. She with her
pen writes a letter. See Rule III.—
Of the Articles with several Adjectives.
A or the is prefixed only to the first of several adjectives qualify-
ing one noun as, A meek and holy man : but the article should
;

be repeated, before each adjective, when each adjective relates to a

generic word applicable to every one of the adjectives. For ex-
ample, " The black and white cows were sold yesterday ; the red
will be sold to-morrow."

Here cows is the generic word, applicable to each of the adjec-

tives, black, white, and red, but for want of the before white, we
are led to suppose that the black and white cows means only one
sort, which are speckled with spots of black and white ; and if this
is our meaning, the sentenceis right but if we mean two different
:

sorts, the one black and the other all white, we should insert
all
the article before both ; and say, The black and the white cows,
i. e. The black cows and the white cows were sold.
 ENGLISH SYNTAX. 129

Some think this distinction of little importance; and it is really

seldom attended to even by good writers but in some cases it is
;

necessary although in others there cannot, from the nature of the

;

thing, be any mistake. In the following sentence, for instance, the

repetition of the before horned is not necessary, although it would
be proper. "The bald and horned cows were sold last week."
Here there can be no mistake, two sorts were sold ; for a cow can-
not be bald and horned too.

This-— That.
The same remark may be made respecting this and that, that
has been made respecting the articles ; as, " That great and good
man," means only one man but that great and that good man
:

would mean two men the one a great man the other a good man.
;

They— Those.
They stands for a noun already introduced, and should never be
used till the noun is mentioned. Those, on the contrary, points
out a noun not previously introduced, but generally understood.
It is improper therefore to say, They who tell lies are never es-
teemed. They that are truly good must be happy. We should
say, Those who tell lies, and those that are truly good ; because we
are pointing out a particular class of persons, and not referring to
nouns previously introduced. A
noun when not expressed after
this, that, these, and those, may be always understood.

A nother— One— Every.

Another corresponds to one; but not to some nor to every.
Thus, "Handed down from every writer of verses to another,"
should be, From one writer of verses to another. " At some hour
or another," should be, At some hour or other.
Oneis often used in familiar phrases (like on in French) for
we orany one of us indiscriminately Thus, One is often more
;

influenced by example than by precept. The verb and pronoun

with which one agrees should be singular. Thus, If one takes a
wrong method at first, it will lead them astray should be, It will
:

lead one astray, or it will lead him astray.

That— Those.
It is improper to apply that and those to things present or just
mentioned. Thus, " They cannot be separated from the subject
which follows ; and for that reason," &c. should be, And for this
reason, &c. " Those sentences which we have at present before
us :" should be, These, or the sentences which we have, &c.
 PUNCTUATION.

Punctuation is the marking of the several pauses

which are to be observed in reading or speaking a sen-
tence or continued discourse, in such a manner as may
naturally lead to its proper meaning, construction, and
delivery.

THE COMMA.
Rule I.

A simple sentence in general requires only a full

stop at the end as, True politeness has its seat in the
;

heart.
Rule II.
The simple members of a compound sentence are
separated by a comma as, Crafty men contemn stu-
;

dies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them.
He studies diligently, and makes great progress.

Rule III.

The persons in a direct address are separated from

the rest of the sentence by commas as, My
son, give
;

me thine heart. Colonel, Your most obedient. I

thank you, sir. I am obliged to you, my
friends, for
your kindness.
Rule IV.
Two words of the same part of speech, whether
nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or adverbs, do not
admit of a comma between them, when connected by
a conjunction as, James and John are good.
; She is
wise and virtuous. Religion expands and elevates
130
 PUNCTUATION. 131

the mind. By being admired and flattered, she be-

came vain. Cicero spoke forcibly and fluently.
When the conjunction is suppressed, a comma is in-
serted in its place ;as, He was a plain, honest man.

Rule V.
Three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles,
or adverbs, in succession are separated by commas ; as,
The sun, the moon, and the stars, are the glory of nature.
When words follow in pairs, there is a comma be-
tween each pair ; as, Truth is fair and artless, simple
and sincere, uniform and constant.

Rule VI.
All phrases or explanatory sentences, whether in the
beginning, middle, or end of a simple sentence, are
separated from it by commas as, To confess the truth,
;

I was in fault. His father dying, he succeeded to the

estate. The king, approving the plan, put it in exe-
cution. Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent
for his zeal and knowledge. George the Third, king
of Great Britain. I have seen the emperor, as he was
called. In short, he was a great man.

