Power Diodes and Rectifiers

Power Diodes are semiconductor pn-junctions capable of passing large currents at

high voltage values for use in rectifier circuits

  

In the previous tutorials we saw that a semiconductor signal diode will only conduct
current in one direction from its anode to its cathode (forward direction), but not in
the reverse direction acting a bit like an electrical one way valve.
A widely used application of this feature and diodes in general is in the conversion of
an alternating voltage (AC) into a continuous voltage (DC). In other
words, Rectification.
But small signal diodes can also be used as rectifiers in low-power, low current (less
than 1-amp) rectifiers or applications, but where larger forward bias currents or
higher reverse bias blocking voltages are involved the PN junction of a small signal
diode would eventually overheat and melt so larger more robust Power Diodes are
used instead.
The power semiconductor diode, known simply as the Power Diode, has a much
larger PN junction area compared to its smaller signal diode cousin, resulting in a
high forward current capability of up to several hundred amps (KA) and a reverse
blocking voltage of up to several thousand volts (KV).
Since the power diode has a large PN junction, it is not suitable for high frequency
applications above 1MHz, but special and expensive high frequency, high current
diodes are available. For high frequency rectifier applications Schottky Diodes are
generally used because of their short reverse recovery time and low voltage drop in
their forward bias condition.
Power diodes provide uncontrolled rectification of power and are used in applications
such as battery charging and DC power supplies as well as AC rectifiers and
inverters. Due to their high current and voltage characteristics they can also be used
as free-wheeling diodes and snubber networks.
Power diodes are designed to have a forward “ON” resistance of fractions of an Ohm
while their reverse blocking resistance is in the mega-Ohms range. Some of the
larger value power diodes are designed to be “stud mounted” onto heatsinks
reducing their thermal resistance to between 0.1 to 1 oC/Watt.
If an alternating voltage is applied across a power diode, during the positive half
cycle the diode will conduct passing current and during the negative half cycle the
diode will not conduct blocking the flow of current. Then conduction through the
power diode only occurs during the positive half cycle and is therefore unidirectional
i.e. DC as shown.

Power Diode Rectifier

Power diodes can be used individually as above or connected together to produce a

variety of rectifier circuits such as “Half-Wave”, “Full-Wave” or as “Bridge Rectifiers”.
Each type of rectifier circuit can be classed as either uncontrolled, half-controlled or
fully controlled where an uncontrolled rectifier uses only power diodes, a fully
controlled rectifier uses thyristors (SCRs) and a half controlled rectifier is a mixture of
both diodes and thyristors.
The most commonly used individual power diode for basic electronics applications is
the general purpose 1N400x Series Glass Passivated type rectifying diode with
standard ratings of continuous forward rectified current of about 1.0 ampere and
reverse blocking voltage ratings from 50v for the 1N4001 up to 1000v for the
1N4007, with the small 1N4007GP being the most popular for general purpose
mains voltage rectification.

Half Wave Rectification

A rectifier is a circuit which converts the Alternating Current (AC) input power into
a Direct Current (DC) output power. The input power supply may be either a single-
phase or a multi-phase supply with the simplest of all the rectifier circuits being that
of the Half Wave Rectifier.
The power diode in a half wave rectifier circuit passes just one half of each complete
sine wave of the AC supply in order to convert it into a DC supply. Then this type of
circuit is called a “half-wave” rectifier because it passes only half of the incoming AC
power supply as shown below.
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

During each “positive” half cycle of the AC sine wave, the diode is forward biased as
the anode is positive with respect to the cathode resulting in current flowing through
the diode.
Since the DC load is resistive (resistor, R), the current flowing in the load resistor is
therefore proportional to the voltage (Ohm´s Law), and the voltage across the load
resistor will therefore be the same as the supply voltage, Vs (minus Vƒ), that is the
“DC” voltage across the load is sinusoidal for the first half cycle only so Vout = Vs.
During each “negative” half cycle of the AC sinusoidal input waveform, the diode
is reverse biased as the anode is negative with respect to the cathode. Therefore,
NO current flows through the diode or circuit. Then in the negative half cycle of the
supply, no current flows in the load resistor as no voltage appears across it so
therefore, Vout = 0.
The current on the DC side of the circuit flows in one direction only making the
circuit Unidirectional. As the load resistor receives from the diode a positive half of
the waveform, zero volts, a positive half of the waveform, zero volts, etc, the value of
this irregular voltage would be equal in value to an equivalent DC voltage of
0.318*Vmax of the input sinusoidal waveform or 0.45*Vrms of the input sinusoidal
waveform.
Then the equivalent DC voltage, VDC across the load resistor is calculated as follows.
Where VMAX is the maximum or peak voltage value of the AC sinusoidal supply, and
VRMS is the RMS (Root Mean Squared) value of the supply voltage.

Power Diode Example No1

Calculate the voltage drop VDC and current IDC flowing through a 100Ω resistor
connected to a 240 Vrms single phase half-wave rectifier as shown above. Also
calculate the average DC power consumed by the load.

During the rectification process the resultant output DC voltage and current are
therefore both “ON” and “OFF” during every cycle. As the voltage across the load
resistor is only present during the positive half of the cycle (50% of the input
waveform), this results in a low average DC value being supplied to the load.
The variation of the rectified output waveform between this “ON” and “OFF” condition
produces a waveform which has large amounts of “ripple” which is an undesirable
feature. The resultant DC ripple has a frequency that is equal to that of the AC
supply frequency.
Very often when rectifying an alternating voltage we wish to produce a “steady” and
continuous DC voltage free from any voltage variations or ripple. One way of doing
this is to connect a large value Capacitor across the output voltage terminals in
parallel with the load resistor as shown below. This type of capacitor is known
commonly as a “Reservoir” or Smoothing Capacitor.
Half-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

When rectification is used to provide a direct voltage ( DC) power supply from an
alternating (AC) source, the amount of ripple voltage can be further reduced by
using larger value capacitors but there are limits both on cost and size to the types of
smoothing capacitors used.
For a given capacitor value, a greater load current (smaller load resistance) will
discharge the capacitor more quickly ( RC Time Constant ) and so increases the
ripple obtained. Then for single phase, half-wave rectifier circuit using a power diode
it is not very practical to try and reduce the ripple voltage by capacitor smoothing
alone. In this instance it would be more practical to use “Full-wave Rectification”
instead.
In practice, the half-wave rectifier is used most often in low-power applications
because of their major disadvantages being. The output amplitude is less than the
input amplitude, there is no output during the negative half cycle so half the power is
wasted and the output is pulsed DC resulting in excessive ripple.
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Home / Diodes / Full Wave Rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier

