CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

CITY OF MALOLOS BULACAN
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

MODULE
IN
CPE 306: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED
SIGNALS AND SENSORS

COMPILED BY:

ENGR. WENDY OLLERO

ENGR. ROCHELLE NIÑA PINGOL

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

COURSE PREVIEW

Fundamentals of Mixed Signals and Sensors Module

contains topics such as differential amplifiers, signal converters,
and transducers and sensors. It focuses on the operation and
construction of circuits and devices relevant to understanding
how signals, digital or analog can be processed, or input into a
device to serve a unique function in the electronic circuit. The
module is designed to help students understand the
measurement, processing, and application of electrical quantities,
which will enable them to apply the theories and concepts in
creating signal conversion circuits.

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page ……………………………………………………………………….…………1

Course Preview …………………………………………………………………..………2
Course Syllabus ……………………………………………………………….…………4

UNIT 1 – Differential Amplifiers………………………………………………………….15

1.1.Introduction to Differential Amplifier…………………………………………………16
1.2.DC and AC Analysis of Differential Amplifier……………………………………….23
1.3.Input Characteristics of an Operational Amplifier………….………………………33
1.4.Common Mode Gain………………………………………………………………….39
1.5.Current Mirror………………………………………………………………………….43
1.6.Loaded Differential Amplifier…………………………………………………………47

UNIT 2 – Operational Amplifier…………………………………………………..……..54

2.1. Introduction to Operational Amplifiers………………………………………..……55
2.2. The 741-op amp…………………………………………………………………..….60
2.3. The Inverting and Non-Inverting Amplifier………………………………………...75
2.4 Linear ICs……………………………………………………………………………...85
2.5 Op-amps and Surface mount devices………………………………….…………..92

UNIT 3 – Linear and non-linear applications of op-amps…………………..………..104

3.1 Inverting Amplifier……………………………………………………………………105
3.2 Noninverting Amplifier……………………………………………………..………...112
3.3 Comparator…………………………………………………………………………...118
3.4 Integrator………………………………………………………………..…………….129
3.5 Differentiator…………………………………………………………..……………...134

UNIT 4 – Mixed Signals……………………………………………………..…………..140

4.1 Data Converters………………………………………………….………………….141
4.1.1 Analog to Digital Conversion………………..……………………………..145
4.1.2 Digital to Analog Conversion……………………………………………....152

UNIT 5 – Sensors and Transducers and Control devices…………………………..166

5.1. Sensors……………………………………………………………………………...167
5.2. Examples of Sensors and Transducers………………………………………… 173
5.3 Other Types of Sensors and Transducers……………………………………….184
5.4 Basic Control Devices……………………………………………………………...192

UNIT 6 –Basic Measurement Theory…………………………………………………200

6.1 Part 1 ………………………………………………………………………..202
6.2 Part 2………………………………………………………………………...210
6.3 Part 3 ………………………………………………………………………..224
6.4. Part 4 ……………………………………………………………………….240

Other Parts
Glossary…………………………………………………………………………………249
Answer Key …………………………………………………………………………….249
References ……………………………………………………………………………..256

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

COURSE SYLLABUS
FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
1st Semester, AY 2020 - 2021

COLLEGE: ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT: COMPUTER ENGINEERING
COURSE CODE: CPE 306
COURSE TITLE: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
CREDIT UNITS: 3
PRE-REQUISITE: CPE 207/207L FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
FACULTY: ENGR. ROCHELLE NIÑA M. PINGOL / ENGR.WENDY
OLLERO
CONSULTATION HOURS:

COURSE DESCRIPTION:
This course covers operational amplifiers, signal converters, power switching
devices and the construction and operation of sensors and transducers for
converting physical parameters into electrical signals and vice-versa. The course
focuses on the application of these devices in developing signal conversion circuits
that allows measurement, processing and control of physical parameters by digital
processing systems such as a finite state machine or a digital computer. Topics on
actuators are also included.
University Vision
Bulacan State University is a progressive knowledge-generating institution,
globally-recognized for excellent instruction, pioneering research, and responsive
community engagements.

University Mission
Bulacan State University exists to produce highly competent, ethical and
service-oriented professionals that contribute to the sustainable socio-economic
growth and development of the nation

Core Values: SOAR BulSU!

Service to God and Community

Order and Peace
Assurance of Quality and Accountability
Respect and Responsibility
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

The BulSU Ideal Graduates Attributes (BIG A) reflect the graduate’s capacity as:
a. highly and globally competent;
b. ethical and service-oriented citizen;
c. analytical and critical thinker; and
d. reflective life-long learner.

Program Educational Objectives (PEO)

Program Educational Objectives (PEO) University Mission

AIG-a AIG-b AIG-c AIG-d
PEO No. 1: To equip the graduates with strong
foundation in the basic physical and engineering
sciences which could be a tool in planning,  
designing, development, management and
maintenance of computer systems.
PEO No. 2: To prepare graduates to lead in the
design, analysis and applications of hardware

and software computing structures for
professional Computer Engineering career.
PEO No. 3: To arm the graduates to be
knowledgeable of human, financial, physical and
resource management and equip them with  
essential graduate research skills, specializing in
one of the Computer Engineering fields.
PEO No. 4: To promote the holistic growth of the
graduates by providing them with opportunities to

enhance not only their vocational skills but also
their life perspectives and value-system.
PEO No. 5: To develop critical thinking and
scientific inquiry through active participation and  
research endeavors.
PEO No. 6: To promote a strong sense of
nationalism through productive involvement in   
extension and community outreach programs.

Program Outcomes (PO)

On completion of the course, the student is expected to be able to do the following:

Program Educational Objectives

PROGRAM OUTCOMES PEO1 PEO2 PEO3 PEO4 PEO5 PEO6
a: Apply knowledge of mathematics
and science to solve complex  
engineering problems.
b: Design and conduct experiments, as
 
well as to analyze and interpret data.
c: Design a system, component or
process to meet desired needs with
realistic constraints such as economic,     
environmental, social, political, ethical,
health and safety, manufacturability,
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
and sustainability, in accordance with
standards.
d: Function on multidisciplinary teams.  
e: Identify, formulate, and solve
 
complex engineering problems.
f: Understand the professional and
 
ethical responsibility.
g: Communicate effectively.   
h: Have a broad education necessary
to understand the impact of
engineering solutions in a global,   
economic, environmental, and societal
context.
i: Recognition of the need for, and an
 
ability to engage in life-long learning.
j: Knowledge of contemporary issues. 
k: Use techniques, skills and modern
engineering tools necessary for  
engineering practices.
l: Have a knowledge of understanding
of engineering and management
principles as a member and leader in a  
team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.

Course Outcomes and Relationship to Program Outcomes

Course Outcomes Program Outcomes

After completing this course, the student
a b c d e f g h i j K
must be able to: l
CO1: Have an in-depth understanding of
D I D
different signals and its applications.
CO2: Compute for the different values
E I D
related to mixed signals and sensors.
CO3: Understand how sensor systems
D I I
work.
CO4: Be able to construct system
applications of sensors and controlled D E I E E E
devices.
CO5: Work in a small team (with fellow
students) for solving and modelling
E E E I I E I
computational problems appropriate to
computer engineering.
CO6: Apply sensor systems in projects
relevant to solving industry and community D E I I I E E E
problems.

Note: (I) Introductory Course to an Outcome (E) Enabling Course to an Outcome (D) Demonstrative
Course to an Outcome

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

LEARNING EPISODES:

Teaching and
Learning Suggested
Lesson Week Learning
Outcomes Assessment
Activities

1. Introduction / 1
Orientation

Internalize the
VMGO of the
college 1.1. Discussion of
especially the Vision, Mission,
discipline Goals and Memorization
towards the Objectives Analysis of Recitation
achievements of VMGO
professional 1.2. Discussion of
competencies, the course Syllabus
integrity, moral
and ethical 1.3. Discussion of
values. the University/
College/ subject
rules and
regulation

Understand the 2. Differential 1-3 Perform Ac Discussion

concepts and Amplifiers and Dc //Group
theories of analysis of activity/
2.1. Introduction to
Differential differential Individual
Amplifier. Use Differential Amplifier amplifiers. activity
appropriate 2.2.DC and AC
techniques, Analysis of Differential
skills, and Amplifier Describe and
modern tools explain the
necessary for 2.3. Input terminologies
computer Characteristics of an related to
engineering Operational Amplifier differential
practice to be amplifier
2.4. Common Mode
locally and
Gain
globally
competitive. 2.5. Current Mirror Perform
Identify,
2.6. Loaded computation
formulate, and
Differential Amplifier using the
solve problems
parameters
involving
important to
differential
amplifiers.

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
differential
amplifiers.

Understand the 3. Operational Amplifier 4-6 List the Discussion

concepts and characteristic //Group
theories of 3.1. Introduction to s of ideal op activity/
Operational Operational Amplifiers amps and Individual
Amplifier. Use 3.2. The 741 op amp 741 op amps. activity
appropriate
techniques, 3.3 The Inverting Op
skills, and amp Perform Quiz No 1
modern tools circuit
3.4 The non-inverting
necessary for analysis of
amplifier
computer inverting and
engineering 3.5 Linear ICs non-inverting
practice to be op-amps.
locally and 3.6 Op amps and
globally Surface mount devices
competitive.
Explain how
Perform circuit
amplifiers
analysis of
work.
inverting and
non-inverting
op-amps.
Describe
linear ICs and
surface
mount
devices.

Enumerate the 4. Linear and Non- 7-10 Explain and

linear and Linear Applications describe how
Discussion
nonlinear of Op-Amp linear and
application of nonlinear //Group
4.1. Inverting Amplifier activity/
op-amps and applications
discuss how 4.2. Noninverting Amplifier of op-amp Individual
each operates. 4.3. Comparator works. activity
Apply 4.4. Integrator
knowledge of
4.5. Differentiator Quiz No 2
mathematics,
sciences, and
engineering
sciences to the
practice of
computer
engineering.

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
MIDTERM 11

Discuss the 5. Mixed Signals 12-13 Reading and Discussion

principle of data online
4.1. Data Converters Individual
conversion from discussion of
digital to analog Data activity
4.1.1. Analog to Digital
and vice versa. Conversion converters
Apply
knowledge of 4.1.2. Digital to Analog
mathematics, Conversion
sciences, and
engineering
sciences to the
practice of
computer
engineering.

Apply 6. Sensors and 14-15 Discuss Discussion

knowledge of Transducers and different //Group
sensors and Control devices sensors and activity/
transducers to transducers Individual
5.1. Sensors
the practice of and its activity
computer 5.2. Examples of applications.
engineering. sensors and
transducers Quiz No 3

5.3 Other Types of

sensors and
Transducers

5.4 Basic Control

Devices

Identify, 7. Basic Measurement 16-17 Discussion in Discussion

formulate, and Theory the //Group
solve fundamentals activity/
engineering of Individual
problems on measurement activity
Basic theory.
Measurement
Theory

FINAL EXAM 18

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

FINAL COURSE OUTPUT:

Class Participation , Quizzes, Mid Term Examination and Final Examination.

RUBRIC FOR ASSESSMENT:

● Rubric for Oral Presentation

CRITERIA POOR AVERAGE EXCELLENT

( 0 – 4) ( 5 – 7) ( 8 – 10)

Delivery • Displays • Consistent use • Holds attention

minimal eye of direct eye of entire
contact with the audience with the
contact with the audience, but still use of
audience, returns to notes
direct eye contact
while reading and seldom
mostly from looking at the
• Speaks with notes
the notes satisfactory

variation of
• Speaks in volume and • Speaks with
uneven volume fluctuation in
inflection
with little or no volume and
inflection inflection to

maintain
audience interest

Content/ • Uncomfortable • At ease with • Demonstrates

Organization with expected full

information and answers to all knowledge by

is able to questions, answering

answer only without all class

rudimentary elaboration questions

questions with explanations

and
• Has somewhat
clear elaboration
• Attempts to
define purpose purpose and
subject; some

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
and subject; examples, facts, • Provides clear
provides and/or purpose and

weak examples, statistics that subject; pertinent

facts, and/ support the examples,

or statistics, subject; includes facts, and/or

which do not some data statistics;

adequately or evidence that supports

support the supports conclusions/ideas

subject; includes conclusions with evidence

very thin

data or evidence

Enthusiasm/Audienc • Shows little or • Shows some • Demonstrates

e Awareness mixed enthusiastic strong

feelings about feelings about enthusiasm about

the topic topic topic

being presented during entire

presentation
• Raises
audience • Significantly
• Raises increases
audience understanding
and audience
understanding understanding
and awareness of
most points and knowledge of
knowledge of topic;
some points
convinces an
audience to

recognize the
validity and

importance of the
subject

GRADING SYSTEM:
Term Examinations 30%
Quizzes/Activities 20%
Project 30%
Participation/Recitation 10%
Attendance/ Promptness 10%

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
TOTAL 100%
Final Grade = Midterm Grade + Tentative Final Grade Period
2

Passing Grade: 75%

Range Grade
97-100 1.00
94 – 96 1.25
91 – 93 1.50
88 – 90 1.75
85 – 87 2.00
82 – 84 2.25
79 – 81 2.50
76 – 78 2.75
75 3.00
74 and below 5.00

References:

Boylestad, L. N. (2012). Electronic Devices and Circuits Theory 11th Ed. Pearson.

Malvino, A. (2016). Electronic Principles. Mcgraw-Hill.

Sinclair, I. R. (2001). Sensors and Transducers. Newnes.

Zumbahlen H. (2007). Basic Linear Design. Analog Devices

Class Policies:

The following policies will be observed during the class throughout the entire semester:
1. Students are free to choose the type of learning method that suit to them, this
method are Synchronous Learning (SL), Asynchronous Online Learning (AOL)
and Remote Print Learning (RPL).
2. The students will use Google classroom (for SL and AOL) and printed modules
(for RPL) for this course.
3. In Google classroom, all student must use only a Gmail account and there must
be profile photo with white background.
4. All announcements will be posted on the Google classroom platform. Activities
and examinations will be submitted thru the Google classroom for SL and AOL
students. For RPL, modality of submission will be discussed thru text, e-mail or
Facebook messenger.
5. Students need to comply with the submission of pre-tests, post-tests, course
activities and other learning assessment tools that were given to them.

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
6. For online live lecture class (for SL), student will use Google Meet. During login,
student must turn-off the microphone. However, if student have a question or
clarification, he/she can unmute the microphone. Then after that, student must
unmute again. Student must also minimize disruptions and interference during
online live class.
7. Student must dress appropriately for all live learning session and remain
attentive in the entire session.
8. Attendance during online session schedule are automatic recorded thru Google
meet attendance.
9. All lecture presentation, video recording and other materials must not share by
student publicly.
10. If student cannot attend for online learning (live) session and/or cannot submit
classwork’s on time due to valid reason such as sickness, family emergency
etc. he/she must notified instructor immediately thru Messenger, Email or SMS.
11. Students can send messages thru Messenger/SMS or call their
instructor/professor if they have questions regarding their lessons. It is highly
encouraged to ask them during their consultation hours.
12. Other rules and regulations pertaining to discipline and conduct of students as
specified in the University Student Handbook shall be applied

Prepared by:

ENGR. ROCHELLE NIÑA M. PINGOL ENGR. WENDY OLLERO

Instructor(s)

Evaluated by:

ENGR. MARIA LORENA SP. VILLENA ENGR. MARK KENNETH R.

DIONISIO

Program/Area Chair Program Coordinator - CpE

Meneses Campus

Approved:

ENGR. RENATO G. GOPEZ DR. ALBERTO J. VALENZUELA

Dean Dean- Meneses Campus

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

Declaration
I have read and understood the above syllabus in full and in participating in this
course I agree to the above rules. I have a clear understanding of the policies and
my responsibilities, and I have discussed everything unclear to me with the
instructor.
I will adhere to the academic integrity and policy and I will treat my fellow students
and my teacher with due respect.
I understand that this syllabus can be modified or overruled by announcements of
the instructor in class or on any social media site at any time
_______________________________ _______________ ____________
Student’s Printed name Signature Date

_______________________________ _______________ ____________

Parent’s Printed name Signature Date

Student’s Copy

-------------------------------------------------Cut here----------------------------------------------

Declaration

I have read and understood the above syllabus in full and in participating in this
course I agree to the above rules. I have a clear understanding of the policies and
my responsibilities, and I have discussed everything unclear to me with the
instructor.
I will adhere to the academic integrity and policy and I will treat my fellow students
and my teacher with due respect.

I understand that this syllabus can be modified or overruled by announcements of

the instructor in class or on any social media site at any time
_______________________________ _______________ _____________
Student’s Printed name Signature Date

______________________________ _______________ _____________

Parent’s Printed name Signature Date

Instructor's Copy

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

UNIT 1:
DIFFERENTIAL
AMPLIFIERS
Differential amplifiers are circuits that are used as an input in
operational amplifiers. What are operational amplifiers? Op amps or
operational amplifiers before, were used in analog computers to perform
basic arithmetic operations with the use of the input voltage level. Today,
op amps are in the form of integrated circuits.
A differential amplifier is a type of circuit that computes the
difference between two input signals and amplifies the output based on
the difference. Generally, these circuits are used in volume control
circuits and automatic gain control. It has a wide scope of application in
industrial, instrumentation, and communications.

This unit will cover the discussion on the differential amplifier ac

and dc analysis, input configuration, and theories related to the operation
of differential amplifiers.

After studying this unit, the student must be able to:

• Define and be familiarized in the terminologies related to op amps,
such as input current, bias voltage, and offset voltage;
• Describe the function and application of differential amplifiers;
• Explain the input characteristics of an operational amplifier;
• Perform the dc and ac analysis of differential amplifiers;

UNIT 1 1. Differential Amplifiers

1.1.Introduction to Differential Amplifier
1.2.DC and AC Analysis of Differential Amplifier
1.3.Input Characteristics of an Operational Amplifier
1.4.Common Mode Gain
1.5.Current Mirror
1.6.Loaded Differential Amplifier

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

DURATION: 90 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Define differential amplifier;

• Describe the relationship of differential and operational amplifiers;
• Define differential input and differential output;
• Differentiate inverting and non-inverting input;
• Calculate the output voltage of different configurations;
• Draw the schematic symbols and schematic circuit of different
configurations of the differential amplifier.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Select the choice which best describes the answer.

____1. What are some of the components that are used in building integrated circuits
before differential amplifiers were developed?
a. Resistor, transistor, capacitors
b. Operational amplifiers
c. Small signal amplifiers
____2. What do you call the two inputs in the differential amplifier?
a. Input voltage
b. Differential voltage
c. Difference voltage
____3. In a single-ended output, the voltage gain is
a. Same as differential output gain
b. Half of differential output gain
c. Double of differential output gain
____4. What is voltage gain?
a. It is the amount by which the signal is amplified
b. It is the value of the output
c. It is the difference of the input
____5. The output of a non-inverting amplifier whose input is positive is
a. Positive
b. Negative
c. Cannot be determined

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

WHAT IS IT?

Differential Amplifier
Amplifiers are components that produce an output signal proportional to an
input signal. While differential amplifiers are amplifiers that compare the difference of
the input signals and produce an output proportional to the difference of the two input
signals.
Before the development of differential amplifiers, transistors and resistors were
the common components used in building ICs. The traditional layout using transistors
and resistors forced the IC designers to use an emitter bypass.
Differential amplifiers are used in modern-day ICs. The technology today is
capable of producing integrated circuits which are compact compared to putting other
components to produce the same function of differential amplifiers. It is not expensive,
takes up less space, and consumes low power.

Amplifier symbol

Figure 1-1

Differential amplifier symbol

Figure 1-2
BASICS:
The differential amplifier produces an output based on the difference in the
voltage level of two input signals.

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

Figure 1-3

V1 is the voltage level of the first input.

V2 is the voltage level of the second input.
Vd is the difference of the input levels.
Vo is the output voltage of the circuit.

The output voltage of an ideal differential amplifier is always proportional to the

difference of the input. It is also called a differential output.

Vo α (V1-V2)

From this, we can say that

Vo = Ad (V1-V2)

Figure 1-4

In the figure, V1 and V2 are the input voltages. V1 is called the non-inverting input
since the output voltage Vo is in phase with V1, while V2 is called the inverting input
because the output voltage Vo is out of phase with V2.
In an ideal set up where the resistor and transistor values are the same,

• the output voltage is equal to zero when V1 is equal to V2;

• When V1 is greater than V2, the polarity of the output voltage is positive as
seen in the figure;

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
• When V1 is greater than V2, the polarity of the output voltage is negative as
seen in the figure.

In other applications, only the non-inverting input is present, which means that
the inverting input is grounded. Some applications only require the inverting input,
therefore, the non-inverting input is grounded.
When the two inputs, non-inverting and inverting input, are present in the circuit,
it is called the differential input. The output voltage Vo is equal to the voltage gain
Av, times the differential input.

Recall that Vo = Av (V1 - V2);

Vo = Av (Vd)
Where, Vo = Output voltage
Av = Voltage gain
Vd = Differential Input

Single-ended output
In the differential output configuration, there are two outputs which requires the system
to have a load in either of the output side because it cannot be connected to the
ground. In most of the applications, the system only requires one output, or single
load, that is why the single-ended output configurations are commonly used. This
makes one output “loaded”, and one output is grounded.

Figure 1-5

The figure displays the differential input and output and single-ended output. Note that
the collector resistor on the other output is removed since there is no output on that
side.

The output voltage is still determined by the equation Vo = Av (V1 - V2) since the input
is still differential. But in single-ended output, the voltage gain is only half of the
double-ended, because we only get one collector voltage.

Noninverting input
The term non inverting means the output is in-phase with the input signal applied.
• Noninverting input, differential output

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
The figure below shows a non-inverting input, differential output configuration.
Since V2 is connected to the ground, V2=0. The output voltage Vo is equal to
the voltage gain times the input voltage V1.

Vo = V1 (Av)
Av= voltage gain, factor, or rate at which the signal is amplified.

Figure 1-6
• Noninverting input, single-ended output
The figure below shows a non-inverting input, single-ended output. V2 is
connected to the ground, V2 = 0. The output voltage Vo is still given by the
equation,

Vo = V1 (Av)
Av = voltage gain, factor or rate at which the signal is amplified
However, the voltage gain is only half of the gain using a differential output
configuration because the output is taken only at one side of the circuit.

Figure 1-7
Inverting input
• Inverting input, differential output
The figure below shows an inverting input, differential output configuration.
Since V1 is connected to the ground, V1=0. The output voltage Vo is equal to

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
the voltage gain times the input voltage V2. But note that the output has an
“inverted” phase or negative sign because it has input in the inverted side.

Vo = -V2 (Av)
Av= voltage gain, factor, or rate at which the signal is amplified.

Figure 1-8
• Inverting input, single-ended output
The figure below shows an inverting input, single-ended output. V1 is
connected to the ground, V1=0. The output voltage Vo is still given by the
equation,

Vo = -V2 (Av)
Av = voltage gain, factor or rate at which the signal is amplified
However, the voltage gain is only half of the gain using a differential output
configuration because the output is taken only at one side of the circuit.

Figure 1-9
SUM IT UP

INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT

CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION EQUATION EQUATION
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
Differential Differential V1-V2 Vc2-Vc1
Differential Single-ended V1-V2 Vc2
Single-ended Differential V1 or V2 Vc2-Vc1
Single-ended Single-ended V1 or V2 Vc2

Note: Vc1 is the voltage taken from the collector terminal of the first transistor.
Vc2 is the voltage taken from the collector terminal of the second transistor.

THINK OF THIS!

Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the lesson.

1. Explain the difference between inverting and non-inverting input.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Why is the voltage gain from the single-ended configuration only half compared
to the differential configuration?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. If you were to design a circuit, which do you think is the best configuration to be
used? Why do you think is it the best?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!

In a clean paper or digital pad, try drawing the different differential amplifier
configurations. Try not to look at the figures in the module!
After drawing, point out the differences in each configuration, you can list it up. Grab
a partner and share your insights!

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

LESSON 2: DC and AC Analysis of

Differential Amplifier

DURATION: 90 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:
• Define tail current;
• Compute for tail current, emitter current, and collector voltage;
• Identify the effect of base resistor on the tail current;
• Point out the relationship between emitter current and tail current.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with DC analysis of
amplifiers?

2. How familiar are you with the AC analysis of

amplifiers??

3. How confident are you in solving circuit

problems?

4. How familiar are you with the terms like tail

current, input impedance, voltage gain?

23
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

WHAT IS IT?

DC analysis of differential amplifier

The figure shows the dc equivalent circuit of a differential amplifier. It can be seen that
the ac input (V1 and V2 as discussed in the previous lesson) was removed. In this
model, it is considered that the transistors and the value of collector resistors (Rc)
were identical.

Tail current is the current flowing through the emitter resistor RE. Why is it called the
tail current? Differential amplifier is also called long-tail pair because of the sharing of
emitter resistor, RE.

Ideal Approximation/ Analysis

The tail current, as mentioned in the current in the emitter resistor, to compute for the
tail current, IT:
I= V/R
24
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
The voltage drop across the resistor RE in the ideal analysis, is equal to VEE, since the
voltage across the transistor diode VBE is disregarded.
Therefore, IT = VEE/RE, where IT is the tail current. And since half of the circuit is
identical, and it shares the same emitter resistor, it can be said that the emitter current
is half of the tail current.

IE = IT/2

IE = emitter current

Second Approximation

The voltage drop in the transistor diode VBE is already considered when using the
second approximation. In effect, the tail current will not be equal to VEE over the emitter
resistor only. The tail current will be:

IT = (VEE-VBE)/RE

The value of VBE is 0.7V for silicon transistor, and 0.3V for germanium. But the most
commonly used is silicon transistor.

