PRINCIPLES OF GIS

Dhubri

Water
Very High
Vegetation
High Vegetation Dhubri
Medium vegetatin

1 Low
vegetation
Sand/bars

Dr. R N Sankhua
 Computer Mapping
Capture Analyze
People

Store Display
Software Data
Query Output

Hardware Procedures
Database Spatial
Management Analysis
  A method to
visualize, manipulate, analyze,
and display spatial data
“Smart Maps” linking a
database to the map, creating
dynamic displays

Components
 Data Collection
 Interpretation
 Conversion
 Integration
 DB
 Digital data publishing
 Query & Analysis
Create new info, find hidden patterns..
Measurement - distance, area, statistical
Location - “address” of a place or feature
Condition - attributes of a location
Patterns - across the landscape, such as landuse
Trends - changes thru time, e.g., forest cover
Routing - movement along road networks, etc.

Simple questions:
– Where is the stressed vegetation?
– How far is it between a contaminant source & a potentially
exposed individual?
– How is the land zoned for flood management?

And analytical questions such as:

– Where are all the blocks exposed to this pollution?
– What is the dominant soil type for oak forest?
– If I build a new canal here, how will people be affected?
Organizing Spatial Data in a GIS
The “G” in GIS = Geographic

Weather
Atmospheric
Conditions

Population
Hydrology
Topography

Geology

Image courtesy of ESRI (http://www.esri.com)

INTRODUCTION
To know why and how a GIS can
help us, we must know what a GIS
is and what it can be used for
– What is a GIS
– Questions a GIS can answer
– The elements of GIS.
– Some applications of GIS
 What Makes GIS Distinctive

GIS technology integrates common database

operations such as query and statistical analysis with unique
visualization & geographic analysis offered by maps.
GIS readily converts data between different data
models (unlike most database and statistical software).
These abilities distinguish GIS from other information
systems and make it valuable to a wide range of public and
private enterprises for explaining events, predicting outcomes,
and planning strategies.
What is GIS?
 A method of organizing, distributing, analyzing, and
visualizing geographic data
 Data Extension of Database Management Systems
(DBMS)
 Graphic interface for data retrieval and distribution
 Data visualization
 Spatial analysis
 Modeling and decision-making
You have already used a GIS

If you have used MapQuest or

similar sites for an address or
driving instructions.

If you have searched online for an

ATM banking machine location.
 A Core Benefit of GIS
A modern GIS provides both simple point-and-click
query capabilities and sophisticated analysis tools to
provide timely information to managers and analysts
alike.
analyze geographic data to look for patterns and
trends, and to undertake "what if" scenarios. Modern
GIS has many powerful analytical tools, but these are
especially important:
Analysis of
–Proximity
–Adjacency
–Containment
–Overlay
–Evaluating connectedness (finding paths)
Properties of Geographic Data
Geographic data links place, time, and attributes
1. Place (Spatial): location that can be registered
and illustrated based upon a geographic reference.
(Where?)
2. Time (Temporal): information about how a
parameter changes over time. (When?)
3. Attributes (Tabular): descriptive data about the
characteristics of the spatial or temporal elements.
(What?)
 Representation of Geographic Data

Raster and Vector are two methods of

representing geographic data in digital format

Vector:
• point : to record location of objects in a 2D space
• lines: between two points (directions and length)
• polygons: closed vectors (area, and perimeter)
Raster: (re-visiting)
• use a fixed grid and record information about each
element on the grid. (Satellite images, aerial photos, etc.)
PRESENTATION GRAPHICS
 Thematic mapping is a means offered by
GIS to draw map elements using patterns
or colour based on a particular attribute
 Thematic mapping can be classified as
– POLYGON THEMATIC
– LINE THEMATIC
– POINT THEMATIC
 Thematic maps usually involve only a few
map layers and limited amounts of data
Moving from reality to GIS Representation

Reality a river, house, tree

Conceptualization entity attributes,
relationship
Data Model Vector, Raster
Data structure geo-databases,
coverage, shape files, Tiger, grid, TIN, DEM,
Image etc
GIS Data Structures

Tabular attribute
information

Vector

Raster
Discrete and Continuous Space

Discrete Space: Feature/Vector

Lumped models data structures

Continuous Space: Raster/grid,

Distributed models TIN data
structures
Raster and Vector Data
Raster data are described by a cell grid, one value per cell
Vector Raster

Point

Line
Zone of cells
Polygon
 Feature/Vector data file formats: shapefiles,
coverages, dBASE tables of x,y coordinates, text
files of x,y coordinates, and CAD drawings.