Power Diodes can be connected together to form a full wave rectifier that convert AC
voltage into pulsating DC voltage for use in power supplies

   

In the previous Power Diodes tutorial we discussed ways of reducing the ripple or
voltage variations on a direct DC voltage by connecting smoothing capacitors across
the load resistance.
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While this method may be suitable for low power applications it is unsuitable to
applications which need a “steady and smooth” DC supply voltage. One method to
improve on this is to use every half-cycle of the input voltage instead of every other
half-cycle. The circuit which allows us to do this is called a Full Wave Rectifier.
Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output voltage or
current which is purely DC or has some specified DC component. Full wave rectifiers
have some fundamental advantages over their half wave rectifier counterparts. The
average (DC) output voltage is higher than for half wave, the output of the full wave
rectifier has much less ripple than that of the half wave rectifier producing a
smoother output waveform.
In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of the
cycle. A multiple winding transformer is used whose secondary winding is split
equally into two halves with a common centre tapped connection, (C). This
configuration results in each diode conducting in turn when its anode terminal is
positive with respect to the transformer centre point C producing an output during
both half-cycles, twice that for the half wave rectifier so it is 100% efficient as shown
below.

Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

 
The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load
resistance (RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When
point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in
the forward direction as indicated by the arrows.
When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C,
diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through
resistor R is in the same direction for both half-cycles. As the output voltage across
the resistor R is the phasor sum of the two waveforms combined, this type of full
wave rectifier circuit is also known as a “bi-phase” circuit.
We can see this affect quite clearly if we run the circuit in the Partsim Simulator
Circuit with the smoothing capacitor removed.
Partsim Simulation Waveform

 
As the spaces between each half-wave developed by each diode is now being filled
in by the other diode the average DC output voltage across the load resistor is now
double that of the single half-wave rectifier circuit and is about  0.637Vmax  of the
peak voltage, assuming no losses.

Where: VMAX is the maximum peak value in one half of the secondary winding
and VRMS is the rms value.
The peak voltage of the output waveform is the same as before for the half-wave
rectifier provided each half of the transformer windings have the same rms voltage
value. To obtain a different DC voltage output different transformer ratios can be
used.
The main disadvantage of this type of full wave rectifier circuit is that a larger
transformer for a given power output is required with two separate but identical
secondary windings making this type of full wave rectifying circuit costly compared to
the “Full Wave Bridge Rectifier” circuit equivalent.

The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave
rectifier circuit above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single
phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop
“bridge” configuration to produce the desired output.
The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre
tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding
is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side
as shown below.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes
conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the
supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse
biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.

The Positive Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series,

but diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current
flowing through the load is the same direction as before.
The Negative Half-cycle

 
As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed
across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-
wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax.

Typical Bridge Rectifier

However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes
instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops
( 2*0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice
the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply or 120Hz for a 60Hz supply.)
Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave bridge
rectifier, pre-made bridge rectifier components are available “off-the-shelf” in a range
of different voltage and current sizes that can be soldered directly into a PCB circuit
board or be connected by spade connectors.
The image to the right shows a typical single phase bridge rectifier with one corner
cut off. This cut-off corner indicates that the terminal nearest to the corner is the
positive or +ve output terminal or lead with the opposite (diagonal) lead being the
negative or -ve output lead. The other two connecting leads are for the input
alternating voltage from a transformer secondary winding.

The Smoothing Capacitor

We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave rectifier produces an
output wave every half cycle and that it was not practical to use this type of circuit to
produce a steady DC supply. The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a
greater mean DC value (0.637 Vmax) with less superimposed ripple while the output
waveform is twice that of the frequency of the input supply frequency.
We can improve the average DC output of the rectifier while at the same time
reducing the AC variation of the rectified output by using smoothing capacitors to
filter the output waveform. Smoothing or reservoir capacitors connected in parallel
with the load across the output of the full wave bridge rectifier circuit increases the
average DC output level even higher as the capacitor acts like a storage device as
shown below.

Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

 
The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a
more smooth DC output voltage. If we now run the Partsim Simulator Circuit with
different values of smoothing capacitor installed, we can see the effect it has on the
rectified output waveform as shown.
5uF Smoothing Capacitor

 
The blue plot on the waveform shows the result of using a 5.0uF smoothing
capacitor across the rectifiers output. Previously the load voltage followed the
rectified output waveform down to zero volts. Here the 5uF capacitor is charged to
the peak voltage of the output DC pulse, but when it drops from its peak voltage
back down to zero volts, the capacitor can not discharge as quickly due to the RC
time constant of the circuit.
This results in the capacitor discharging down to about 3.6 volts, in this example,
maintaining the voltage across the load resistor until the capacitor re-charges once
again on the next positive slope of the DC pulse. In other words, the capacitor only
has time to discharge briefly before the next DC pulse recharges it back up to the
peak value. Thus, the DC voltage applied to the load resistor drops only by a small
amount. But we can improve this still by increasing the value of the smoothing
capacitor as shown.
50uF Smoothing Capacitor

 
Here we have increased the value of the smoothing capacitor ten-fold from 5uF to
50uF which has reduced the ripple increasing the minimum discharge voltage from
the previous 3.6 volts to 7.9 volts. However, using the Partsim Simulator Circuit we
have chosen a load of 1kΩ to obtain these values, but as the load impedance
decreases the load current increases causing the capacitor to discharge more
rapidly between charging pulses.
The effect of a supplying a heavy load with a single smoothing or reservoir capacitor
can be reduced by the use of a larger capacitor which stores more energy and
discharges less between charging pulses. Generally for DC power supply circuits the
smoothing capacitor is an Aluminium Electrolytic type that has a capacitance value
of 100uF or more with repeated DC voltage pulses from the rectifier charging up the
capacitor to peak voltage.
However, there are two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable
smoothing capacitor and these are its Working Voltage, which must be higher than
the no-load output value of the rectifier and its Capacitance Value, which determines
the amount of ripple that will appear superimposed on top of the DC voltage.
Too low a capacitance value and the capacitor has little effect on the output
waveform. But if the smoothing capacitor is sufficiently large enough (parallel
capacitors can be used) and the load current is not too large, the output voltage will
be almost as smooth as pure DC. As a general rule of thumb, we are looking to have
a ripple voltage of less than 100mV peak to peak.
 The Zener Diode
A Semiconductor Diode blocks current in the reverse direction, but will suffer from
premature breakdown or damage if the reverse voltage applied across becomes too
high