Rule VII.
The verb to be, followed by an adjective, or an
infinitive with adjuncts, is generally preceded by a
comma; as, To be diligently employed in the per-
formance of real duty, is honorable. One of the noblest
of the Christian virtues, is to love our enemies.

Rule VIII.

A comma is used between the two parts of a sentence

that has its natural order inverted ; as, Him that is
weak in the faith, receive ye.
132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Rule IX.
Any
remarkable expression resembling a quotation
or a command, is preceded by a comma ; as, There is
much truth in the proverb, Without pains no gains.
I say unto all, Watch.

Rule X.
Relative pronouns admit of a comma before them in
some cases, and in some not.
When several words come between the relative and
its antecedent,* a comma is inserted ; but not in other
cases as, There is no charm in the female sex, which
;

can supply the place of virtue. It is labor only which

gives the relish to pleasure. The first beauty of style
is propriety, without ivhich all ornament is puerile
and superfluous. It is barbarous to injure those from
whom we have received a kindness.
Rule XI.
A comma is often inserted where a verb is under-
stood, and particularly before not, but, and though, in
such cases as the following; as, John has acquired
much knowledge his brother, (has acquired) little.
;

A man ought to obey reason, not appetite. He was a

great poet, but a bad man. The sun is up, though he
is not visible.
A comma is sometimes inserted between the two
members of a long sentence connected by compara-
tives as, Better is little with the fear of the Lord,
;

than great treasure and trouble therewith. As thy

days, so shall thy strength be.

Rule XII.
It has been stated, in Rule VI. that explanatory
words and phrases, such as perfectly, indeed, doubt-
* That is, when the relative clause is merely explanatory, the relative
is preceded by a comma.
 PUNCTUATION. 133

less, formerly, in fine, Sic. should be separated from

the context by a comma.
Many adverbs, however, and even phrases, when
they are considered of little importance, should not be
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas as, ;

Be ye therefore perfect. Per adventure ten shall be

found there. All things indeed are pure. Doubtless
thou art our father. They were formerly very studious.
He was at last convinced of his error. Be not ye
therefore partakers with them. Nevertheless the poor
man's wisdom is despised. Anger is in a manner
like madness. At length some pity warmed the mas-
ter's breast.

These twelve rules respecting the position of the comma, include

every thing, it is presumed, to be found in the more numerous rules
of larger volumes. But it is impossible to make them perfect.
For, " In many instances, the employment, or omission of a comma,
depends upon the length, or the shortness of a clause, the presence
or absence of adjuncts the importance or non-importance of the
:

sentiment." Indeed, with respect to punctuation, the practice of the

best writers is extremely arbitrary ; many omitting some of the
usual commas when no error in sense, or in construction, is likely
to arise from the omission. Good sense and attentive observation
are more likely to regulate this subject than any mechanical direc-
tions.

The best general rule is, to point in such a manner as to make

the sense evident.

THE SEMICOLON.
The semicolon is used to separate two members of a
sentence less dependent on each other than those sepa-
rated by the comma.
Sometimes the two members have a mutual depend-
ence on one another, both in sense and syntax some- ;

times the preceding member makes complete sense of

itself, and only the following one is dependent and ;

sometimes both seem to be independent.

2*
 ;

134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

EXAMPLES.
As and wood to fire so is a conten-
coals are to burning coals, ;

tious man As
a roaring lion and a ranging bear
to kindle strife.
so is a wicked ruler over the poor people. Mercy and truth pre-
serve the king; and his throne is upheld by mercy. He that
loveth pleasure shall be a poor man ; he that loveth wine and oil
shall not be rich. Philosophy asserts, that Nature is unlimited in
her operations ; that she has inexhaustible stores in reserve ; that
knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future genera-
tions will continue to make discoveries, of which we have not the
least idea.

The semicolon is sometimes employed to separate simple mem-

bers in which even no commas- occur thus, The pride of wealth
:

is contemptible ; the pride of learning is pitiable ; the pride of dig-

nity is ridiculous ; and the pride of bigotry is insupportable.

Note. —In every one of these members the construction and sense are
complete ; and a period might have been used instead of the semicolon.
The latter is preferred merely because the sentences are short and form a
climax.