The value of the emitter current is still given by the previous equation.

Base Resistors
Base resistors are directly connected to the ground in the dc analysis to simplify the
circuit. When these resistors are used, it has a negligible effect on the tail current.

Example 2-1
Compute for the ideal currents of a differential amplifier whose DC input voltage is 10
V, collector resistor is 4k ohm and emitter resistor is 6k ohm.

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

Given that VEE = 10V

RC= 4K ohm
RE= 6K ohm
IT = VEE/RE
IT = 10V/6Kohm
IT = 1.67 mA

IE = IT/2
IE = 1.67mA/2
IE = 833.333 uA

Vc= Vcc- ICRC

To compute for the collector voltage of each transistor,
Vc= 15V- (833.333 uA)(4K ohm)
Vc= 11.67 V

Example 2-2
Compute the previous example using the second approximation.

IT = (VEE-VBE)/RE
IT = (15-0.7V)/6k ohm
IT = 2.38 mA

IE = IT/2
IE = 2.38 mA/2
IE = 1.19mA

Vc= Vcc- ICRC

To compute for the collector voltage of each transistor,
Vc= 15V- (1.19mA)(4K ohm)
Vc= 10.24 V

26
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
Example 2-3
Compute for the currents of the circuit given using the first and second approximations.

IT = VEE/RE
IT = 10V/3Kohm
IT = 3.33mA

IE = IT/2
IE = 3.33mA/2
IE = 1.67mA

Vc= Vcc- ICRC

To compute for the collector voltage of each transistor,
Vc= 10V- (1.67mA)(2K ohm)
Vc= 6.67 V

AC Analysis of Differential Amplifier

The ac analysis of differential amplifier requires the computation of the ac emitter

resistance re’. Ac emitter resistance is defined as the change in the voltage level in
the base-emitter region as the emitter current changes.

The ac emitter resistance of an emitter diode is given by:

∆𝑉𝐵𝐸
Rac = ∆𝐼𝐸

Rac = 25mV/ IE

re’= 25mV/ IE

Below is the table describing the voltage gain and output voltage for different
configuration of differential amplifier for AC analysis:

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
Input Output Voltage gain Output Voltage
Configuration Configuration Non-inverting Inverting
Differential Differential Rc/re’ Av(V1-V2)
Differential Single-ended Rc/2re’ Av(V1-V2)
Single-ended Differential Rc/re’ Av(V1) -Av(V2)
Single-ended Single-ended Rc/2re’ Av(V1) -Av(V2)

The voltage gain of a differential amplifier in the ac analysis is defined by the equation
Rc/re’, but for the single-ended output, the voltage gain is only half of the differential.

The input impedance of a circuit can be calculated through beta and the ac resistance
values. In a simple CE (Collector-Emitter) stage amplifier, the input impedance Zin is
equal to the transistors forward current gain (β) times the ac emitter resistance.
However, for differential amplifiers, there are two CE stages in the circuit, so the
equation now becomes:

Zin = 2βre’

Example 2-4
Solve for the ac output voltage and input impedance of the circuit below. Assume
β=300.

Differential amplifier configuration: Single-ended input, noninverting, differential

output.

Before starting with the ac analysis, compute first for the DC emitter current.

IT = VEE/RE
IT = 10V/3Kohm
IT = 3.33mA

IE = IT/2
IE = 3.33mA/2
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
IE = 1.67mA

After getting the value of the emitter current, compute for the ac equivalent resistance

re’= 25mV/ IE
re’= 25mV/ 1.67mA
re’= 15 ohms

Then the voltage gain is defined by:

Av = Rc/re’
Av = 2K ohms/ 15 ohms
Av = 133

Note that the voltage gain has no unit, it is only the measure by which the
signal is amplified.

The output voltage is computed by the equation:

Vout = Av(Vin)
Vout = 133(1mV)
Vout = 133mV, the output voltage is positive because the input is non-
inverting.

For the input impedance,

Zin = 2βre’
Zin = 2(300)(15)
Zin = 9K ohm

Example 2-5
Solve the example 2-4 using the second approximation.

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
Differential amplifier configuration: Single-ended input, noninverting, differential
output.

Before starting with the ac analysis, compute first for the DC emitter current using the
second approximation.

IT = (VEE-0.7)/RE
IT = (10V-0.7V)/3Kohm
IT = 3.1mA

IE = IT/2
IE = 3.1mA/2
IE = 1.55mA
After getting the value of the emitter current, compute for the ac equivalent resistance

re’= 25mV/ IE
re’= 25mV/ 1.55mA
re’= 16.13 ohms

Then the voltage gain is defined by:

Av = Rc/re’
Av = 2K ohms/ 16.13 ohms
Av = 124

Note that the voltage gain has no unit, it is only the measure by which the
signal is amplified.

The output voltage is computed by the equation:

Vout = Av(Vin)
Vout = 124(1mV)
Vout = 124mV, the output voltage is positive because the input is non-
inverting.

For the input impedance,

Zin = 2βre’
Zin = 2(300)(16.13ohms)
Zin = 9.68K ohm

SUM IT UP

• The emitter current is half of the tail current.

• In ideal analysis, the voltage drop at the base-emitter junction is
approximated to zero.
• In the second approximation, the voltage drop along the base-emitter
junction is considered.
• 0.7V is used as the base-emitter voltage drop.

30
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
• In AC analysis, the abbreviations used are in the lower case format,
while in DC analysis, upper case letters are used to distinguish the two.
• The voltage gain for the single-ended output is half of the differential
configuration.
• The output voltage is the voltage taken from the collector times the
amplification factor.

THINK OF THIS!

1. Solve for the DC current of the circuit in the example 2-3 if the emitter
resistor value is changed to 1.5K ohms. Solve using first and second
approximations.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. How did the value of the tail current changed as the emitter resistor was
reduced from 3K ohms to 1.5K ohms? Does it doubled? Halved? Why do you
think it changed that way?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

3. Analyze how the DC current flows through the circuit in example 2-3. Draw
the circuit and label the current flowing through the circuit. Use your circuit
simulation tool as a guide.

4. Compute for the output voltage if the example 2-4 has a differential input, if V2
= 3mV. What is the sign of the output voltage? Describe why.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!

Try plotting the circuit diagrams in the lesson in any of the circuit simulation software
available to you. Check the answers in the example given if it matches!

32
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

LESSON 3: Input Characteristics of an

Operational Amplifier

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:
• Define input bias current, input offset current, and input offset voltage.
• Describe the effects of the above-mentioned parameters
• Solve for the value of each parameter.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the terms input bias
current, input offset current, and voltage?

2. How familiar are you with the effects of the

above-mentioned parameters?

3. How confident are you in solving circuit

problems?

WHAT IS IT?

In applications requiring high precision, approximating that the two sides of the
differential amplifier is completely symmetrical is not advisable.
Three parameters are present in every manufacturer’s datasheet that must be given
consideration when designing a circuit for high precision purposes. These parameters
are input bias current, input offset current, and input offset voltage.

Input Bias Current

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
In a practical op amp, the βdc of the first transistor is slightly different, which
means the base current of the two transistors is not always identical. Op amps have a
small amount of current flowing in the input called input bias current. It is described by
the average of the two input current or base current.

Ibias(in)= (IB1+IB2)/2
The value of the input bias current is typically expressed in nano amperes. That
is the reason why for most applications, it is approximated to zero. These current if
present, will flow in the resistors between the base of the transistors and the ground.

Example 3-1
Solve for the input bias current of the differential amplifier whose current in the base
of transistor 1 is 100nA and current in the base of transistor 2 is 90nA.
Ibias(in)= (100nA+90nA)/2
Ibias(in)= (190nA)/2
Ibias(in)= 95nA

Input Offset Current

The input offset current (Ios(in)) is the difference between the two base currents.
It describes how much the two transistors are identical. When two transistors are
completely identical, the input offset current is equal to zero.
The ideal value must be approximately zero or zero. The higher the value of
the input offset current, the larger is the deviation of the two transistors.

Ios(in) = IB1-IB2

Example 3-2
Solve for the input offset current of the differential amplifier whose current in the base
of transistor 1 is 100nA and current in the base of transistor 2 is 90nA.
Ios(in) = IB1-IB2
Ios(in) = 100nA-90nA
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
Ios(in) = 10nA
The answer tells that the first transistor has 10nA current more than the second.

Input bias current and input offset current are typically present in the manufacturer’s
datasheets, but the values of the base current itself is not usually given. To compute
for the values of the base currents, these equations are used:
IB1 = Ibias(in) + (Ios(in)/2)
IB1 = Ibias(in) - (Ios(in)/2)

These equations are derived from the first two formulas from the lesson.

Input offset Voltage

Input offset voltage is also one of the important parameters of a differential
amplifier. Ideally, the output voltage of a differential amplifier is equal to zero volts,
when the base terminal of the transistor is connected to the ground, but since there is
a small current, called input bias voltage present in the base terminal, input offset
voltage must be added to the circuit to make the output voltage zero.
Input offset voltage is represented by a dc source in the input of the amplifier.

Differential Amplifier with Input Offset Voltage in LT Spice

Image retrieved from: http://www.ecircuitcenter.com/Circuits/op_voff/op_voff.htm

Input offset voltage is used in the design to compensate in the unbalances in a

differential amplifier. If a designer has a differential amplifier and inputs 0V, the
expected output is also zero, but in reality, the output will not be zero because of the
error voltage.

VOS(IN)=Verr/Av

Example 3-3
What is the input offset voltage if the error voltage is 0.5V and the voltage gain is 100?
VOS(IN)=Verr/Av
VOS(IN)=0.5/100
VOS(IN)=5mV

Three error voltages can be considered in the differential amplifier. These error
voltages are due to the input offset current, and input bias current.

Error due to input bias current is defined by the expression:

V1err = (RB1-RB2)IBIAS(IN)

Error due to the input offset current is defined by the expression:

V2err = (RB1+RB2)(IOS(IN)/2)
35
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

Error due to input offset voltage is defined by the expression:

V3err = (VOS(IN))

The sum of all the error voltages is:

Verr = Av(V1err+V2err+V3err)

These errors for some applications, can be ignored but for some, these must be taken
into consideration. One of the solutions to avoid the complexity of these errors is to
use equal base resistance.

If RB1 is equal to RB2 the equations will be simplified.

V1err = 0
V2err = (RB)(IOS(IN))
V3err = (VOS(IN))

When setting the base resistances to equal values is not enough to eliminate the
errors, nulling methods are applied.

Example 3-4
Compute for the error voltages of the circuit below if the input bias current is 5uA, input
offset current is 0.8uA, input offset voltage is 1mV and the voltage gain is 300.

V1err = (RB1-RB2)IBIAS(IN)
V1err = (1K)(5uA)
V1err = 5mV

V2err = (RB1+RB2)(IOS(IN)/2)
V2err = (1K)(0.8uA/2)
V2err= 0.4mV

V3err = (VOS(IN))
V3err = 1mV
36
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

Verr = Av(V1err+V2err+V3err)
Verr = 300(5mV+0.4mV+1mV)
Verr = 1.92V

If the base resistors are made equal;

V1err = 0

V2err = (RB)(IOS(IN))
V2err = (1K)(0.8uA)
V2err = 0.8mV

V3err = (VOS(IN))
V3err = 1mV

Verr = Av(V1err+V2err+V3err)
Verr = 300(0+0.8mV+1mV)
Verr = 0.54V

Notice that the error voltage is reduced.

SUM IT UP

Three parameters are present in differential amplifiers which are important when
dealing with applications requiring precision. These are the input offset current, input
bias current, and input offset voltage.
Voltage errors are present at the output of the differential amplifier and one of the ways
to reduce it is by having equal values of base resistance. Also, nulling methods found
in the manufacturer’s data-sheet can be used when needed.

THINK OF THIS!

1. Compute for the error voltage if the input bias current is 3uA, input offset current
is 0.4uA, input offset voltage is 0.5mV and the voltage gain is 150. The base
resistors are equal with resistance of 2000 ohms.

37
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
2. Compute for the error voltage if the input bias current is 3uA, input offset current
is 0.4uA, input offset voltage is 0.5mV and the voltage gain is 150. The base
resistors are not equal, RB1= 1000 ohms, RB2= 2000ohms.

KEEP LEARNING!

Look for the datasheet of 741 op-amp. Find the value of the three parameters
discussed in the lesson. Also, check if there are nulling methods indicated in the
datasheet.

38
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

LESSON 4: Common Mode Gain

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:
• Define common-mode gain;
• Define common-mode rejection ratio and compute for it;
• Interpret the computed values.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the terms
common-mode gain, common-mode
rejection ratio?
2. How familiar are you with solving problems
related to common mode?

3. How confident are you in interpreting data

from the solved problems?

WHAT IS IT?

Common Mode
When the terminal of the transistor is connected to a “common” ground, a
common-mode signal is produced. Common mode signals are identical signals that
are seen in the input of the differential amplifier.
There are several reasons that a signal is formed in the input one of which is
when input terminals acts as an antenna that detects small signal.

39
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

Common Mode Gain

Common-mode gain is the amplification given to the common-mode signal.

Ideal op amps have a common-mode gain of zero. It signifies that the output voltage
is not affected by the unwanted input signals that are connected with the common
ground.

The common-mode gain of an op-amp can be expressed through the equation:

AV(CM)=RC/2RE

The practical values of the common-mode voltage gain is between 0 to values less
than 1.

Example 4-1
What is the common-mode gain and voltage output of a differential amplifier whose
collector resistance is 4M ohms and the emitter resistance is 3M ohms? The common-
mode signal is 1mV.

AV(CM)=RC/2RE
AV(CM)=4Mohms/2(3Mohms)
AV(CM)=0.67

VOUT=Av(VIN)
VOUT=0.67(1mV)
VOUT=0.67mV

Note that the differential amplifier reduced the voltage level of the common-mode
signal.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio

40
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
The ratio between the differential gain and the common-mode gain of an amplifier is
called common-mode rejection ratio or CMRR.
CMRR = Av/ AV(CM)

The ideal value of the CMRR is infinite. The high value of the CMRR signifies that the
differential amplifier amplifies the desired signal and rejects the unwanted signal.
In the manufacturer’s datasheet, CMRR is often expressed in decibels.

CMRRdB=20 log CMRR

Example 4-2
What is the CMRR of a differential amplifier whose common-mode gain is 20 and
voltage gain is 2000. Express your answer in decibel.

CMRR = Av/ AV(CM)

CMRR = 2000/ 20
CMRR = 100

CMRRdB=20 log CMRR

CMRRdB=20 log 100
CMRRdB=40dB

Example 4-3
An op-amp has a voltage gain is 30,000 and a common-mode rejection ratio of
60dB, compute for the common-mode gain.

CMRRdB=20 log CMRR

CMRR= antilog (60/20)
CMRR = 1000

CMRR = Av/ AV(CM)

1000 = 30000/ AV(CM)
AV(CM) = 30

Example 4-4
Compute for the output voltage of the circuit in example 4-3 if the input voltage is 1mV
and the common-mode signal is 1uV.

Vout= Av(Vin)
Vout= 30000(1mV)
Vout = 3MV

Vout(CM)= AV(CM)(VIN(CM))
Vout(CM)= 30(1uV)
Vout(CM)= 30uV

Example 4-4
Compute for the output voltage of the circuit in example 4-3 if the input voltage and
common mode signal both have 10mV value.

Vout= Av(Vin)

41
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
Vout= 30000(10mV)
Vout = 30MV

Vout(CM)= AV(CM)(VIN(CM))
Vout(CM)= 30(10mV)
Vout(CM)= 300mV

Notice that the value of the output voltage of the desired signal is much higher
compared to the common mode (undesired) signal. It signifies that the differential
amplifier is successful in amplifying the wanted signal and rejecting the unwanted.

SUM IT UP

THINK OF THIS!

1. What does it imply if the value of the CMRR is low?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. How do you think does the common-mode signal affects the operation of a
differential amplifier?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!

Look for datasheet of commonly used operational amplifiers such as 741 op-
amp. Check the values of CMRR and voltage gain. Compare it with other operational
amplifiers.

42
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

LESSON 5: Current Mirrors

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:
• Describe how current mirror works;
• Describe the applications of current mirrors;
• Define current mirror.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the term current
mirror?
2. How familiar are you with how the current
mirror works?

3. How familiar are you with the applications of

current mirrors?

WHAT IS IT?

Generally, current mirrors are circuits that are used to replicate a reference
current level for a load. This circuit is used to supply bias voltage and at the same
time, act as an active load to a circuit. For circuits that need to have a constant
current, rather than a constant voltage supply, current mirrors are helpful. It can
provide a stable current source for DC biasing.

How it works
From the term itself, the circuit “mirrors” or replicates the input current and
supply it as a constant current. The input is called the reference current, and the
output is called the replicated or mirrored current.
43
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

Simple current mirror

Current mirrors has two stages, the first is the current to voltage converter and
the second is the voltage to current converter.

Simple Current Mirror Circuit

Image Retrieved from: https://wiki.analog.com/university/courses/electronics/text/chapter-11

When the reference current is supplied through the resistor R1, the base current
of the circuit, since the transistors are the same, will be equal, therefore, the collector
current of the second transistor and the reference current will be equal.
At the first stage, the input current passes through R1 and is divided into the
node at QC1 and QB1, and since QB1 and QB2 are directly connected, the current
the both base terminal will be equal. The base current will flow to the emitter, so the
emitter current at QE1 and QE2 will also be the same, resulting in a mirror current at
the output.

IR= (VCC-VBE)/R1

IR= I C

IR is the current at the resistor

IC is the current at the collector

Applications in differential amplifier

• Current mirrors can be used to improve the CMRR of a differential amplifier.
Since CMRR= RE/re’ as derived from the ratio of differential voltage gain
(RC/2re’) and common-mode voltage gain (RC/2RE) of a single-ended input diff-
44
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
amp, RE is a means to improve the CMRR. Once RE is increased, the value of
CMRR increases. If RE is replaced by a mirror circuit, which acts as a current
source, it will have a very high output impedance, therefore the CMRR
improves.

• Current mirrors can be used as an active load to substitute the collector resistor
and become a high resistance equivalent to make the voltage gain of diff-amps
even higher.

Internal Circuit of 741 op-amp

Image retrieved from: https://www.electronicslovers.com/2018/06/ic-741-operational-amplifier-basics-
circuit-working-characteristics.html

A practical application of current mirrors can be seen in the operational

amplifiers integrated circuit. In a 741 op-amp, there are several current mirrors.

SUM IT UP

• Current mirrors act as a constant current source with high output impedance.
• Current mirrors replicate the input current and supply it to the load.
• Current mirrors can be used as a device to improve CMRR and voltage gain.
• Current mirrors are circuits that are used in the design of integrated circuits
because of its advantages in stability.

THINK OF THIS!

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
True or False. If the statement is false, write down the fact to make it true.
Write your fact below the question.

____1. The reference level in a current mirror is not equal to the output level.

____2. Current mirrors improve CMRR by replacing the collector resistor.

____3.Current mirrors are seen in integrated circuits.

____4.One application of the current mirror is acting as an active load

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the advantages of using current mirrors?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2. What other applications do you think current mirrors can be used except for those
mentioned in the lesson?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!
Draw the differential amplifier with current mirror as the emitter resistor.
Discuss how it works to improve the differential amplifier.

46
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

LESSON 6: Loaded
Differential Amplifier

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:
• Draw the differential amplifier with load resistor;
• Analyze the differential amplifier circuit with load.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the differential
amplifier with load?
2. How familiar are you with circuit analysis of
loaded diff-amp?

3. How familiar are you with Thevenin's

theorem?

Note: If you are not familiar with Thevenin’s theorem, it is suggested to first
have an initial reading about the topic as it is a pre-requisite for the lesson.

WHAT IS IT?
In the previous lesson, the differential amplifier is analyzed with no load at the
output. In this lesson, we will discuss the analysis of the differential amplifier with a
load resistor.

The analysis of the differential amplifier with load is similar to the one with no
load.

Example 6-1

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
Solve for the output voltage of the loaded diff-amp. Use the first approximation. Load
resistance is 5K ohms.

Differential amplifier configuration: Single-ended input, noninverting, differential

output.

IT = VEE/RE
IT = 10V/3Kohm
IT = 3.33mA

IE = IT/2
IE = 3.33mA/2
IE = 1.67mA

After getting the value of the emitter current, compute for the ac equivalent resistance

re’= 25mV/ IE
re’= 25mV/ 1.67mA
re’= 15 ohms

Then the voltage gain is defined by:

Av = Rc/re’
Av = 2K ohms/ 15 ohms
Av = 133

The output voltage is computed by the equation:

Vout = Av(Vin)
Vout = 133(20mV)
Vout = 2.66V

This output voltage is the unloaded output voltage.

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

Until this point, the computation is similar to the previous lesson, but to solve for the
load voltage, the Thevenin equivalent circuit at the output must be solved.

Thevenin equivalent

Recall that to solve for the Thevenin equivalent, the no-load voltage is connected
with the Thevenin resistance and the load resistance.

Since the Thevenin voltage is the no-load voltage, the value of Vth is equal to
133mV.

To compute for Rth or the looking back resistance, Rth= 2(Rc).

Rth= 2(Rc)
Rth= 2(2K ohm)
Rth= 4K ohms

Now, using voltage divider, the output voltage is:

Vout = Vth(RL/(RL+RTH))
Vout = 2.66V(5K/(5K+4K)ohms)
Vout = 1.47V

Notice that the no-load voltage is higher as compared to the one with the load
resistor.

SUM IT UP

The analysis of differential amplifiers with load resistors is similar to the

procedure when there is no load resistor, the difference is that to get the output voltage
considering the load, the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit is analyzed.

THINK OF THIS!

1. Solve for the loaded output voltage of Example 6-1 using the second
approximation.
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

2. If VEE= 15V, Rc=10K ohms, RE=10K ohms, VIN=15mV, solve for the load output
voltage. Load resistance is 15K ohms. Use the first and second approximations.

First approximation:

Second Approximation:

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

KEEP LEARNING!

Try changing the value of the load resistor in the example 6-1 to a higher and
lower value, see how the loaded output voltage changes as the resistor is increased
or decreased. Write down your observation and discuss it with your classmate!

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
POST TEST

Answer the following questions:

____1. It is the current flowing through the emitter resistor.

a. Input Current
b. Output current
c. Tail Current
____2.Ideally, the output voltage of a differential amplifier is
a. inversely proportional to the input.
b. directly proportional to the input.
c. same with the input.
____3.In this system, one output is loaded and one is grounded.
a. Differential input
b. Ideal Input
c. Single input
____4.The rate at which the input signal is amplified depends on
a. Input voltage
b. Amplifier configuration
c. both
____5. What are some of the components that are used in building integrated circuits
before differential amplifiers were developed?
a. Resistor, transistor, capacitors
b. Operational amplifiers
c. Small signal amplifiers
____6.What happens to the AC equivalent resistance of an amplifier when the tail
current increased due to the decrease in the emitter resistance?
a. increases
b. decreases
c. stays the same
____7.The input offset current depends directly on
a. the base current
b. the collector current
c. the emitter current
____8. What do you call the two inputs in the differential amplifier?
a. Input voltage
b. Differential voltage
c. Difference voltage
____9.What additional method is needed to solve for the output voltage of a loaded
diff-amp?
a. Thevenin’s Theorem
b. Ohms Law
c. Voltage Law
____10. In a single-ended output, the voltage gain is
a. Same as differential output gain
b. Half of differential output gain
c. Double of differential output gain
____11 .The no-load output voltage is
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
a. higher than the loaded output voltage
b. lower than the loaded output voltage
c. cannot tell
____12.The current mirror can be used to increase the gain of differential amplifiers
a. False
b. True
c.Maybe
____13.The desired CMRR is
a. high
b. low
c. very high
____14. What is voltage gain?
a. It is the amount by which the signal is amplified
b. It is the value of the output
c. It is the difference of the input
____15.Ideally, the differential amplifier must have
a. zero common-mode gain
b. infinite common-mode gain
c. low CMRR
____16.The input impedance is directly proportional to the ac emitter resistance
a. true
b. false
c. maybe
____17. Inverting input produces
a. output that is in phase with the input
b. output that is out of phase with the input
c. output that is 60 degrees lagging with the input
____18.In a single-ended input, differential output amplifier, the output voltage is
a. Vc1
b. Vc2
c. Vc2-Vc1
____19. In a single-ended input, single-ended output amplifier, the output voltage is
a. Vc1
b. Vc2
c. Vc2-Vc1
____20. The output of a non-inverting amplifier whose input is positive is
a. Positive
b. Negative
c. Cannot be determined

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UNIT 2:
OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIERS
Operational amplifiers are linear devices that have all the
properties needed for an almost ideal DC amplification and are therefore
commonly used in signal conditioning, filtering, or mathematical
operations such as adding, subtracting, integration and differentiation.

Studying op amps is important because like several analog

electronic circuits they are one of the essential building blocks, and can
be used in anything from mixing desks to instrumentation.

This unit will cover the discussion on the operational amplifier

including inverting and non-inverting amplifier, linear ICs, and surface
mount device.

After studying this unit, the student must be able to:

• Define ideal op-amp features and 741 op-amps.
• Describe the slew rate and use it to find an op amp's power
bandwidth.
• Analyze an op-amp inverting and non-inverting amps
• Explain the function of summing amplifiers and voltage follower.
• Identify other integrated linear circuits, and explain how to apply
them.

UNIT 2 2. Operational Amplifier

2.1. Introduction to Operational Amplifiers
2.2. The 741-op amp
2.3. The Inverting and Non-Inverting Amplifier
2.4 Linear ICs
2.5 Op-amps and Surface mount devices

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Define operational amplifier

• Draw the block diagram of an operational amplifier
• Explain and draw the schematic symbol and circuit of an operational
amplifier
• Summarize the characteristic of an ideal operational amplifier

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Let us find out how much you already know about this topic. Choose the letter that you
think best answers the questions. Please answer all items. Take note of the items that
you were not sure of the answer and look for the right answer as you go through this
lesson.

