Table of Contents

CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................4
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................4
1.1 RELATED DEFINITIONS.................................................................................................................4
1.2 TAKE OFF SPEEDS.........................................................................................................................6
1.2.1 Take-off Speeds Relationship................................................................................................7
1.2.2 Landing Speeds Relationship................................................................................................7
1.3 Take-Off path...............................................................................................................................7
1.3.1 Take-Off Distance (TOD).......................................................................................................7
1.3.2 Take-Off Run (TOR):..............................................................................................................8
1.3.3 Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD):...........................................................................................8
CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................9
AIRCRAFT TAKE-OFF OPERATION...........................................................................................................9
2.1 Description..................................................................................................................................9
2.1.1 Regulatory Requirements.....................................................................................................9
2.1.2 Aircraft Type Certification.....................................................................................................9
2.2 Minimum Runway Requirements................................................................................................9
2.2.1 Takeoff Distance (TOD).......................................................................................................10
2.2.2 Takeoff Run (TOR)...............................................................................................................10
2.2.3 Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD)..........................................................................................11
2.2.4 Loss of Runway Length During Lineup................................................................................12
2.3 TAKE-OFF PATH..........................................................................................................................12
2.4 TAKE OF FLIGHT PATH................................................................................................................13
2.4.1 Landing Gear Extended (First) Segment:.............................................................................14
2.4.2 Initial Climb-out (Second) Segment:...................................................................................15
2.4.3 Acceleration (Third) Segment:............................................................................................15
2.4.4 Final Take-Off Climb (Fourth) Segment:..............................................................................16
2.5 TAKE-OFF INTO THE WIND.........................................................................................................18
2.6 FACTOR AFFECTING TAKE-OFF LENGTH.....................................................................................18
2.7 ENROUTE...................................................................................................................................19
2.8 APPROACH CLIMB......................................................................................................................19
CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................20
APPROCHES AND LANDING.................................................................................................................20
3.1 Normal Approach and Landing:.................................................................................................20
3.1.1 Base Leg..............................................................................................................................20
 3.1.2 Final Approach....................................................................................................................20
3.1.3 Roundout (Flare).................................................................................................................21
3.1.4 Touchdown.........................................................................................................................22
3.1.5 After Landing Roll................................................................................................................23
3.2 Stabilized Approach Concept.....................................................................................................23
3.3 Intentional Slips.........................................................................................................................24
3.4 Go-Arounds................................................................................................................................25
3.5 Ground Effect.............................................................................................................................26
3.6 Landing Climb............................................................................................................................26
3.6.1 Landing Field Length...........................................................................................................26
3.7 Cross wind.................................................................................................................................27
3.7.1 Approach and Landing........................................................................................................27
3.7.2 Crosswind Final Approach...................................................................................................27
3.7.3 Crosswind Round out (Flare)...............................................................................................28
3.7.4 Crosswind Touchdown........................................................................................................28
3.7.5 Crosswind after landing roll................................................................................................29
3.7.6 Maximum Safe Crosswind Velocities..................................................................................29
3.8 Turbulent Air Approach and Landing.........................................................................................30
3.9 Soft-Field Approach and Landing...............................................................................................31
3.10 Power-Off Accuracy Approaches.............................................................................................32
3.10.1 Power-Off Approach at 90°...............................................................................................32
3.10.2 Power-Off Approach at 180°.............................................................................................33
3.10.3 Power-Off Approach at 360°.............................................................................................33
3.10.4 Low Final Approach...........................................................................................................34
3.10.5 High Final Approach..........................................................................................................34
CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................35
CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................................................35
4.1 Effect of Engine Failure..............................................................................................................35
4.1.1 On the Runway...................................................................................................................35
4.1.2 Airborne..............................................................................................................................35
4.2 Flight Crew Actions....................................................................................................................35
4.3 Defenses....................................................................................................................................36
 List of Figures
Figure 1. 1 Take-off run path.................................................................................................................7
Y
Figure 2. 1 Declared distances.............................................................................................................10
Figure 2. 2 Take-off flight distance......................................................................................................13
Figure 2. 3 Take-off flight path.............................................................................................................13
Figure 2. 4 Four segments of take-off path..........................................................................................14
Figure 2. 5 Four segments of take-off path with conditions................................................................16
Figure 2. 6 Four segments of take-off path..........................................................................................17
Figure 3. 1 Base leg and final approach...............................................................................................20
Figure 3. 2 Effect of headwind on final approach................................................................................21
Figure 3. 3 Effect of flaps on the landing point....................................................................................21
Figure 3. 4 Effect of flaps on the approach angle................................................................................21
Figure 3. 5 Changing angle of attack during round out........................................................................22
Figure 3. 6 To obtain necessary visual cue, pilot should look toward the runway at shallow angle....22
Figure 3. 7 A well-executed round out results in attaining the proper landing attitude......................22
Figure 3. 8 Stabilized approach............................................................................................................23
Figure 3. 9 Runway shape during stabilized approach.........................................................................24
Figure 3. 10 Change in runway shape if approach becomes narrow or steep.....................................24
Figure 3. 11 Sideslip.............................................................................................................................24
Figure 3. 12 Forward slip.....................................................................................................................25
Figure 3. 13 Go-around procedure......................................................................................................25
Figure 3. 14 Crabbed approach............................................................................................................27
Figure 3. 15 Sideslip approach.............................................................................................................28
Figure 3. 16 Crosswind approach and landing.....................................................................................28
Figure 3. 19 Landing over an obstacle.................................................................................................30
Figure 3. 20 Landing on a short-field...................................................................................................30
Figure 3. 21 Stabilized approach..........................................................................................................31
Figure 3. 22 Un-stabilized approach....................................................................................................31
Figure 3. 23 Soft/rough field approach and landing............................................................................31
Figure 3. 24 Plan the base leg for wind conditions..............................................................................32
Figure 3. 25 90° power-off approach...................................................................................................32
Figure 3. 26 180° power-off approach.................................................................................................33
Figure 3. 27 360° Power-Off Approach................................................................................................33
Figure 3. 28 Right and wrong methods of correction for low final approach......................................34
Figure 3. 29 Change in glidepath and increase in descent rate for high final approach......................34
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
This chapter contain some relative definitions of aviation, speeds and path which are very
important in the respect of take-off and landing.

1.1 RELATED DEFINITIONS

Elevation: The vertical distance of a point or level, on or affixed to the surface of the earth,
measured from mean sea level.

Aerodrome Elevation: The elevation of the highest point of the landing area.

Airplane Reference Field Length:The minimum field length required for takeoff at maximu
m certified takeoff mass, at sea level, in standardatmospheric conditions, in still air and zero r
unway slope.

Alternate Aerodrome: An aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed when it becomes

either impossible or inadvisable to proceed to or to land at the aerodrome of intended landing
where the necessary services and facilities are available, where aircraft performance
requirements can be met and which is operational at the expected time of use.
Alternate aerodromes may be designated as Take-off , En-route or Destination alternates.

Take-off Alternate: A Take-off alternate is an aerodrome at which an aircraft would be able

to land should this become necessary shortly after take-off and it is not possible to use the
aerodrome of departure.