THE COLON.
The colon is used when the preceding part of the
sentence is complete in sense and construction ; and
the following part is some remark naturally arising
from it and depending on it in sense, though not in
;

construction as, Study to acquire the habit of think-

;

ing no study is more important.

:

A colon is often used before an example or a quota-

tion ; as, the Scriptures give us an amiable representa-
tion of the Deity in these words : God is love. He
was often heard to say : I have done with the world,
and I am willing to leave it.

A
colon is generally used where the sense is com-
plete in the first clause, and the next begins with a
conjunction understood ; as, Do not flatter yourselves
with the hope of perfect happiness there is no such :

thing in the world. Had the conjunction, for, been

expressed, a semicolon would have been used ; th
 PUNCTUATION. 135

Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect hap-

piness for there is no such thing in the world.
;

The colon is generally used when the conjunction

is understood ; and the semicolon, when the conjunc-
tion is expressed.
—
Note. This observation has not always been attended to in pointing
the Psalms and some parts of the Liturgy. In them, a colon is often used
merely to divide the verse, it would seem, into two parts, to suit a par-
ticular species of church-music called chanting; as, "My tongue is the
pen of a ready writer." In reading-, a caesural pause, in such a place as
:

this, is enough. In the Psalms, and often in the Proverbs, the colon must
be read like a semicolon, or even like a comma, according to the sense.

THE PERIOD.
When a sentence is complete in construction and
sense, it is marked with a period as, Jesus wept.
;

A sometimes admitted between sentences

period is
connected by such words as but, and, for, therefore,
hence, &c. Example And he arose and came to his
:

father. But when he was yet a great way off, <fcc.

All abbreviations end with a period ; as, A. D.

CAPITALS.
1. The first word of every book, or any other piece
of writing, must begin with a capital letter.
2. The first word after a period, and the answer to
a question, must begin, &c.
3. Proper names, that is, names of persons, places,
ships, &c.
4. The pronoun /, and the interjection O, are writ-
ten in capitals.
5. The first word of every line in poetry.
6. The appellations of the Deity; as, God, Most
High, &c.
7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of
places ; as, Grecian, Roman, English, &c.
 g
:

136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a

colon ; as, Always remember this ancient maxim
"Know thyself.""
9. Common nouns when personified ; as, Come,
gentle Spring.

OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN COMPOSITION.

Interrogation (?) is used when a question is asked.
Admiration (!) ox Exclamation, is used to express any sudden
emotion of the mind.
Parenthesis used to enclose some necessary remark in the
( ) is
body of another sentence commas are now used instead :

of Parentheses.
Apostrophe ( used in place of a letter or letters left out ; as,
' ) is
arcNd arched tho' for though
for His for it is : or in
,- ,-

1
the possessive case as, John's, mothers . ;

Caret ( a ) is used to show that some word is either omitted or

interlined.

Hyphen (-) is used at the end of the line, to show that the rest of
the word
is at the beginning of the next line. It also
connects compound words as, Tea-pot. ;

Section (§) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions.

Paragraph (^[) is used to denote the beginning of a new subject.
Crotchets [ ],
or Brackets, are used to enclose a word or sentence
which is to be explained in a note, or the explanation
itself, or to correct a mistake, or supply some deficiency.
Quotation (*' used to show that a passage
") is is quoted in the
author's words.
Index ((£/*) is usea to point out any thing remarkable.
*

nr C is used to connect words which have one common term;

£ or three lines in poetry, having the same rhyme, called
a triplet.
Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are omitted ; as, K—
for King.
Acute accent (') is used to denote a short syllable.
v
Grave accent ( ) is used to denote a long syllable.
u
Breve ( ) marks a short vowel or syllable.

The Dash (") marks a long vowel or syllable.

 — —

PUNCTUATION. 137

Diaeresis ( ") is used to divide a diphthong into two syllables; as,

aerial.

Asterisk (*) —
Obelisk (f ) Double dagger (*) and Parallels (||) —
with small letters and figures, refer to some note on the
margin, or at the bottom of the page.
(***) Two or three asterisks denote the omission of some sentence
or sentences ; or they denote the omission of some letters
in some bold or indelicate expression.