____1. It is the input stage that determines the input characteristics of the op-amp.
d. Diff amp
e. More Stages of Gain
f. Class-B push-pull emitter follower
____2. Zero input voltage ideally results in ____ output voltage.
d. Positive
e. Negative
f. Zero
____3. The ideal op-amp often represents what?
d. Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)
e. Infinite CMRR
f. Open-loop voltage gain
____4. An ideal Open-loop voltage gain for op-amps is
d. Zero
e. Infinite
f. Undetermined
____5. When no feedback path (or loop) is used, the voltage gain is maximum
and is called the ____________?
d. Closed-loop voltage gain
e. Open-loop voltage gain
f. None of these
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

WHAT IS IT?

What is an Operational Amplifier?

Operational Amplifiers, also known as Op-amps, are simply a voltage

amplifying device developed for use between its in / out terminals with components
such as condensers and resistors. They are a vital component of analog devices. The
amplifier can perform many different operations (resistive, capacitive, or both), giving
it the name Operational Amplifier.

The Op-amp is a voltage-controlled voltage source with very high gain. It is a

five terminal four-port active element. Figure 2.1 shows the schematic symbol for the
op-amp. The power supply voltages VCC and VEE power the operational amplifier
and in general define the output voltage range of the amplifier. The terminals labeled
with the “+” and the “-” signs are called non-inverting and inverting respectively.

Figure 2.1 Schematic symbol for op-amp

A perfect voltage amplifier is represented by the ideal op-amp and is sometimes

referred to as a voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS). Figure 2.2 shows a VCVS,
where Rin is infinite and Rout is zero.

Figure 2.2 Equivalent Circuit of op-amp

Block Diagram of an Operational Amplifier

The op-amp block diagram is shown in Figure 2.3. The input stage is a diff amp,
Followed by more gain stages, and a Class-B push-pull follower emitter. Since the first
stage is a diff amp, it defines the op-amp input characteristics. The output is single-
ended in most op-amps. The single-ended output with positive and negative supplies
is designed to have a quiescent value of zero.
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

Figure 2.3 Block Diagram of Op-Amp

Not all op-amps have the same configuration as Figure 2.3. Some, for example,
aren't use the Class-B push-pull output, and others may have a double-ended output.
Op-amps also aren't as simple as the figure above. A monolithic op amp's internal
design is very complex, using dozens of transistors as current mirrors, active loads,
and other developments that are not possible in discreet design.

The two important features reflect in Figure 2.3 are differential input and single-
ended output, which applies to typical op ap.

Characteristics of a Typical Op-Amp

Table 2.1 Typical Op Amp Characteristics

Table 2.1 shows the characteristics of a typical op-amp. The ideal op-amp
contains infinite voltage gain, infinite frequency unity gain, infinite input impedance,
and infinite CMRR. It also has zero resistance to the output, zero bias current, and
zero offsets. If they could, this is what producers would develop.

From the table, The LM741C has a 100,000 voltage gain, 1 MHz unity-gain
frequency, 2 MΩ input impedance, and so forth. The input offsets will easily saturate
the op-amp since the voltage gain is so small. That is why practical circuits require
57
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
external components to regulate the voltage gain between the input and output of an
op-amp. For example, negative feedback is used in many applications to alter the
overall voltage gain to a much lower value, in return for stable linear operation.

Open-loop voltage gain is referred to as when no feedback path (or loop) is

used, the voltage gain is maximum. Open-loop voltage gain is designated as AVOL. In
Table 2.1 notice that the AVOL of the LM741C is 100,000. Although not infinite, this
open-loop voltage gain is very high, so we can use heavy negative feedback to
improve the overall performance of a circuit.

The 741C has a frequency of 1 MHz for unity-gain. Which means we will
have a usable voltage gain of approximately 1 MHz. The 741C has 2MΩ input
resistance, 75 Ω output resistance, 80 nA input bias current, 20 nA input offset current,
2 mV input offset voltage, and 90 dB CMRR.

The developer can use a BIFET op-amp when higher input resistance is need.
BIFET op-amps, being more modern, generally have more enhanced performance
characteristics, which include wider bandwidth, higher slew rate, larger power output,
higher input impedances, and lower bias currents. This type of op-amp incorporates
JFETs and bipolar transistors on the same chip. In the input stage, the JFETs are used
to get smaller input bias and offset currents; bipolar transistors are used to get more
voltage gain in the later stages. The LF157A is an example of a BIFET op-amp.

If you can see in Table 2.1, LF157A has only 30 pA as input bias current with
an input resistance of 10Ω. It has a unity-gain frequency of 20 MHz and has a voltage
gain of 200,000.

SUM IT UP

✓ Operational Amplifiers, also known as Op-amps, are simply a voltage

amplifying device developed for use between its in / out terminals with
components such as condensers and resistors.
✓ The op-amp has infinite open-loop gain.
✓ The input impedance of the +/− inputs are infinite. The output impedance is
zero. (The output is an ideal voltage source.)
✓ No current flows into the +/− inputs of the op-amp.
✓ In a circuit with negative feedback, the output of the op-amp will try to adjust
its output so that the voltage difference between the + and − inputs is zero (V+
= V−)
✓ Most of the basic op-amp building blocks rely on negative feedback.
✓ The op-amp schematic symbol is occasionally drawn with the non-inverting
input on top when it makes the schematic easier to read. The position of the
inputs may vary within the same schematic, so always look closely at the
schematic.
✓ A typical op-amp has a noninverting input, an inverting input, and a single-
ended output. An ideal op-amp has infinite open-loop voltage gain, infinite input
resistance, and zero output impedance. It is a perfect amplifier, a voltage-
controlled voltage source (VCVS).
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THINK OF THIS!

Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the lesson.

1. In your own words, how do you define Operational Amplifiers?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Why are practical circuits need external components between the input and
output of an op-amp to stabilize the voltage gain?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. What is the use of negative feedback?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Why are most op-amps produced with BFET technology?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!

In a clean paper or digital pad, try drawing the block diagram, schematic symbol, and
equivalent circuit of an op-amp. Try not to look at the figures in the module!
After drawing, point out the meaning or explain each figure, you can list it up. Grab a
partner and share your insights!

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

LESSON 2: THE 741 OP AMP

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Understand the basic idea behind 741 Op-Amp

• Explain 741 Op Amp features
• Understand 741 basic specification
• Describe the slew rate and use it to find an op amp's power bandwidth.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Let us find out how much you already know about this topic. True or False:
Write the word TRUE if the statement is correct; if the statement is wrong change the
underlined word to make it correct. Write your answer on the blank provided.

__________ 1. The 741 has become an industry standard.

__________ 2. When V1 is greater than V2, the input voltage Vin produces a negative
output voltage Vout.

__________ 3. A diff amp has input bias and offsets that produce an output error when
there is no input signal.

__________ 4. The MPO value of an amplifier is the maximum peak-to-peak output

that the amplifier can produce without clipping.

__________ 5. SL is the symbol for slew rate.

__________ 6. The speed rate represents the fastest response that an op-amp can
have.

__________ 7. If the output sine wave is very small or the frequency is very low, the
slew rate is no problem.

__________ 8. The frequency fmax is sometimes called the power bandwidth or large-
signal bandwidth of the op-amp.

__________ 9. There are two bandwidths to consider when analyzing the operation
of an op-amp circuit: the small-signal bandwidth and the large-signal or power
bandwidth.

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
__________ 10. It is best to eliminate input error by using the nulling circuit given on
the datasheet.

WHAT IS IT?

Brief History of 741 Op-Amp

In 1965, the µA709 was introduced by Fairchild Semiconductor, the first

commonly used monolithic op-amp. Though good, there were many drawbacks to this
first-generation op-amp. These resulted in an improved op amp known as the µA741.
The µA741 has been a big success because it's cheap and easy to use.

As time goes by, other 741 designs have come from different manufacturers.
For example, the MC1741, Texas Instruments the LM741, and Analog Devices the
AD741 are produced by ON Semiconductor. Both these monolithic op-amps are
identical to the A741, as their datasheets contain the same specifications. Most people
remove the prefixes for ease and simply refer to this commonly used op-amp as the
741.

An industry Standard

The 741 has become an industry standard. We will use the 741 as a starting
point in our discussions as it is a standard. You will branch out to other op-amps until
you understand the 741. Incidentally, the 741 has various versions, 741A, 741C,
741E, and 741N. These differ in their voltage gain, temperature range, noise level,
and other features. The 741C (the C stands for "commercial grade") is the least
costly and commonly used. It has 100,000 open-loop voltage gains, 2 MΩ input
impedance, and 75 Ω output impedance.

The 741 has 3 popular package styles namely: Dual-In-Line or S.O. Package,
Ceramic Flatpak, Metal Can Package. The pin configuration of these packages is
shown below.

Figure 2.4 Dual-In-Line or S.O. Package

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

Figure 2.5 Ceramic Flatpak

Figure 2.6 Metal Can Package

Schematic Diagram of 741 Op-Amp

Figure 2.7 Simplified schematic diagram of 741

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

A simplified 741 schematic diagram is shown in Figure 2.7. This circuit is similar
to the 741 and several later generations. You don't have to understand every detail
about the nature of the circuit, but you should have a basic understanding of how it
works. With that in mind, here is the basic concept behind a 741.

The Input Diff Amp

If we look at Figure 2.7, A diff amp (Q 1 and Q2) is the input stage. In the 741,
Q14 is a current source that replaces the tail resistor. R2, Q13, and Q14 are a
current mirror that generates the Q1 and Q2 tail current. Rather than using an ordinary
resistor as the diff amp's collector resistor, the 741 uses an active-load resistor. This
active-load Q4 serves as an extremely high impedance, current source.

The amplified signal from the diff amplifier drives the Q5 base, an emitter
follower. This stage raises the impedance level so as not to load the diff amp. Out of
Q5, the signal goes to Q6. The Q7 and Q8 diodes are part of the biasing for the final
stage. Q11 is Q6 's active-load resistor. The Q6 and Q11 are thus like a CE driver
stage with a very high voltage gain.

The Final Stage

The amplified signal from the CE driver stage (Q6) goes to the final stage, which
is a Class B push-pull emitter follower (Q9 and Q10). Due to the split supply (equal
positive VCC and negative VEE voltages), if the input voltage is zero, the quiescent
output is preferably 0 V. Any deviation from 0 V is called the output error voltage.

The input voltage vin produces a positive output voltage vout if v1 is greater than
v2. The input voltage vin produces a negative output voltage out if v2 is greater than
v1. Preferably vout can be as positive as +VCC before clipping and as negative as
-VEE. The output swing is commonly within 1 to 2 V of each supply voltage because of
voltage drops inside the 741.

Active Loading

We can say that active loading is using transistors instead of resistors for loads.
Active loading is very prevalent in integrated circuits ( ICs), as producing transistors
on a chip is simpler and less costly than manufacturing resistors. We have two
examples of active loading shown in Figure 2.7. First, there is the active-load Q4 on
the input diff amp. Second, there is the active-load Q11 in the CE driver stage. Active
loads produce a much higher voltage gain than what resistors would since current
sources have high output impedances. For the 741C, these active charges provide a
standard voltage gain of 100,000.

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

Frequency Compensation

When we look at Figure 2.7, the compensating capacitor is labeled as Cc.

Due to the Miller effect, this small capacitor (typically 30 pF) is multiplied by the
voltage gain of Q5 and Q6 to get a much larger equivalent capacitance of:

Cin(M) = (Av + 1)Cc

where Av is the voltage gain of the Q5 and Q6 stages.

The resistance to this Miller capacitance is the output impedance of the diff
amp. Hence, we've got a lag circuit. This lag circuit yields a cutoff 10 Hz frequency for
a 741C. The Op amp's open-loop gain is down 3 dB at this cutoff frequency. So AVOL
decreases by about 20 dB every decade until it hits the unity-gain frequency.

Figure 2.8 Ideal Bode plot of open-loop voltage gain for 741C

The ideal Bode plot of open-loop voltage gain versus frequency is shown in
Figure 2.8. The 741C has a 100,000 open-loop voltage gain, which equals 100 dB.
Since the cutoff frequency of the open-loop is 10 Hz, the voltage gain splits at 10 Hz
and then drops off at a rate of 20 dB per decade until 0 dB at 1 MHz is.

Bias and Offset

The best way to eliminate output error is by using the nulling circuit given on
the datasheet. It also helps to minimize thermal drift, a slow change in output voltage

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
caused by the effect of changing temperature on op-amp parameters. Figure 2.9
shows the nulling method suggested in the datasheet of a 741C.

Figure 2.9 Compensation and nulling used with 741C

The ac source driving the inverting input has a Thevenin resistance of RB.
A discrete resistor of equal value is attached to the non-inverting input, as shown, to
neutralize the effect of input bias current (80 nA) flowing through this source
resistance. Eliminating the effect of a 20 nA input offset current and an input 2 mV
offset voltage, the 741C datasheet recommends the use of a 10 kV potentiometer with
pins 1 and 5. By changing this potentiometer without an input signal, the output voltage
will be either null or zero.

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio or CMRR is 90 dB at low frequencies

for 741C. Because of equal signals, one a desired signal and the other a common-
mode signal, the desired signal will be 90 dB larger at the output than the common-
mode signal. This only means that the desired signal will be approximately 30,000
times larger than the common-mode signal. The reactive effects reduce CMRR at
higher frequencies, as shown in Figure 2.10(a). Note CMRR is around 75 dB at 1 kHz,
56 dB at 10 kHz, etc.

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

Figure 2.10 Typical 741C graphs for CMRR, MPP, and AVOL

Maximum Peak-To-Peak Output

The maximum peak-to-peak output that the amplifier can produce without
clipping is the MPP value of an amplifier. The ac output voltage can swing positively
or negatively because the quiescent output of an op-amp is ideally zero. The output
voltage can swing almost to the supply voltages for load resistances that are much
larger than Rout. For example, if VCC = +15 V and VEE = -15 V, the MPP value with a
load resistance of 10 kΩ is ideally 30 V.

The output cannot swing to the value of the supply voltages with a nonideal op
amp because there are small voltage drops in the final stage of the op-amp.
Furthermore, some of the amplified voltage is dropped across Rout, which means that
the final output voltage is smaller when the load resistance is not large compared to
Rout.

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
MPP versus load resistance for a 741C with supply voltages of +15 V and -15
V is shown in Figure 2.10(b). Notice that MPP is approximately 27 V for an RL of 10
kΩ. This conveys that the output saturates positively at +13.5 V and negatively at
-13.5 V. MPP decreases when the load resistance decreases as shown in the figure.

Short-Circuit Current

You need to know the value of the short-circuit output current because an op-
amp may drive a load resistance of approximately in some applications. Based on the
datasheet of 741C, the short-circuit output current of 25 mA. This is the maximum
output current the op-amp can produce. From that, we can say that the voltage cannot
be greater than the 25 mA times the load resistance.

Frequency Response

The small-signal frequency response of a 741C is shown in Figure 2.10(c). The

voltage gain is 100,000 in the mid-band. The cutoff frequency fc of 741C is 10 Hz. The
voltage gain is 70,700 (down 3 dB) at 10 Hz as indicated. The voltage gain decreases
at a rate of 20 dB per decade (first-order response) above the cutoff frequency.

The frequency at which the voltage gain equals 1 is known as unity-gain

frequency. The unity in Figure 2.10(c) is 1 MHz. This means that the op-amp can
amplify signals up to 1 MHz. Beyond 1 MHz, the voltage gain is less than 1 and the
741C is useless. The funity value can be found in datasheets because it represents
the upper limit on the useful gain of an op-amp.

Slew Rate

The very important function of the compensating capacitor inside a 741C is it

prevents oscillations that would interfere with the desired signal. But the drawback is
the compensating capacitor needs to be charged and discharged. This creates a speed
limit on how fast the output of the op-amp can change.

Figure 2.11 Ideal and actual responses to an input step voltage

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

Figure 2.12 Illustrating the definition of slew rate

Figure 2.13 Slew rate equals 0.5 V/µs

The concept is this, suppose the input voltage to an op amp is a positive voltage
step, a sudden transition in voltage from one dc level to a higher dc level. We would
get the ideal response is shown in Figure 2.11 If the op amp were perfect. The output
is the positive exponential waveform shown instead. This occurs because the
compensating capacitor must be charged before the output voltage can change to the
higher level.

The slew rate is figuratively defined in Figure 2.11. Slew rate is the initial
slope of the exponential waveform, symbolized by SR. Therefore, the slew rate can
also be defined as:

where the Greek letter ∆ (delta) stands for “the change in”. The equation says that
the slew rate equals the change in output voltage divided by the change in time.

The illustration of the meaning of the slew rate is shown in Figure 2.12. The
initial slope equals the vertical change divided by the horizontal change between two
points on the early part of the exponential wave. Figure 2.13 shows that the

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
exponential wave increases by 0.5 V during the first microsecond. Therefore, the slew
rate can be computed as:

The slew rate represents the fastest response that an op amp can have.
Consider a 741C with a slew rate of 0.5 V/µs. It conveys that the output of a 741C can
change no faster than 0.5 V in a microsecond.

Figure 2.14 Initial slope of a sine wave

Figure 2.15 Distortion occurs if the initial slope exceeds the slew rate

The two figures above show that we can also get slew-rate limiting with a
sinusoidal signal. If the initial slope of the sine wave is less than the slew rate, the op
amp can produce the output sine wave shown in Figure 2.14. For example, if the
output sine wave has an initial slope of 0.1 V/µs, a 741C can produce this sine wave
with no trouble at all because its slew rate is 0.5 V/µs. In Figure 2.15, the output is
smaller than it should be and it looks triangular instead of sinusoidal because the
sine wave has an initial slope of 1 V/µs.

Slew rate will distort the output signal when the signal is large and the frequency
is high. If the output sine wave is very small or the frequency is very low, the slew rate
is no problem.

Let us derive this equation:

SS = 2∏f Vp,

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where SS is the initial slope of the sine wave, f is its frequency, and Vp is its peak value.
SS has to be less than or equal to SR to avoid slew-rate distortion of a sine wave. When
the two are equal, we are at the limit, on the verge of slew-rate distortion.

SR = SS = 2∏f Vp,

Solving for f gives:

where fmax is the highest frequency that can be amplified without slew-rate distortion.
We can use this equation to calculate the maximum undistorted frequency given the
slew rate of an op amp and the peak output voltage desired.

The frequency fmax is sometimes called the power bandwidth or large-signal

bandwidth of the op amp. The graph of fmax for three slew rate is shown below.

Figure 2.16 Graph of power bandwidth versus peak voltage

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To get an undistorted output peak voltage of 8 V if we are using a 741C, the

frequency can be no higher than 10 kHz. To increase the fmax, we need to accept
less output voltage. We can improve the power bandwidth by trading off-peak value
for frequency. As an example, if our application can accept a peak output voltage of 1
V, fmax increases to 80 kHz.

In analyzing the operation of an op-amp circuit there are two bandwidths to

consider: the small-signal bandwidth determined by the first-order response of the op
amp and the large-signal or power bandwidth determined by the slew rate. We will
discuss more of this later.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.1. How much inverting input voltage does it take to drive the
741C into negative saturation?

Solution:
For a load resistance of 10 kV, MPP equals 27 V, which translates into an output
of 213.5 V for negative saturation. Since the 741C has an open-loop voltage gain of
100,000, the required input voltage is:
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So, we can say that an inverting input of 135 µV produces negative saturation, an
output voltage of -13.5 V.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.2 What is the common-mode rejection ratio of a 741C when
the input frequency is 100 kHz?

Solution:

From the figure above which is based on Figure 2.10, we can read a CMRR of
approximately 40 dB at 100 kHz. This is equivalent to 100, which means that the
desired signal receives 100 times more amplification than a common-mode signal
when the input frequency is 100 kHz.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.3 The input voltage to an op amp is a large voltage step. The
output is an exponential waveform that changes to 0.25 V in 0.1 µs. What is the slew
rate of the op amp?

Solution:

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.4 The LF411A has a slew rate of 15 V/µs. What is the power
bandwidth for a peak output voltage of 10 V?

Solution:

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.5 What is the power bandwidth for each of the following?
SR = 0.5 V/µs and Vp = 8 V
SR = 5 V/µs and Vp = 8 V
SR = 50 V/µs and Vp = 8 V

Solution:

With the figure above based on the Figure 2.16, read each power bandwidth to get
these approximate answers: 10 kHz, 100 kHz, and 1 MHz.

SUM IT UP

• The 741 has become an industry-standard because it is inexpensive and

easy to use.
• The 741C (the C stands for “commercial grade”) is the least expensive
and most widely used.
• The 741 is a standard op amp that is widely used.
• It includes an internal compensating capacitor to prevent oscillations
• With a large load resistance, the output signal can swing to within 1 or 2
V of either supply. With small load resistances, MPP is limited by the
short-circuit current.
• The slew rate is the maximum speed at which the output voltage can
change when driven by a step input.
• The power bandwidth is directly proportional to the slew rate and
inversely proportional to the peak output voltage.

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THINK OF THIS!

1. How much inverting input voltage does it take to drive the 741C into negative
saturation? Given that the AVOL = 200,000.

2. What is the CMRR of a 741C when the input frequency is 10 kHz?

3. Refer to Sample Problem 2.3, if the measured output voltage changes 0.8
V in 0.2 µs, what is the slew rate?

KEEP LEARNING!

On the sheet of paper, repeat Sample Problem 2.4 using a 741C and Vp =
200 mV.

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LESSON 3: THE INVERTING

AMPLIFIER

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Analyze an op amp inverting amplifier

• Draw the schematic symbol of an op amp inverting amplifier
• Define the terms like negative feedback, voltage gain, input
impedance, and bandwidth
• Solve for output voltage of an op amp inverting amplifier

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge on inverting amplifier:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. Can you analyze an op amp inverting
amplifier?
2. Are you familiar with the schematic
symbol of an op amp inverting
amplifier?
3. Are you familiar with the terms
negative feedback, voltage gain, input
impedance, and bandwidth?

4. How confident are you and solving

the output voltage of an op amp
inverting amplifier

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WHAT IS IT?

An inverting amplifier is one in which the output is exactly 1800 out of phase
concerning input. It is the most basic op-amp circuit. It uses negative feedback to
stabilize the overall voltage gain.
The op amp inverting amplifier in its simplest form needs only the use of two
additional resistors to be used in the design process of the electronic circuits. This
makes the circuit very simple and easy to implement while still delivering a very high-
performance level.

Inverting Negative Feedback

Figure 2.17 Schematic Symbol of an Inverting Amplifier

The schematic symbol of an inverting amplifier is shown in Figure 2.17. It is

quite straightforward and only needs a few electronic components beyond the
operational amplifier integrated circuit itself.

An inverting input voltage of v2 came from when input voltage vin drives the
inverting input through resistor R1. To produce an inverted output voltage, the input
voltage is amplified by the open-loop voltage gain. The output voltage is fed back to
the input through the feedback resistor Rf. So, all of these results in negative feedback.
Specifically, any changes in v2 produced by the input voltage are opposed by the
output signal.

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Virtual Ground

Figure 2.17 The concept of virtual ground: shorted to voltage and open to current

When we connect a piece of wire between some point in a circuit and ground,
the voltage of the point becomes zero. The current flow to the ground because of the
wire. A ground to both voltage and current is a wire between a point and ground which
is known as mechanical ground.

On the other hand, the virtual ground is not the same as the mechanical ground.
The concept of a virtual ground is based on an ideal op amp. It is a widely used shortcut
for analyzing an inverting amplifier. The analysis of an inverting amplifier and related
circuits becomes incredibly easy becomes easy with the use of virtual ground.

Since virtual ground is based on an ideal op amp, it has infinite open-loop

voltage gain and infinite input resistance. So, we can come up to this idea:

1. Since Rin is infinite, i2 is zero.

2. Since AVOL is infinite, v2 is zero.

Refer in Figure 2.17. The current through Rf must equal the input current
through R1, because i2 is zero. Because v2 is zero, the inverting input acts as a ground
for voltage but an open for current. It is like half of a ground because it is a short for
voltage but an open for current.

Voltage Gain

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Figure 2.18 Inverting amplifier has the same current through both resistors

From the Figure 2.18, we can visualize a virtual ground on the inverting input. Then,
the right end of R1 is a voltage ground, so we can write:

We also have the left end of Rf is a voltage ground, so the magnitude of the output
voltage is:

To get the voltage gain, divide vout by vin, where Av = vout/vin = -iinRf /iinR1. Therefore,

Av(CL) is the closed-loop voltage gain because it is the voltage when there is a
feedback path between the output and the input. The closed-loop voltage gain Av(CL)
is always smaller than the open-loop voltage gain AVOL because of the negative
feedback.

Input Impedance

One of the advantages of an inverting amplifier is that it is easy to set up a

desired input impedance. Because the right end of R1 is virtually grounded, the
closed-loop input impedance is:

It is shown in Figure 2.18, the impedance looking into the left end of R1. For
For example, if an input impedance of 2 kΩ and a closed-loop voltage gain of 50 is
needed, a designer can use R1 = 2 kΩ and Rf = 100 kΩ.

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Bandwidth

The internal compensating capacitor causes the open-loop bandwidth or cutoff

frequency of an op amp to become very low. When negative feedback is used, the
overall bandwidth increases. Figure 2.19 shows how the closed-loop bandwidth
increases with negative feedback.