En-route Alternate:  An En-route alternate is an aerodrome at which an aircraft would be

able to land in the event that a diversion becomes necessary while en route.

Destination Alternate: A Destination alternate is an aerodrome at which an aircraft would be

able to land should it become either impossible or inadvisable to land at the aerodrome of
intended landing.

Altitude: The vertical distance of an object measured from mean sea level.

Flight Level (FL): A surface of constant atmosphere pressure which is related to a specific
pressure datum, 1013.2hPa, and is separated from other such surfaces by specific pressure
intervals.

Height: The vertical distance of a level, a point, or an object considered as a point, measured
from a specified datum.
Pressure Altitude: An atmospheric pressure expressed in terms of altitude which
corresponds to that pressure in the Standard Atmosphere.

Absolute Ceiling: The pressure altitude where the rate of climb is zero.
Service Ceiling: The pressure altitude where the rate of climb is a defined value.
Change∈height
Climb Gradient: %
Horizontal distance travelled

Brake Release Point (BRP): The point at which the take-off roll starts.

Critical Engine: Critical Engine means the engine whose failure would most adversely affect
the performance and handling qualities of an aircraft.

Obstacle: All fixed (whether temporary or permanent) and mobile objects, or parts thereof,
that are located on an area intended for the surface movement of aircraft; or extend above a
defined surface intended to protect aircraft in flight; or stand outside those defined surfaces
and that have been assessed as being a hazard to air navigation.

Obstacle Clearance Altitude (OCA)/Obstacle Clearance Height (OCH):

The lowest altitude or height above the elevation of the relevant runway threshold or the
airport elevation as applicable, used in compliance with appropriate obstacle clearance
criteria.

Decision Altitude/Height (DA/DH):

The Decision Altitude (DA) or Decision Height (DH) is a specified altitude or height in the
Precision Approach or approach with vertical guidance at which a Missed Approach must be
initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach has not been established.

Decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level and decision height (DH) is referenced
to the threshold elevation.

Aircraft Gross Weight: The aircraft gross weight is the total aircraft weight at any moment
during the flight or ground operation. The aircraft gross weight decreases during flight due to
fuel and oil consumption. The aircraft gross weight may also vary during flight due to
payload dropping or in-flight refuelling. At the moment of brake release, the Gross Weight is
equal to the Takeoff Weight.

Gross Performance: The average performance that a fleet of aeroplanes should achieve if

satisfactorily maintained and flown in accordance with the techniques described in the
manual, is the fleet average performance, called gross performance.

Flap Extended Speed (V FE): The highest speed permissible with wing flaps in a prescribed
extended position.

Landing Gear Extended Speed (V ¿ ¿ : The maximum speed at which the aircraft can be
safely flown with the landing gear extended.
Landing Gear Operating Speed (V LO): The maximum speed at which the landing gear can
be safely extended or retracted.

Mach Number: The ratio of the true air speed to the local speed of sound.

Maximum Operating Speed/Mach Number (V MO/ M MO ): The Maximum Operating

Speed/Mach Number is a speed that may not be deliberately exceeded in any regime of flight
(climb, cruise, or descent), unless a higher speed is authorized for flight test or pilot
training operations.

Stopway:  An area beyond the takeoff runway no less wide than the runway and centered
upon the extended centerline of the runway, able to support the airplane during an aborted
takeoff, without causing structural damage to the airplane, and designated by the airport
authorities for use in decelerating the airplane during an aborted takeoff.

Clearway: An area beyond the runway, not less than 500 feet wide, centrally located about
the extended centerline of the runway, and under the control of the airport authorities. The
clearway is expressed in terms of a clearway plane, extending from the end of the runway
with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25 percent, above which no object nor any terrain
protrudes. However, threshold lights may protrude above the plane if their height above the
end of the runway is 26 inches or less and if they are located to each side of the runway. 

1.2 TAKE OFF SPEEDS

Critical Engine Failure Speed (V EF): The calibrated airspeed at which the critical engine is
assumed to fail.

Take-off Decision Speed (V 1): V 1 is the Take-off Decision Speed. Initiation of rejected take-
off procedure at or before V 1 should result in a complete stop within the declared Accelerate
Stop Distance Available  (ASDA).

Maximum Brake Energy Speed (V MBE):V MBE is the highest takeoff rejection speed from
which the airplane may be brought to a stop without exceeding the maximum energy
absorption capability of the brakes. V 1must be less than V MBE for a safe takeoff.

Minimum Control Speed on the Ground (V MCG): The Minimum Control Speed on the
Ground, is the calibrated airspeed during the take-off run, at which, when the critical engine
is suddenly made inoperative (with the remaining engine(s) at take-off thrust), it is possible to
maintain control of the aeroplane with the use of the primary aerodynamic controls alone
(without the use of nose-wheel steering) to enable the take-off to be safely continued using
normal piloting skill.

Rotation Speed (V R): The speed at which the pilot initiates action to raise the nose gear off
the ground, during the acceleration to V 2.

Minimum Unstick Speed (V MU ): The calibrated airspeed at and above which the aeroplane
can safely lift off the ground, and continue the take-off.
Lift Off Speed (V LOF): The calibrated airspeed at which the aeroplane first becomes
airborne.

Take-off Safety Speed (V 2): The target speed to be attained at the 35 feet height, assuming
recognition of an engine failure at or after V 1.

Final Take-Off Speed: The speed of the airplane that exists at the end of the take-off path in
the en-route configuration with one engine inoperative.

Minimum Control Speed (V MC)/Minimum Control Speed in the Air (V MCA): The
calibrated speed, at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made inoperative with the
remaining engine(s) at take-off thrust, it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane with
that engine still inoperative, and maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not more
than 5° .

Minimum Control Speed for Landing (V MCL): The minimum control speed with the
aeroplane configured for approach at which the aeroplane is controllable with a maximum of
5° bank when the critical engine suddenly becomes inoperative with the remaining engine(s)
at take-off thrust.

Stall Speed (V S ): The minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable.

Reference Landing Speed (V REF): The speed in the landing configuration at screen height
which is used to calculate the landing distance.

1.2.1 Take-off Speeds Relationship

V 1must not be less than V MCG or greater than the V R or V MBE. In order to satisfy JAR, V R
must be equal to or greater than 1.05 V MCAand V 1. Depending on the aircraft type, V 2 should
not be less than 1.15 or 1.2 times V S .

1.2.2 Landing Speeds Relationship

V REFshould normally be at least 1.3 times the V S .

Figure 1. 1 Take-off run path

1.3 Take-Off path
1.3.1 Take-Off Distance (TOD)
The Take-off distance is the greater of:

 The horizontal distance along the take-off path from the start of the take-off to the
point at which the aircraft is 35 ft above the take-off surface; or
 115 percent of the horizontal distance along the take-off path, with all engines
operating, from the start of the take-off to the point at which the aircraft is 35 ft above
the take-off surface.
The required takeoff distance should not exceed the length of the runway, plus the length of
the stopway and/or clearway (if present).