  

However, the Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode”, as they are sometimes referred too,
are basically the same as the standard PN junction diode but they are specially designed
to have a low and specified Reverse Breakdown Voltage which takes advantage of any
reverse voltage applied to it.
The Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-purpose diode consisting of a
silicon PN junction and when biased in the forward direction, that is Anode positive
with respect to its Cathode, it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the
rated current.
However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current through itself
when reverse biased, that is the Cathode becomes more positive than the Anode, as
soon as the reverse voltage reaches a pre-determined value, the zener diode begins
to conduct in the reverse direction.
This is because when the reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds
the rated voltage of the device a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the
semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the diode to limit
this increase in voltage.
The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the
maximum circuit value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once
achieved, this reverse saturation current remains fairly constant over a wide range of
reverse voltages. The voltage point at which the voltage across the zener diode
becomes stable is called the “zener voltage”, ( Vz ) and for zener diodes this voltage
can range from less than one volt to a few hundred volts.
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode
can be very accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of
the diodes semiconductor construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown
voltage, ( Vz ) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V
curve is almost a vertical straight line.

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the
diodes anode connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve
above, we can see that the zener diode has a region in its reverse bias
characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage regardless of the value of the
current flowing through the diode.
This voltage remains almost constant even with large changes in current providing
the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and its
maximum current rating IZ(max).
This ability of the zener diode to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate
or stabilise a voltage source against supply or load variations. The fact that the
voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost constant turns out to be
an important characteristic of the zener diode as it can be used in the simplest types
of voltage regulator applications.
The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load
connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or variations
in the load current. A zener diode will continue to regulate its voltage until the diodes
holding current falls below the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.
The Zener Diode Regulator
Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple
under varying load current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode
from a voltage source, via a suitable current limiting resistor ( RS), the zener diode will
conduct sufficient current to maintain a voltage drop of Vout.
We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the half or
full-wave rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the
load value changes so to does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple
zener stabiliser circuit as shown below across the output of the rectifier, a more
stable output voltage can be produced.

Zener Diode Regulator

Resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow
through the diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the
combination. The stabilised output voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode.
The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail
of the DC supply so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown
condition. Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum current flowing in the
circuit.
With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ), and all
the circuit current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its
maximum power. Also a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater
diode current when the load resistance RL is connected and large as this will
increase the power dissipation requirement of the diode so care must be taken when
selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that the zener’s maximum
power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance condition.
The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is
always the same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ). There is a minimum zener current
for which the stabilisation of the voltage is effective and the zener current must stay
above this value operating under load within its breakdown region at all times. The
upper limit of current is of course dependant upon the power rating of the device.
The supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.
One small problem with zener diode stabiliser circuits is that the diode can
sometimes generate electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilise
the voltage. Normally this is not a problem for most applications but the addition of a
large value decoupling capacitor across the zener’s output may be required to give
additional smoothing.
Then to summarise a little. A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased
condition. As such a simple voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener
diode to maintain a constant DC output voltage across the load in spite of variations
in the input voltage or changes in the load current.
The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in
series with the input voltage VS with the zener diode connected in parallel with the
load RL in this reverse biased condition. The stabilised output voltage is always
selected to be the same as the breakdown voltage VZ of the diode.

Zener Diode Example No1

A 5.0V stabilised power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC power
supply input source. The maximum power rating PZ of the zener diode is 2W. Using
the zener regulator circuit above calculate:
a). The maximum current flowing through the zener diode.

b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS

c). The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the zener diode.

d). The zener current IZ at full load.

Zener Diode Voltages

As well as producing a single stabilised voltage output, zener diodes can also be
connected together in series along with normal silicon signal diodes to produce a
variety of different reference voltage output values as shown below.
Zener Diodes Connected in Series

The values of the individual Zener diodes can be chosen to suit the application while
the silicon diode will always drop about 0.6 – 0.7V in the forward bias condition. The
supply voltage, Vin must of course be higher than the largest output reference
voltage and in our example above this is 19v.
A typical zener diode for general electronic circuits is the 500mW, BZX55 series or
the larger 1.3W, BZX85 series were the zener voltage is given as, for
example, C7V5 for a 7.5V diode giving a diode reference number of BZX55C7V5.
The 500mW series of zener diodes are available from about 2.4 up to about 100
volts and typically have the same sequence of values as used for the 5% (E24)
resistor series with the individual voltage ratings for these small but very useful
diodes are given in the table below.

Zener Diode Standard Zener Voltages

BZX55 Zener Diode Power Rating 500mW

2.4V 2.7V 3.0V 3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V

5.1V 5.6V 6.2V 6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V 10V

11V 12V 13V 15V 16V 18V 20V 22V

 24V 27V 30V 33V 36V 39V 43V 47V

BZX85 Zener Diode Power Rating 1.3W

3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V 5.1V 5.6 6.2V

6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V 10V 11V 12V 13V

15V 16V 18V 20V 22V 24V 27V 30V

33V 36V 39V 43V 47V 51V 56V 62V

Zener Diode Clipping Circuits

Thus far we have looked at how a zener diode can be used to regulate a constant
DC source but what if the input signal was not steady state DC but an alternating AC
waveform how would the zener diode react to a constantly changing signal.
Diode clipping and clamping circuits are circuits that are used to shape or modify an
input AC waveform (or any sinusoid) producing a differently shape output waveform
depending on the circuit arrangement. Diode clipper circuits are also called limiters
because they limit or clip-off the positive (or negative) part of an input AC signal. As
zener clipper circuits limit or cut-off part of the waveform across them, they are
mainly used for circuit protection or in waveform shaping circuits.
For example, if we wanted to clip an output waveform at +7.5V, we would use a 7.5V
zener diode. If the output waveform tries to exceed the 7.5V limit, the zener diode
will “clip-off” the excess voltage from the input producing a waveform with a flat top
still keeping the output constant at +7.5V. Note that in the forward bias condition a
zener diode is still a diode and when the AC waveform output goes negative below
-0.7V, the zener diode turns “ON” like any normal silicon diode would and clips the
output at -0.7V as shown below.
Square Wave Signal