Figure 2.19 Lower voltage gain produces more bandwidth

As you can see, the heavier the negative feedback (smaller Av(CL)), the greater
the closed-loop bandwidth. Here is the equation for an inverting amplifier closed-loop
bandwidth:

In most applications, Av(CL) is greater than 10 and the equation simplifies to:

For instance, when Av(CL) is 10:

which agrees with Figure 2.18. If Av(CL) is 100:

which also agrees rearranged the equation into:

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Based on the equation, many data sheets refer to the unity-gain frequency as
the gain-bandwidth product (GBW) because the unity-gain frequency equals the
product of gain and bandwidth.

Bias and Offsets

The output error caused by input bias current, input offset current, and input
offset voltage can be reduced with the use of negative feedback. As discussed in a
previous chapter:

When negative feedback is used, this equation becomes:

where Verror is the total output error voltage. The input errors used in an earlier chapter
and are repeated here:

In an inverting amplifier, RB2 is the Thevenin resistance seen when looking back from
the inverting input toward the source. This resistance is given by:

An equal resistance RB1 should be connected to the noninverting input if it is necessary

to compensate for input bias current. This resistance does not affect the virtual-ground
approximation because no ac signal current flows through it.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6 Find the closed-loop voltage gain and bandwidth? What is
the output voltage at 1 kHz? At 1 MHz?

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Solution:

Using this formula:

We can get:

Using this formula:

We can get:

The ideal Bode plot of the closed-loop voltage gain is shown in the figure above.
The decibel equivalent of 50 is 34 dB. (Shortcut: 50 is half of 100, or down 6 dB from
40 dB.) Therefore, we can get the output voltage at:

• 1kHz

• 1 MHz
Since 1 MHz is the unity-gain frequency,

Note: The minus (2) output value indicates a 180° phase shift between the input
and output.

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.7 What is the output voltage when vin is zero? Use the typical
values given in Table 2.1.

Solution:

Based on Table 2.1 for a 741C:

Iin(bias) 5 80 nA, Iin(off ) 5 20 nA, and Vin(off ) 5 2 mV.

Using this formula:

We can get:

The input error voltages are:

The closed-loop voltage gain is 50, calculated in the previous example. Using
this formula:

adding the errors in the worst possible way gives an output error voltage of:

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.8 The datasheet of a 741C lists the following worst-case
parameters:

Iin(bias) 5 500 nA, Iin(off ) 5 200 nA, and Vin(off ) 5 6 mV.

Recalculate the output voltage when vin is zero Sample problem 2.7 using the
parameters mentioned.

Solution:

Using these formulas:

We can get:

If we add the errors in the worst possible way gives an output error voltage of:

SUM IT UP

• The inverting amplifier is the most basic op-amp circuit. It uses

negative feedback to stabilize the overall voltage gain.
• The inverting input is a virtual ground because it is a short for voltage but
an open for current.
• The closed-loop voltage gain equals the feedback resistance divided by
the input resistance.
• The closed-loop bandwidth equals the unity-gain frequency divided by
the closed-loop voltage gain.

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THINK OF THIS!

Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the lesson.

1. In Sample Problem 2.6, the desired output voltage was 500 mVp-p. Can we ignore
the large output error voltage? Explain your answer.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Draw an inverting amplifier using an op amp with component values. Now, tell me
where the virtual ground is. What are the properties of a virtual ground? What is the
closed-loop voltage gain, input impedance, and bandwidth?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

3. Based on what you’ve learned from the previous chapter, why we need to stabilize
the over-all voltage gain?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!

Try to solve again the Sample Problem 2.7 using an LF157A op amp.

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LESSON 4: THE NON-INVERTING
AMPLIFIER

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Analyze a non-inverting amplifier

• Draw the schematic symbol of the non-inverting amplifier
• Solve for output voltage of an op amp non-inverting amplifier

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge on inverting amplifier:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. Can you analyze an op amp non-
inverting amplifier?
2. Are you familiar with the schematic
symbol of an op amp non-inverting
amplifier?
3. How confident are you and solving
the output voltage of an op amp non-
inverting amplifier

WHAT IS IT?

The non-inverting amplifier is another basic op-amp circuit. Just like the
inverting amplifier, it also uses negative feedback to stabilize the overall voltage gain.
However, the negative feedback also increases the input impedance and decreases
the output impedance in this type of amplifier.

Basic Circuit

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
The schematic symbol of the non-inverting amplifier is shown in Figure 2.20.
Just like the inverting amplifier. It is quite straightforward and only needs a few
electronic components beyond the operational amplifier integrated circuit itself.

Figure 2.20 Schematic Symbol of non-inverting amplifier

Input voltage vin drives the noninverting input. To produce the in-phase output
voltage, input voltage is amplified. Through a voltage divider, a part of the output
voltage is fed back to the input. The voltage across R1 is the feedback voltage applied
to the inverting input. This feedback voltage is almost equal to the input voltage. The
difference between v1 and v2 is very small because of the high open-loop voltage gain.
In this case, we have a negative feedback because the feedback voltage opposes the
input voltage.

Virtual Short

Figure 2.21 A virtual short exists between the two op-amp inputs

The voltage of both points in a circuit concerning the ground is equal when we
connect a piece of wire between two points. The current flow between two-point
because of the wire. A short for both voltage and current, which is a wire between two
points is known as mechanical short.

On the other hand, virtual short is not the same as mechanical short. It is
widely used for analyzing an inverting amplifier. The analysis of non-inverting
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
amplifier and related circuits becomes incredibly easy becomes easy with the use of
virtual ground

So, we can come up to this idea by using two properties of an ideal op amp:

1. Since Rin is infinite, both input currents are zero.

2. Since AVOL is infinite, v1 2 v2 is zero.

Refer to Figure 2.21. It shows a virtual short between the input terminals of
the op amp. A short for voltage but an open for current is called as virtual short.
Actual short gives very accurate answers when used with heavy negative feedback,
although it is an ideal approximation,

We can visualize a virtual short between the input terminals of the op amp
whenever we analyze a noninverting amplifier or a similar circuit. The open-loop
voltage gain approaches infinity and a virtual short exists between the two input
terminals as long as the op amp is operating in the linear region (not positively or
negatively saturated).

The inverting input voltage follows the noninverting input voltage because of
the virtual short. That is another point. The inverting input voltage immediately
increases or decreases to the same value if the noninverting input voltage increases
or decreases. This action is called bootstrapping. The inverting input is bootstrapped
to the noninverting input.

Voltage Gain

Figure 2.22 Input voltage appears across R1 and same current flows through
resistors

Input voltage appears across R1 and same current flows through resistors are
shown in Figure 2.22. If we look at it, we can visualize a virtual short between the input
terminals of the op amp. As shown the input voltage appears across R1 is the virtual
short. So, we can write:

Since no current can flow through a virtual short, the same i1 current must flow
through Rf, which means that the output voltage is given by:
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To get the voltage gain, we divide vout by vin:

Or

Other Quantities

Since the open-loop input impedance is already very high (2 MV for a 741C),
the closed-loop input impedance will be even higher. The effect of negative feedback
on bandwidth is the same as with an inverting amplifier:

Again, we can trade off voltage gain for bandwidth. The smaller the closed-loop
voltage gain, the greater the bandwidth. The input error voltages caused by input bias
current, input offset current, and input offset voltage are evaluated the same way as
with an inverting amplifier. After determining each input error, we can multiply by the
closed-loop voltage gain to get the total output error.

RB2 is the Thevenin resistance seen when looking from the inverting input
toward the voltage divider. This resistance is the same as for an inverting amplifier:

If it is necessary to compensate for input bias current, an equal resistance RB1

should be connected to the noninverting input. This resistance does not affect the
virtual-short approximation because no ac signal current flows through it.

Output Error Voltage Reduces MPP

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Figure 2.23 Output error voltage reduces MPP

The MPP, the maximum unclipped peak-to-peak output, will reduce if the output
error voltage is large. Refer to the figure above, look at the non-inverting amplifier at
Figure 2.23(a), if there is no output error voltage, the non-inverting amplifier can swing
to within approximately a volt or two of either supply voltages. To simplify, look at
Figure 2.23(b), assume that the output signal can swing from +14 to -14 V, giving an
MPP of 28 V. Now, refer to Figure 2.23(c), suppose the output error voltage is +10 V.
So, the maximum unclipped peak-to-peak swing is from +14 to +6 V, an MPP of only
8 V with this large output error voltage. So, remember this, the greater the output error
voltage, the smaller the MPP value.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.8 What are the closed-loop voltage gain and bandwidth? What
is the output voltage at 250 kHz?

Solution:

Using this formula:

We can get:

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From dividing the unity-gain frequency by the closed-loop voltage gain gives:

The ideal Bode plot of closed-loop voltage gain is shown on the figure above.
The decibel equivalent of 40 is 32 dB. (Shortcut: 40 = 10 x 2 x 2 or 20 dB + 6 db + 6
dB = 32 dB.) Since the Av(CL) breaks at 25 kHz, it is down 20 dB at 250 kHz.

This yield to Av(CL) = 12 dB at 250 kHz which is equivalent to an ordinary

voltage gain of 4. Therefore, the output voltage at 250 kHz is:

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.9 Try to use the worst-case parameters of a 741C: Iin(bias) =
500 nA, Iin(off) = 200 nA, and Vin(off) = 6 mV. What would be output error voltage in
Sample Problem 2.9, use the same figure.

Solution:

RB2 is the parallel equivalent of 3.9 kV and 100V, which is approximately 100V.

Using these formulas:

We can get:

Adding the errors in the worst possible way gives an output error voltage of:

If this output error voltage is a problem, we can use a 10-kV potentiometer, as

previously described, to null the output.

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SUM IT UP

• The noninverting amplifier is another basic op-amp circuit.

• It uses negative feedback to stabilize the closed-loop voltage gain.
• A virtual short is between the noninverting input and the inverting input.
• The closed-loop voltage gain equals Rf/R1 + 1.
• The closed-loop bandwidth equals the unity-gain frequency divided by
the closed-loop voltage gain.

THINK OF THIS!

Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the lesson.

1. How do you compare inverting amplifier to non-inverting amplifier?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2. In your own words, analyze schematic symbol of non-inverting amplifier. Write

your explanation below.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. Draw a noninverting amplifier using an op amp with component values. Now, tell
me where the virtual short is. What are the properties of a virtual short? What is the
closed-loop voltage gain and bandwidth?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!

Using the same figure in Sample Problem 2.8. Change the 3.9-kΩ resistor to
4.9 kΩ. Solve for Av(CL) and vout at 200 kHz.

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LESSON 5: LINEAR INTEGRATED

CIRCUITS

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• List other linear integrated circuits and discuss how they are applied.
• Understand the basic op amp configurations
• Define different types of amplifiers

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Let us find out how much you already know about this topic. Fill in the blanks with the
correct word to complete each sentence. The possible answers are in the box below.
Please answer all items. Take note of the items that you were not sure of the answer
and look for the right answer as you go through this lesson.

MBC13720 Audio Amplifiers Video Amplifiers

Dual Radio-frequency amplifier Intermediate-frequency amplifiers
Integrated Circuits DC voltage LM340 pnp

1. _________________ like op amps, are replacing transistors in electronic circuits.

2. Preamplifiers (preamps) are _________________ with less than 50 mW of output

power.

3. The input diff amp in LM380 uses _________________ inputs.

4. _________________ are used in applications in which the range of input

frequencies is very large.

5. A _________________ is usually the first stage in an AM, FM, or television receiver.

6. Typically, he middle stage in an AM, FM, or television receiver is the

_________________.

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7. _________________, a low-noise amplifier is designed to operate in the 400 MHz

to 2.4 GHz range.

8. The _________________, with ripple is proportional to the line voltage; that is, it
will change 10 percent if the line voltage changes 10 percent.

9. Typical of IC voltage regulators is the _________________ series.

10. Many of the op amps are available as _________________ and quad op amps.

WHAT IS IT?

Integrated circuits, like op amps, are replacing transistors in electronic circuits,

just as transistors once replaced vacuum tubes. Op amps and linear ICs, however,
are microelectronic circuits. The widely used linear IC aside from op amp are audio
amplifiers, video amplifiers, and voltage regulators.

Figure 2.24 Basic Op Amp Configuration

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Table of Op Amps

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Table 2.2 Typical Parameters of Selected Op Amps at 25°C

Table 2.2 shows the variety of commercially available devices and their
parameters at 25°c. The table contains two more quantities not discussed in the
previous lesson. The first quantity is the power supply rejection ratio (PSRR), which is
defined as the power-supply rejection ratio equals the change in the input offset
voltage divided by the change in the supply voltages.

A change in the supply voltage will produce an output error voltage because of
the imbalance in the input diff amp plus other internal effects. Dividing this output error
voltage by the closed-loop voltage gain gives the change in the input offset voltage.

Refer to Table 2.2. If we look at LF353, it has the PSRR in decibels of 276 dB.
When we convert this to an ordinary number, we get:

or, as it is sometimes written:

This only means that a change of 1 V in the supply voltage will produce a
change in the input offset voltage of 158 µV.

Drift of 10 µV/°C. is also a parameter of LF353, which is the temperature

coefficient of the input offset voltage. A drift of 10 µV/°C means that the input offset
voltage increases 10 µV for each degree increase in degrees Celsius.

Many of the op amps are available as dual and quad op amps. This means that
there are either two or four op amps in the same package. For example, the LM747C
is a dual 741C. The LM348 is a quad 741. The single and dual op amps fit in a package
with 8 pins, and the quad op amp comes in packages with 14 pins.

An internally compensated op amp will not break into oscillations under any
condition. Overcompensation can improve low-frequency operation, whereas under-
compensation can increase the bandwidth and slew rate. Refer to Table 2.2, observe
the funity and SR of the LM301A, overcompensation is the reason why a plus sign (1)
has been added.

Audio Amplifiers

Preamplifiers are used at the front end of audio systems that’s why they are
optimized for low noise. In where they amplify weak signals from optical sensors,
magnetic tape heads, microphones, and so on. Preamplifiers (preamps) are audio
amplifiers with less than 50 mW of output power.

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If we refer to Table 2.2, LM833 is an example of a low-noise dual preamp. The
LM833 has a voltage gain of 110 dB and a 27-V power bandwidth of 120 kHz. The
LM833’s input stage is a diff amp, which allows differential or single-ended input.

LM4818 is an example of medium-level audio amplifiers, which has an output

power of 350 mW. This type of amplifier has output powers from 50 to 500 mW. These
are useful near the output end of portable electronic devices such as cell phones and
CD players.

LM380 and LM4756 are examples of audio power amplifiers. This type of
amplifier delivers more than 500 mW of output power. They are used in high-fidelity
amplifiers, intercoms, AM-FM radios, and other applications. LM380 has a voltage gain
of 34 dB, a bandwidth of 100 kHz, and an output power of 2 W. LM4756 has an
internally set voltage gain of 30 dB and can deliver 7W/channel. The LM4756 package
style and pinout is shown in Figure 2.25.

Figure 2.25 LM4756 package style and pinout

The schematic diagram of the LM380 is shown in Figure 2.26. The input diff
amp uses pnp inputs. One advantage of the transducer is the signal can be directly
coupled. The diff amp drives a current-mirror load (Q5 and Q6). The output of the
current mirror goes to an emitter follower (Q7) and CE driver (Q8). The output stage is
a Class-B push-pull emitter follower (Q13 and Q14). There is an internal compensating
capacitor of 10 pF that rolls off the decibel voltage gain at a rate of 20 dB per decade.
This capacitor produces a slew rate of approximately 5 V/µs.

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Figure 2.26 Simplified schematic diagram of LM380

Video Amplifiers

Video amplifiers are designed to process video signals and have varying
bandwidths depending on what the video signal is. They are used in applications in
which the range of input frequencies is very large. A video or wideband amplifier has
a flat response (constant decibel voltage gain) over a very broad range of frequencies.
Typical bandwidths are well into the megahertz region.

LM7171 is an example of a video amplifier which is used in video cameras,

copiers and scanners, and HDTV amplifiers. It is a very high-speed amplifier with a
wide unity-gain bandwidth of 200 MHz and a slew rate of 4100 V/μS.

Other examples of IC video amps that can adjust the voltage gains and
bandwidths by connecting different external resistors are: NE592 has a decibel voltage
gain of 52 dB and a cutoff frequency of 40 MHz; by changing external components,
you can get a useful gain to 90 MHz, MC1553 has a decibel voltage gain of 52 dB and
a bandwidth of 20 MHz, LM733 has a very wide bandwidth; it can be set up to give 20-
dB gain and a bandwidth of 120 MHz.

RF and IF Amplifiers

Some ICs include RF and IF amplifiers on the same chip. A radio-frequency

(RF) amplifier is usually the first stage in an AM, FM, or television receiver.
Intermediate-frequency (IF) amplifiers typically are the middle stages. The amplifiers
are tuned (resonant) so that they amplify only a narrow band of frequencies. This
allows the receiver to tune a desired signal from a particular radio or television station.

MBC13720 is an example of RF IC’s, a low-noise amplifier is designed to

operate in the 400 MHz to 2.4 GHz range, which is where many broadband wireless
applications are found.

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Voltage Regulators

It is discussed earlier about dc voltage with ripple. This dc voltage is

proportional to the line voltage; that is, it will change 10 percent if the line voltage
changes 10 percent.

LM340 is an example of IC voltage regulators which can hold the output dc

voltage to within 0.01 percent for normal changes in line voltage and load resistance.
Positive or negative output, adjustable output voltage, and short-circuit protection are
the other features include.

SUM IT UP

• Op amps represent about a third of all linear ICs.

• A wide variety of op amps exists for almost any application
• Some have very low input offsets, others have high bandwidths and slew
rates, and others have low drifts.
• Dual and quad op amps are available.
• Even high-power op amps exist that can produce large load power.
• Other linear ICs include audio and video amplifiers, RF and IF amplifiers,
and voltage regulators.

THINK OF THIS!

Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the lesson.

1. Name a few linear ICs besides the op amp.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2. List the types of IC amplifier you’ve learned and state their functions.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

3. Draw the LM4756 pinouts and labelled the pins correctly.

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KEEP LEARNING!

Try to look for datasheets of LM380, LM340, and LM833. On a clean sheet of
paper, draw their pinouts and labeled each pin correctly.

REFLECTION

After performing all the activities, it is assumed that you have understand the
operational amplifiers. Now, it’s time to reflect on what you’ve learned from the topic.

1. What do you think are the advantages of operational amplifiers?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2. What important insights you have grasped in this topic?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

3. How do you compare differential amplifiers to operational amplifiers?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

4. Why is a 741C thought of as a dc or low-frequency amplifier?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

5. How important for the engineering student like you to understand the operation of
operational amplifiers?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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POST TEST

Congratulations! You’ve come this far. You have completed this chapter. Before you
go to the next chapter, you had to answer the following post-test questions.

1. What usually controls the open-loop cutoff frequency of an op amp?

a. Stray-wiring capacitance b. Base-emitter capacitance
c. Collector-base capacitance d. Compensating capacitance

2. A compensating capacitor prevents

a. Voltage gain b. Oscillations
c. Input off set current d. Power bandwidth

3. At the unity-gain frequency, the open-loop voltage gain is

a. 1 b. Av(mid)
c. Zero d. Very large

4. The cutoff frequency of an op amp equals the unity-gain frequency divided

by
a. The cutoff frequency b. Closed-loop voltage gain
c. Unity d. Common-mode voltage gain

5. If the cutoff frequency is 20 Hz and the midband open-loop voltage gain is

1,000,000, the unity-gain frequency is
a. 20 Hz b. 1 MHz
c. 2 MHz d. 20 MHz

6. If the unity-gain frequency is 5 MHz and the mid-band open-loop voltage

gain is 100,000, the cutoff frequency is
a. 50 Hz b. 1 MHz
c. 1.5 MHz d. 15 MHz

7. The initial slope of a sine wave is directly proportional to

a. Slew rate b. Frequency
c. Voltage gain d. Capacitance

8. When the initial slope of a sine wave is greater than the slew rate,
a. Distortion occurs b. Linear operation occurs
c. Voltage gain is maximum d. The op amp works best

9. The power bandwidth increases when

a. Frequency decreases b. Peak value decreases
c. Initial slope decreases d. Voltage gain increases

10. A 741C contains

a. Discrete resistors b. Inductors
c. Active-load resistors d. A large coupling capacitor

11. A 741C cannot work without

a. Discrete resistors b. Passive loading
c. DC return paths on the two bases d. A small coupling capacitor
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12. The input impedance of a BIFET op amp is

a. Low c. High
b. Medium d. Extremely high

13. An LF157A is a
a. Diff amp b. Source follower
c. Bipolar op amp d. BIFET op amp

14. If the two supply voltages are 612 V, the MPP value of an op amp is closest
to
a. 0 c. 212 V
b. 112 V d. 24 V

15. The open-loop cutoff frequency of a 741C is controlled by

a. A coupling capacitor b. The output short-circuit current
c. The power bandwidth d. A compensating capacitor

16. The 741C has a unity-gain frequency of

a. 10 Hz c. 1 MHz
b. 20 kHz d. 15 MHz

17. The unity-gain frequency equals the product of closed-loop voltage gain
and the
a. Compensating capacitance b. Tail current
c. Closed-loop cutoff frequency d. Load resistance

18. If funity is 10 MHz and midband open-loop voltage gain is 200,000, then the
open-loop cutoff frequency of the op amp is
a. 10 Hz c. 50 Hz
b. 20 Hz d. 100 Hz

19. The initial slope of a sine wave increases when

a. Frequency decreases b. Peak value increases
c. Cc increases d. Slew rate decreases

20. If the frequency of the input signal is greater than the power bandwidth,
a. Slew-rate distortion occurs b. A normal output signal occurs
c. Output offset voltage increases d. Distortion may occur

21. An op amp has an open base resistor. The output voltage will be
a. Zero b. Slightly different from zero
c. Maximum positive or negative d. An amplified sine wave

22. An op amp has a voltage gain of 200,000. If the output voltage is 1 V, the
input voltage is
a. 2 µV c. 10 mV
b. 5 µV d. 1 V

23. A 741C has supply voltages of 615 V. If the load resistance is large, the
MPP value is approximately
a. 0 c. 27 V

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b. 115 V d. 30 V

24. Above the cutoff frequency, the voltage gain of a 741C decreases
approximately
a. 10 dB per decade b. 20 dB per octave
c. 10 dB per octave d. 20 dB per decade

25. The voltage gain of an op amp is unity at the

a. Cutoff frequency b. Unity-gain frequency
c. Generator frequency d. Power bandwidth

26. When slew-rate distortion of a sine wave occurs, the output

a. Is larger b. Appears triangular
c. Is normal d. Has no off set

27. A 741C has

a. A voltage gain of 100,000 b. An input impedance of 2 MV
c. An output impedance of 75 V d. All of the above

28. The closed-loop voltage gain of an inverting amplifier equals

a. The ratio of the input resistance to the feedback resistance
b. The open-loop voltage gain
c. The feedback resistance is divided by the input resistance
d. The input resistance

29. The noninverting amplifier has a

a. Large closed-loop voltage gain b. Small open-loop voltage gain
c. Large closed-loop input impedance d. Large closed-loop output impedance

30. The voltage follower has a

a. Closed-loop voltage gain of unity b. Small open-loop voltage gain
c. Closed-loop bandwidth of zero d. Large closed-loop output impedance

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UNIT 3:
LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR
APPLICATIONS OF OP AMPS
Operational amplifiers play a great role in the era of
integrated circuits. It performs a variety of roles in the
construction of an integrated circuit which every device
today has one of it. In this unit, linear and non-linear
applications of op-amps will be discussed. As the mode of
operation of op-amp changes, its applications to integrated
circuit varies. A wide range of applications of op-amps will
be elaborated in this unit.

A linear op-amp circuit gives an output of the same

shape as the input signal. In this operation, the cycle will
not go into saturation. Linear op-amp applications include
inverting-amplifier circuits, noninverting-amplifier circuits,
inverter/non-inverter circuits, and differential amplifiers.

Linear means that the parameters of the circuits are

not changed concerning voltage and current, while non-
linear means that the parameter of the circuit changes
concerning voltage and current.

Some of the linear applications of op-amps include:

• Phase inversion
• Summing amplifier
• Differentiator
• Integrator
• Subtractor

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• Voltage to Current conversion and vice
versa
• Instrumentation amplifier
• Filters
While non-linear applications of op-amps also
includes:
• Rectification
• Peak detection
• Clipper
• Logarithmic amplifier
• Sample and hold circuit
• Clamper
• Comparator
• Zero crossing detector

After this unit, the student must be able to:

• Describe the mode of operation of op-amps;
• Explain different linear and non-linear applications
of op-amp

UNIT 3 3. Linear and non-linear applications of op-amps

3.1. Inverting Amplifier
3.2. Noninverting Amplifier
3.3. Comparator
3.4. Integrator
3.5. Differentiator

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LESSON 1: INVERTING AMPLIFIER

DURATION: 90 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Define inverting amplifier;

• Recall the operation of an inverting amplifier;
• Illustrate how inverting amplifier works in different applications;
• Discuss applications of inverting amplifiers;
• Solve the quantities related to inverting amplifier applications.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
5. How familiar are you with the definition of
inverting amplifiers

6. How familiar are you with the operation of

inverting amplifiers?

7. How familiar are you with the applications of

inverting amplifiers?

WHAT IS IT?

INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Recap:
An inverting amplifier is one of the basic amplifier circuits. It has an input in the
non-inverting section of the amplifier.
Operational amplifiers, ideally, have very high open-loop gain. But the circuit
needs to be designed for stability. To solve that problem of very high open-loop gain,
amplifiers have resistors in the input terminal to limit the input voltage. Even if the input

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is only in microvolts, the very high voltage gain can cause the output to saturate. The
design of the inverting amplifiers includes the feedback resistor.