1.3.2 Take-Off Run (TOR):

The take-off run is the greater of:
 The horizontal distance along the take-off path from the start of the take-off to a point
equidistant between the point at which the speed V LOFis reached and the point at
which the aircraft is 35 ft above the take-off surface; or
 115 percent of the horizontal distance along the take-off path, with all engines
operating, from the start of the take-off to a point equidistant between the point at
which the speed V LOFis reached and the point at which the aircraft is 35 ft above the
take-off surface.
The required take-off run should not exceed the length of the runway.

1.3.3 Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD):

The accelerate stop distance is the sum of the distances necessary to:

 Accelerate the aircraft from the standing start to the speed V EF with all engine
operating;
 Accelerate the aircraft from the speed V EFto the speed V 1, assuming the critical
engine fails at V EF; and
 Come to full stop from the point reached at the end of the acceleration period.
The required accelerate stop distance should not exceed the length of the runway, plus the
length of the stopway (if present).

Balanced Field Length: Where Take-Off Distance Available (TODA) equals Accelerate
Stop Distance Available (ASDA), it is considered as Balanced Field Length.
 CHAPTER TWO

AIRCRAFT TAKE-OFF OPERATION

This chapter contain every step required for take-off and various segments and conditions of
take-off path. It also contains climb and enroute steps.

2.1 Description
In the early days of jet engine powered transport aircraft, engine failures, in all phases of
flight, were a fairly frequent occurrence. Statistics from the 1960's indicate that failures
resulting in inflight shutdowns occurred at an approximate rate of 40 per 100,000 flight hours
(or 1 per 2,500 flight hours). This rate is the equivalent of every engine failing once every
year. By contrast, the failure rate of the engines installed on current generation aircraft have a
failure rate of less than 1 per 100,000 flight hours.

Infrequent as this might seem, engines do fail and a failure during takeoff has very serious
safety of flight implications. The aerodynamic effects of the failure and the immediate actions
by the flight crew, which are necessary to ensure an acceptable outcome, are similar to those
in a light, twin engine aircraft. However, unlike their smaller cousins, the certification criteria
for multi-engine transport category jet aircraft require that the aircraft be capable of achieving
a specified minimum climb rate, that will ensure obstacle clearance, should an engine failure
occur on takeoff.

2.1.1 Regulatory Requirements

The National Aviation Authority (NAA) for each sovereign state is responsible for issuing an
aircraft type certificate, in accordance with the guidance provided in the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPS), for aircraft
that are registered within its jurisdiction. While the SARPS provide the agreed minimum
requirements for type certification, each NAA has the right to insist that additional criteria be
satisfied before an aircraft type certificate will be issued.

Within the European Union, type certificates are issued by the European Aviation Safety
Agency (EASA) whose website may be found here

2.1.2 Aircraft Type Certification

There are many safety and performance requirements that must be met before an aircraft will
be issued a type certificate. For multi-engine, transport category jet aircraft, minimum
runway requirements that allow the safe rejection or continuation of a takeoff in the event of
a failure and the ability to comply with minimum specified engine out climb gradients and
obstacle clearance criteria are both critically important.
2.2 Minimum Runway Requirements
Regulatory criteria for minimum runway requirements encompass multiple calculations
inclusive of Takeoff Distance (TOD), Takeoff Run (TOR) and Accelerate Stop Distance
(ASD). The most limiting of these criteria, based on aircraft weight and prevailing
atmospheric conditions, defines the minimum runway required for takeoff. Note that,
depending upon the regulations under which the aircraft certification is granted, these
distances may have to take into consideration the runway distance lost during line-up.

Figure 2. 1 Declared distances

2.2.1 Takeoff Distance (TOD)
The Takeoff Distance on a dry runway is the greater of the following values:

 Distance covered from the brake release to a point at which the aircraft is 35 feet
above the takeoff surface, assuming the failure of the critical engine at VEF (Engine
Failure Speed) and recognized at V1
 115% of the distance covered from brake release to a point at which the aircraft is
35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming all engines operating

The Takeoff Distance on a wet runway is the greater of:

 Takeoff Distance on a dry runway (see above)

 Distance covered from brake release to a point at which the aircraft is 15 feet
above the takeoff surface, ensuring that the V 2 speed can be achieved before the
airplane is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming failure of the critical engine at
VEF and recognized at V1
Takeoff Distance must not exceed the Takeoff Distance Available (TODA), with a clearway
distance not to exceed half of the TODA

2.2.2 Takeoff Run (TOR)

Takeoff Run (TOR) calculations incorporate the operational advantage of a designated
clearway when one is present on the departure runway. If no clearway exists, TOR = TOD.

When a clearway exists, the Takeoff Run on a dry runway is the greater of the following
values:
 Distance covered from brake release to a point equidistant between the point at
which VLOF (Lift-off Speed) is reached and the point at which the aircraft is 35 feet
above the takeoff surface, assuming failure of the critical engine at V EF and recognized
at V1
 115 % of the distance covered from brake release to a point equidistant between
the point at which VLOF is reached and the point at which the aircraft is 35 feet above
the takeoff surface, assuming all engines operating
When a clearway exists, the Takeoff Run on a wet runway is the greater of:

 Takeoff Distance (TOD) wet runway

 115 % of the distance covered from brake release to a point equidistant between
the point at which VLOF is reached and the point at which the aircraft is 35 feet above
the takeoff surface, assuming all engines operating.
Takeoff Run must not exceed Takeoff Run Available (TORA)

2.2.3 Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD)

Accelerate Stop Distance calculations assume the following:

 Delay between VEF and V1 = 1 second

 ASD is determined with the wheel brakes at the fully worn limit of their allowable
wear range
 reverse thrust is not considered for a dry runway distance determination, it can be
used for wet runway calculations
The Accelerate Stop Distance on a dry runway is the greater of the following values:

 Sum of the distances necessary to:

1. Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to VEF
2. Accelerate from VEF to V1 (assumes that engine fails at VEF and first action to reject is
taken at V1)
3. Come to a full stop
4. Plus an additional distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed
 Sum of the distances necessary to:
1. Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to V 1 (assumes that first stopping
actions are taken at V1)
2. With all engines still operating come to a full stop
3. Plus, an additional distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed

The Accelerate Stop Distance on a wet runway is the greatest of:

 ASD on a dry runway.

 Sum of the distances on a wet runway necessary to:
1. Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to VEF
2. Accelerate from VEF to V1 (assumes that engine fails at VEF and first action to reject is
taken at V1)
3. Come to a full stop
4. Plus, an additional distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed
 Sum of the distances on a wet runway necessary to:
1. Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to V 1 (assumes that first stopping
actions are taken at V1)
2. With all engines still operating come to a full stop
3. Plus, an additional distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed
Note: Depending upon the criteria under which the aircraft was certified, the additional 2
seconds distance equivalent might not be required

Accelerate Stop Distance must not exceed the Accelerate Stop Distance Available (ASDA)

2.2.4 Loss of Runway Length During Lineup

Declared distances such as TORA and ASDA are based on measurements from the runway
threshold. However, unless the aircraft enters the runway from a point prior to the threshold,
it is not possible to use the full length of the runway. Aircraft typically enter the takeoff
runway from an intersecting taxiway. The aeroplane must then be turned to align it on the
runway in the direction of takeoff. In some cases, it may be necessary to backtrack on the
runway and turn through 180° before the takeoff run can be initiated. FAA regulations do not
explicitly require airplane operators to take into account the runway distance used to align the
aeroplane on the runway for takeoff. However, EASA regulations require that the applicable
distance be taken into consideration. When required, the TODA and TORA must be reduced
by the distance from the runway threshold to the main landing gear and ASDA reduced by
the distance from the threshold to the nose gear. Manufacturers will provide minimum lineup
distances required for both 90° and 180° turns.