The back to back connected zener diodes can be used as an AC regulator producing
what is jokingly called a “poor man’s square wave generator”. Using this
arrangement we can clip the waveform between a positive value of +8.2V and a
negative value of -8.2V for a 7.5V zener diode.
So for example, if we wanted to clip an output waveform between two different
minimum and maximum values of say, +8V and -6V, we would simply use two
differently rated zener diodes. Note that the output will actually clip the AC waveform
between +8.7V and -6.7V due to the addition of the forward biasing diode voltage.
In other words a peak-to-peak voltage of 15.4 volts instead of expected 14 volts, as
the forward bias volt drop across the diode adds another 0.7 volts in each direction.
This type of clipper configuration is fairly common for protecting an electronic circuit
from over voltage. The two zener’s are generally placed across the power supply
input terminals and during normal operation, one of the zener diodes is “OFF” and
the diodes have little or no affect. However, if the input voltage waveform exceeds its
limit, then the zener’s turn “ON” and clip the input to protect the circuit.
In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at using the forward biased PN
junction of a diode to produce light. We know from the previous tutorials that when
charge carriers move across the junction, electrons combine with holes and energy
is lost in the form of heat, but also some of this energy is dissipated as photons but
we can not see them.
If we place a translucent lens around the junction, visible light will be produced and
the diode becomes a light source. This effect produces another type of diode known
commonly as the Light Emitting Diode which takes advantage of this light producing
characteristic to emit light (photons) in a variety of colours and wavelengths.
 / Diodes / The Light Emitting Diode
The Light Emitting Diode
Light Emitting Diodes or simply LED´s, are among the most widely used of all the
different types of semiconductor diodes available today and are commonly used in
TV’s and colour displays.

They are the most visible type of diode, that emit a fairly narrow bandwidth of either
visible light at different coloured wavelengths, invisible infra-red light for remote
controls or laser type light when a forward current is passed through them.
The “Light Emitting Diode” or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically just a
specialised type of diode as they have very similar electrical characteristics to a PN
junction diode. This means that an LED will pass current in its forward direction but
block the flow of current in the reverse direction.
Light emitting diodes are made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped
semiconductor material and depending on the semiconductor material used and the
amount of doping, when forward biased an LED will emit a coloured light at a
particular spectral wavelength.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction
band recombine with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to
produce photons which emit a monochromatic (single colour) of light. Because of this
thin layer a reasonable number of these photons can leave the junction and radiate
away producing a coloured light output.

LED Construction
Then we can say that when operated in a forward biased direction Light Emitting
Diodes are semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into light energy.
The construction of a Light Emitting Diode is very different from that of a normal
signal diode. The PN junction of an LED is surrounded by a transparent, hard plastic
epoxy resin hemispherical shaped shell or body which protects the LED from both
vibration and shock.
Surprisingly, an LED junction does not actually emit that much light so the epoxy
resin body is constructed in such a way that the photons of light emitted by the
junction are reflected away from the surrounding substrate base to which the diode is
attached and are focused upwards through the domed top of the LED, which itself
acts like a lens concentrating the amount of light. This is why the emitted light
appears to be brightest at the top of the LED.
However, not all LEDs are made with a hemispherical shaped dome for their epoxy
shell. Some indication LEDs have a rectangular or cylindrical shaped construction
that has a flat surface on top or their body is shaped into a bar or arrow. Generally,
all LED’s are manufactured with two legs protruding from the bottom of the body.
Also, nearly all modern light emitting diodes have their cathode, ( – ) terminal
identified by either a notch or flat spot on the body or by the cathode lead being
shorter than the other as the anode ( + ) lead is longer than the cathode (k).
Unlike normal incandescent lamps and bulbs which generate large amounts of heat
when illuminated, the light emitting diode produces a “cold” generation of light which
leads to high efficiencies than the normal “light bulb” because most of the generated
energy radiates away within the visible spectrum. Because LEDs are solid-state
devices, they can be extremely small and durable and provide much longer lamp life
than normal light sources.

Light Emitting Diode Colours

So how does a light emitting diode get its colour. Unlike normal signal diodes which
are made for detection or power rectification, and which are made from either
Germanium or Silicon semiconductor materials, Light Emitting Diodes are made from
exotic semiconductor compounds such as Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium
Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon Carbide (SiC) or
Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed together at different ratios to produce a
distinct wavelength of colour.
Different LED compounds emit light in specific regions of the visible light spectrum
and therefore produce different intensity levels. The exact choice of the
semiconductor material used will determine the overall wavelength of the photon
light emissions and therefore the resulting colour of the light emitted.

Light Emitting Diode Colours

Typical LED Characteristics

Semiconductor
Wavelength Colour VF @ 20mA
Material
 GaAs 850-940nm Infra-Red 1.2v

GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v

GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v

GaAsP:N 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v

AlGaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v

SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v

GaInN 450nm White 4.0v

Thus, the actual colour of a light emitting diode is determined by the wavelength of
the light emitted, which in turn is determined by the actual semiconductor compound
used in forming the PN junction during manufacture.
Therefore the colour of the light emitted by an LED is NOT determined by the
colouring of the LED’s plastic body although these are slightly coloured to both
enhance the light output and to indicate its colour when its not being illuminated by
an electrical supply.
Light emitting diodes are available in a wide range of colours with the most common
being RED, AMBER,  YELLOW  and GREEN and are thus widely used as visual
indicators and as moving light displays.
Recently developed blue and white coloured LEDs are also available but these tend
to be much more expensive than the normal standard colours due to the production
costs of mixing together two or more complementary colours at an exact ratio within
the semiconductor compound and also by injecting nitrogen atoms into the crystal
structure during the doping process.
From the table above we can see that the main P-type dopant used in the
manufacture of Light Emitting Diodes is Gallium (Ga, atomic number 31) and that the
main N-type dopant used is Arsenic (As, atomic number 33) giving the resulting
compound of Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) crystalline structure.
The problem with using Gallium Arsenide on its own as the semiconductor
compound is that it radiates large amounts of low brightness infra-red radiation
(850nm-940nm approx.) from its junction when a forward current is flowing through
it.
The amount of infra-red light it produces is okay for television remote controls but not
very useful if we want to use the LED as an indicating light. But by adding
Phosphorus (P, atomic number 15), as a third dopant the overall wavelength of the
emitted radiation is reduced to below 680nm giving visible red light to the human
eye. Further refinements in the doping process of the PN junction have resulted in a
range of colours spanning the spectrum of visible light as we have seen above as
well as infra-red and ultra-violet wavelengths.
By mixing together a variety of semiconductor, metal and gas compounds the
following list of LEDs can be produced.

Types of Light Emitting Diode

 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red
 Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
 Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness
red, orange-red, orange, and yellow
 Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
 Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
 Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green
 Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green and
blue
 Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate
 Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
 Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet
Like conventional PN junction diodes, light emitting diodes are current-dependent
devices with its forward voltage drop VF, depending on the semiconductor compound
(its light colour) and on the forward biased LED current. Most common LED’s require
a forward operating voltage of between approximately 1.2 to 3.6 volts with a forward
current rating of about 10 to 30 mA, with 12 to 20 mA being the most common range.
Both the forward operating voltage and forward current vary depending on the
semiconductor material used but the point where conduction begins and light is
produced is about 1.2V for a standard red LED to about 3.6V for a blue LED.
The exact voltage drop will of course depend on the manufacturer because of the
different dopant materials and wavelengths used. The voltage drop across the LED
at a particular current value, for example 20mA, will also depend on the initial
conduction VF point. As an LED is effectively a diode, its forward current to voltage
characteristics curves can be plotted for each diode colour as shown below.
Light Emitting Diodes I-V Characteristics.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) Schematic symbol and I-V Characteristics Curves
showing the different colours available.
Before a light emitting diode can “emit” any form of light it needs a current to flow
through it, as it is a current dependant device with their light output intensity being
directly proportional to the forward current flowing through the LED.
As the LED is to be connected in a forward bias condition across a power supply it
should be current limited using a series resistor to protect it from excessive current
flow. Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply as it will be
destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it
out.
From the table above we can see that each LED has its own forward voltage drop
across the PN junction and this parameter which is determined by the semiconductor
material used, is the forward voltage drop for a specified amount of forward
conduction current, typically for a forward current of 20mA.
In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC supply, with a series
resistor, RS used to limit the forward current to a safe value from say 5mA for a
simple LED indicator to 30mA or more where a high brightness light output is
needed.

LED Series Resistance.

The series resistor value RS is calculated by simply using Ohm´s Law, by knowing
the required forward current IF of the LED, the supply voltage VS across the
combination and the expected forward voltage drop of the LED, VF at the required
current level, the current limiting resistor is calculated as:
LED Series Resistor Circuit

Light Emitting Diode Example No1

An amber coloured LED with a forward volt drop of 2 volts is to be connected to a
5.0v stabilised DC power supply. Using the circuit above calculate the value of the
series resistor required to limit the forward current to less than 10mA. Also calculate
the current flowing through the diode if a 100Ω series resistor is used instead of the
calculated first.
1). series resistor required at 10mA.

2). with a 100Ω series resistor.

We remember from the Resistors tutorials, that resistors come in standard preferred
values. Our first calculation above shows that to limit the current flowing through the
LED to 10mA exactly, we would require a 300Ω resistor. In the E12 series of
resistors there is no 300Ω resistor so we would need to choose the next highest
value, which is 330Ω. A quick re-calculation shows the new forward current value is
now 9.1mA, and this is ok.
Connecting LEDs Together in Series
We can connect LED’s together in series to increase the number required or to
increase the light level when used in displays. As with series resistors, LED’s
connected in series all have the same forward current, IF flowing through them as
just one. As all the LEDs connected in series pass the same current it is generally
best if they are all of the same colour or type.

Connecting LED’s in Series

Although the LED series chain has the same current flowing through it, the series
voltage drop across them needs to be considered when calculating the required
resistance of the current limiting resistor, RS. If we assume that each LED has a
voltage drop across it when illuminated of 1.2 volts, then the voltage drop across all
three will be 3 x 1.2v = 3.6 volts.
If we also assume that the three LEDs are to be illuminated from the same 5 volt
logic device or supply with a forward current of about 10mA, the same as above.
Then the voltage drop across the resistor, RS and its resistance value will be
calculated as:

Again, in the E12 (10% tolerance) series of resistors there is no 140Ω resistor so

we would need to choose the next highest value, which is 150Ω.
LED Driver Circuits
Now that we know what is an LED, we need some way of controlling it by switching it
“ON” and “OFF”. The output stages of both TTL and CMOS logic gates can both
source and sink useful amounts of current therefore can be used to drive an LED.
Normal integrated circuits (ICs) have an output drive current of up to 50mA in the
sink mode configuration, but have an internally limited output current of about 30mA
in the source mode configuration.
Either way the LED current must be limited to a safe value using a series resistor as
we have already seen. Below are some examples of driving light emitting diodes
using inverting ICs but the idea is the same for any type of integrated circuit output
whether combinational or sequential.