Inverting Amplifier

The feedback resistor introduces the process of negative feedback where a

portion of the output of the operational amplifier is fed again to the inverting input of
the op-amp. The role of the feedback system is to force the differential voltage to be
equal to zero. Thus, the system now has a closed-loop gain. Since the amplifier with
high open-loop gain is unstable and difficult to control, the closed-loop gain stabilizes
the output and gives ease in the control of the voltage output. The downside of the
system is that the gain will be smaller to attain stability.

Since the system used negative feedback, the actual input is varied, the actual
input voltage entering the system will be the sum of the input (original) signal and the
feedback signal. The point where the original input signal and the feedback signal
meets is called the summing point. An input resistor is placed in the original input to
separate it from the feedback it is called the input resistor.
Since the inverting amplifier uses the inverting input side, the non-inverting
input is connected directly to the ground.

In the operation of an inverting amplifier, it is important to take note of the following

assumptions:
1. The input current is zero ideally.
2. The input voltages are equal.

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3. There is a feedback at the inverting input.

Op-amps has two operational region, the linear region and the saturation
region. When the op-amps operates in the linear region, the output voltage or current
which is directly proportional to either input voltage or current.
Inverting Amplifier Circuit (Linear applications)
1. High Impedance Probe
Inverting amplifier circuits may be used in multimeters as a high impedance
probe.

The circuit above shows the high impedance probe. The input of the probe is
connected directly to the ground thus, it has virtually high impedance. It has two
stages of the inverting amplifier. The range selector x10 produces a voltage
gain of 0.1 while the x1 selection has a voltage gain of 1. The gain is varied
through the feedback resistor.

2. AC Coupled inverting amplifier

AC coupled amplifier is a conventional amplifier that uses capacitors or
transformers to block DC voltage between stages. This causes the entire amplifier to
act as a high pass filter which blocks very low-frequency signals.

In the circuit,
Av= -Rf/R1
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Av= -100K ohm/10K ohm
Av= -10

If the unity frequency is 1Mhz,

f2= funity/((Rf/R1)+1)
f2= 1Mhz/(10+1)
f2= 90.9Khz
It means that the bandwidth of the system is 90.9Khz.
To compute for the upper and lower cut-off frequency,
fc1= 1/(2πR1C1)
fc1= 1/(2π*10Kohm*10uF)
fc1= 1.59Hz

fc2= 1/(2πR2C2)
fc2= 1/(2π*10Kohm*2.2uF)
fc1= 7.23Hz
3. Adjustable Bandwidth Circuit
Inverting amplifier circuits can also be designed to have an adjustable
bandwidth feature whenever needed.

For the example above,

Av= -Rf/R1
Av= -100K ohm/10K ohm
Av= -10

The minimum feedback fraction is

Bmin= (10Kohm || 100ohm)/100K ohm

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Bmin= 0.001

The maximum feedback fraction is

Bmax= (10Kohm || 10.1Kohm)/100K ohm
Bmax= 0.05

Given that the unity frequency is 1Mhz, the bandwidth range is:
f2min= (0.001)(1Mhz) =1KHz
f2max= (0.05)(1Mhz) =50KHz thus, the bandwidth varies from 1K-50KHz when
the resistor value is changed from 100 ohms to 10Kohms.

SUM IT UP

• When the inverting amplifier is in the linear operation, it can be used for different
applications such as it can act as a high impedance probe, adjustable
bandwidth, ac coupled amplifier, and many other applications.

THINK OF THIS!

1. What happens to the gain of an inverting amplifier when the resistance R1

input resistance is increased?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. To have an adjustable bandwidth circuit, what are the things that must be
considered in the design?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. What is the role of the feedback resistor in an inverting amplifier? Explain
your answer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!
Try plotting the AC coupled amplifier circuit in your circuit simulator. Check
the frequency of the circuit.

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LESSON 2: NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER

DURATION: 90 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Define noninverting amplifier;

• Recall the operation of a noninverting amplifier;
• Illustrate how the noninverting amplifier works in different applications;
• Discuss applications of noninverting amplifiers;
• Solve the quantities related to noninverting amplifier applications.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the definition of
noninverting amplifiers
2. How familiar are you with the operation of
noninverting amplifiers?

3. How familiar are you with the applications of

noninverting amplifiers?

WHAT IS IT?

NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER

Non inverting amplifier takes an input and gives an output of the same phase
as the input. The input is sent through the non-inverting terminal of the operational
amplifier. Some advantage of this configuration is the stability in the voltage gain, low
output impedance, and high input impedance.

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Noninverting Amplifier

Noninverting input
In the image above, the circuit configuration is the noninverting amplifier
where Vi is called the noninverting input.

The following are some of the linear applications of a noninverting amplifier:

1. AC-coupled amplifier
In an AC coupled non-inverting amplifier, the inverting input is decoupled
through the ground with a capacitor. The bias voltage is inputted through the
noninverting side. The components are selected properly to tune the circuit into the
desired frequency. The resistor and the capacitor’s values will determine the frequency
of the circuit through the given formula.

Frequency= 1/(2πRC)

The capacitors C1 and C2 are called the coupling capacitors which block the DC signal
and allows only the AC to pass through the circuit. The third capacitor is called the
bypass capacitor, which shorts the AC signal through the ground.

In the figure above the voltage gain is equal to (Rf/R1) +1.

Av=(Rf/R1) +1

Solving for the value,

Av=(100K ohm/1K ohm) +1
Av=101

If the unity frequency is 15Mhz, then the bandwidth is,

f2=15Mhz/101
f2=149kHz= Bandwidth

Cut-off frequencies:
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• Brought by the coupling capacitor 1 and the resistor is equal to,

fc1=1/(2π)(100kohm)(1uF)
fc1=1.59Hz

• Brought by the coupling capacitor 2 and the load resistance is equal to,
Fc3=1/(2π)(10kohm)(1uF)
fc2=15.9Hz

• Brought by the bypass capacitor is equal to,

fc3=1/(2π)(1kohm)(1uF)
fc3=159Hz

2. Audio Distribution Amplifier

Noninverting amplifiers can be used as a means of distributing multiple audio
signals. In the example, the noninverting amplifier drives the input voltage to be
distributed into three different voltage followers, so the circuit produces three different
outputs. The voltage gain of the circuit is defined by the equation of the closed-loop
gain of a noninverting amplifier which is the ratio of the feedback and the input
resistance.

In the sample circuit, the voltage gain is equal to,

Av=(Rf/R1)+1
Av=(39kohm/1kohm)+1
Av=40

If the unity frequency is 1MHz then, the bandwidth is equal to,

BW=funity/Av
BW=1MHz/40
BW=25Khz

In practical applications, the IC LM 348 or LM324 can be used as it is a quad

741, which means the IC package has four 741 amplifier inside. The first amplifier can
be used as the inverting amplifier (input) and the other three as the voltage followers.

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Block Diagram of LM 348

3. JFET Switched Voltage Gain

Variation in the closed-loop voltage gain is sometimes needed in other circuits.
JFET can be used as a switch in the input to create a variation of high and low, thus
changing the value of the voltage gain through the resistor R2.
In the circuit, when the JFET is ON, the resistor R2 is in parallel with R1, so the voltage
gain will be equal to Av=(Rf/(R1||R2))+1.
When the JFET is OFF, the resistor R2 will be connected directly to the ground,
so the voltage gain will only be equal to the gain of the noninverting amplifier.

4. Voltage Reference
Noninverting amplifiers in practical applications can be used as a voltage
reference. There are specialized ICs that can be used as voltage reference directly
such as the MC 1403 which has a stable output voltage for any input voltage ranging
from 4.5V to 10v in a wide temperature range. It gives a 2.5V output voltage,
constantly. But the problem is that for most applications, 2.5V may be very low even if

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it has the advantage of stability. The solution to the problem is to input the constant
voltage to the noninverting amplifier to increase the voltage.

SUM IT UP

• Non inverting amplifier takes an input and gives an output of the same phase
as the input.
• Noninverting amplifiers have a variety of applications such as the AC coupled
amplifier, distribution amplifier, JFET switched gain, and it also acts as a
voltage reference.

THINK OF THIS!

1. What is the difference between inverting and non inverting amplifier?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. What happens to the frequency of the ac coupled amplifier when the resistor
and capacitor is changed? Describe how it changes when the resistance is
brought from high to lower value.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Compute for the voltage gain of a noninverting amplifier whose feedback
resistor is 10kohm and input resistor of 1kohms.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!

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In a sheet of paper, draw the wiring diagram of the audio distribution amplifier
circuit above. Refer to the block diagram of the LM348.

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LESSON 3: COMPARATORS

DURATION: 90 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Define comparator;
• Illustrate how comparator works in different applications;
• Solve the required quantities related to comparators.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the definition of
comparators?

2. How familiar are you with the operation of

comparators?

3. How familiar are you with the applications of

comparators?

WHAT IS IT?

Comparators
Comparators are circuit that compares one signal level with another level, the
signal level in which the input is compared to, is called the reference voltage level, Vref.
The principle of comparator is that when an input signal is present, it tells whether it is
higher or lower as compared to the reference signal.

Comparator

Comparators have only two possible output values, +Vsat and –Vsat. These values
depend on the input voltage compared to the reference value.

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• When the input voltage is greater than the reference value Vref, the output will
be -Vsat.
• When the input voltage is less than the reference value Vref, the output will be
+Vsat.
Zero-Crossing Detector Circuit

Zero-Crossing Detectors are comparators that gives an output of +Vsat and -Vsat
when the input of the system crosses the zero reference voltage. In simple words,
ZCD are operational amplifiers that compares two voltage levels simultaneously and
produce output depending on the compared levels. Thus it can be considered to be a
comparator circuit.

The output of the ZCD can be used to drive different elements such as LED lights,
relay, and control gate.

741 IC-based Zero Crossing Detector

The most basic application of the zero-crossing detector is a comparator circuit. It is

also called the sine to square wave converter as it can have an input analog signal
converted to a digital signal.

The reference voltage in the ZCD is zero volts. When the input analog signal goes
positive to the zero reference, the output of the comparator goes to the negative
saturation. When the analog signal goes negative through the zero reference, the
output voltage is driven to the positive saturation.

ZCD as Time Marker Generator

These circuits are best used when the frequency of the sine wave is low
because there are problems that can occur when the circuit is used in very high-
frequency applications. The noises can also add to the original input voltages and
affect the output. This may lead to sometimes, false detected zero crossing.

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741 IC-based Zero Crossing Detector Waveform

When the analog signal rises, the output becomes -Vsat and when the analog signal
falls, the output becomes +Vsat. Notice that the output is a square wave as the
comparator only gives two output levels.

Comparator with Non-Zero Reference Voltage

Non-Zero reference comparators are called limit detectors. The variation in the values
of the resistors in the circuit can have the designer set the limit to values between
zero and Vcc.

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When vin is more positive than vref, the differential input voltage is positive and the
output is high.

When vin is more negative than vref, the output is low.

Comparator with Hysteresis

The problem with comparators is when it contains a considerable amount of
noise in the circuit. When noise comes in, the circuit may produce erratic voltage
output. To solve the problem, it is recommended to use a comparator with positive
feedback. The positive feedback produces two separate trip points that prevent a
noisy input from producing false transitions. The positive feedback produces two trip
points that prevent the circuit from having false transitions due to the noise.

Non inverting Schmitt trigger

A comparator that uses positive feedback is called the Schmitt trigger. The
input voltage is supplied through the inverting side. The feedback is positive since the
loop adds to the input voltage.
When the comparator is positively saturated, a positive voltage is fed back to
the noninverting input. This positive feedback voltage holds the output in the high
state. Similarly, when the output voltage is negatively saturated, a negative voltage is
fed back to the noninverting input, holding the output in the low state. In either case,
the positive feedback reinforces the existing output state.

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Inverting Schmitt trigger

Comparator Applications:

1. Analog and Digital Circuit Interface

Comparators can be used as an interface for analog and digital applications.

In the circuit, the comparator is used as an interface in the input of the EMOS
Circuit. If the input level at the comparator is greater than zero, then the comparator
will give a HIGH output.

Similarly, a comparator can be used in the input of CMOS inverter. The same
principle takes effect, that when the input at the comparator is greater than zero, then
the output will be HIGH.

These kinds of applications are called the zero-crossing detector because the
comparators used zero as the reference.

2.Voltage Detection
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over-and-under voltage location may cause harm and damage to the circuit.
Comparators are normally used to monitor voltage and help guarantee it stays inside
an ideal limit.

One of the useful applications of comparators is that it can be used to detect

over or under voltage in the system. Detection is important so that the designer can
adjust the system to protect the circuit from damages.
3. Current Detection
Over-current location is important to prevent harm and continue to proper
circuit activity. A comparator measures the differential voltage over a shunt resistor to
decide whether the current being observed surpasses a characterized limit.

4. Temperature Sensing
Deciding when temperature exceeds the limit is significant for some
applications. A comparator can be utilized with a thermistor to identify when a specific
temperature reaches a threshold.

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5. Analog to Digital Converter

The input signal in a comparator is usually analog signals, and the output
waveform is a square wave when seen in an oscilloscope.

Practical applications of comparators

• Monitoring system for humidity using Arduino sensors

Monitoring the humidity and moisture in the soil is important in the field
of agriculture. The Arduino sensors detect the moisture in the soil and gives the
detected level to the control board which has a comparator. The comparator
then compares the level of the moisture if it is within the accepted level. These
kinds of systems may be upgraded to correct the moisture level whenever it is
below or above the accepted values, for example, is adding a sprinkler system
and turning it on when the moisture level is below the desired.

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The Humidity Monitoring System

Heartbeat Sensor Circuit

System Implementation of the Heartrate Monitor chip

HRM-2511E heartbeat sensor contains four op-amps in its stages. The analog
signal from the heartbeat sensor is fed to one of the inputs, the negative is connected
to the voltage reference. A potentiometer is used to set the voltage level to the desired
level from 0 to Vcc. When the input pulse reaches the threshold, the comparator gives
an output of HIGH.

Smoke Alarm Circuit

Smoke Alarm Circuit

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The smoke alarm system is similar to the previous applications. There are two
photo-transistor in the circuit. When smoke enters the area of the lower photo-
transistor, the operation point of q1 does not change, thus, it provides a reference
value when the second transistor changes. When the smoke enters the lower region,
the light in the base photo-transistor dims due to the smoke, then the base current
decreases, and the input voltage in the base of the upper transistor will increase. It
then triggers the alarm when the Vin is higher than the reference voltage.

SUM IT UP

• A comparator with a reference voltage of zero is called a zero-crossing detector.

Diode clamps are often used to protect the comparator against excessively
large input voltages. Comparators usually interface their outputs with digital
circuits.
• In some applications, a threshold voltage different from zero may be preferred.
Comparators with a nonzero reference voltage are sometimes called limit
detectors.
• Although op-amps may be used as comparators, IC comparators are optimized
for this application by removing the internal compensating capacitor. This
increases the switching speed.
• Noise is any kind of unwanted signal that is not derived from or harmonically
related to the input signal. Because noise can cause false triggering of a
comparator, positive feedback is used to create hysteresis. This prevents noise
from producing false triggering. The positive feedback also speeds up the
switching between output states.

THINK OF THIS!

1. Explain how a comparator works.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Enumerate the applications of comparators.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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3. Illustrate at least 3 other examples of practical system applications of
comparators. Draw the system diagram and explain the role of the comparator
in each example.

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KEEP LEARNING!

Read more about hysteresis. Write how it helps in the elimination of the possible
negative effect of noise in the system. Share your thoughts with a partner!

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LESSON 4: INTEGRATORS

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Define integrator;
• Illustrate how integrator works in different applications;
• Solve the required quantities related to integrators.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the definition of
integrators?

2. How familiar are you with the operation of

integrators?

3. How familiar are you with the applications of

integrators?

WHAT IS IT?

An integrator is another circuit from an op-amp that performs integration. The

most popular application of an integrator is in producing a ramp of output voltage,

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which is a linearly increasing or decreasing voltage. The integrator is sometimes called
the Miller integrator, which is named after the inventor.

In a basic op-amp, the configuration consists of resistors and the op-amp itself. To produce
an integrator, the feedback resistor is replaced with a capacitor.

An amplifier in the inverting configuration that has a resistor and capacitor is called the
integrator. The resistor and capacitor are connected with the amplifier, where the capacitor
is in the feedback loop.

The inverting input of the amplifier has virtual ground because the ideal op-amp has infinite
gain. When the voltage is fed through the R1 it flows to the system, the capacitor has a
very low resistance level.

The capacitor begins to charge up by the input voltage and in the same ratio, the capacitor
impedance also starts to increase. The charging rate is determined by the RC - time
constant of R1 and C1. The op-amp virtual earth is now hampered and the negative
feedback will produce an output voltage across the op-amp to maintain the virtual earth
condition across the input.

The Op-amp produces a ramp output till the capacitor gets fully charged. The capacitor
charges current decreases by the influence of the potential difference between the Virtual
earth and the negative output.

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Because of the virtual ground on the inverting input, a high input voltage produces an
input current of:

Iin=Vin/R

The virtual ground implies that the output voltage equals the voltage across the
capacitor. For a positive input voltage, the output voltage will increase negatively.

The Voltage is given by the equation:

V=(T/(RC))Vin

The closed-loop time constant Ƭ for the input bypass circuit is:

Ƭ=RC(AVOL+1)

For the integrator to work properly, the closed-loop time constant should be much
greater than the width of the input pulse (at least 10 times greater)

Ƭ>10T

Typically, the closed-loop time is very long so the condition is satisfied easily.

Example:

What is the output voltage at the end of the input pulse? If the 741C has an open-loop
voltage gain of 100,000, what is the closed-loop time constant of the integrator?

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V=(T/(RC))Vin

V=(1ms/((2kohm)(1uF)))(8v)

V=4V

Ƭ=RC(AVOL+1)

Ƭ=(2kohm)(1uF) (100,000+1)

Ƭ=200s

Applications of Op-amp Integrator

1. The most basic application is ramp generation.

2. Used to produce a triangular wave.
3. Used in wave shaping circuits.
4. Used in analog computers.
5. Used as an analog to digital converter.
6. Different sensors also use an integrator.

SUM IT UP

• Integrators are formed by op-amps, resistors and a feedback capacitor.

• An integrating circuit performs the mathematical operation of integration
concerning time, on the input signal, i.e. the output voltage is proportional to the
applied input voltage integrated over time.
• The time constant of the integrator must be very long to work properly.
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• Integrators can be used in a variety of applications such as wave generation,
waveshaping, conversion, and many other applications.

THINK OF THIS!

1. How does the integrators change the input signal from a square wave into
a triangular wave? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. What practical circuit application do you think integrators can be useful?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!
In a group of 3, read more about integrators and search on some projects that
use integrator circuits. Study how the integrators are used in the project. Discuss it in
your group.

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LESSON 5: DIFFERENTIATOR

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Define differentiator;
• Illustrate how differentiator works in different applications;
• Solve the required quantities related to differentiator.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the definition of
differentiator?

2. How familiar are you with the operation of

differentiator?

3. How familiar are you with the applications of

differentiator?

WHAT IS IT?

A differentiator is a circuit that performs the mathematical operation

called differentiation. It produces an output voltage proportional to the
instantaneous rate of change of the input voltage. Common applications of a
differentiator are to detect the leading and trailing edges of a rectangular pulse
or to produce a rectangular output from a ramp input.
The differentiator is also like the integrator that consists of a resistor and
capacitor. The difference is that the capacitor is placed in the input.

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The high pass filter works as a differentiator when the input is:

a. A non-sinusoidal wave.

b. The time constant(T) of the input wave is much greater (longer duration) than the
time constant(CR) of the circuit (T>>CR), i.e. at relatively low frequencies.

When T is less than or equal to CR (T<=CR) the output wave shape will be less than
an ideally differentiated wave shape.

Where:
Vout = output voltage from op-amp differentiator
Vin = input voltage
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t = time in seconds
R = resistor value in the differentiator in Ω
C = capacitance of differentiator capacitor in Farads
dVin/dt = rate of change of voltage with time.

Ideal differentiator’s gain increases when the frequency increases. When the
differentiator has high-frequency applications, it may lead to instability. To solve that
problem, a shunt capacitor is added to the feedback resistor.

The differentiator circuit has many applications in several areas of electronic design.
The op-amp differentiator is particularly easy to use and therefore is possibly one of
the most widely used versions.

The circuit is used in analog computers where it can provide a differentiation

manipulation on the input analog voltage.

Possibly the differentiator circuit is used most widely in process instrumentation. Here
it can be used to monitor the rate of change of various points. If the measurement

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device returns a rate of change greater than a certain value, this will give an output
voltage above a certain threshold and this can be measured using a comparator and
used to set an alarm or warning indication.

There are many signal conditioning applications where a differentiator may be

required. Of the various options open to the electronic circuit designer, often the op-
amp solution is the most attractive, requiring few components while still giving an
excellent level of performance.

Applications of Op-amp Differentiator

• Differentiating amplifiers are most commonly designed to operate on triangular

and rectangular signals.
• Differentiators also find application as wave shaping circuits, to detect high-
frequency components in the input signal.
• Differentiator circuits generate periodic pulses.
• Differentiator circuits cab be used to create trigger pulses which are used as
timing signals of circuits.

SUM IT UP

• An op-amp differentiating amplifier is an inverting amplifier circuit configuration,

which uses reactive components (usually a capacitor than inductor).
• The differentiator performs mathematical differentiation operation on the input
signal concerning time, i.e. the output voltage is proportional to the rate of
change of the input signal.
• Differentiating circuits are commonly used to operate on triangular and
rectangular signals. While operating on sine wave inputs, differentiating circuits
have frequency limitations.

THINK OF THIS!

1. How do the differentiators change the input signal from the triangular wave
into a square wave? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. What practical circuit application do you think differentiators can be useful?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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KEEP LEARNING!
In a group of 3, read more about differentiators and search on some projects
that use differentiator circuits. Study how the integrators are used in the project.
Discuss it in your group.

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Glossary
Arduino- microcontroller kits used by electronic hobbyists and project developers
CMOS- Complementary metal oxide Semiconductor
EMOS- Erasable Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Hysteresis uses two different threshold voltages to avoid the multiple transitions
introduced in the previous circuit.
Wiring Diagram- diagram containing how the components are connected in
practical applications

POST TEST:

True or False

_____1. In an inverting amplifier, it is assumed that the input voltages are equal.

_____2. In an inverting amplifier, it is assumed that the input current is zero.

_____3.To increase the bandwidth range, resistors in the input must be adjusted.

_____4. A high impedance probe is one application of inverting amplifier.

_____5. The noninverting amplifier has an unstable voltage gain.

_____6. MC 1403 is an example of a bandwidth adjuster.

_____7. Non inverting amplifier takes an input and gives an output of the same
phase as the input.
_____8.Differentiators are circuit that compares one signal level with another level.
_____9. When the comparator input goes positive, the output is +Vsat.
_____10.Noise can cause errors in comparators.

List down the applications of comparators, integrators, and differentiators.

APPLICATIONS
COMPARATOR INTEGRATOR DIFFERENTIATOR
11. 14. 17.
12. 15. 18.
13. 16. 19
20.

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UNIT 4:
MIXED SIGNALS
The communication that takes place in our everyday lives takes
the form of signals. Generally speaking, these signals, such as sound
signals, are analog. If the communication needs to be established over
a distance, then the analog signals are transmitted via wire, using
various techniques for effective transmission.

All the quantities in the physical world are of analog in nature. We

may electrically reflect certain quantities as analog signals. An analog
signal is a time-varying signal with a given time slot having any number
of values (variations). Apart from this, a digital signal unexpectedly
differs from one level to another, and will only have a finite number of
values (variations) for a given period.

This unit will cover the discussion on data converters including

analog to digital conversion and digital to analog conversion. Also, it will
give you a glimpse of other mixed signals.

After studying this unit, the student must be able to:

• Develop an understanding of the types of data converter

• Defined what a data converter is
• Understand the basic of ADC and DAC conversion
• Develop understanding in different types of ADC and DAC converter
• Understand the method used in the construction ADC and DAC
converter
• Calculate the output voltage for a given converter circuit

UNIT 4 4. Mixed Signals

4.1 Data Converters
4.1.1 Analog to Digital Conversion
4.1.2 Digital to Analog Conversion

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LESSON 4.1: DATA CONVERTER

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Develop an understanding of the types of data converter

• Defined what a data converter is
• Understand the specifications related to data conversion

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Let us find out how much you already know about this topic. Choose the letter that you
think best answers the questions. Please answer all items. Take note of the items that
you were not sure of the answer and look for the right answer as you go through this
lesson.

____1. It is a time-varying signal that has any number of values (variations) for a given
time slot.
g. Analog Signal
h. Digital Signal
i. Data Converter
____2. It varies suddenly from one level to another level and will have only a finite
number of values (variations) for a given time slot.
a. Analog Signal
b. Digital Signal
c. Data Converter
____3. The ratio of maximum analog input voltage that can be represented in binary
and the equivalent binary number.
g. Conversion Time
h. Resolution
i. Voltage Regulator
____4. It is the amount of time required for a data converter to convert the data
(information) of one form into its equivalent data in another form
a. Conversion Time
b. Resolution
c. Voltage Regulator
____5. the electronic circuits, which can be operated with digital signals are called _____.
g. Digital to Analog Converter
h. Analog Circuits
i. Digital Circuits

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WHAT IS IT?

In this physical world or real world, most of the signals are analog signals.
Analog signals are those signals which change continuously with the time, which
means at every instant of time we will be having different values for the analog signal.
Most of the signals which are present in the physical world are analog signals but
nowadays though, instruments and equipments which are used are all using the
technologies based on the digital signals. If we see a digital signal, it has only two
values, either it will be 0 or it will have 1.