Some Operators provide data which takes loss of runway length during lineup into account.
All crews must be familiar with the assumptions made in the production of their own
company’s data.

2.3 TAKE-OFF PATH

The take-off path extends from a standing start to a point in the take-off at which the aircraft
is 1,500 ft above the take-off surface, or at which the transition from the take-off to the
enroute configuration is completed, whichever point is higher.

The take-off path is divided up into two parts:

Take-off distance: From the standing start to the point at which the aircraft is 35 ft above the
take-off surface

Take-off flight path: From 35 ft above the take-off surface to a point in the take-off at which
the aircraft is 1,500 ft above the take-off surface.
The take-off path must be based on acceleration of the aircraft on the ground from standing
start to the speed V1 at which point the critical engine must be made inoperative and remain
inoperative for the rest of the take-off, and after reaching V 1 the aircraft must be accelerated
to the speed V2
During the acceleration to speed V2, the nose gear may be raised off the ground at a speed not
less than the speed VR. However, landing gear retraction may not be begun until the aircraft is
airborne.
During the take-off path, the slope of the airborne part of the take-off path must be positive at
each point. The aircraft must reach the speed V 2 before it is 35 ft above the take-off surface
and must continue at a speed as close as practical to, but not less than the speed V 2 until it is
400 ft above the take-off surface.
Except for Landing gear retraction and engine shut-down, the aircraft configuration may not
be changed until the aircraft is 400 ft above the take-off surface.

Figure 2. 2 Take-off flight distance

2.4 TAKE OF FLIGHT PATH

The take-off flight path begins 35 ft above the take-off surface at the end of the take-off
distance.
The Gross Take-off Flight Path: It can be defined as the actual flight path of the aircraft
based on one engine inoperative after reaching V 1.

Figure 2. 3 Take-off flight path

The Net Take-off Flight Path: It can be defined as the required minimum obstacle clearance
profile which clears all obstacles by at least a height of 35 ft vertically.
The net takeoff flight path data must be determined so that they represent the actual (Gross)
takeoff flight path reduced at each point by a gradient equal to 0.8% for two-engine aircraft.

The gross takeoff flight path is subdivided into four segments and based on one engine
inoperative:
 Landing Gear Extended (First) Segment
 Initial Climb-out (Second) Segment
 Acceleration (Third) Segment
 Final Takeoff Climb (Fourth) Segment

Figure 2. 4 Four segments of take-off path

2.4.1 Landing Gear Extended (First) Segment:

Landing Gear Extended Segment The climb from the 35 ft height point to the point of
Landing gear retracted. Extends from lift off to gear up point. Thrust maintained at T/O
thrust setting. From lift off until gear is retracted (end of first segment), the engine out climb
gradient must be positive for a twin engined aeroplane and at least 0.5% for a four engined
aeroplane.
The conditions in this segment are:

 Landing gear retracting.

 Flaps in take-off position
 Speed equal to V2
 Gradient of climb > 0.8%
 Take-off thrust
The minimum required net gradient of climb in the landing gear extended segment is 0
percent. The horizontal distance covered in the landing gear extended segment are equal in
the gross and net take-off flight path due to the difference in height and in gradient of climb.
Landing gear retraction is' initiated 3 seconds after 1ift-off and is completed in 5 seconds.
Therefore, the landing gear is extended during 8 seconds after lift-off. Dependent on aircraft
weight, consequently the time 1ift-off to the 35 ft is completed before or after reaching the 35
ft height point. from height point, landing gear retraction
NOTE: Normally, landing gear retraction is completed before the aircraft reaches the 35 ft
height point. In this case there is no landing gear extended segment When however, a landing
gear extended segment exist, the requirements of this segment are overruled by the
requirements of the initial climb -out segment.

2.4.2 Initial Climb-out (Second) Segment:

The climb from the 35 ft height point to the point of reaching the selected gross acceleration
height at a minimum. Begins at gear up point and continues to level off height. During engine
out second segment, the thrust is maintained at T/O thrust setting and speed = V2. Engine out
climb capability at the start of the 2nd segment is 2.4% fora twin and 3% for a 4 engined
aeroplane. This tends to be the most limiting of all the climb gradients.
The conditions in this segment are:

 Landing gear retracted

 Flaps in take-off position
 Speed equal to V2
 Gradient of climb > 2.4%
 Take-off thrust

The minimum required net gradient of climb in the initial climb -out segment is 1.5 percent.
The horizontal distance covered in the initial climb-out segment are equal in the gross and net
take-off flight path due to the difference in height and in gradient of climb.
NOTE: In order to maintain the minimum required net gradient of climb up to reaching the
net acceleration height, the minimum required net gradient of climb at the 35 ft height point
is initially 1.6 percent to compensate for the reduction in thrust during the climb-out.

2.4.3 Acceleration (Third) Segment:

The acceleration in level flight from the point of reaching the selected gross acceleration
height to the point of reaching the final take-off climb speed. Begins at initiation of level
flight acceleration. This is level off height.

This segment consists of two parts-

The conditions- in this 1st segment are:

 Landing gear retracted

 Flaps in take-off position
 Speed increasing from V2 to VFR
 Gradient of climb capability > 1.2%
 Take-off thrust
The conditions- in this 2st segment are:

 Landing gear retracted

 Flaps retracting/ retracted
 Speed increasing from VFR to VFC
 Gradient of climb capability > 1.2%
 Take-off thrust
The minimum required net gradient of climb capability in the acceleration segment is 0.4
percent. The horizontal distance covered in the acceleration segment is longer in the net take-
off flight path due to the equivalent reduction in acceleration.

2.4.4 Final Take-Off Climb (Fourth) Segment:

The climb from the point of reaching the final take-off Climb speed to the 1,500 ft height
point. This is the flaps up climb segment. Begins when flaps are up and aeroplane has
accelerated to final climb speed. Thrust set to Max Continuous. Gradient limits are, 1.2% for
2 eng and 1.7% for 4 eng a/c. This segment is complete when all obstacles are cleared or the
a/c has reached a min of 1500ft AAL.
The conditions in this segment are:

 Landing gear retracted

 Flaps retracted
 Speed equal to VFC
 Gradient of climb > 1.2%
 Maximum continuous thrust
The minimum required net gradient of climb take-off climb in the final segment is 0.4
percent.
The horizontal distance covered in the final take-off climb segment is longer in the net take-
off flight path due to the difference in height and in gradient of climb.
 Figure 2. 5 Four segments of take-off path with conditions
Variation (1) - It is possible that the gear is retracted by the time that the aircraft has reached
'screen height' at the end of the Takeoff, in which case no 1st segment exists. This is not a
typical case, but does exist.