IC Driver Circuit

If more than one LED requires driving at the same time, such as in large LED arrays,
or the load current is to high for the integrated circuit or we may just want to use
discrete components instead of ICs, then an alternative way of driving the LEDs
using either bipolar NPN or PNP transistors as switches is given below. Again as
before, a series resistor, RS is required to limit the LED current.
Photo-diode and Photo-transistor Opto-couplers

The two components used in an opto-isolator, an optical transmitter such as an infra-

red emitting Gallium Arsenide LED and an optical receiver such as a photo-transistor
are closely optically coupled and use light to send signals and/or information
between its input and output. This allows information to be transferred between
circuits without an electrical connection or common ground potential.
Opto-isolators are digital or switching devices, so they transfer either “ON-OFF”
control signals or digital data. Analogue signals can be transferred by means of
frequency or pulse-width modulation.
Bypass Diodes in Solar Panels
Bypass Diodesare wired in parallel with individual solar cells or panels, to provide a
current path around them in the event that a cell or panel becomes faulty or open-
circuited

Bypass Diodes in Photovoltaic Arrays

 
As we said earlier, diodes are devices that allow current to flow in one direction only.
The diodes coloured green above are “bypass diodes”, one in parallel with each
solar panel to provide a low resistance path. Bypass diodes in solar panels and
arrays need to be able to safely carry this short circuit current.
The two diodes coloured red are referred to as the “blocking diodes”, one in series
with each series branch. Blocking diodes are different than bypass diodes, but in
most cases the two diodes are physically the same. However they are installed
differently and serves a different purpose.
These blocking diodes, also called a series diode or isolation diode, ensure that the
electrical current only flows in one direction “OUT” of the series array to the external
load, controller or batteries.
The reason for this is to prevent the current generated by the other parallel
connected PV panels in the same array flowing back through a weaker (shaded)
network and also to prevent the fully charged batteries from discharging or draining
back through the array at night. So when multiple solar panels are connected in
parallel, blocking diodes should be used in each parallel connected branch.
Generally speaking, blocking diodes are used in PV arrays when there are two or
more parallel branches or there is a possibility that some of the array will become
partially shaded during the day as the sun moves across the sky. The size and type
of blocking diode used depends upon the type of photovoltaic array.
Two types of diodes are available as bypass diodes in solar panels and arrays: the
PN-junction silicon diode and the Schottky barrier diode. Both are available with a
wide range of current ratings. The Schottky barrier diode has a much lower forward
voltage drop of about 0.4 volts as opposed to the PN diodes 0.7 volt drop for a
silicon device.
This lower voltage drop allows a savings of one full PV cell in each series branch of
the solar array therefore, the array is more efficient since less power is dissipated in
the blocking diode. Most manufacturers include both blocking diodes and bypass
diodes in their solar panels simplifying the design.
Home / Diodes / Diode Clipping Circuits

Diode Clipping Circuits

The Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave shaping circuit that
takes an input waveform and clips or cuts off its top half, bottom half or both halves
together

This clipping of the input signal produces an output waveform that resembles a
flattened version of the input. For example, the half-wave rectifier is a clipper circuit,
since all voltages below zero are eliminated.
But Diode Clipping Circuits can be used a variety of applications to modify an input
waveform using signal and Schottky diodes or to provide over-voltage protection
using zener diodes to ensure that the output voltage never exceeds a certain level
protecting the circuit from high voltage spikes. Then diode clipping circuits can be
used in voltage limiting applications.
We saw in the Signal Diodes tutorial that when a diode is forward biased it allows
current to pass through itself clamping the voltage. When the diode is reverse
biased, no current flows through it and the voltage across its terminals is unaffected,
and this is the basic operation of the diode clipping circuit.
Although the input voltage to diode clipping circuits can have any waveform shape,
we will assume here that the input voltage is sinusoidal. Consider the circuits below.

Positive Diode Clipping Circuits

In this diode clipping circuit, the diode is forward biased (anode more positive than
cathode) during the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform. For the
diode to become forward biased, it must have the input voltage magnitude greater
than +0.7 volts (0.3 volts for a germanium diode).
When this happens the diodes begins to conduct and holds the voltage across itself
constant at 0.7V until the sinusoidal waveform falls below this value. Thus the output
voltage which is taken across the diode can never exceed 0.7 volts during the
positive half cycle.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased (cathode more positive
than anode) blocking current flow through itself and as a result has no effect on the
negative half of the sinusoidal voltage which passes to the load unaltered. Thus the
diode limits the positive half of the input waveform and is known as a positive clipper
circuit.

Negative Diode Clipping Circuits

Here the reverse is true. The diode is forward biased during the negative half cycle
of the sinusoidal waveform and limits or clips it to –0.7 volts while allowing the
positive half cycle to pass unaltered when reverse biased. As the diode limits the
negative half cycle of the input voltage it is therefore called a negative clipper circuit.

Clipping of Both Half Cycles

If we connected two diodes in inverse parallel as shown, then both the positive and
negative half cycles would be clipped as diode D1 clips the positive half cycle of the
sinusoidal input waveform while diode D2 clips the negative half cycle. Then diode
clipping circuits can be used to clip the positive half cycle, the negative half cycle or
both.
For ideal diodes the output waveform above would be zero. However, due to the
forward bias voltage drop across the diodes the actual clipping point occurs at +0.7
volts and –0.7 volts respectively. But we can increase this ±0.7V threshold to any
value we want up to the maximum value, (VPEAK) of the sinusoidal waveform either by
connecting together more diodes in series creating multiples of 0.7 volts, or by
adding a voltage bias to the diodes.

Biased Diode Clipping Circuits

To produce diode clipping circuits for voltage waveforms at different levels, a bias
voltage, VBIAS is added in series with the diode to produce a combination clipper as
shown. The voltage across the series combination must be greater
than VBIAS + 0.7V before the diode becomes sufficiently forward biased to conduct.
For example, if the VBIAS level is set at 4.0 volts, then the sinusoidal voltage at the
diode’s anode terminal must be greater than 4.0 + 0.7 = 4.7 volts for it to become
forward biased. Any anode voltage levels above this bias point are clipped off.

Positive Bias Diode Clipping

Likewise, by reversing the diode and the battery bias voltage, when a diode conducts
the negative half cycle of the output waveform is held to a level –VBIAS – 0.7V as
shown.

Negative Bias Diode Clipping

A variable diode clipping or diode limiting level can be achieved by varying the bias
voltage of the diodes. If both the positive and the negative half cycles are to be
clipped, then two biased clipping diodes are used. But for both positive and negative
diode clipping, the bias voltage need not be the same. The positive bias voltage
could be at one level, for example 4 volts, and the negative bias voltage at another,
for example 6 volts as shown.