The electronic circuits that can be controlled with analog signals are referred to
as analog circuits. Similarly, the electronic circuits that can be controlled with digital
signals are referred to as digital circuits. An electronic circuit that converts data of one
form to another is called a data converter.

Types of Data Converter

1. Analog to Digital Converter

2. Digital to Analog Converter

If we want to connect the output of an analog circuit as the input of a digital

circuit, then we need to place between them an interfacing circuit. This interfacing
circuit is called Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) which converts the analog signal
into a digital signal.

Similarly, if we want to connect the output of a digital circuit as an input of an

analog circuit, then an interfacing circuit must be placed between them. This
interfacing circuit is called Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) which converts the
digital signal into an analog signal.

Note that some Analog to Digital Converters may require Digital to Analog Converter
as an internal block for their operation.

Specifications

There are two specifications related to data conversion.

1. Resolution
2. Conversion Time

Resolution

The minimum amount of change needed in an analog input voltage for binary
(digital) output to be reflected in is called resolution. It is dependent on the number of
bits used in the digital output.

We can represent resolution as,

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N = the number of bits that are present in the digital output.

We will note from the above formula that there is an inverse relationship
between the resolution and the number of bits. As the number of bits increases,
resolution decreases, and vice-versa.

Another way to define resolution is as the ratio of the maximum analog input
voltage which can be expressed in binary and the binary number equivalent.

We can also represent resolution as,

VFS = full-scale input voltage or maximum analog input voltage,

N = the number of bits that are present in the digital output.

Conversion Time

Conversion time is the amount of time needed for a data converter to convert
one form's data (information) into its equivalent data in another form. Since we have
two types of data converters, the following two types of conversion times exist.

1. Analog to Digital Conversion Time

2. Digital to Analog Conversion Time

Analog to Digital Conversion Time is the amount of time required for an

Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) to convert the analog input voltage into its
equivalent binary (digital) output which depends on the number of bits that are used in
the digital output.

Digital to Analog Conversion Time is the amount of time required for a Digital
to Analog Converter (DAC) to convert the binary (digital) input into its equivalent
analog output voltage which depends on the number of bits that are present in the
binary (digital) input.

SUM IT UP

✓ Analog signals are those signals which change continuously with the time,
which means at every instant of time we will be having different values for the
analog signal.
✓ Digital signal has a finite number of values (variations) for a given period.

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✓ Data Converter is an electronic circuit that converts data from one form to
another.
✓ There are two types of data converter: Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) and
Digital to Analog Converter (DAC).
✓ ADC converts analog signals to digital signals.
✓ DAC converts digital signals to analog signals
✓ There are specifications related to data converter: resolution and conversion
time.
✓ Resolution is the minimum amount of change needed in an analog input
voltage for binary (digital) output to be reflected in
✓ Conversion time is the amount of time needed for a data converter to convert
one form's data (information) into its equivalent data in another form.

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LESSON 4.1.1: ANALOG TO DIGITAL

CONVERSION

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Understand the basic of analog to digital conversion

• Develop understanding in different types of analog to digital converter
• Understand the method used in the construction of analog to digital
converter

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Let us find out how much you already know about this topic. Choose the letter that you
think best answers the questions. Please answer all items. Take note of the items that
you were not sure of the answer and look for the right answer as you go through this
lesson.

____1. It refers to ADC performs the analog to digital conversion directly by utilizing
the internally generated equivalent digital (binary) code for comparing with the analog
input
a. Indirect Type ADC
b. Direct Type ADC
c. Counter Type
____2. It produces an equivalent digital output for a corresponding analog input in no
time.
a. Counter Type
b. Successive Approximation
c. Flash Type
____3. It produces a digital output, which is approximately equal to the analog input
by using counter operation internally.
a. Counter Type
b. Successive Approximation
c. Flash Type
____4. It produces an equivalent digital output for a corresponding analog input by
using two (dual) slope technique.
a. Dual Slope
b. Digital Signal
c. Flash Type
____5. It produces a digital output, which is approximately equal to the analog input by using
a successive approximation technique internally.
a. Counter Type
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b. Successive Approximation
c. Flash Type

WHAT IS IT?

From the previous lesson, we already understand that an Analog to Digital

Converter (ADC) converts an analog signal into a digital signal in which the digital
signal is represented with a binary code, 0 and 1 bits.

In this lesson, we will present a detailed discussion of different types of ADC or

the method of how these converters are constructed.

Block Diagram of an ADC

Figure 4.1 Block diagram of an ADC

Notice that an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) consists of one analog input
and several binary outputs in Figure 4.1 shown above. The number of ADC's binary
outputs would normally be a power of two.

Types of ADC

1. Direct Type ADC – If the ADC directly performs the analog to digital conversion
by using the internal generated equivalent digital (binary) code for comparison
with the analog input

• Counter Type ADC

• Successive Approximation ADC
• Flash Type ADC

2. Indirect Type ADC – if first it converts the analog input into a linear function of time
(or frequency) and then it will produce the digital (binary) output
• Dual Slope ADC
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Counter Type ADC

Figure 4.2 Block Diagram of Counter Type ADC

A counter type ADC generates a digital output that is roughly equivalent to the
analog input by using internal counter operation. The block diagram of counter type
ADC is shown in figure 4.2, which consist of a Clock signal generator, Counter, DAC,
Comparator, and Control logic.

The control logic resets the counter and allows the clock signal generator to
deliver the clock pulses to the counter when it gets the start commanding signal. For
each clock pulse, the counter is incremented by one, and its value is in binary (digital)
format. The counter output is implemented as a DAC input. DAC transforms the
obtained binary (digital) input, which is the output counter, into an analog output.
Comparator compares this analog value, Va with the external analog input value Vi.
As long as 𝑉𝑖 is greater than the output of the comparator will be 1. The operations
mentioned previously will be continued as long as the control logic receives 1 from the
output of the comparator. When Vi is less than or equal to Va, the output of the
comparator will be 0. So, from the output of the comparator, the control logic receives
0. The control logic then deactivates the clock signal generator so that no clock pulse
is sent to the counter. The output of the counter will then be shown as the digital output
at this moment. The corresponding external analog input value Vi is approximately
equal to that.

Successive Approximation ADC

A successive approximation type ADC generates a digital output that is roughly

equivalent to the analog input by the internal use of successive approximation
technique. The block diagram of successive approximation ADC is shown in Figure

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4.3, which consists of a Clock signal generator, Successive Approximation Register
(SAR), DAC, comparator, and control logic.

Figure 4.3 Block Diagram of successive approximation ADC

So, this is the how of the successive approximation ADC works. The control
logic resets all bits of SAR and allows the clock signal generator to deliver clock pulses
to SAR when it gets the start commanding signal. For each clock pulse, the binary
(digital) data present in SAR will be adjusted depending on the output comparator. The
output of SAR is carried out as an input of DAC. DAC turns the obtained digital input,
which is output SAR, into an analog output. This analog value Va is contrasted by the
comparator to the external analog input value Vi. As long as Vi is greater than Va,
the output of a comparator will be 1. When Vi is less than or equal to Va, the output of
the comparator will be 0. Until the digital output is a valid one (when it is almost equivalent
to the corresponding external analog input value Vi, all the operations mentioned previously
will be continued.

Flash Type ADC

Flash type ADC is the fastest ADC because it produces an equivalent digital
output for a corresponding analog input in no time. The circuit diagram of a 3-bit flash
type ADC is shown in Figure 4.4, which consist of a voltage divider network, 7
comparators, and a priority encoder.

So, this is the how of the 3-bit flash type ADC works. The voltage
divider network comprises 8 resistors of equal size. Concerning the field, a reference
voltage VR is applied over the entire network. The voltage drops through each resistor
from bottom to top concerning ground will be the integer multiples (from 1 to 8) of VR/8.
The external input voltage Vi is implemented to any comparator's non-inverting

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terminal. Concerning ground, the voltage drop through each resistor from bottom to
top is applied to the inverting terminal of comparators from bottom to top. All the
comparators compare the external input voltage with the voltage drops present at the
other respective input terminal. Such that, the comparison operations are performed
in parallel by each comparator. As long as Vi is greater than the voltage drop present
at the respective another input terminal, the output of the comparator will be 1.
When Vi is less than or equal to the voltage drop present at the respective another
input terminal, the output of the comparator will be 0. All outputs of the comparator are
linked as the inputs of the priority encoder. This priority encoder generates a binary
code (digital output) corresponding to the high priority input with 1. Thus, the output of
the priority encoder is nothing but the binary equivalent (digital output) of external
analog input voltage, Vi. The flash type ADC has been used in applications at which
analog input conversion speed into digital data should be very high

Figure 4.4 Circuit Diagram of a 3-bit flash type ADC

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Dual Slope ADC

Figure 4.5 Block Diagram of Dual Slope ADC

Using two (dual) slope techniques, a dual-slope ADC generates an equivalent

digital output for a corresponding analog input. The block diagram of a dual-slope
ADC is shown in Figure 4.5 which consists of Integrator, Comparator, Clock signal
generator, Control logic, and Counter.

So, this is the how of the dual-slope ADC works. The control logic resets the
counter and allows the clock signal generator to transmit the clock pulses to the
counter when the start commanding signal is received. Control logic turns the switch
sw to connect to the external analog input voltage Vi when the start commanding
signal is received. This input voltage is implemented to an integrator. The integrator
output is connected to one of the comparator's two inputs, and the other comparator
input is connected to the ground. The comparator compares the integrator output to
zero volts (ground) and generates an output that is added to the control logic. For each
clock pulse, the counter is incremented by one, and its value is in binary (digital)
format. It generates an overflow signal to the control logic if incremented after the
maximum count value is reached. At this point, all counter bits will only have zeros.
Now the control logic forces the switch sw to link to the negative voltage reference
−Vref. It applies this negative reference voltage to an integrator. It eliminates the
charge that is held in the capacitor until it becomes zero. At this point, both of a
comparator's inputs have zero volts. So the comparator gives the control logic a signal.
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Now the control logic deactivates the clock signals generator and maintains the
counter value (holds). The counter value is comparable to the external analog input
voltage. The output of the counter will then be shown as the digital output at this point.
The corresponding external analog input value Vi is approximately equal to that. The
dual-slope ADC is used in applications where precision is more necessary while
converting analog input into its digital (binary) equivalent data.

SUM IT UP

✓ A counter type ADC generates a digital output that is roughly equivalent to the
analog input by using internal counter operation
✓ A successive approximation type ADC generates a digital output that is roughly
equivalent to the analog input by the internal use of successive approximation
technique.
✓ Flash type ADC is the fastest ADC because it produces an equivalent digital
output for a corresponding analog input in no time.
✓ A dual-slope ADC generates an equivalent digital output for a corresponding
analog input.
✓ An Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) consists of one analog input and several
binary outputs

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LESSON 4.1.2: DIGITAL TO ANALOG

CONVERSION

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Understand the basic of digital to analog conversion

• Develop understanding in different types of digital to analog converter
• Understand the method used in the construction of analog to digital
converter

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Let us find out how much you already know about this topic. Choose the letter that you
think best answers the questions. Please answer all items. Take note of the items that
you were not sure of the answer and look for the right answer as you go through this
lesson.

____1. A Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) consists of a number of binary inputs and
a s___________________.
a. undetermined output
b. number of outputs
c. single output
____2. It produces an analog output, which is almost equal to the digital (binary) input
by using this kind of resistor in the inverting adder circuit.
a. Weighted Resistor ADC
b. R-2R Ladder ADC
c. Flash Type
____3. It converts a digital input signal into an analog output signal.
a. ADC
b. DAC
c. Dual Slope
____4. It produces an analog output, which is almost equal to the digital (binary) input
by using this kind of network in the inverting adder circuit.
a. Weighted Resistor ADC
b. R-2R Ladder ADC
c. Flash Type
____5. The digital signal is represented with a ________________.
a. Morse code
b. pseudo code
c. binary code

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WHAT IS IT?

From the previous lesson, we already understand that the digital to analog
converter converts digital input signal to an analog output signal. As mentioned, the
digital signal is represented with a binary code, which is a combination of bits 0 and 1.

In this lesson, we will present a detailed discussion of different types of DAC.

Block Diagram of DAC

Figure 4.6 Block Diagram of DAC

Notice that Digital to Analog converter (DAC) consists of several binary inputs
and a single output in Figure 4.6 shown above. The number of DAC’s binary input
would normally be a power of two.

Types of DAC

1. Weighted Resistor DAC

2. R-2R Ladder DAC

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Weighted Resistor DAC

Figure 4.7 Circuit diagram of a 3-bit binary-weighted resistor DAC

A weighted resistor DAC provides an analog output that is nearly equal to the
digital (binary) input by the use of binary-weighted resistors in the inverting adder
circuit. In particular, a binary-weighted resistor DAC is called a weighted resistor DAC.

Refer to the circuit diagram of a 3-bit binary-weighted resistor DAC shown in

Figure 4.7. Note the binary number bits may only have one of the two values. That is,
0 or 1. Let the 3-bit binary input be b2b1b0. Here the bits b2 and b0 indicate Most
Significant Bit (MSB) and Least Significant Bit (LSB) respectively.

When the corresponding input bits are equal to 0 the digital switches shown in
the above figure will be connected to the ground. Similarly, when the corresponding
input bits are equal to 1 the digital switches shown in the above figure will be connected
to the negative reference voltage −VR.

The non-inverting input terminal of an op-amp in the above circuit is connected

to the ground. That means zero volts are introduced at the non-inverting input terminal
of op-amp.

The voltage at the opamp inverting input terminal is the same as that of the
voltage present at its non-inverting input terminal according to the virtual short

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principle. Therefore, the voltage at the node of the inverting terminal would be zero
volts.

Shown below is the he nodal equation at the inverting input terminal’s node:

Let us substitute R=2Rf 𝑓 in the above equation, it will give us

The above equation describes a 3-bit binary-weighted resistor DAC's output

voltage equation. We can get seven possible output voltage values by varying the
binary input from 000 to 111 for a fixed reference voltage, VR, because the number
of bits at the binary (digital) input is three.

Based on the output voltage equation of a 3-bit binary-weighted resistor DAC,

we can write the generalized output voltage equation of an N-bit weighted resistor
DAC as shown below.

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We can say that the advantage of a binary-weighted DAC circuit is due to its
simple construction with fewer electronic components. However, just like the other
types of data converter, binary-weighted resistor DAC also has disadvantages.

• The drawback of binary-weighted resistor DAC is that the differences

between the resistance values corresponding to LSB & MSB will
increase as the number of bits present in the digital input increases.
• Another disadvantage is it is hard to design more precise resistors as
the number of bits present in the digital input increases.

Sample Problem

Given the circuit below, find the output voltage for digital input 1010 1101.

Solution:

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R-2R Ladder DAC

Figure 4.8 Circuit diagram of a 3-bit R-2R Ladder DAC

Due to some disadvantages of binary-weighted resistor DAC, this will distort

the current signal in the branch that has the switch for the least significant bit. So, to
overcome and give solution to this problem, most of the DAC’s used the R-2R ladder-
type circuit. We can say, R-2R Ladder DAC generates an analog output that is nearly
equal to the digital (binary) input by the use of an R-2R ladder network in the inverting
adder method.

Refer to the circuit diagram of a 3-bit R-2R Ladder DAC shown in Figure 4.8.
Note the binary number bits may only have one of the two values. That is, 0 or 1. Let
the 3-bit binary input be b2b1b0. Thus, the bits b2 and b0 represent the Most
Significant Bit (MSB) and Least Significant Bit (LSB) respectively.

When the corresponding input bits are equal to 0 the digital switches shown in
the above figure will be connected to the ground. Similarly, when the corresponding
input bits are equal to 1 the digital switches shown in the above figure will be
connected to the negative reference voltage −VR.

The generalized output voltage equation of an R-2R Ladder DAC is difficult to

obtain. But for individual binary input combinations, we can easily find the analog
output voltage values of R-2R Ladder DAC.

R-2R Ladder DAC is favored over binary weighted resistor DAC because of the
advantages below.

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• The R-2R Ladder DAC only comprises two resistor values: R and 2R.
Selecting and designing more accurate resistors is simple, then.
• If there are more bits in the digital input then we need to supply the
necessary number of R-2R parts additionally.

Sample Problem

Convert 0001 to analog using R-2R DAC from the circuit below.

Solution:

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So, for the digital input 0001, we got that the analog output voltage:

We can also show that:

Digital input of 0010:

Digital input of 0100:

Digital input of 1000:

Using the principle of superposition, we can obtain the output for any combination of
bits comprising the input binary number.

Sample Problem

With a digital input of 110, find the output voltage of the R-2R circuit below.

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Solution:

Sample Problem

Given the value below, find the output voltage V0.

Vref = 5V
R = Rf = 2kΩ,
Digital input = 1110

Solution:

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SUM IT UP

✓ Digital to Analog converter (DAC) consists of several binary inputs and a single
output
✓ A weighted resistor DAC provides an analog output that is nearly equal to the
digital (binary) input by the use of binary-weighted resistors in the inverting
adder circuit.
✓ R-2R Ladder DAC generates an analog output that is nearly equal to the digital
(binary) input by the use of an R-2R ladder network in the inverting adder
method.
✓ The R-2R Ladder DAC only comprises two resistor values: R and 2R. Selecting
and designing more accurate resistors is simple, then

THINK OF THIS!

Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the lesson.

5. Explain resolution and conversion time.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6. On a separate sheet of paper, draw the block diagram of Counter Type ADC,
Successive Approximation ADC, Flash Type ADC and Dual Slope ADC.

3. Explain the operation of binary-weighted resistor DAC and R-2R Ladder DAC.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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KEEP LEARNING!

In a clean paper or digital pad, solve the following problem.

1. Calculate the output voltage of the R-2R ladder circuit below for the digital input of
100. Input voltage is -VR/2, input resistance of 2RΩ, and feedback resistance of 2RΩ.

2. Calculate the output voltage for the 4-bit DAC shown in the figure.

3. Calculate the value of output voltage, of a 4-bit weighted –resistor DAC, given the
values below:

Vref = 5V

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R = 1kΩ

Rf = 470 Ω

Digital input = 1010

POST TEST

Congratulations! You’ve come this far. You have completed this chapter. Before you
go to the next chapter, you had to answer the following post-test questions.

Fill in the blank. Supply the correct missing word for each number.

1. A __________ generates an equivalent digital output for a corresponding analog

input.

2. The ____________ is the fastest ADC because it produces an equivalent digital

output for a corresponding analog input in 3. _____ time.

4. A ________________ generates a digital output that is roughly equivalent to the 5.

_________input by the internal use of successive approximation technique.

6. A ___________ generates a digital output that is roughly equivalent to the analog

input by using internal counter operation.

7. The counter type ADC is consists of __________ generator, Counter, DAC,

Comparator and 8.__________.

9. The ______________ consists of one analog input and several binary outputs.

10. The number of ADC's binary outputs would normally be a power of _____.

11. If first it converts the analog input into a linear function of time (or frequency) and
then it will produce the digital (binary) output this ADC type is called __________.

12. __________ is the amount of time needed for a data converter to convert one
form's data (information) into its equivalent data in another form.

13. _________ converts the analog signal into a digital signal.

14. The minimum amount of change needed in an analog input voltage for binary
(digital) output to be reflected in is called __________.

15. Digital signal is represented with a ___________, which is a combination of bits 0

and 1.

16. Digital to Analog converter (DAC) consists of several binary inputs and a ________
output.

17. A weighted resistor DAC provides an _______ output that is nearly equal to the
digital (binary) input by the use of 18. __________ in the inverting adder circuit.

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19. The R-2R Ladder DAC only comprises two resistor values: _____ and ______.

20. In a flash type ADC, the output of each comparator is connected to an input of
____________.

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UNIT 5:
SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
AND CONTROL DEVICES
Sensors and transducers are widely used in
different electronic applications. There are numerous types
and examples of each. This unit will focus on the
discussion of sensors and transducers as part of different
electronic applications for students to realize the important
role of these components.

After this unit, the student must be able to:

• Describe what sensors, transducers, and control
devices are;
• Discuss how these three components work together
in a circuit;
• Realize the important role of sensors and
transducers and control devices in the field of
electronics.

UNIT 5 5. Sensors and Transducers and Control devices

5.1. Sensors

5.2. Examples of Sensors and Transducers

5.3 Other Types of Sensors and Transducers

5.4 Basic Control Devices

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LESSON 1: SENSORS

DURATION: 90 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Define sensors;
• Discuss different types of sensors;
• Illustrate how sensors work in different applications;
• Discuss applications of sensors;
• Solve the quantities important in sensors.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
8. How familiar are you with the definition of
sensors and their types?

9. How familiar are you with the operation of

sensors?

10. How familiar are you with the applications of

sensors?

WHAT IS IT?

Sensors
Sensors are devices that get a physical quantity and convert it into a signal
suitable for the application (for example optical, electrical, and mechanical). Today,

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sensors usually convert these quantities into electrical signals for it has wide range of
use.

Retrieved from: https://www.electronicshub.org/different-types-sensors/

A sensor is an input device that gives an output of a specified quantity that is

useful to the system. These devices are usually part of a bigger system or project, its
output is generally used as an input to the main controller of a system.

In electronics, sensors are used to interface a quantity to electrical quantity. For

example, the velocity is measured by a sensor, and the output is then converted into
digital means for it to be readable or understandable by the user.

Some of the most commonly measured quantities are:

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Retrieved from: http://engineering.nyu.edu/gk12/amps-cbri/pdf/Intro%20to%20Sensors.pdf

In choosing which sensor to use for a specific application, different factors must be
considered:
• Environmental Factors
Factors such as the temperature range, effect of humidity, corrosiveness, size,
protection, susceptibility to electromagnetic interference, ruggedness, power
consumption, and self-testing capability must be seen when choosing a proper
sensor for a project. Some sensors are needed to be placed in extreme
temperature levels, so the temperature range must be properly considered.
• Economic Factors
These focuses on the cost, availability, and lifetime of the device. Other sensors
might not be available in the region or might be very costly.
• Sensor Characteristics
These are the technical characteristics of the sensors such as the sensitivity,
range, stability, repeatability, linearity, error, response time, and frequency. For
some of the applications that require high precision results, it is important to
check on these parameters.

Types of Sensors
There are different types of sensors based on the source, form, and others.
• Active vs. Passive
Active sensors- these are types of sensors that need an external source. This
external source is the majority of the output signal.
Passive sensors-these are type of sensors that works even without external
power. The power is drawn from the measured signal itself.
• Digital vs. Analog
Digital Sensors- are sensors that produce digital output (high or low).
Analog Sensors- are sensors that give a continuous output.
• Null and deflection methods

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When measuring quantities, the signals produces deflection which can be
observed. To “null” is to counteract the deflection of the signal.
• Input- Output Configuration
Types of input:
Interfering Input- These are the undesired quantities that are unintentionally
sensed by the device.
Modifying Input- are quantities that cause modification or change at the
output.
Desired Input- is input quantities that are wanted by the system to be detected.
Undesired inputs such as the interfering and modifying need to be filtered
before going into the system.
• Conversion Phenomenon- sensors use common conversion phenomena
such as photoelectric, thermoelectric, electromagnetic, electrochemical, and
others.

Why are sensors important?

Sensors are inside every system used in daily life. When someone opens one’s
device, sensors such as fingerprint sensors and face detectors are present. Sensors
are elements that are embedded in almost every device.
Sensors are also vital in the process of automation. Without sensors,
automation will not be possible. Industrial machineries such as filling machines,
packaging machines, cutting machines, and many others use sensors to provide input
in the machines whether to fill a bottle of fluid or stop for example.

How it works

The sensor’s working principle can be compared to how the human body
perceives. When outside information such as the smell of the food is sensed by the
nose, the brain processes the information and tries to identify what smell is that,
similarly, when a temperature sensor for example senses the temperature, the
controller identifies the temperature level and the actuator gives the response
depending on the program in the microcontroller.

SENSE BRAIN BODY

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SENSOR MICROCONTROLLER ACTUATOR

Sensors and the Human Body Sensing

Transducers
When sensors detect the stimulus, transducers are devices that convert the
physical quantity into electrical.

The primary transducer converts the physical parameters into an electrical

signal, while the secondary converts the electrical signal into analog or digital values.

PRIMARY SECONDARY
Conventional • Thermocouple
Transducers • Compass
Microelectronic • Photodiode
sensors • Piezoresistive pressure sensor
• Microaccelerometers
• Chemical Sensor
• DNA Arrays
Displacement • Resistive Sensors • Wheatstone
Measurements • Inductive Sensors Bridge
• Capacitive Sensors • Amplifiers
• Piezoelectric Sensors

SUM IT UP

• Sensors are devices that get a physical quantity and convert it into a signal
suitable for the application (for example optical, electrical, and mechanical).
• There are different factors needed to consider when choosing sensors
depending on the application.
• Sensors play an important role in most electronic systems, especially in
automation.

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THINK OF THIS!

1. Explain how sensors work. Give examples of how it is used in daily life.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. If you are planning to put up a bakery and plans to automate, what are some of
the physical quantities that you can measure? What are the considerations you
would take note of when choosing your sensor?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!

Understand the topic in-depth by studying the recommended reading.

• Ian Sinclair, Sensors and Transducers, Newnes (2001)
• Mason A., Interfacing to the Real World: Review of Electrical Sensors
and Actuators.

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LESSON 2: EXAMPLES OF SENSORS AND

TRANSDUCERS

DURATION: 90 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Define sensors;
• Discuss different types of sensors;
• Illustrate how sensors work in different applications;
• Discuss applications of sensors;
• Solve the quantities important in sensors.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the different
sensors and transducers?
2. How familiar are you with the technologies
used in sensors?
3. How familiar are you with the applications of
sensors?