Dash ( —
used to denote abruptness a significant pause
) is
an unexpected turn in the sentiment or that the first —
clause is common to all the rest, as in this definition of
a dash.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Entreat me not to leave thee or to return from following after
thee for whither thou goest I will go and where thou lodgest I will
lodge thy people shall be my people and thy God my God where
thou diest will I die and there will I be buried the Lord do so to
me and more also if aught but death part thee and me.
It was a morning and as he passed where the trees glis-
bright
tened with dewdrops and the birds were filling the scene with
melody he communed in meekness and calm repose of spirit with
his own soul and with God. He was laid in a grave among the
palms on the bank of the Ganges where soft winds breathed over
him and the sound of waters murmured to his rest. Instead there-
fore of manifesting a constant suspicion of them as tending con-
tinually to falseness and evil she showed that wrong-doing would
not only grieve but disappoint her.
What then are we better than they no in no wise for we have
before proved both jews and gentiles that they are all under sin as
it is written there is none righteous no not one.
Then shall be brought to pass the saying that is written death
is swallowed up in victory o death where is thy sting o grave
where is thy victory 1

Seal not the sayings of the prophecy of this book for the time is
at hand he that is unjust let him be unjust still and he that is filthy
let him be filthy still and he that is righteous let him be righteous
still and he that is holy let him be holy still.

There is a glory in the close of such a day when the sun is

sinking unclouded and majestic in the west and when after a day
of rapid growth and rejoicing in his beams there is spread over
12*
 ;

138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

nature the aspect of repose. He was of middle age of commanding
mien of a mild and benign countenance now dignified by incipient
baldness.
Free in the loftiest sense of freedom free to do all good restricted
only from evil every man pursuing the unobstructed course pointed
out by his genius or his fortune every man protected by laws in-
violable or whose violation was instantly visited with punishment
by the Eternal Sovereign alike of ruler and people.
But tears are a debt we owe to departed friends and a debt to
nature is a debt to God it ought to be it must be paid and they
will flow till time dispels those clouds which feed them and dries
up every source of grief.
The anxieties and burdens of youth were now to be shared and
they found the same sympathy in the hour of some quiet occupa-
tion when the other members of the family were away the son un-
folded his wishes and plans as he could unfold them to none but a
mother and while every feeling was understood there was no irri-
tating opposition where assent could not be given nor any feeble
and unprincipled acquiescence but there is magic in the power of
a friendly heart when judgment and principle are present to com-
mand respect there is that particularly in the intercourse of a manly
son with a loved and honored mother which is unknown in any
other relation with the father he may meet indeed on terms of
generous intercourse and confiding affection but it is the intercourse
of man with man the independent spirit the rebuke of wrong the
high-toned assertion of opinion or of right these give to the whole
a different hue but let the noble hearted son meet the mother and
all is changed such a spirit feels the sacredness of woman's sensi-
bilities it disdains to conduct harshly or insolently and then the
mother it is a word of tenderness of delicate sympathies of untiring
beneficence it softens the spirit.
But few exercises have been subjoined to the Rules on Punctuation
because none can be given equal to those which the pupil can prescribe
for himself. After he has learned the rules, let him transcribe a piece
from any good author, omitting the points and capitals; and then, having
pointed his manuscript, and restored the capitals, let him compare his
own punctuation with the author's.
 .

PROSODY.

Prosody is grammar which teaches the

that part of
true pronunciation of words comprising Accent, Quan-
;

tity, Emphasis, Pause, and Tone, and the measure

of Verses,
Accent is the laying of a greater force on one sylla-
ble of a word than on another as, Surmount'
;

The quantity of a syllable is that time which is

occupied in pronouncing it. Quantity is either* long
or short as, Consume.
; *

Emphasis is a remarkable stress laid upon certain

words in a sentence, to distinguish them from the rest;
as, Apply yourself more to acquire knowledge than to
show it.*

A pause is either a total cessation or a short suspen-

sion of the voice, during a perceptible space of time ;
as, Reading —
makes a full-man ; conference a ready- —
—
man ; and writing an exact-man.
Tone is a particular modulation or inflection of the
voice, suited to the sense.t

VERSIFICATION.
Prose is language not restrained to harmonic sounds,
or to a set number of syllables.