Variation (2) - It is possible that the time limit for Takeoff thrust may be reached before the
3rd segment is complete, although this is becoming rare with increasing availability of a 10
minute limit. It is then necessary to re-evaluate whether the aircraft has the performance
capability to accomplish the acceleration with MCT, and re-assess the length of the 3rd
segment. Manufacturer's data is rarely available for this, necessitating an alternative steeper
2nd segment climb, higher than dictated by obstacles, to reach the 3rd segment in a shorter
time, leaving sufficient Takeoff Power / Thrust availability to accomplish the 3rd segment.

Figure 2. 6 Four segments of take-off path

Each segment of the one engine inoperative takeoff flight path has a mandated climb gradient
requirement. For example, a gross second segment climb gradient capability of 2.4%, 2.7% or
3.0% is required for two, three and four engine aircraft respectively. Similarly, the required
gross gradients for the fourth segment are 1.2%, 1.5% and 1.7% respectively.
To ensure obstacle clearance while allowing for aircraft performance degradation and less
than optimum pilot technique, the gross gradients are reduced by 0.8%, 0.9% and 1.0%
respectively to calculate a net gradient. The obstacle identification surface (OIS), or
obstruction envelope, starts at runway elevation at a point directly beneath the end of the
takeoff distance (TOD) and parallels the net gradient profile of the climb segments. If an
obstacle in the departure path penetrates the OIS, the slope of the OIS must be increased and
both the net and the gross gradient slopes of the corresponding segment must also be
increased to ensure that the minimum obstacle clearance criteria is met.

The aircraft net gradient capability, correctable for temperature, altitude and pressure, is
published in the AFM performance data and, in actual operations, must ensure that the
limiting obstacle in the departure path can be cleared by a minimum of 35'. If there is an
obstacle within the departure path that cannot be avoided and would not be cleared by 35', the
planned takeoff weight must be reduced until minimum obstacle clearance can be achieved.
Note that, by regulation, turns immediately after takeoff cannot be initiated below the greater
of 50'AGL or one half of the aircraft wingspan and, that during the initial climb, turns are
limited to 15° of bank. Turning will result in a reduction in aircraft climb capability.

2.5 TAKE-OFF INTO THE WIND

It is usual to take-off into the wind for the following reasons:
(i) It gives the shortest run and lowest ground speed at the moment of take-off.
(ii) There is no tendency to drift and so strain the undercarriage.
(iii) It gives the best directional control, especially at the beginning of the run.
(iv) It gives better obstacle clearance owing to both the shorter run and the steeper
angle of climb.
(v) It normally provides the best possible landing area in the event of engine failure
immediately after take-off.

2.6 FACTOR AFFECTING TAKE-OFF LENGTH

The factors which affect the length of a take-off run:
(i) Weight: The greater the load carried by a given aeroplane the longer will be the run
required. This is due to the higher speed required to give sufficient lift and the slower
acceleration at high weight.
(ii) Wind Strength: The stronger the headwind component the shorter the take-off run.
(iii) Surface: If the surface is rough or soft it will have a greater retarding effect than a
smooth hard surface.
(iv) Temperature: An increase in temperature gives lower air density and may reduce
engine efficiency.
(v) Airfield height: The considerations are the same as for an increase in temperature.
(vi) Flaps: Lowering the flaps enables the wing to produce sufficient lift for take-off at a
lower speed, a shorter run is therefore achieved. A flap setting greater than the optimum
 should not be used as the added drag may have a detrimental effect. The use of flap is
particularly applicable to the short field take off.

2.7 ENROUTE
The one engine inoperative net flight path data must represent the gross climb performance
diminished by a gradient of climb of 1.1 percent.
The conditions in this flight path are:
 Landing gear retracted
 Flaps retracted
 Speed equal to single engine enroute climb speed (VFC)
 Gradient of climb ≥ 0%
 Maximum continuous thrust

The slope of the net flight path should be positive at an altitude of at least 1000ft above all
terrain and obstructions along the route within 5 nm on either side of the intended track.
The net flight path should be such as to permit the aircraft to continue flight from the cruising
altitude to an airport where a landing can be made, the net flight path clearing vertically, by at
least 2000 ft, all terrain and obstructions along the route within 5 nm on either side of the
intended track.
The engine should be assumed to fail at the most critical point along the route, allowance
being made for indecision and navigation error.
Accounts should be taken of the effects of wind on the flight path.
The consumption of fuel after the engine becomes inoperative should be that which is
accounted for in the net flight path data in the Airplane Flight Manual

2.8 APPROACH CLIMB

The climb after a discontinued approach with the critical engine inoperative.
The conditions in the approach climb are:
 Landing gear retracted
 Flaps in approach position
 Speed equal to or less than 1.5 V S
 Gradient of climb ≥ 2.1%
 Takeoff thrust
In the approach configuration, corresponding to the normal all engine operating procedure,
the V S for this configuration must not exceed 110 percent of the V S for the related landing
configuration.
 CHAPTER THREE

APPROCHES AND LANDING

This chapter contain the main process and steps of approaches and landing in different
conditions.

3.1 Normal Approach and Landing:

A normal approach and landing involves the use of procedures for what is considered a
normal situation; that is, when engine power is available, the wind is light or the final
approach is made directly into the wind, the final approach path has no obstacles, and the
landing surface is firm and of ample length to gradually bring the airplane to a stop.
The actual landing will be divided into five phases:
 The Base Leg
 The Final Approach
 The Round-out
 The Touchdown and
 The After-landing Roll.
3.1.1 Base Leg
The placement of the base leg is one of the more important judgments made by the pilot in
any landing approach. [Figure 3.1] Normally, the landing gear should be extended and the
before landing check completed prior to reaching the base leg. After turning onto the base
leg, the pilot should start the descent with reduced power and airspeed of approximately 1.4
VSO. (VSO—the stalling speed with power off, landing gears and flaps down.)

Figure 3. 1 Base leg and final approach.

3.1.2 Final Approach
After aligning the airplane with the runway centerline, the final flap setting should be
completed and the pitch attitude adjusted as required for the desired rate of descent. Slight
adjustments in pitch and power may be necessary to maintain the descent attitude and the
desired approach airspeed. In the absence of the manufacturer’s recommended airspeed, a
speed equal to 1.3 VSO should be used.
Consequently, pitch behavior depends on the design features of the particular airplane. Flap
deflection of up to 15° primarily produces lift with minimal drag. The airplane has a tendency
to balloon.
The airplane must be re-trimmed on the final approach to compensate for the change in
aerodynamic forces. With the reduced power and with a slower airspeed, the airflow
produces less lift on the wings and less downward force on the horizontal stabilizer, resulting
in a significant nose down tendency.

Figure 3. 2 Effect of headwind on final approach.

Figure 3. 3 Effect of flaps on the landing point.

Figure 3. 4 Effect of flaps on the approach angle.