Vector data are defined spatially:

(x1,y1)
Point - a pair of x and y coordinates

vertex
Line - a sequence of points
Node

Polygon - a closed set of lines

A grid defines geographic space as a matrix of identically-
sized square cells. Each cell holds a numeric value that
measures a geographic attribute (like elevation) for that unit
of space
A Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) is a data
structure that defines geographic space as a set of
contiguous, non-overlapping triangles, which vary in
size and angular proportion
 Attribute information stored in tables
Feature tables for vector data Value attribute tables for
categorical (integer) grid data
Contour and flow line based surface data structure
Hydrology Data Model Definitions for GIS

Channel — a conduit or
water course carrying water
flow under gravity.
• Complex three-dimensional
geometry, and additional
properties such as channel
roughness.
• Width << Length
• Flow essentially one-
dimensional
Examples: river, stream, creek,
canal, ditch, culvert, storm
sewer.
Reach — a length of channel considered as a single
hydrologic entity.

• Example: a length of river

between two tributaries

• Represented as a polyline
in a "shapefile" or vector
"coverage"
Waterbody — a volume of water having a
horizontal water surface, which is defined within a
specific area.

• Width is significant when

compared to the length.
• Examples: lake, pond,
reservoir, swamp, marsh, bay.
• Represented as a polygon in a
"shapefile" or vector
"coverage".
 Flow Network - a set of connected flow lines
through channel reaches and water bodies

Also called River

Network, Stream
Network.

Represented as an entire "shapefile" or vector coverage,

comprising polylines for each feature. Attribute tables give
linkages through upstream and downstream pointers.
 Watershed — the area enclosed within a
drainage boundary
Drainage divide — a line
defined topographically
which separates distinct
areas of land drainage.

Drainage boundary — a
closed line drawn along
drainage divides
• also called Catchment or Basin.
• A watershed generally has no inflows and only one outflow point.
• Represented as a polygon,
• or represented as a binary (in or out) raster grid, also called a
watershed mask
 Watershed
 A basin, drainage or
catchment area that is the
land area that contributes
runoff to an outlet point

Watershed
boundary Outlet point
 Subwatershed - a sub-drainage area within a
watershed

Outlet - a location
on the flowline,
upstream of which
a drainage area is
defined.

 also called subcatchment or subbasin.

 The only difference between watershed and
subwatershed is scale
Reach catchment - the drainage area locally
defined around a particular channel reach.

The drainage water from the reach catchment area

flows to this channel reach before encountering any
other downstream channel reaches or water bodies.
SubWatersheds- a subdivision of the
watershed into subwatersheds employing
user-defined outlet points at arbitrary
locations on the river network.
 Vector Data Formats

ESRI vector formats:

Shapefiles -- .shx, .shp .dbf
ArcInfo Coverage -- store all attribute in an “info”folder,
and all spatial features, e.g. points, arc, labelpoints,
polygons, routes, regions, and annotation in the space
called coverage.
Geodatabase – contains features class, feature datasets,
tables, annotation, relationships.
 Raster Data Formats

ESRI Raster formats:

• ArcInfo Grid
• ERDAS Imagine -- .img files
Geomatica-- .pix files
• .jpeg, .tiff
• MrSid -- .sid
• TIN (3D data model)
•Import files – USGS’s DRG, DOQ, DEM
•remotely sensed images (LandSAT) , aerial
photographs
 File Types

Point Line polygon

Image File Types

Aerial Photos
Digital Elevation Models (DEM)
 GIS is used for maps– but offers more
power than mapping software.

A common
product is a
simple map
like this.
How is it used?
Example 1
This web page
asks “where is the
nearest ATM from
a specified point,
and how do I get
from here to
there…
Example 2

This
website
allows
access to a
county GIS
department
Example 3 Arcview 3 D
3D version of map on the previous slide.

This shows use zone (commercial

versus residential) in color and
buildings extruded
Example query
Answer to query
lights-up on map
SOME APPLICATIONS OF GIS
 Environmental assessment
 Forestry and wild life tracking
 Waste land development
 Water resources management
 Land use and thematic mapping
 Facility management
 Urban and town planning
 Defence
 Land Information Systems
 Business and retails
GEOGRAPHIC DATABASE
 A GIS does not hold maps or picture-it
holds a database
 If one has to go beyond making pictures,
one need to know three things about
every feature stored in the computer;
what it is, where it is, and how it relates
to other features
 GIS gives the ability to associate
information with a feature on a map and
to create new relationships
OVERLAY ANALYSIS
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
RESOURCES
 The rapidly increasing power and the relative
affordability of workstations now provide the
user access to powerful machines for GIS
operation dealing with large and complex data
set and other decision-support tools such as
hydrologic models, statistical packages, and
optimisation programs
 With advancement in software development
relating to GIS application more and more
features are getting available on desktop
version of GIS packages
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
RESOURCES

 Commercial GIS packages like Arc-GIS,

MapInfo, Intergraph, Spans etc. available
in the market
 Most of the packages function under
open GIS system
 Before a GIS package or peripheral is
acquired, inter-compatibility should be
confirmed.
INTERFACING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