WHAT IS IT?

Sensors are widely used in different electronics applications. In this lesson,

we will discuss different technologies and applications of sensors that can be useful
for your future projects.

Temperature Sensors

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One of the most well-known and most common sensor is the Temperature Sensor. A
Temperature Sensor, as the name proposes, senses the temperature for example it
gauges the change in the temperature.

Temperature Sensor

NTC Thermistor

In a Temperature Sensor, the adjustments in the Temperature relate to change

in its physical property like resistance or voltage.

There are various kinds of Temperature Sensors like Temperature Sensor ICs
(like LM35), Thermistors, Thermocouples, RTD (Resistive Temperature Devices), and
so forth.

Temperature Sensors are utilized wherever like PCs, cell phones, vehicles,
cooling frameworks, industries, and others.

Temperature Sensors can be used in systems such as smart home technology

for room temperature control.

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Proximity Sensors

A Proximity Sensor is a non-contact type sensor that distinguishes the presence

of an article. Nearness Sensors can be actualized utilizing various methods like Optical
(like Infrared or Laser), Ultrasonic, Hall Effect, Capacitive, and so on.

Some of the uses of Proximity Sensors are Mobile Phones, Cars (Parking
Sensors), enterprises (object arrangement), Ground Proximity in Aircrafts, and so
forth.

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Proximity sensors can also be used in automated doors, phones, self-driving
cars, toy cars, automation systems, and many other applications.

Some proximity sensors are available in IC packages that are readily available for use
in development kits like Arduino, raspberry pi, and other applications.

Accelerometer
Accelerometer sensors are sensors that measure the rate of change of speed. It
measures the change in velocity per unit time.

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These accelerometer sensors are attached to an object to measure the vehicle

dynamics and the orientation, tilt of the object.
IR sensor
IR or Infrared Sensor is an electronic device that senses the infrared radiation
in a surrounding area. Infrared sensors can be active or passive. The active IR sensor
detects and emits radiation. It has a led which emits the light and a receiver. It is also
called the proximity sensors, which are commonly used in robots for the detection of
obstacles.

Source: Research Gate

IR sensors for Arduino

The IR sensors have IR receiver and emitter. The emitter gives out infrared
light while the power is connected. The receiver is a photodiode.

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IR sensors can be used in applications such as gesture control, line follower

robot, multi-touch control, wireless remote and keyboard, agricultural applications in
drone, and many others.

Pressure Sensor

Pressure Sensors are sensors that produce an output voltage which is directly
proportional to the pressure experienced by the object. These sensors are mounted
on-board which are placed in the object under observation.

Light Sensor
A light sensor is also called a photoelectric device. It converts light into voltage.
Light sensor or Photosensors are photosensitive devices that can detect the presence
of light. The most common light sensor is the LDR or Light Dependent Resistor and
photodiode. The most practical use of these devices is automatic night light which
turns on the bulb at night when the sensor detects no light and turns off the bulb when
it detects sunlight.

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Smoke or Gas Sensor

A smoke sensor or gas detector is a sensor that detects and identifies different
types of gasses. Most of these sensors are used to detect gas leaks, carbon monoxide,
and smoke. Commonly, Metal-Oxide based gas sensors are used. This class of
sensors has a chemiresistor that detects and reacts to the gas.

Gas/Smoke Detector

Touch Sensor
Touch sensors function similarly to tactile switches which records and detect
physical touch.

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Touch sensors are present in robots, it enables the basic movement and the
ability to detect touch in the surrounding.
There are several touch sensors available for use such as the grove sensors
and the slide sensors.

Color Sensor
There are two types of color sensors. One illuminates the object with broad
wavelength light and differentiates the three types of colors in the receiver. The other
type illuminates the object with the three types of light (red, blue, and green)
independently. In both scenarios, the received light intensity of red, blue, and green
are detected, and the ratio of light received is calculated.

By detection of the ratio of intensity of the RGB light, the color of the object is
identified. These sensors are used in true color recognition and color mark detection.

Humidity Sensor

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Humidity Sensor
Source: Research Gate

Humidity is one of the quantities that is sensed in electronic systems. It is found

in handheld devices, metrology, medical, automobile, and manufacturing industries.
The humidity sensor can be classified into two, the relative and absolute
humidity sensor. The Relative humidity sensor measures humidity by comparing the
reference humidity and measuring the temperature of the object then checks for the
equivalent humidity in that given temperature. On the other hand, absolute humidity
does not use reference temperature.

Tilt sensor
The tilt sensor is present in drones to measure vertical inclination and rotation.

It tells whether the object in which the sensor is attached is tilted or in an upright
position.

Tilt sensors are devices that produce an electrical signal that varies with an
angular movement. These sensors are used to measure slope and tilt within a limited
range of motion. Sometimes, the tilt sensors are referred to as inclinometers because
the sensors just generate a signal but inclinometers generate both readout and a
signal.

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Tilt sensors have a rolling ball that goes to the bottom when to power of
the circuit is turned on which forms an electrical connection to the circuit. When the
object is tilted, the ball stays at the higher level and there is no electrical connection in
the circuit.

SUM IT UP

• Sensors have a wide range of applications. Each sensors have a different

area in which the designer can take advantage of its functions.
• It can be seen in everyday life applications, in the field of agriculture, robotics,
and many others.

THINK OF THIS!

Write the possible type of sensor that can be used in the following applications.
Explain how the sensor is used in the application.

1. Automobile ______________________________________________
2. Robotics ______________________________________________
3. Medical Field ______________________________________________
4. Agriculture ______________________________________________
5. Home Automation ______________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!

Create a block diagram of a system which the sensors discussed can be

applied to. Explain how the sensor works in the system.

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Block Diagram:

Brief Description:

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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LESSON 3: OTHER SENSORS AND
TRANSDUCERS

DURATION: 90 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Discuss other types of sensors:

• Illustrate how other types of sensors work in different applications;
• Discuss applications of sensors;

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the different
sensors and transducers?
2. How familiar are you with the technologies
used in sensors?
3. How familiar are you with the applications of
sensors?

WHAT IS IT?

Sensors and transducers come in many forms which is the reason it is difficult
to classify.
For this lesson, we will focus on other sensors not discussed in the previous
lesson.

Capacitive Transducer
The definition of the capacitive transducer is to measure the displacement (how much
distance it covers), pressure, and other several physical quantities, these transducers
are preferred. In these transducers, the capacitance between the plates is varied

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because of the distance between the plates, overlapping of plates, due to dielectric
medium change, etc.

The working principle of a capacitive transducer is variable capacitance. As per its

structure, these are having two parallel metal pates which are maintaining the distance
between them. In between them, dielectric medium (such as air) can be filled. So, the
distance between these two metal plates and the positions of the plates can change
the capacitance. So, variable capacitance is the principle of these transducers. The
basic difference between the normal capacitors and capacitive transducers is, the
capacitor plates are constant in normal capacitors wherein these transducers,
capacitor plates are the movable condition.

RTD SENSORS
RTDs - or Resistance Temperature Detectors - are temperature sensors that contain
a resistor that changes resistance value as its temperature changes. The most popular
RTD is the Pt100. They have been used for many years to measure temperature in
laboratory and industrial processes, and have developed a reputation for accuracy,
repeatability, and stability.
An RTD works by using a basic principle; as the temperature of a metal increases,
so does the resistance to the flow of electricity. An electrical current is passed through
the sensor, the resistance element is used to measure the resistance of the current
being passed through it.

BIMETALLIC STRIP

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A bimetallic strip consists of two different materials with different expansion
coefficients that are bonded together. For example, for brass and steel, the coefficients
of linear expansion are:

Brass: 19 x 10-6 /°C Steel: 11 x 10-6 /°C

When this bimetallic strip is heated, the brass expands more than the steel, and the
strip curves with the brass on the outside. If the strip is cooled, it curves with the steel
on the outside.

• The first fundamental is the thermal expansion, which states that the metals expand
or contract based on variation in temperature
• The second fundamental is the temperature coefficient, where each metal (having
its temperature coefficient) expands or contracts differently at a constant
temperature.

Bimetallic strips are used as switches in thermostats.

STRAIN GAUGE
If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will become skinnier and longer, both
changes increasing electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, if a strip of
conductive metal is placed under compressive force (without buckling), it will broaden
and shorten. If these stresses are kept within the elastic limit of the metal strip (so that
the strip does not permanently deform), the strip can be used as a measuring element
for physical force, the amount of applied force inferred from measuring its resistance.
Such a device is called a strain gauge. Strain gauges are frequently used in
mechanical engineering research and development to measure the stresses
generated by machinery. Aircraft component testing is one area of application, tiny
strain-gauge strips glued to structural members, linkages, and any other critical
component of an airframe to measure stress. Most strain gauges are smaller than a
postage stamp, and they look something like this:

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A strain gauge’s conductors are very thin: if made of round wire, about 1/1000 inch in
diameter. Alternatively, strain gauge conductors may be thin strips of the metallic film
deposited on a nonconducting substrate material called the carrier. The latter form of
the strain gauge is represented in the previous illustration. The name “bonded gauge”
is given to strain gauges that are glued to a larger structure under stress (called
the test specimen). The task of bonding strain gauges to test specimens may appear
to be very simple, but it is not. “Gauging” is a craft in its own right, essential for
obtaining accurate, stable strain measurements. It is also possible to use an
unmounted gauge wire stretched between two mechanical points to measure tension,
but this technique has its limitations.

MAGNETIC FIELD SENSOR

Magnetic sensors detect changes and disturbances in a magnetic field like flux,
strength, and direction. Other types of detection sensors work with characteristics like
temperature, pressure, light.

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There are several types of technologies used to make a magnetic sensor work.
Fluxgate, Hall Effect, magnetoresistive, magneto-inductive, proton precession,
optical pump, nuclear precession, and SQUID (superconducting quantum
interference devices) each have a different approach to using magnetic sensors.
Magnetoresistive devices record electrical resistance of the magnetic field.
Magnetoinductive are coils surrounding magnetic material whose ability to be
permeated changes within the Earth's magnetic field. Fluxgate measures magnetic
fields against a known internally created magnetic-based response that runs
through a continually fluxing set of parameters. Each type of technology focuses on
a particular area for detection, a measurement to be detected, and a way of
recording changes

ULTRASONIC SENSOR
The HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor uses SONAR to determine the distance of an object
just like the bats do. It offers excellent non-contact range detection with high accuracy
and stable readings in an easy-to-use package from 2 cm to 400 cm or 1” to 13 feet.
The operation is not affected by sunlight or black material, although acoustically, soft
materials like cloth can be difficult to detect. It comes complete with the ultrasonic
transmitter and receiver module.
Proximity Detection: An object passing within the preset range will be detected and
generate an output signal. The detect point is independent of target size, material, or
reflectivity.

Ranging Measurement: Precise distance(s) of an object moving to and from the

sensor are measured via time intervals between transmitted and reflected bursts of
ultrasonic sound. Distance change is continuously calculated and outputted.

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PHOTOGATE SENSOR
Photogates allow for extremely accurate timing of events within physics experiments,
for studying free fall, air track collisions, pendulum periods, the speed of a rolling
object, among other things. The Vernier Photogate includes an accessory rod for
mounting to a ring stand.

The gate has an input port so multiple gates can be connected in a daisy-chain
configuration with up to four gates going to a single interface channel.

The laser gate mode requires the addition of a common pen laser, which is directed
into the laser port. The laser may be some distance from the gate, so that you can
measure the speed of larger objects such as a rocket, model car, or even a real
automobile.

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SUM IT UP

• Sensors have many other examples that are also used for different applications
in the field of electronics and others.
• Another type of sensors includes capacitor transducer, thermistor, RTDs,
Bimetallic strip, strain gauge, magnetic field sensor, ultrasonic sensor, and
photogate sensors which are used to convert physical quantities into electrical
inputs to electronic systems.

THINK OF THIS!

In the image below, the ultrasonic sensor is attached in the car, what is the
role of the ultrasonic sensor in the car? Explain its function.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!

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Create a block diagram of a system which the sensors discussed can be applied to.
Explain how the sensor works in the system.

Block Diagram:

Brief Description:

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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LESSON 4: CONTROL DEVICES

DURATION: 90 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:
• Identify and draw schematic symbols of control devices;
• State the two types of meters you can use to check a switch;
• State the operating principle of control devices.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the definition of control
devices?

2. How familiar are you with the operation of control

devices?

3. How familiar are you with the applications of

control devices?

WHAT IS IT?

Circuit control devices are used all over that electrical or electronic circuits are utilized.
They are found in submarines, computers, airships, TVs, ships, space
vehicles, restorative disobedient, and many other places. In this chapter, you'll learn
what circuit control gadgets are, how they are utilized, and some of their
characteristics.
Control devices are used to switch or turn on/off current flow in a circuit. Switches,
relays, and solenoids are examples of control devices.

Why are control devices important?

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When problems arise in the circuit, there should always be means to remove the power
to the circuit. For example, the system overheated, the impulse of the respondent to
the incident is to remove the power in the system. Also, when working with electrical
systems, it is important to “tag out” or make sure that there is no power in the system
that is being worked on.
TYPES OF CONTROL DEVICES:
Switches
Switches are used within the home to turn off the clock, to control the stove, to turn on
the refrigerator light, to turn on and control radios and TVs, hairdryers, dishwashers,
garbage disposals, washers and dryers, as well as to
control warming and discuss conditioning. A commonplace luxury automobile
with control seats and windows might have as numerous as 45 switches.
Businesses in the industries, navy, and many other fields use switches as control
devices.
The switch has the most basic principle of turning the power on or off. Switches have
different types. In this lesson, we will discuss the most common types of switches.
Mechanical switches must be activated physically, by moving, pressing, releasing,
or touching its contacts.

• SPST (Single Pole Single Throw)

This type has the most basic component. It has only one input and one output
contact.

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• SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw)

The switch has two on positions as it has one input contact and two output
contact.

• DPDT (Double Pole Double Throw)

DPDT also has two ON positions. It works like two SPDT operating at the same
time.

• Push Button
It is a momentary contact switch that makes or breaks connection as long as
pressure is applied (or when the button is pushed).

• Toggle Switch
A toggle switch is actuated by moving a lever back and forth to open or close
an electrical circuit. Toggle switches offer a variety of switching functions -
SPDT, SPST, DPDT, DPST, and multiple actuator and bushing options.

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Electronic Switches

The electronic switches are generally called as solid-state switches because there are
no physical moving parts and hence the absence of physical contacts. Most of the
appliances are controlled by semiconductor switches such as motor drives and HVAC
equipments.

There are different types of solid-state switches are available in today market with
different sizes and ratings. Some of these solid-state switches include transistors,
SCRs, MOSFETs, TRIACs, and IGBTs.

• BJT
Works similar to the simple switches that allows and disallows current to flow
through. Both NPN and PNP transistors are operated or switched ON when a
sufficient base current is supplied to it. When a small current flows through the
base terminal supplied by a driving circuit (connected between the base and
emitter), it causes to turns ON the collector-emitter path.

• Diode
The diode can switch the circuit when the supply surpasses the barrier
potential. Germanium and silicon are usually used to create diodes.

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RELAYS

Electrical relays and contractors use a low-level control signal to switch a much
higher voltage or current supply using several different contact arrangements.
The RELAY is a device that acts upon the same fundamental principle as the
solenoid. The difference between a relay and a solenoid is that a relay does not have
a movable core (plunger) while the solenoid does. Where multipole relays are used,
several circuits may be controlled at once. Relays are electrically operated control
switches and are classified according to their use as POWER RELAYS or CONTROL
RELAYS. Power relays are called CONTACTORS; control relays are usually known
simply as relays. The function of a contractor is to use a relatively small amount of
electrical power to control the switching of a large amount of power. The contractor
permits you to control power at other locations in the equipment, and the heavy power
cables need to be run only through the power relay contacts.

SOLENOID

Solenoid is the generic term for a coil of wire used as an electromagnet. It also refers
to any device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy using a solenoid.
The device creates a magnetic field from electric current and uses the magnetic field
to create linear motion. Common applications of solenoids are to power a switch, like
the starter in an automobile, or a valve, such as in a sprinkler system.

A solenoid is a coil of wire in a corkscrew shape wrapped around a piston, often

made of iron. As in all electromagnets, a magnetic field is created when an electric
current passes through the wire. Electromagnets have an advantage over permanent
magnets in that they can be switched on and off by the application or removal of the
electric current, which is what makes them useful as switches and valves and allows
them to be entirely automated.

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Like all magnets, the magnetic field of an activated solenoid has positive and
negative poles that will attract or repel material sensitive to magnets. In a solenoid,
the electromagnetic field causes the piston to either move backward or forward,
which is how motion is created by a solenoid coil.

SUM IT UP

• CIRCUIT CONTROL DEVICES are used to apply or remove power and to

select a function or circuit within a device.
• There are three types of control devices: Switch, relay, and solenoid.

THINK OF THIS!

1. What are reasons circuit control is important?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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2. What are the types of control devices?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

3. Draw and label the schematic symbols of control devices.

KEEP LEARNING!

Create a booklet containing the schematic symbols of different control devices.

You can also draw the schematic symbols of control devices not included in the
discussion. Write down a label for each drawing. Use a half of short bond paper to
create a booklet.

POST TEST
Identify the answer that best describes the question.

_____1. An input device that gives an output of a specified quantity that is useful to
the system.

_____2. These are types of sensors that need an external source. This external source
is the majority of the output signal.
_____3. These are a type of sensors that works even without an external source.
_____4. Switch that has only one input and one output contact.
_____5. Switch that has only one input and two output contact.
6-10. List the examples of sensors that can measure physical quantity.
6
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7
8
9
10

11-20. List different types of switches and draw each.

SWITCH SYMBOL
11. 12.

13. 14.

15. 16.

17. 18.

19. 20.

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UNIT 6:
BASIC
MEASUREMENT
THEORY
To learn how electronic instruments work and how they are used,
a stable foundation in the electrical theory of electronic measurements
is required. While it is presumed that the students understand basic
electrical concepts (voltage, current, Ohm's law, and many more.), these
concepts will be discussed here with a specific focus on how electronic
measurement theory is applied. This method uses the theory to lay the
foundation to explore the usage and function of electronic instruments.
Many basic concepts apply to various types of measurements and
instruments.

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UNIT 6 Basic Measurement Theory

Lesson 1:
Part 1 (electrical quantities, resistance, polarity,
power, direct current, alternating current, RMS, and
average value)
Lesson 2:
Part 2 ( Crest Factor, Phase, AC Power, Non-
sinusoidal Waveforms, Harmonics, Square Wave,
Pulse Train, Combined DC and AC)
Lesson 3:
Part 3 (Modulated Signals, Decibels, Absolute
Decibel Values, Measurement Error, The Loading
Effect, The Voltage Divider, Maximum Voltage
Transfer, Maximum Power Transfer
Lesson 4:
Part 4 (Impedance, Bandwidth, Rise Time,
Bandwidth Limitation on Square Wave, Logic
Families)

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LESSON 1: MEASUREMENT THEORY

PART 1

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Develop understanding in electrical quantities, resistance and polarity

• Define power, direct and alternating current
• Explain RMS and average value

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Let us find out how much you already know about this topic. Choose the letter that you
think best answers the questions. Please answer all items. Take note of the items that
you were not sure of the answer and look for the right answer as you go through this
lesson.

____1. The __________ of a sine wave is zero because the waveform is positive for
one-half cycle and is negative for the other half.
j. resistance
k. power
l. average value
____2. A __________ is an electrical device that obeys Ohm’s Law.
g. voltage
h. resistor
i. capacitor
____3. It is defined as the flow of electric charge.
j. current
k. voltage
l. resistance
____4. What is the simplest form of current?
g. Direct current
h. Alternation current
i. Power
____5. It indicates the mathematics behind calculating the value of an arbitrary
waveform.
j. Electrical quantities
k. Average Value
l. RMS

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WHAT IS IT?

Electrical Quantities

Current is the flow of electrical charge, measured in units of amperes. The

amount of charge flowing is measured by the number of electrons flowing beyond a
given point. It is given that the negative charge of an electron is 1.602 × 10-1⁹ coulombs
or a coulomb of negative charge consists of 6.242 × 1018 electrons. One ampere is
equivalent to one coulomb per second that defines ampere as the number of coulombs
of charge passing a given point in a second. Although the current is typically composed
of moving electrons, the normal convention on electrical engineering is to consider the
current as a positive charge flow. With this interpretation, the current is assumed to
move in the opposite direction to the electron flow (because electrons are negatively
charged).

Voltage is the electrical force or pressure that causes the charge to move and
the current to flow, measured in volts. Voltage is also called as electromotive force
(EMF) or electrical potential. Voltage is a vague term, that is to say, the voltage must
be defined at a given point relative to any other point of reference and that might be
the system common or ground point.

Resistance

The electrical device that obeys Ohm’s Law (the current through a resistor is
proportional to the voltage across that resistor) is the resistor. Resistance means to
resists current. Assuming a constant voltage, the larger the resistor, the more resistant
it would be, and the smaller the current.

Ohm’s Law:

Polarity

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Figure 6.1 Ohm’s Law is used to compute the amount of current (I) that will result in
voltage (V) and resistance (R).

Figure 6.1 shows the direction of the current relative to the polarity of the
voltage. We can see that the voltage source denoted as (V) is connected to a resistor
(R) and some current flows through it. The direction of the positive current, denoted
as I for a positive voltage source, will leave the voltage source at the positive terminal
and enter the resistor at its most positive end. Keep in mind that the electrons would
be moving opposite the current.

If the measuring instrument is attached to the wrong polarity (backward) when

direct current measurements are made, the instrument may try to measure the correct
value, but with the wrong sign (e.g. – 5 volts instead of +5 volts). This is not a problem
in digital instruments because a minus sign is just added in front of the reading.

Example:

Calculate the amount of voltage across a 10 kΩ resistor if 8 mA of current is flowing

through it.

Solution:
V=IxR
= (0.008) (10,000)
V = 80 volts

Direct Current

The simplest form of current is the direct current or DC. Concerning time, both
current and voltage are constant. DC voltage is produced by batteries and DC power
supplies. Batteries comes with various current and voltage reading while DC power
supplies convert AC voltages into DC voltages.

Power

The rate at which energy flows from one circuit to another circuit is called power.
Power is simply the voltage multiplied by the current and the unit is the Watt for DC
voltages and currents.

P=VxI

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Table 6.1 Basic equations for DC voltage, DC, resistance, and power

Alternating Current

From the name itself, alternating current or AC does not remain constant with
time like direct current, but instead changes direction, or alternates, at some
frequency.

Figure 6.2 Sine Wave

Sine wave is the most common form of AC. The cycle repeats continuously
starting from the current or voltage starts at zero, becomes positive for one half of the
cycle, and then passes through zero to become negative for the second half of the
cycle. The voltage of the waveform can be defined by the RMS value, zero-to-peak
value, or the peak-to-peak value.

Mathematically, the sine wave can be defined as:

v (t) = V0–P sin(2πft)

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Period (T) is defined as the length of the cycle per second. The reciprocal of
the period is called frequency (f), measured in Hertz, which indicates how many cycles
the sine wave completes in one second.

Consider this situation, the standard AC power line voltage in the Philippines
has a frequency of 50 Hz, which means that the voltage goes through 50 complete
cycles in one second. The period of a 50 Hz sine wave is T = 1/f = 1/50 = 0.02 seconds.

Sometimes the sine wave equation is presented as:

v (t) = V0–P sin(ωt)

where ω is the radian frequency, with units of radians/second.

If we compare the two equations for the sinusoidal voltage, we can get:

and

Refer to Figure 6.2, we can see four different ways of referring to AC voltage.
The maximum voltage that the sine wave reaches is the zero-to-peak value (V0–P) or
often called peak value. The measured from the maximum positive voltage to the most
negative voltage is the peak-to-peak value (VP–P). VP–P is always twice V0–P, for a sine
wave.

RMS Value

Root-mean-square or RMS indicates the mathematics behind calculating the

value of an arbitrary waveform. It is another way of referring to the AC voltage. To
determine the RMS value of a waveform, the waveform is first squared at every point.
Then, the average or mean value of this squared waveform is found. Finally, the
square root of the mean value is taken to produce the RMS
value.

Calculating RMS value for a sine wave:

Average Value

The average value is sometimes used to defined AC voltage. Because the

waveform of a sine wave is positive for one-half cycle and is negative for the other
half, so the average value of a sine wave is zero. Because the two halves are
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symmetrical, they cancel out when they are averaged together giving us the waveform
voltage is zero on average.

It is assumed that the waveform has been a full-wave rectifier for the average
value. If we represent it mathematically, that implies that the absolute value of the
waveform is used (i.e., the negative portion of the cycle has been treated as being
positive).

This corresponds to the method of measurement used by some instruments to

manage AC waveforms, so this is the method that will be considered here. Unless
otherwise specified, VAVG will mean the full-wave rectified average value. The resulting
full-wave rectified sine wave is shown in Figure 6.3 (b). So, when the original
waveform turns negative, full-wave rectification tends to change the sign and converts
the voltage with the same amplitude into a positive waveform.

Figure 6.3 The operations involved in finding the full-wave average value of a sine
wave.

The relation between VAVG and V0–P is based on the waveform shape.

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SUM IT UP

✓ Current is the flow of electrical charge, the unit is ampere.