Diode Clipping of Different Bias levels

When the voltage of the positive half cycle reaches +4.7 V, diode D1 conducts and
limits the waveform at +4.7 V. Diode D2 does not conduct until the voltage reaches –
6.7 V. Therefore, all positive voltages above +4.7 V and negative voltages below –
6.7 V are automatically clipped.
The advantage of biased diode clipping circuits is that it prevents the output signal
from exceeding preset voltage limits for both half cycles of the input waveform, which
could be an input from a noisy sensor or the positive and negative supply rails of a
power supply.
If the diode clipping levels are set too low or the input waveform is too great then the
elimination of both waveform peaks could end up with a square-wave shaped
waveform.

Zener Diode Clipping Circuits

The use of a bias voltage means that the amount of the voltage waveform that is
clipped off can be accurately controlled. But one of the main disadvantages of using
voltage biased diode clipping circuits, is that they need an additional emf battery
source which may or may not be a problem.
One easy way of creating biased diode clipping circuits without the need for an
additional emf supply is to use Zener Diodes.
As we know, the zener diode is a another type of diode that has been specially
manufactured to operate in its reverse biased breakdown region and as such can be
used for voltage regulation or zener diode clipping applications. In the forward
region, the zener acts just like an ordinary silicon diode with a forward voltage drop
of 0.7V (700mV) when conducting, the same as above.
However, in the reverse bias region, the voltage is blocked until the zener diodes
breakdown voltage is reached. At this point, the reverse current through the zener
increases sharply but the zener voltage, VZ across the device remains constant even
if the zener current, IZ varies.
Then we can put this zener action to good effect by using them for clipping a
waveform as shown.

Zener Diode Clipping

The zener diode is acting like a biased diode clipping circuit with the bias voltage
being equal to the zener breakdown voltage. In this circuit during the positive half of
the waveform the zener diode is reverse biased so the waveform is clipped at the
zener voltage, VZD . During the negative half cycle the zener acts like a normal diode
1

with its usual 0.7V junction value.

We can develop this idea further by using the zener diodes reverse-voltage
characteristics to clip both halves of a waveform using series connected back-to-
back zener diodes as shown.
Full-wave Zener Diode Clipping

The output waveform from full wave zener diode clipping circuits resembles that of
the previous voltage biased diode clipping circuit. The output waveform will be
clipped at the zener voltage plus the 0.7V forward volt drop of the other diode. So for
example, the positive half cycle will be clipped at the sum of zener diode, ZD1 plus
0.7V from ZD2 and vice versa for the negative half cycle.
Zener diodes are manufactured with a wide range of voltages and can be used to
give different voltage references on each half cycle, the same as above. Zener
diodes are available with zener breakdown voltages, VZ ranging from 2.4 to 33 volts,
with a typical tolerance of 1 or 5%. Note that once conducting in the reverse
breakdown region, full current will flow through the zener diode so a suitable current
limiting resistor, R1 must be chosen.

Diode Clipping Summary

As well as being used as rectifiers, diodes can also be used to clip the top, or
bottom, or both of a waveform at a particular dc level and pass it to the output
without distortion,. In or examples above we have assumed that the waveform is
sinusoidal but in theory any shaped input waveform can be used.
Diode Clipping Circuits are used to eliminate amplitude noise or voltage spikes,
voltage regulation or to produce new waveforms from an existing signal such as
squaring off the peaks of a sinusoidal waveform to obtain a rectangular waveform as
seen above.
The most common application of a “diode clipping” is as a flywheel or free-wheeling
diode connected in parallel across an inductive load to protect the switching
transistor form reverse voltage transients.
The Schottky Diode
A Schottky Diode is a metal-semiconductor diode with a low forward voltage drop and a very
fast switching speed

The Schottky Diode is another type of semiconductor diode but have the advantage
that their forward voltage drop is substantially less than that of the conventional
silicon pn-junction diode.
Schottky diodes have many useful applications from rectification, signal conditioning
and switching, through to TTL and CMOS logic gates due mainly to their low power
and fast switching speeds. TTL Schottky logic gates are identified by the letters LS
appearing somewhere in their logic gate circuit code, e.g. 74LS00.
PN-junction diodes are formed by joining together a p-type and an n-type
semiconductor material allowing it to be used as a rectifying device, and we have
seen that when Forward Biased the depletion region is greatly reduced allowing
current to flow through it in the forward direction, and when Reverse Biased the
depletion region is increased blocking current flow.
The action of biasing the pn-junction using an external voltage to either forward or
reverse bias it, decreases or increases respectively the resistance of the junction
barrier. Thus the voltage-current relationship (characteristic curve) of a typical pn-
junction diode is influenced by the resistance value of the junction. Remember that
the pn-junction diode is a nonlinear device so its DC resistance will vary with both
the biasing voltage and the current through it.
When forward biased, conduction through the junction does not start until the
external biasing voltage reaches the “knee voltage” at which point current increases
rapidly and for silicon diodes the voltage required for forward conduction to occur is
around 0.65 to 0.7 volts as shown.
PN-junction Diode IV-Characteristics

For practical silicon junction diodes, this knee voltage can be anywhere between 0.6
and 0.9 volts depending upon how it was doped during manufacture, and whether
the device is a small signal diode or a much larger rectifying diode. The knee voltage
for a standard germanium diode is, however much lower at approximately 0.3 volts,
making it more suited to small signal applications.
But there is another type of rectifying diode which has a small knee voltage as well
as a fast switching speed called a Schottky Barrier Diode, or just simply “Schottky
Diode”. Schottky diodes can be used in many of the same applications as
conventional pn-junction diodes and have many different uses, especially in digital
logic, renewable energy and solar panel applications.