3.1.3 Roundout (Flare)
The rate of rounding out must be proportionate to the rate of closure with the ground. When
the airplane appears to be descending very slowly, the increase in pitch attitude must be made
at a correspondingly slow rate. The pilot should direct central vision at a shallow downward
angle of from 10 to 15 toward the runway as the round out/flare is initiated. [Fig. 3.6]

Figure 3. 5 Changing angle of attack during round out.

Figure 3. 6 To obtain necessary visual cue, pilot should look toward the runway at shallow
angle.
3.1.4 Touchdown

It is paradoxical that the way to make an ideal landing is to try to hold the airplane’s wheels a
few inches off the ground as long as possible with the elevators. In most cases, when the
wheels are within 2 or 3 feet off the ground, the airplane will still be settling too fast for a
gentle touchdown; therefore, this descent must be retarded by further back-elevator pressure.
Since the airplane is already close to its stalling speed and is settling, this added back-elevator
pressure will only slow up the settling instead of stopping it. It is extremely important that the
touchdown occur with the airplane’s longitudinal axis exactly parallel to the direction in
which the airplane is moving along the runway.
 Figure 3. 7 A well-executed round out results in attaining the proper landing attitude.
3.1.5 After Landing Roll
If a wing starts to rise, aileron control should be applied toward that wing to lower it. After
the airplane is on the ground, back-elevator pressure may be gradually relaxed to place
normal weight on the nose wheel to aid in better steering. If available runway permits, the
speed of the airplane should be allowed to dissipate in a normal manner.
3.2 Stabilized Approach Concept
A stabilized approach is one in which the pilot establishes and maintains a constant angle
glide path towards a predetermined point on the landing runway. It is based on the pilot’s
judgment of certain visual clues, and depends on the maintenance of a constant final descent
airspeed and configuration. An airplane descending on final approach at a constant rate and
airspeed will be traveling in a straight line toward a spot on the ground ahead.

Figure 3. 8 Stabilized approach.

This spot will not be the spot on which the airplane will touch down, because some float will
inevitably occur during the round out (flare). [Fig. 3.8] Neither will it be the spot toward
which the airplane’s nose is pointed, because the airplane is flying at a fairly high angle of
attack, and the component of lift exerted parallel to the Earth’s surface by the wings tends to
carry the airplane forward horizontally.
The point toward which the airplane is progressing is termed the “aiming point.” [Fig. 3.8] It
is the point on the ground at which, if the airplane maintains a constant glide path, and was
not flared for landing, it would strike the ground. To a pilot moving straight ahead toward an
object, it appears to be stationary. It does not “move. Conversely, if the approach is
steepened, the runway will appear to become longer and narrower. [Fig. 3.10] The objective
of a stabilized approach is to select an appropriate touchdown point on the runway, and adjust
the glide path so that the true aiming point and the desired touchdown point basically
coincide.
Immediately after rolling out on final approach, the pilot should adjust the pitch attitude and
power so that the airplane is descending directly toward the aiming point at the appropriate
airspeed. For instance, if the pilot perceives that the aiming point is short of the desired
touchdown point and will result in an undershoot, an increase in pitch attitude and engine
power is warranted. A constant airspeed must be maintained.
Conversely, if the pilot perceives that the aiming point is farther down the runway than the
desired touchdown point and will result in an overshoot, the glide path should be steepened
by a simultaneous decrease in pitch attitude and power. Once again, the airspeed must be held
constant. It is essential that deviations from the desired glide path be detected early, so that
only slight and infrequent adjustments to glide path are required.

Figure 3. 9 Runway shape during stabilized approach.

Figure 3. 10 Change in runway shape if approach becomes narrow or steep.

3.3 Intentional Slips

A slip occurs when the bank angle of an airplane is too steep for the existing rate of turn. A
“side slip” is entered by lowering a wing and applying just enough opposite rudder to prevent
a turn. In a sideslip, the airplane’s longitudinal axis remains parallel to the original flightpath,
but the airplane no longer flies straight ahead. Instead the horizontal component of wing lift
forces the airplane also to move somewhat sideways toward the low wing. [Fig. 3.11]
 Figure 3. 11 Sideslip.
A “forward slip” is one in which the airplane’s direction of motion continues the same as
before the slip was begun. Assuming the airplane is originally in straight flight, the wing on
the side toward which the slip is to be made should be lowered by use of the ailerons.
Simultaneously, the airplane’s nose must be yawed in the opposite direction by applying
opposite rudder so that the airplane’s longitudinal axis is at an angle to its original flightpath.
[Fig. 3.12]

Figure 3. 12 Forward slip.

Unlike skids, however, if an airplane in a slip is made to stall, it displays very little of the
yawing tendency that causes a skidding stall to develop into a spin. The airplane in a slip may
do little more than tend to roll into a wings level attitude. In fact, in some airplanes stall
characteristics may even be improved.
3.4 Go-Arounds
(Rejected Landings), Power, Attitude, Configuration
It becomes dangerous only when delayed unduly or executed improperly. Delay in initiating
the go-around normally stems from two sources: (1) landing expectancy, or set—the
anticipatory belief that conditions are not as threatening as they are and that the approach will
surely be terminated with a safe landing, and (2) pride—the mistaken belief that the act of
going around is an admission of failure—failure to execute the approach properly. The
improper execution of the go around maneuver stems from a lack of familiarity with the three
cardinal principles of the procedure: power, attitude, and configuration.
 Figure 3. 13 Go-around procedure.

The pilot must be aware of the degree of inertia that must be overcome, before an airplane
that is settling towards the ground can regain sufficient airspeed to become fully controllable
and capable of turning safely or climbing. The application of power should be smooth as well
as positive. Abrupt movements of the throttle in some airplanes will cause the engine to
falter. Carburetor heat should be turned off for maximum power.
As soon as the appropriate climb airspeed and pitch attitude are attained, the pilot should
“rough trim” the airplane to relieve any adverse control pressures. Later, more precise trim
adjustments can be made when flight conditions have stabilized.

A sudden and complete retraction of the flaps could cause a loss of lift resulting in the
airplane settling into the ground. [Fig. 3.13]

Forward elevator pressure must be anticipated and applied to hold the nose in a safe climb
attitude. This would be especially likely if no trim correction is made and the flaps remain
fully extended. The pilot should not attempt to retract the landing gear until after a rough trim
is accomplished and a positive rate of climb is established.
3.5 Ground Effect

Ground effect is a factor in every landing and every takeoff in fixed-wing airplanes. Ground
effect can also be an important factor in go-arounds. If the go-around is made close to the
ground, the airplane may be in the ground effect area. Pilots are often lulled into a sense of
false security by the apparent “cushion of air” under the wings that initially assists in the
transition from an approach descent to a climb. This “cushion of air,” however, is imaginary.
3.6 Landing Climb
The climb after a discontinued landing with all engines operating.
The conditions in the landing climb are:

 Landing gear extended

 Flaps in landing position
 Speed equal to or less than 1.3 V S
 Gradient of climb ≥ 3.2%
 Takeoff thrust
In the landing configuration the performance, as affected by engine thrust, must be based on
the thrust which is available eight seconds after initiation of movement of the thrust controls
from the minimum flight idle to the takeoff position.