 Interconnection is valuable in many different

applications

 Transferring RS data to a raster GIS is relatively

simple. Most work is involved when transferring
raster data derived from remote sensing
systems to vector-based GIS

 Advanced software allows simultaneous viewing

of raster data and vector data.
ISSUES PERTINENT TO WRD&M
 Critical role of water in human and natural environment.
Role of GIS is important in management of the precious
resource
 Water related data can have high precision (canal
location) or can be Fuzzy (wetland perimeter)
 surface representation by DEM using GRID, TIN or
contours required for hydro-geologic application of GIS
 Length, area and quantity computation, overlay of
thematic layers and buffer zone generation important for
WRD application
 APPLICATION IN WATER RESOURCES

 Basin Planning
 WR and Irrigation potential assessment
 Identification of WRD project sites
 EIA studies and environmental monitoring
 Command area monitoring
 Disaster management
CAPABILITIES OF A GIS
Presentation Graphics
Data Query & Spatial Query
Routing and Minimum path
Buffering
Overlay
Distance, Adjacency and Proximity
analysis
Miscellaneous analysis like
neighbour analysis, network
analysis, 3D analysis etc.
 Query and Analysis
To ask simple questions such as
• What proportion of prime agricultural land is presently in use?

• How far is it between a contaminant source & a potentially

exposed individual?

• Where is land zoned for agricultural use?

And analytical questions such as

• Can the projected growth in infrastructure support the predicted

population increase within this area?
• What is the dominant soil type for teak forest?

• If I build a new road here, how will traffic be affected?

 DATA QUERY

 Much of the data collected by businesses are spatially

referenced

 Non GIS user querying such a data base are limited to

tabular views of the results of query

 A GIS user can view the results on a map apart from the
regular tabular view

 Most important benefit is that the GIS user can see the
spatial distribution which is hidden for the non GIS user
DATA QUERY
 Thus the GIS user is offered a “powerful
lens” which makes hidden data visible to
him
 This type of data base query is also
called the “show-me” query
 Most available GIS packages are
designed to effortlessly perform data
queries
 SPATIAL QUERY

 In this form of a query the user relies on the

map as a querying tool
 Typically the data base is accessed by
pointing to specific map feature
 GIS will then search the data base, and find
those records that qualify, for presentation
 Spatial queries can be through
– Pointing a feature
– Spatial windows (Circular/Rectangular)
 Spatial queries are also called “tell-me”
queries
ROUTING AND MINIMUM PATH
 Ability to find the shortest-path along a
transportation network

 One of the first such commercial applications of GIS

was by ETAK Inc

 Routing involves “legal” travel from one point to

another along a designated network

 Minimum path analysis involves finding out the

shortest, fastest or most appropriate route
 BUFFERING

 A buffer is a zone of fixed width around a map

feature

 Buffer around a point takes the shape of a circle

 Buffer around a line takes the form of a corridor

 Buffer around a polygon taken the form of a bigger

polygon

 Most of the GIS packages can buffer points, lines

and polygons

 Very few packages are capable of handling concave

polygons
 OVERLAY

 Overlay refers to the ability to compare map features and

attributes across two or more map layers
 A visual operation, but many analytical operations require one or
more data layers to be joined physically to show all distinct
combinations of attributes. This overlay, or spatial join, can
integrate data on soils, slope, and vegetation, or land ownership.
Typical questions:
– Identify all portions of all properties with greater than 15% slope.
(Layers are properties and slopes.)
– Show regions where land use changed between 1990 and 2000.
(Layers are land use 1990 and land use 2000.)
– Identify portions of Pune area with population density greater than
50,000 people per square mile. (Layers are Pune areas and
population density.)
Containment Analysis
Typical questions:

– Which earthquake zones are located on land masses?

– Which crimes occurred within the Pune District?

– Which roads lie entirely within the local jurisdiction?

 Which habitats do not lie completely within protected areas?

 Clearly there are close relationships among questions of

proximity, adjacency, and containment. Often two or more of
these techniques are suitable for answering a question.
 ADJACENCY ANALYSIS

–Which developed regions lie on a fault line?

–Which properties lie on or next to a flood plain?

–Which tracts have direct access to a highway?

–Which species have habitats in contact with a protected

ecological region?

Performing every possible comparison is time-

consuming. A good GIS creates internal data structures
(“topology”) for finding answers rapidly.
 PROXIMITY ANALYSIS

Typical questions:
– How many low income households lie within two miles
of this proposed site?
– What is the total number of soil samples within 20m of
this pipeline?
– What proportion of the wheat crop is within 500m of
the well?
 How many people live within a twenty minute ride from
downtown?
To answer such questions, GIS technology often uses a
process called buffering to determine the proximity
relationship between features
 Digital elevation model (DEM)
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THANK YOU