* Emphasis should be made rather by suspending- the voice a little after

the emphatic word, than by striking it very forcibly, which is disagreeable
to a good ear. A very short pause before it would render it still more
emphatical; as, Reading makes a—full man. —
f Accent and quantity respect the pronunciation of words emphasis and
;

pause the meaning of the sentence ; while tone refers to the feelings of the
gpeaker.
139
 ;

140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Verse or Poetry is language restrained to a certain
number of long and short syllables in every line.
Verse of two kinds ; namely, Rhyme and Blank
is
verse. Whenthe last syllable of every two lines has
the same sound, it is called rhyme ; but when this is
not the case, it is called blank verse.
Feet* are the parts into which a verse is divided, to
see whether it has the proper number of syllables or not.
Scanning is the measuring or dividing of a verset
into the several feet of w hich
r
it is composed.

All feet consist either of two or three syllables, and

are reducible to eight kinds ;four of two syllables, and
four of three, as fol!owr :
Dissyllables. Trisyllables.
A trochee ; as, lovely .i A dactyl ; as, probably.
An iambus ; became. An amphibrach ; domestic.
A spondee; vain man. Ananaprest; misimprove.
A pyrrhic ; on a (bank). A tribrach; (com)fortably.
The feet in most common use are, Iambic, Trochaic,
and Anapaestic.
IAMBIC MEASURE.
Iambic measure is adapted to serious subjects, and
comprises verses of several kinds ; such as,
1. Offour syllables, or two feet ,- as,

With rav-ish'd ears,

The M on-arch hears.
* So called, as some suppose, from the resemblance which the move-
ment of the tongue, in reading verse, bears to the motion of the feet in
walking.
i A single line is called a verse. In rhyme two lines are called a eouplet
and three ending with the same sound a triplet.
X The marks over the vowels show, that a Trochee consists of a long
and a short syllable, and an Iambus of a short and a long, &c.
0> In scanning verses, every accented syllable is called a long syllable ;
even although the sound of the vowel in pronunciation is short. Thus,
the first syllable in rav ish'd is in scanning called a long syllable, although
the vowel o is short. By long then is meant an accented syllable ; and by
shorty an unaccented syllable*
 —

ENGLISH PROSODY. 141

It sometimes has an additional short syllable, making what is

called a double ending ; as,
Upon-a moun-tain.
Beside-a foun-tairc.

2. Of three iambics, or six syllables ; as

Aloft -in aw-fdl state,
The god-like he-ro sat
Our hearts-no long-er Ian guish. An additional
syllable.

3. Of eight syllables, or four iambic feet; as,

And may - at last- my wea-ry age

Find out - the peace-ful her-mitage.
4. Of ten syllables, or five feet; called hexameter, heroic, ot
tragic verse; as,
The stars - shall fade - away-the sun-himself
Grow dim - with age, - and na-ture sink - in years.
Sometimes the last line of a couplet is stretched out to twelve
syllables, or six feet, and then it is called an Alexandrine verse ;
us,
For thee - the land- in fra-grant flowers - is dress'd;
For thee - the 6-cean smiles, - and smoothes - her wa-vy breast.

5. Of verses containing alternately four and three feet ; this is

the measure commonly used in psalms and hymns ; as,

Let saints - bel5w, - with sweet - accord,

Unite- with those - above,
In so - lemn lays, - to praise - their king,
And sing - his dy-ing love.
(£/* Verses of this kind were anciently written in two lines, each
containing fourteen syllables.

TROCHAIC MEASURE.
This measure is quick and lively, and comprises
verses,

1. Some of one trochee and a long syllable, and some of two

trochees; as,
Tumult - cease, On the - mountain,
Sink to - peace. j
By a, - fountain.
142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
2. Of two feet or two trochees, with an additional long sylla-
ble ; as,

In the - days of - - old,

Stories - plainlj - - told.

3. Of three trochees, or three and an additional long syllable ?

as,

When our - - mourning-,

hearts are
Lovel * - lasting peace of - - mind,
-

Sweet de - light of - human - - kind.

4. Offour trochees, or e'ght syllables ,- as,

Now the - dreadful - thunder's - roaring I

5. Of six trochees, or twelve syllables,- as,

On a-mountain, -stretched be-neath a-hoary-willow,
r
Lay a-shepherd-swain, and-view d the - roaring-billow.

Those trochaic measures that are very uncommon have beets

omitted.

ANAP^STIC MEASURE.
1. Of two anapaests, ortwo and an unaccented syllable; as,

But his cour-age 'gin fail,

For no arts - could avail.
Or, Then his cour-age 'gan fail - - him.
For no arts - could avail - - him.