3.6.1 Landing Field Length

The landing distance is the horizontal distance necessary to land and to come to a complete
stop from a point 50 ft above the landing surface. The actual landing distance is 60 percent of
the required landing field length for the airport of intended destination and 70 percent of the
required landing field length for the airport of alternate destination.

The required landing field length is 1.67 (=100/60) times the actual landing distance for
destination and 1.43 (=100/70) times the actual landing distance for alternate.

The required landing field length should not exceed the available length of the runway.

The landing speed at the 50 ft height point is equal to 1.3 V S .

The landing data are based on a smooth, dry and hard surfaced runway. For landing on wet
runways the required landing field length shall be multiplied by 1.15.
A wet runway is defined as a runway thoroughly soaked with no major areas of measurable
depth of water covering the runway.

3.7 Cross wind

3.7.1 Approach and Landing
Many runways or landing areas are such that landings must be made while the wind is
blowing across rather than parallel to the landing direction. There are two usual methods of
accomplishing a crosswind approach and landing—the crab method and the wing-low
(sideslip) method. Although the crab method may be easier for the pilot to maintain during
final approach, it requires a high degree of judgment and timing in removing the crab
immediately prior to touchdown. The wing-low method is recommended in most cases,
although a combination of both methods may be used.
3.7.2 Crosswind Final Approach
The crab method is executed by establishing a heading (crab) toward the wind with the wings
level so that the airplane’s ground track remains aligned with the centerline of the runway.
[Figure 15] This crab angle is maintained until just prior to touchdown, when the longitudinal
axis of the airplane must be aligned with the runway to avoid sideward contact of the wheels
with the runway. If a long final approach is being flown, the pilot may use the crab method
until just before the round out is started and then smoothly change to the wing-low method
for the remainder of the landing.
 Figure 3. 14 Crabbed approach.
To use the wing-low method, the pilot aligns the airplane’s heading with the centerline of the
runway, notes the rate and direction of drift, and then promptly applies drift correction by
lowering the upwind wing. [Fig. 3.15] The amount the wing must be lowered depends on the
rate of drift. When the wing is lowered, the airplane will tend to turn in that direction.
It is then necessary to simultaneously apply sufficient opposite rudder pressure to prevent the
turn and keep the airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned with the runway. In other words, the
drift is controlled with aileron, and the heading with rudder. The airplane will now be side
slipping into the wind just enough that both the resultant.
flightpath and the ground track are aligned with the runway. If the crosswind diminishes, this
crosswind correction is reduced accordingly, or the airplane will begin slipping away from
the desired approach path. [Figure 17]

Figure 3. 15 Sideslip approach.

 Figure 3. 16 Crosswind approach and landing.
3.7.3 Crosswind Round out (Flare)
When using the wing low method, it is necessary to gradually increase the deflection of the
rudder and ailerons to maintain the proper amount of drift correction. Do not level the wings;
keep the upwind wing down throughout the round out. If the wings are leveled, the airplane
will begin drifting and the touchdown will occur while drifting. Remember, the primary
objective is to land the airplane without subjecting it to any side loads that result from
touching down while drifting.
3.7.4 Crosswind Touchdown
As the forward momentum decreases after initial contact, the weight of the airplane will
cause the downwind main wheel to gradually settle onto the runway. In those airplanes
having nose wheel steering interconnected with the rudder, the nose wheel may not be
aligned with the runway as the wheels touch down because opposite rudder is being held in
the crosswind correction.
3.7.5 Crosswind after landing roll
Particularly during the after-landing roll, special attention must be given to maintaining
directional control by the use of rudder or nose wheel steering, while keeping the upwind
wing from rising by the use of aileron. When an airplane is airborne, it moves with the air
mass in which it is flying regardless of the airplane’s heading and speed. When an airplane is
on the ground, it is unable to move with the air mass (crosswind) because of the resistance
created by ground friction on the wheels. Characteristically, an airplane has a greater profile
or side area, behind the main landing gear than forward of it does.
3.7.6 Maximum Safe Crosswind Velocities
Takeoffs and landings in certain crosswind conditions are inadvisable or even dangerous.
[Fig. 3.17] If the crosswind is great enough to warrant an extreme drift correction, a
hazardous landing condition may result. Therefore, the takeoff and landing capabilities with
respect to the reported surface wind conditions and the available landing directions must be
considered.

Figure 3. 17 Crosswind Chart

Figure 3. 18 Crosswind component chart.

Before an airplane is type certificated it must be flight tested to meet certain requirements.
Among these is the demonstration of being satisfactorily controllable with no exceptional
degree of skill or alertness on the part of the pilot in 90° crosswinds up to a velocity equal to
0.2 VSO. This means a wind speed of two-tenths of the airplane’s stalling speed with power
off and landing gear/flaps down. Regulations require that the demonstrated crosswind
velocity be
included on a placard in airplanes certificated after May 3, 1962. The headwind component
and the crosswind component for a given situation can be determined by reference to a
crosswind component chart. [Fig. 3.18] It is imperative that pilots determine the maximum
crosswind component of each airplane they fly, and avoid operations in wind conditions that
exceed the capability of the airplane.
3.8 Turbulent Air Approach and Landing
Like other power-on approaches (when the pilot can vary the amount of power), a
coordinated combination of both pitch and power adjustments is usually required. As in most
other landing approaches, the proper approach attitude and airspeed require a minimum round
out and should result in little or no floating during the landing.
To maintain good control, the approach in turbulent air with gusty crosswind may require the
use of partial wing flaps. With less than full flaps, the airplane will be in a higher pitch
attitude.

Figure 3. 17 Landing over an obstacle.

Figure 3. 18 Landing on a short-field.

 Figure 3. 19 Stabilized approach.

Figure 3. 20 Un-stabilized approach.

The procedures for landing in a short-field or for landing approaches over obstacles, as
recommended in the AFM/POH, should be used. A stabilized approach is essential. [Fig. 3.21
and 3.22]
This occurs when the angle of attack is so great and creating so much drag that the maximum
available power is insufficient to overcome it. Care must be exercised to avoid closing the
throttle.
3.9 Soft-Field Approach and Landing
Landing on fields that are rough or have soft surfaces, such as snow, sand, mud, or tall grass
requires unique procedures. Power can be used throughout the level-off and touchdown to
ensure touchdown at the slowest possible airspeed, and the airplane should be flown onto the
ground with the weight fully supported by the wings. [Figure 3.23]

Figure 3. 21 Soft/rough field approach and landing.

3.10 Power-Off Accuracy Approaches

Power-off accuracy approaches are approaches and landings made by gliding with the engine
idling, through a specific pattern to a touchdown beyond and within 200 feet of a designated
line or mark on the runway.
3.10.1 Power-Off Approach at 90°
The approach path may be varied by positioning the base leg closer to or farther out from the
approach end of the runway according to wind conditions. [Figure 3.24] After a medium-
banked turn onto the base leg is completed, the throttle should be retarded slightly and the
airspeed allowed to decrease to the normal base-leg speed. [Figure 3.25]
At the 45° key position, the throttle should be closed completely, the propeller control (if
equipped) advanced to the full increase r.p.m. position. In the absence of a recommended
speed, use 1.4 VSO. When this airspeed is attained, the nose should be lowered to maintain
the gliding speed and the controls retrimmed.