The Schottky Diode

Unlike a conventional pn-junction diode which is formed from a piece of P-type
material and a piece of N-type material, Schottky Diodes are constructed using a
metal electrode bonded to an N-type semiconductor. Since they are constructed
using a metal compound on one side of their junction and doped silicon on the other
side, the Schottky diode therefore has no depletion layer and are classed as unipolar
devices unlike typical pn-junction diodes which are bipolar devices.
The most common contact metal used for Schottky diode construction is “Silicide”
which is a highly conductive silicon and metal compound. This silicide metal-silicon
contact has a reasonably low ohmic resistance value allowing more current to flow
producing a smaller forward voltage drop of around Vƒ<0.4V when conducting.
Different metal compounds will produce different forward voltage drops, typically
between 0.3 to 0.5 volts.
Schottky Diode Construction and Symbol

 
Above shows the simplified construction and symbol of a Schottky diode in which a
lightly doped n-type silicon semiconductor is joined with a metal electrode to produce
what is called a “metal-semiconductor junction”. The width of the ms-junction will
depend on the type of metal and semiconductor material used, but when forward-
biased, electrons move from the n-type material to the metal electrode allowing
current to flow. Thus current through the Schottky diode is the result of the drift of
majority carriers.
Since there is no p-type semiconductor material and therefore no minority carriers
(holes), when reverse biased, the diodes conduction stops very quickly and changes
to blocking current flow, as for a conventional pn-junction diode. Thus for a Schottky
diode there is a very rapid response to changes in bias and demonstrating the
characteristics of a rectifying diode.
As discussed previously, the knee voltage at which a Schottky diode turns “ON” and
starts conducting is at a much lower voltage level than its pn-junction equivalent as
shown in the following I-V characteristics.
Schottky Diode IV-Characteristics

 
As we can see, the general shape of the metal-semiconductor Schottky diode I-V
characteristics is very similar to that of a standard pn-junction diode, except the
corner or knee voltage at which the ms-junction diode starts to conduct is much
lower at around 0.4 volts.
Due to this lower value, the forward current of a silicon Schottky diode can be many
times larger than that of a typical pn-junction diode, depending on the metal
electrode used. Remember that Ohms law tells us that power equals volts times
amps, (P = V*I) so a smaller forward voltage drop for a given diode current, ID will
produce lower forward power dissipation in the form of heat across the junction.
This lower power loss makes the Schottky diode a good choice in low-voltage and
high-current applications such as solar photovoltaic panels where the forward-
voltage, (VF) drop across a standard pn-junction diode would produce an excessive
heating effect. However, it must be noted that the reverse leakage current, ( IR) for a
Schottky diode is generally much larger than for a pn-junction diode.
Note however that if the I-V characteristics curve shows a more linear non-rectifying
characteristic, then it is an Ohmic contact. Ohmic contacts are commonly used to
connect semiconductor wafers and chips with external connecting pins or circuitry of
a system. For example, connecting the semiconductor wafer of a typical logic gate to
the pins of its plastic dual-in-line (DIL) package.
Also due to the Schottky diode being fabricated with a metal-to-semiconductor
junction, it tends to be slightly more expensive than standard pn-junction silicon
diodes which have similar voltage and current specifications. For example, the 1.0
Ampere 1N58xx Schottky series compared to the general purpose 1N400x series.

Schottky Diodes in Logic Gates

The Schottky diode also has many uses in digital circuits and are extensively used in
Schottky transistor–transistor logic (TTL) digital logic gates and circuits due to their
higher frequency response, decreased switching times and lower power
consumption. Where high speed switching is required, Schottky based TTL is the
obvious choice.
There are different versions of Schottky TTL all with differing speeds and power
consumption. The three main TTL logic series which use the Schottky diode in its
construction are given as:

 Schottky Diode Clamped TTL (S series) – Schottky “S” series

TTL (74SXX) is an improved version of the original diode-transistor DTL,
and transistor-transistor 74 series TTL logic gates and circuits. Schottky
diodes are placed across the base-collector junction of the switching
transistors to prevent them from saturating and creating propagation
delays allowing for faster operation.
 Low-Power Schottky (LS series) – The transistor switching
speed, stability and power dissipation of the 74LSXX series TTL is better
than the previous 74SXX series. As well as a higher switching speed, the
low-power Schottky TTL family consumes less power making the
74LSXX TTL series a good choice for many applications.
 Advanced Low-Power Schottky (ALS series) – Additional
improvements in the materials used to fabricate the ms-junctions of the
diodes means that the 74LSXX series has reduced propagation delay
time and much lower power dissipation compared to the 74ALSXX and
the 74LS series. However, being a newer technology and inherently
more complex design internally than standard TTL, the ALS series is
slightly more expensive.

Schottky Clamped Transistor

All the previous Schottky TTL gates and circuits use a Schottky clamped transistor to
prevent them from being driven hard into saturation.
As shown, a Schottky clamped transistor is basically a standard bipolar junction
transistor with a Schottky diode connected in parallel across its base-collector
junction.
When the transistor conducts normally in the active region of its characteristics
curves, the base–collector junction is reverse biased and so the diode is reverse
biased allowing the transistor to operate as a normal npn transistor. However, when
the transistor starts to saturate, the Schottky diode becomes forward biased and
clamps the collector-base junction to its 0.4 volt knee value, keeping the transistor
out of hard saturation as any excess base current is shunted through the diode.
Preventing the logic circuits switching transistors from saturating decreases greatly
their propagation delay time making Schottky TTL circuits ideal for use in flip-flops,
oscillators and memory chips.

Schottky Diode Summary

We have seen here that the Schottky Diode also known as a Schottky Barrier
Diode is a solid-state semiconductor diode in which a metal electrode and an n-type
semiconductor form the diodes ms-junction giving it two major advantages over
traditional pn-junction diodes, a faster switching speed, and a low forward bias
voltage.
The metal–to-semiconductor or ms-junction provides a much lower knee voltage of
typically 0.3 to 0.4 volts compared against a value of 0.6 to 0.9 volts seen in a
standard silicon base pn-junction diode for the same value of forward current.
Variations in the metal and semiconductor materials used for their construction
means that silicon carbide (SiC) Schottky diodes are able to turn “ON” with with a
forward voltage drop as little as 0.2 volts with the Schottky diode replacing the less
used germanium diode in many applications requiring a low knee voltage.
Schottky diodes are quickly becoming the preferred rectification device in low
voltage, high current applications for use in renewable energy and solar panel
applications. However, compared to pn-junction equivalents Schottky diode reverse
leakage currents are greater and their reverse breakdown voltage lower at around 50
volts.
A lower turn-on voltage, faster switching time and reduced power consumption
makes the Schottky diode extremely useful in many integrated-circuit applications
with the 74LSXX TTL series of logic gates being the most common.
Metal–semiconductor junctions can also be made to operate as “Ohmic contacts” as
well as rectifying diodes by depositing the metal electrode onto heavily doped (and
thus low-resistivity) semiconductor regions. Ohmic contacts conduct current equally
in both directions allowing semiconductor wafers and circuits to connect an to
external terminals.