2. Of three anapaests, or nine syllables/ as,

ye woods - spread your branch-es Space,
To your deep-est recess-es I fly ;
1 would hide - with th& beasts - of the chase,
I would van-ish from ev-ery eye.

Sometimes a syllable is retrenched from the first foot ; as,

Ye shep-herds so cheer-ful and gay,
Whose flocks - never care-lessly roam.
3. Offour anapaests, or twelve syllables,
5
Tis the voice - of the slug-gard ; I hear - him complain.
You have waked - me too soon, - I must slum-ber again.
Sometimes an additional short syllable is found at the end; as,
On the warm - cheek of youth, - smiles and ros-es are blend-twg.
 :

ENGLISH PROSODY. 143

The preceding are the different kinds of the Principal* feet, in

their more simple forms ; but they are susceptible of numerous
variations, by mixing them with one another, and with the Se-
condary feet ; the following lines may serve as an example —
Time shakes - the stable - tyranny - of thrones, &c.
Where is - to-morrow 1 - in anoth-er world.
She all - night long - her am-orous des-c^nt sung.
Innu-me ruble - before - th' Almigh-ty's throne.
That on - weak wings - from for pursues - your flight.

FIGURES OF SPEECH.
A figure of Speech mode of speaking, in which
is a
a word or sentence be understood in a sense dif-
is to

ferent from its most common and literal meaning.

The principal Figures of Speech are,
Personification, Synec'doche,
Simile, Antithesis,
Metaphor, Climax,
Allegory, Exclamation,
Hyper'bole, Interrogation,
Irony, Paralepsis,
Metonymy, Apostrophe.
Prosopopoeia, or, Personification, is that figure of speech by
which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects ; as. The
sea saw it and fled.
A simile expresses the resemblance that one object bears to
another ; as, He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water.
A metaphor is a simile without the sign (like, or as, &c.) of
comparison ; as, Joseph is a fruitful bough, &c.
An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so connected
in sense as to form a kind of parable or fable ; thus, the people of
Israel are represented under the image of a vine, Ps. lxxx. 8.

An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater or

less, betteror worse, than they really are ; as, They were swifter
than eagles, they were stronger than lions.

* Iambus, trochee, and anapaist, may be denominated principal feet ; be-

cause pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of any of them.
The others may be termed secondary feet ; because their chief use is to
diversify the numbers and to improve the verse.
 !

144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Irony is a figure by whichwe mean quite the contrary of what
we say; as, when Elijah said to the worshippers of Baal, Cry
aloud, for he is a god, &c.
• A metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for the
effect, or the effect for the cause; as, when we say, He reads
Milton ; we mean Milton's Works.
Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole, or the whole
for a part, a definite number for an indefinite, &c. as, The waves
for the sea, the head for the person, and ten thousand for any great
number. This figure is nearly allied to metonymy.
Antithesis, or contrast, is a figure by which different or contrary
objects are contrasted, to make them show one another to advan-
tage ; as, The wicked flee when no man pursueth, but the righteous
are bold as a lion.
Climax or Amplification is the heightening of all the circum-
stances of an object or action, which we wish to place in a strong
light ; as, Who
shall separate us from the love of Christ 1 Shall
tribulation, or distress, or persecution, &c. See also Rom. viii. 38.
Exclamation is a figure that is used to express some strong
emotion of the mind ; as, Oh the depth of the riches both of the
wisdom and the knowledge of God
Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion of
our mind, and enliven our discourse by proposing questions ; thus,
Hath the Lord said it 1 and shall he not do it ]
is a figure by which the speaker pretends
Paralepsis or omission,
what he is really declaring and strongly enforcing as,
to conceal ;

Horatius was once a very promising young gentleman, but he

became so addicted to gaming, not to mention his drunkenness
and debauchery, that he soon exhausted his estate.

Apostrophe, is a turning off from the subject to address some

other person or thing ; as, Death is swallowed up in victory O :

death, where is thy sting]

THE END.
 LIBRAE w^ Mil

416 A
1 003 238

K3XT ABOVE THE BANK OF THE 1

[E ARITHMET.1
GRADATIONS IN ARI
Richard W. Green, A.
[E SCHOLAR'S COMPANI

" W<
W'-Mercitry.

jpon a new