Figure 3. 22 Plan the base leg for wind conditions.

Figure 3. 23 90° power-off approach.

The base-to-final turn should be planned and accomplished so that upon rolling out of the
turn the airplane will be aligned with the runway centerline.
3.10.2 Power-Off Approach at 180°
The 180° power-off approach requires more planning and judgment than the 90° power-off
approach. In the execution of 180° power-off approaches, the airplane is flown on a
downwind heading parallel to the landing runway.
3.10.3 Power-Off Approach at 360°
The 360° approach is started from a position over the approach end of the landing runway or
slightly to the side of it, with the airplane headed in the proposed landing direction and the
landing gear and flaps retracted. [Figure 3.27] It is usually initiated from approximately 2,000
feet or more above the ground—where the wind may vary significantly from that at lower
altitudes. This must be taken into account when maneuvering the airplane to a point from
which a 90° or 180° power-off approach can be completed.

Figure 3. 24 180° power-off approach.

Figure 3. 25 360° Power-Off Approach

3.10.4 Low Final Approach

In such a situation, the pilot would have to apply considerable power to fly the airplane (at an
excessively low altitude) up to the runway threshold. When the proper approach path has
been intercepted, the correct approach attitude should be reestablished. [Figure 31]
3.10.5 High Final Approach
When steepening the approach path, however, care must be taken that the descent does not
result in an excessively high sink rate. If a high sink rate is continued close to the surface, it
may be difficult to slow to a proper rate prior to ground contact. Any sink rate in excess of
800 - 1,000 feet per minute is considered excessive.

Figure 3. 26 Right and wrong methods of correction for low final approach

Figure 3. 27 Change in glidepath and increase in descent rate for high final
approach.

CHAPTER FOUR
 CONCLUSION
4.1 Effect of Engine Failure

4.1.1 On the Runway

If a multi-engine aircraft suffers an engine failure during the take-off roll, the aircraft will
yaw towards the failed engine. If the airspeed at the time of the failure is at or above Vminimum
control ground (Vmcg), directional control on the runway can be maintained utilizing only
aerodynamic controls. At a speed below Vmcg, directional control will not be possible unless
thrust on the operating engine(s) is (are) also reduced. In any event, if the airspeed at the time
that the failure is recognised is less than V1, the takeoff must be rejected.

4.1.2 Airborne
If a multi-engine aircraft suffers an engine failure when airborne, there are two immediate
aerodynamic effects. The initial effect is the yawing that occurs due to the asymmetry of the
thrust line. The size of this initial yawing moment depends upon the engine thrust and the
distance between the thrust line and the aircraft center of gravity. The yawing moment is also
affected initially by the rate of thrust decay of the ‘dead’ engine and ultimately by its drag.
The second effect is roll. This occurs when the aircraft continues to yaw towards the failed
engine resulting in a decrease in lift from the ‘retreating’ wing and a yaw-induced roll
towards the failed engine.

As well as the aerodynamic consequences of the failure, the performance penalty is very
significant. While the failure of an engine in a twin engine aircraft represents a 50% loss of
available power, it will result in a more than 50% loss of performance.

4.2 Flight Crew Actions

During pre-flight preparation:

 Using the Electronic Flight Bag or the appropriate performance charts, determine
the maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) for the runway in use, anticipated atmospheric
conditions and intended aircraft configuration
 Confirm that actual aircraft weight does not exceed the calculated maximum
allowable weight
 Complete performance calculations to determine speeds and thrust settings
(inclusive of reduced thrust criteria where appropriate or applicable)
 Review and brief the Emergency Turn procedure inclusive of routing, turns and
turn altitudes, acceleration altitude and safe altitudes
During the takeoff roll:
 Use appropriate lineup technique to ensure charted runway length is available
 Apply thrust using manufacturer's recommended procedures
 Confirm actual thrust meets or exceeds calculated thrust
 In the event of an engine failure prior to V1, reject the takeoff
 ADVISE Air Traffic Control (ATC) that the takeoff has been rejected using
appropriate emergency communication protocols

In the event of an engine failure after V1:

 Establish and maintain directional control with appropriate rudder input

 Rotate at Vr and establish a climb speed of V2
 If the failure occurs after the aircraft is airborne, a climb speed of between V 2 and
V2 + 10 is acceptable
 Utilise appropriate aileron input to maintain wings level. At, or near, VMinimum Control Air
(Vmca), as much as a 5° bank away from the dead engine may be required
 When safely airborne and established in a positive climb, retract the landing gear
 Initiate Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) / Engine Indicating and
Crew Alerting System (EICAS) / Emergency Checklist procedures as per manufacturer
and Company policy
 Maintain V2 and takeoff thrust until reaching acceleration altitude. Acceleration
altitude will be the highest of 400' AGL, Emergency Turn procedure published
acceleration altitude or Company standard acceleration altitude
 At acceleration altitude, maintain takeoff thrust, level the aircraft (see note below)
and accelerate to VFS retracting flaps on schedule.
 Once in clean configuration, maintain VFS, resume climb and reduce thrust to
maximum continuous
 ADVISE ATC using appropriate emergency communication protocols
 Note that if the Emergency Turn profile has or will result in a departure from the
cleared routing, ATC should be notified as soon as it is practical to do so
 Reaching a safe altitude, comply with any enroute climb requirements, complete
any appropriate emergency or Quick Reference Handbook (QRH) checklists, determine
plan of action (diversion or recovery) and advise ATC

Note: The acceleration profiles utilised by VNAV and FLCH modes do not necessarily
command the aircraft to fly level at Acceleration altitude in the event of an engine failure.
With all engines operating, VNAV & FLCH will use the algorithm 60% climb, 40%
acceleration. In the event of an engine failure, the algorithm is reversed with 40% climb, 60%
acceleration. As a consequence, at light weights the APFDS may command a climb during
the acceleration phase.

4.3 Defenses
Crew members must make themselves familiar with the explanatory notes to their
performance data. Only by gaining an understanding of the assumptions made in the
calculations can best use be made of the data.

If aircraft engines were 100% reliable, engine failure during takeoff would never occur. Over
the years, manufacturers have made great improvements in the reliability of their products
and the failure rate of turbine engines has decreased with each generation. It is unlikely,
however, that the potential for engine failure will ever be completely eliminated.

Maintenance personnel can reduce the risk of failure by ensuring that the engines are
maintained to the manufacturer’s recommendations. Ground crew and flight crew must
ensure during their preflight and postflight inspections that all fluids are adequate, that there
are no obvious leaks or damage and that the fuel supply is free from water or other
contamination.

Flight crew / dispatch performance calculations must ensure that the aircraft can meet
regulatory requirements in the event of an engine failure during the takeoff.

Flight crew should have a thorough understanding of the aerodynamics of a failure and
clearly understand the actions that must be taken should a failure occur.

Finally, crews must be completely familiar with their Company procedures which will always
take priority.