✓ The negative charge of an electron is 1.602 × 10 -1⁹ coulombs or a coulomb of
negative charge consists of 6.242 × 1018 electrons.
✓ Voltage is the electrical force or pressure that causes the charge to move and
the current to flow, measured in volts.
✓ Resistance means to resists current.
✓ The simplest form of current is the direct current or DC.
✓ The rate at which energy flows from one circuit to another circuit is called
power.
✓ AC does not remain constant with time like direct current, but instead changes
direction, or alternates, at some frequency.
✓ Sine wave is the most common form of AC.
✓ Period (T) is defined as the length of the cycle per second.
✓ The reciprocal of the period is called frequency (f), measured in Hertz, which
indicates how many cycles the sine wave completes in one second.
✓ RMS indicates the mathematics behind calculating the value of an arbitrary
waveform.
✓ The average value is sometimes used to defined AC voltage.

THINK OF THIS!

Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the lesson.

7. Explain current and voltage.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
8. Explain Ohm’s Law.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
9. Differentiate direct current and alternating current.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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KEEP LEARNING!

In a clean paper or digital pad, answer each item. Use Ohm’s Law to solve each
problem.

1. Find the current I through a resistor of resistance R = 2 Ω if the voltage across the
resistor is 6 V.

2. In the circuit below resistors R1 and R2 are in series and have resistances of 5 Ω
and 10 Ω, respectively. The voltage across resistor R1 is equal to 4 V. Find the current
passing through resistor R2 and the voltage across the same resistor.

3. The current passing through a resistor in a circuit is 0.01 A when the

voltage across the same resistor is 5 V. What current passes through this
resistor when the voltage across it is 7.5 V?

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LESSON 2: MEASUREMENT THEORY
PART 2

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Develop understanding in crest factor, phase, and AC power.

• Define pulse train, combined DC and AC.
• Explain non-sinusoidal waveform, harmonics, and square wave.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Let us find out how much you already know about this topic. Choose the letter that you
think best answers the questions. Please answer all items. Take note of the items that
you were not sure of the answer and look for the right answer as you go through this
lesson.

____1. What is the most common unit of phase?

a. watts
b. degree
c. wave

____2. These are made up of the fundamental frequency plus an infinite number of
odd harmonics.
a. Sinusoidal wave
b. Pulse Train
c. Square wave

____3. These are periodic waveforms, except for absolutely pure sine waves that
contain frequencies.
a. harmonics
b. Pulse Train
c. Square wave

____4. The _______________ is defined by multiplying the instantaneous voltage and

instantaneous current.
a. instantaneous power
b. phase
c. Non-sinusoidal wave

____5. It is the ratio of the zero-to-peak value to the RMS value of the waveform.
a. Pulse Train
b. Crest Factor
c. AC and DC power

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WHAT IS IT?

Crest Factor

The crest factor is defined as the ratio of the zero-to-peak value to the RMS
value of the waveform. It is also known as the measure of how high the waveform
peaks, relative to its RMS value. If the waveform has very high crest factors, it needs
the measuring instrument to tolerate very large peak voltage while simultaneously
measuring the much smaller RMS value.

Example:
Determine the crest factor of a sine wave?

Solution:
Since for sine wave, VRMS = 0.707 V0–P
Crest Factor = 1/0.707 = 1.414

The sine wave zero-to-peak value is not that much greater than its RMS value
that’s why it has a relatively low crest factor.

Similar to the crest factor is the peak-to-average ratio or the average crest
factor, except that the average value of the waveform is used in the denominator of
the ratio. This is also a measure of how high the waveform peaks are compared to its
average value.

Phase

The amplitude or height of the sine wave is specified by the voltage while the
frequency or the period specifies how often the sine wave finishes a cycle. But at the
same time, two sine waves of the same frequency do not transcend zero. Hence, the
phase of the sine wave is used to describe its position on the time axis. Degree is the
most common unit of phase. It is with one cycle of a sine wave divided up into 360
degrees of phase.

Including a phase term, the mathematical definition of the sine wave can be
represented as:
v (t) = V0–P sin(2πft + θ )

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The equation implies as written, that the phase is absolute. That seems to be,
when t = 0 —the reference for the phase angle, there is some instant in time. In nature,
such a universal time typically doesn't exist and phase is a relative term. In other
words, we may apply to the phase of two sine waves, but not to the phase of a single,
isolated sine wave (unless some other time reference is supplied).

Figure 6.5 The phase of a sine wave

Refer to Figure 6.5(a). Consider the two sine waves. Observe that they are
separated by one-fourth of a cycle. The two sine waves have a phase difference of 90
degrees since one cycle equals 360 degrees. It is also reasonable to assume that the
first sine wave leads the second one by 90 degrees, or that the second sine wave lags
90 degrees behind the first. All of those statements mention the same phase
relationship.

Refer to Figure 6.5(b). The two sine waves that are one-half cycle (180
degrees) apart is shown in the figure. That is the special case where one sine wave is
the other's negative. The phase relationship between two sine waves determines
precisely how far one sine wave is transferred about the other. The sine wave is shifted
a complete cycle and is indistinguishable from the original waveform when it is shifted

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by 360 degrees. Hence, phase is normally defined over a range of 360 degrees,
generally 180 degrees to +180 degrees.

AC Power

When AC waveforms are considered, the concept of power gets more

complicated. The instantaneous power is defined by the multiplication of
instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current:

p (t) = v (t) x i (t)

By taking the instantaneous power and averaging it throughout the waveform

we can determine the average power.

The average power break by a resistor with an AC voltage across it is given by:

For any waveform, this relation holds as long as the RMS value of the voltage
and current are used. Understand that these equations have the same form as the DC
case, which is one of the reasons why RMS values are used. Because an AC voltage
with a given RMS value has the same effect (in terms of power) that a DC voltage with
that same value, the RMS value is sometimes called the effective value. A power of
20 watts, supplied by both 10-volt RMS AC voltage and a 10-volt DC voltage, to a 5 Ω
resistor. Moreover, two AC waveforms with the same RMS value can provide the same
power to a resistor. This is not valid for descriptions of other voltages such as zero-to-
peak and peak-to-peak. So, about power, RMS is the great equalizer.

Example:
The standard line voltage in the Philippines is approximately 150 volts RMS.
What are the zero-to-peak, peak-to-peak, and full-wave rectified average voltages?
How much power is supplied to a 250 Ω resistor connected across the line?

Solution:
VRMS = 0.707 V0–P
so V0–P = VRMS/0.707 = 150/0.707 = 212.16 volts
VP–P = 2 V0–P = 2 (212.16) = 434.32 volts
VAVG = 0.637 V0–P = 0.637 × 212.16 = 135.15 volts
P = VRMS 2/R = 1502 /250 = 90 watts
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Nonsinusoidal Waveforms

In addition to sine waves, there are other AC voltage and current waveforms
which are widely used in electronic systems. It displays some of the more typical
waveforms in Table 6.2. Note that for every waveform the values of VRMS and VAVG
(relative to V0–P) are unique. The first three waveforms about the horizontal axis are
symmetrical but the half-sine wave and the pulse train are always positive.

Table 6.2 Table of waveforms

Example:
A sine wave voltage and a triangle wave voltage are each connected across
two separate 300 Ω resistors. If both waveforms deliver 2 watts (average power) to
their respective resistors, what are the RMS and zero-to-peak voltages of each
waveform?

Solution:
The two waveforms deliver the same power to identical resistors, so their RMS
voltages must be the same. (This is not true of their zero-to-peak values.)

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We can say, for the triangle wave to supply the same average power to a resistor, it
must reach a higher peak voltage than the sine wave.

Harmonics

Harmonics are the frequencies contained in periodic waveforms, except for

absolutely pure sine waves. Harmonic frequencies are integer multiples of the original
or fundamental frequency.
fn = n . ffundamental

Let’s consider a nonsinusoidal waveform with a fundamental frequency of 1 kHz

has harmonics at 2 kHz, 3 kHz, 4 kHz, and so on. There may be a range of harmonics
out to infinity, but there is typically a practical restriction on how many need to be
considered. Every harmonic can have its unique phase concerning the fundamentals.

Harmonics are present because periodic waveforms, whatever the shape, can
be mathematically broken down into a sequence of sine waves. The operation,
however, is more than mathematics. It is as if the physical world treats the sine wave
as the purest, simplest kind of waveform, with all other periodic waveforms consisting
of sine wave sets. A periodic waveform (such as a square wave) is the same as a
series of sine waves.

Square Wave

Fundamental frequency plus an infinite number of odd harmonics made up the

square waves. The square wave can be broken up into an infinite number of odd
harmonics. The more harmonics that are included, the more the waveform
approximates a square wave. Figure 6.6 (a) shows the original square wave, (b)
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displays the fundamental, third harmonic, and fifth harmonics. c) presented the
fundamental plus third harmonic. d) shows the fundamental plus the third and fifth
harmonics. e) displays the fundamental plus the third, fifth, and seventh harmonics,
and e) shows the fundamental plus the third, fifth, seventh, and ninth harmonics.

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Figure 6.6 The square wave can be broken up into an infinite number of odd
harmonics. The more harmonics that are included, the more the waveform
approximates a square wave.
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Up to now, waveforms have been represented using a voltage versus time

plot, known as the time-domain representation. Another way to explain the same
waveform is on the horizontal axis with frequency, and on the vertical axis with
voltage. This is known as the frequency domain representation or spectrum of the
waveform. A vertical line (called a spectral line) in the representation of the
frequency domain indicates a specific frequency that is present (the fundamental or
a harmonic). The height of each spectral line corresponds to the particular harmonic
amplitude. One single spectral line will reflect a pure sine wave.

Figure 6.7 The frequency-domain representation of a square wave

From the figure above, note that there are only the fundamental and odd
harmonics, and that each harmonic is smaller than the previous. Understanding the
spectral content of waveforms is important since the measuring instrument must be
able to work at the harmonic’s frequencies (at least those to be included in the
measurement).

Pulse Train

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Figure 6.8 The pulse train is a common waveform in digital systems.

Figure 6.9 The frequency domain plot for a pulse train with a 25% duty cycle.

The pulse train is similar to the square wave, but does not have both positive
and negative values. Instead, it has two possible values: V0–P and 0 volts. At its positive
voltage, the square wave spends 50 percent of the time, and 50 percent of the time at
its negative voltage, equivalent to a 50 percent duty cycle. The duty cycle of the pulse
train can be any value between 0 and 100 percent, and is defined as follows:

where τ is the length of time that the waveform is high and T is the period of the
waveform.

Pulse train is a common signal in digital systems and often called a repetitive
pulse. Figure 6.8 shows the duty cycle describes the percent of the time that the
waveform is at a higher voltage. The pulse train produces harmonic frequencies based
on the duty cycle, with amplitudes. Figure 6.9 displays a frequency domain plot of a
standard pulse train (25 percent duty cycle). The envelope of the harmonics has a
distinct humped shape that equals zero at integer multiples of 1/τ. The majority of the
energy of the waveform is in the harmonics falling below the point of 1/τ. Hence it is
also used as a thumb rule for the waveform's bandwidth.
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Table 6.3 Table of harmonics for a variety of waveforms.

Table 6.3 shows harmonics for a variety of waveforms. All waveforms have a
zero-to-peak value of 1. The number of significant harmonics column lists the highest
harmonic whose amplitude is at least 10% of the fundamental.

Example:

Find the highest frequency that must be included in the measurement of a

triangle wave that repeats every 50 microseconds (assuming that harmonics less
than 10% of the fundamentals can be ignored)?

Solution:

f = 1/T = 1/50 µsec = 20 kHz

From Table 6.3, the number of significant harmonics for a triangle wave (using
the 10% criterion) is 3.
The highest frequency that must be included is 3 f = 3 (20 kHz) = 60 kHz.

Combined DC and AC

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Figure 6.10 The waveform shown can be broken down into a DC component and an
AC component.

There are several instances where a waveform is neither purely DC nor purely
AC but can be viewed as a combination of the two. Even the DC value of a waveform
is just the average value of the waveform. In Figure 6.10, the waveform is above its
half-time DC value, and the other half below the DC value, but on the average, the
voltage is just the DC value. The pulse train shown in Figure 6.11 has a duty cycle of
50 percent and is always positive in value. Therefore, the average value of this
waveform is greater than zero. This waveform consumes half the time at V0–P and half
at 0 so the average or DC value = (V0–P + 0)/2 = 1/2 V0–P. When the DC component is
removed the AC component leftover is a square wave with half of the initial pulse
train's zero-to-peak value. In short, the 50 percent duty cycle pulse train is equal to a
square wave of half the zero-to-peak voltage plus a 1/2 V0–P DC component.

Figure 6.11 The 50% duty cycle pulse train

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Example:

The figure below shows a DC power supply has some residual AC riding on top
of its DC component. Determine both the DC and AC values that would be measured
(given the RMS value for the AC component) assuming that the AC component can
be measured independently of the DC component.

20.9 V

20.5 V

Solution:

The DC value is simply the average value of the waveform. Since the AC
component is symmetrical, the average value can be calculated:

DC value = (20.9 + 20.5)/2 = 20.7 volts

If the DC is removed from the waveform, a triangle wave with V0–P = 0.2 volts is
left. For a triangle wave:

VRMS = 0.577 V0–P = 0.115 volts RMS

SUM IT UP

• The Crest factor is defined as the ratio of the zero-to-peak value to the
RMS value of the waveform.
• Degree is the most common unit of phase.
• The instantaneous power is defined by the multiplication of
instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current
• Harmonics are the frequencies contained in periodic waveforms,
except for absolutely pure sine waves.
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• Fundamental frequency plus an infinite number of odd harmonics made
up the square waves.
• The more harmonics that are included, the more the waveform
approximates a square wave.
• Waveforms have been represented using a voltage versus time plot,
known as the time-domain representation.
• Pulse train is a common signal in digital systems and often called a
repetitive pulse.

THINK OF THIS!

Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the lesson.

1. Explain phase of a sine wave.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. State the difference of the wave forms based on their crest factor.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Define pulse train and harmonics.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!

On the sheet of paper or digital pad, draw the square wave that has been
broken up into an infinite number of odd harmonics. Gather a partner and share your
insights.

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LESSON 3: MEASUREMENT THEORY

PART 3

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Develop understanding in modulated signal, decibel, and absolute

decibel values
• Define measurement error, loading effect, and voltage divider
• Explain maximum voltage transfer and maximum power transfer

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Let us find out how much you already know about this topic. Choose the letter that you
think best answers the questions. Please answer all items. Take note of the items that
you were not sure of the answer and look for the right answer as you go through this
lesson.

____1. The instrument can measure the true value within some stated error
specification.
a. Resolution
b. Accuracy
c. Internal Error

____2. It is the smallest change in value that an instrument can detect.

a. Resolution
b. Accuracy
c. Internal Error

____3. It is performed by modifying some parameters of the original sine wave.

a. Decibel
b. Loading Effect
c. Modulation

____4. FM and PM are generally considered to be __________________.

a. Angle Modulation
b. The Loading Effect
c. The Voltage Divider

____5. It is sometimes used to express electrical quantities in a convenient form.

a. Decibel
b. Accuracy
c. Resolution
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WHAT IS IT?

Modulated Signals

Modulation is achieved by adjusting some parameters of the original sine wave

(called the carrier), based on the value of the modulating waveform. The information
from the modulating waveform is transmitted to the carrier in this way. Amplitude,
frequency, and phase modulation are the most common modulatory types used.

I. Amplitude Modulation

In amplitude modulation (AM), the modulating waveform is used to

evaluate the carrier amplitude. An amplitude modulated signal is
represented by the equation:

v (t) = Ac[ 1 + a m(t)] cos(2π fc t )

where

Ac = the signal amplitude

a = modulation index (0 ≤ a ≤ 1)
m(t) = normalized modulating signal (maximum value is 1)
fc = carrier frequency

Figure 6.12 Amplitude and frequency modulation

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II. Frequency Modulation

Frequency modulation or FM also modulates a carrier, but the amplitude

of the carrier remains constant while the frequency of the carrier
changes. Figure 6.12 (d) shows the FM signal. The modulating
waveform and the carrier frequency are directly proportional to each
other.

Phase modulation is somehow similar to frequency modulation. There is

no change in carrier amplitude while the phase is changed according to
the modulating waveform. Adjusting the phase of the carrier is somewhat
like changing its frequency, so the effect on the carrier is the same. FM
and PM are usually recognized to be variants of a type of modulation
called angle modulation.

III. Modulated Signals in the Frequency Domain

Figure 6.13 The effect of modulation in the frequency domain is to spread out the
signal by creating sidebands.
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There is an effect in the frequency domain if we modulate a carrier, either

with AM or FM. Refer to Figure 6.13(a), with no modulation, the carrier is just a
pure sine wave and exists only at one frequency. As the modulation is applied, a band
of other frequencies, called sidebands, is joined to the carrier. The exact behavior of
these sidebands depends on the degree and form of modulation, but on one or both
sides of the carrier, the sidebands usually spread as shown in Figure 6.13(b).
They are mostly relatively close to the frequency of the carrier but in some situations,
such as wideband FM, the sidebands extend further. Ultimately,
modulation has the effect of spreading the carrier over the frequency domain, which
occupies a wider bandwidth.

Shown in Figure 6.13(c), when a carrier is amplitude modulated by a

single sine wave with frequency fm, two modulation sidebands appear
(offset by fm) on both sides of the carrier. By inserting a sinusoid with
frequency fm into the equation for an amplitude-modulated signal, this
can be shown mathematically:

The equation can be written using trigonometric identities:

which gives us a frequency domain representation as consisting of the

carrier frequency, fc plus two sidebands at frequencies fc + fm and fc – fm.
The amplitudes of the two sidebands are the same and they depend on the modulation
index, a.

Decibels

The decibel (dB) is often used in a convenient way to represent the electrical
quantities. The decibel definition is based on the ratio of two power levels (log indicates
the logarithm of base ten):

Assuming RMS voltage from P = V2/R,

And if R1 = R2,

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V1 and V2 voltages are usually RMS voltages. If the two waveforms are the
same shape then voltages can be represented as either zero-to-peak or peak-to-peak
voltages. The voltage equation is strictly valid only if the two resistances involved are
the same. Inaccurate results will happen when R1 ≠ R2 and the decibel equation is
applied to both voltage and power.

A little reverse math is required to convert dB values back into a voltage or power ratio:

There are two characteristics of decibel:

1. Decibels compress electrical values which differ widely on a more manageable

logarithmic scale. The range of powers extending from 100 watts down to 1 microwatt
is a ratio of 100,000,000, but is expressed in dB as only 80 dB.

2. To produce the total gain or loss, gains and losses through circuits such as
attenuators, amplifiers, and filters, when expressed in dB can be added together.

Any of the cardinal decibel values should be clearly emphasized:

0 dB is the ratio of 1 (for voltage as well as for power). A circuit with a gain of
0-dB or 0-dB loss has an output equal to that of the input.
The power ratio of 2 equals 3 dB. A power level adjusted by -3 dB is reduced
to half the original power. A power level which is changed to +3 dB is doubled.
A power ratio of 10 equals 10 dB. That would be the only point where the dB
value and the ratio value are equivalent (for power).
The voltage ratio of 10 equals 20 dB. A voltage which changes by +20 dB
becomes 10 times higher. A voltage which is adjusted by -20 dB is 10 times
lower.

Absolute Decibel Values

In addition to being useful for expressing power or voltage ratios, decibels can
be used to describe absolute voltages or powers. You may define either a power
reference or a voltage reference. For calculations on power:

For calculation of voltage:

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I. dBm

The milliwatt (1 mW or 0.001 watt) is a convenient and often-used

power reference for instrumentation use, which results in dBm:

Consider a 50 Ω resistance, 1 mW of power corresponds to a

voltage of 0.224 volts RMS:

With the us of voltage as the reference value in the decibel equation

results in:

Similarly, for 600 ohms and 75 ohms:

Please note that these equations are valid only for the specified
impedance or resistance.

II. dBV

Here, 1 volt (RMS) is another natural reference to use in

measurements. This brings the following result:

or

Please note that the equation above is valid for any impedance level,
since its reference is a voltage.

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Table 6.4 Summary of equations relating to decibel calculations

Figure 6.14 Graph for converting ratios to and from decibels for
both voltage and power

Because of the logarithmic relationships, the plots are straight lines on log axes
shown in Figure 6.14. While Figure 6.15 shows the graph of decibels versus
voltage for dBV, dBm (50 Ω), and dBm (600 Ω).

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Figure 6.15 Graph of decibels versus voltage for dBV, dBm (50 Ω),
and dBm (600 Ω)

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Table 6.5 Table of decibel values for voltage ratios and power
ratios.

Example: (from ptgmedia.pearsoncmg.com)

An RMS voltage of 0.5 volts is across a 50-volt resistor. Express

the value to dBV and dBm. So, what is the values if 75 were the
resistor?

For 50 Ω resistor:
dBV = 20 log (0.5) = –6.02 dBV
dBm (50 Ω) = 20 log (0.5/0.224) = +6.97 dBm

For 75 Ω resistor:
dBV is based on voltage so that value is the same as the 50 Ω
case (–6.02 dBV).

The dBm is referenced to 1 mW of power. We must either use the

equation of voltage for dBm (75) or calculate the power and use the
power equation. We will calculate the power.

III. Other References

1 watt (dBW) and 1 femtowatt or 1 × 10–15 watt (dBf) are other power
reference values. The microvolt, resulting in dBµV is a common
voltage reference. To determine these values, we can use:

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Measurements of voltage or power relative to a fixed signal or carrier

are provided in dBc.

Measurement Error

By removing energy from that circuit, no matter how small, a measuring device
will always interrupt the circuit being measured, and some errors will always be
introduced. Another way to explain this is that connecting an instrument to a circuit
changes the circuit and changes the calculated voltage or current. By careful attention
to the loading effect, this error can be minimized.

I. Internal Error

Internal Error often reduced the quality of measurement. And it has

two main categories. First, is the accuracy. This is the ability of the
instrument to measure the true value within some stated error
specification. Second, is the resolution. It is the smallest change in
value that an instrument can detect.

The Loading Effect

Generally speaking, when two circuits (a source and a load) are connected, the
voltages and currents in circuits both changes. Let say, the source may be an amplifier
output, a transmitter, or a signal generator. The corresponding load may be a speaker,
antenna, or input speaker. In the case of an electronic measurement, the circuit under
test is the source and the measuring instrument is the load.

Figure 6.16 Thevenin equivalent circuit

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A Thevenin equivalent circuit is made up of a voltage source, VS, and a series
resistance, RS as shown in Figure 6.16, a voltage source with internal resistance and
a resistive load. VS is also known as open-circuit voltage, because when no load is
connected to it, it is the voltage across the source circuit. This is easily proved by
finding that under open-circuit conditions no current will flow through RS. There is no
decrease in voltage through RS so source voltage is equivalent to VS.

Voltage Divider

The voltage across the source and the load is no longer the open-circuit value,
VS when the load is connected to the source, VL. VL is given by the voltage divider
equation:

Figure 6.17 Connection of load and source

The source and load are connected . The voltage across the load is
provided by the equation voltage divider. The loading effect causes the voltage to be
lower than the source's open-circuit voltage. The resulting output voltage, VL, as a
function of the ratio RL/RS is shown in Figure 6.18.

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Figure 6.18 A plot of the output voltage due to the loading effect

Maximum Voltage Transfer

The ratio RL / RS should be as high as possible to get the maximum voltage out
of a voltage source being loaded by any resistance. This can be approached from a
design point of view from two directions: make RS small, or make RL large.
Presumably, we should make RS = 0 and make RL = infinity, which would result in VL
= VS. This can't be done in reality but can be approximated. Figure 6.18 shows that it
results in an RL 10 times larger than RS in a voltage that is 91% of the maximum
attainable (VS).

Maximum Power Transfer

Often the power supplied to the load resistor is more important than the voltage.
The maximum voltage does not guarantee maximum power because power depends
on voltage as well as current (P = V / I). The power supplied to RL is determinable as
follows:

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Figure 6.19 Plot of output power

Figure 6.19 shows the Plot of output power as a function of the load resistance
divided by the source resistance. The output power is maximum when the two
resistances are equal.

Maximum power transfer is desirable in many electronic systems. Such

systems are designed to optimize power transfer, with all source resistances and load
resistances being equal. Maximum power transfer is achieved while the maximum
voltage transfer between source and load is sacrificed.

SUM IT UP

• Modulation is achieved by adjusting some parameters of the original sine

wave (called the carrier), based on the value of the modulating
waveform.
• In amplitude modulation (AM), the modulating waveform is used to
evaluate the carrier amplitude.
• Frequency modulation or FM also modulates a carrier, but the amplitude
of the carrier remains constant while the frequency of the carrier
changes.
• FM and PM are usually recognized to be variants of a type of modulation
called angle modulation.
• The decibel definition is based on the ratio of two power levels (log
indicates the logarithm of base ten)
• The microvolt, resulting in dBµV is a common voltage reference
• Internal Error often reduced the quality of measurement.
• Accuracy is the ability of the instrument to measure the true value within
some stated error specification.
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• Resolution is the smallest change in value that an instrument can detect.
• Maximum power transfer is achieved while the maximum voltage
transfer between source and load is sacrificed.

THINK OF THIS!

Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the lesson.

1. Discuss modulated signals in 3 sentences.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. How do you define decibels and absolute decibel values?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

3. Explain loading effect and voltage divider.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!

On a sheet of paper or digital pad, answer each problem.

1. A 1-volt RMS voltage is across a 65 Ω resistor. Show this value in dBV and dBm.

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2. What would the values in dBV and dBm be if the resistor is 70 Ω and a 0.75-volt
RMS voltage is across through it.

3. A 0.8-volt RMS voltage is across a 55 Ω resistor. What would the values be if the
resistor were 85Ω? Express this value in dBV and dBm.

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LESSON 4: MEASUREMENT THEORY

PART 4

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:

• Develop understanding in impedance and bandwidth

• Define rise time
• Explain bandwidth limitation on square wave and logic families

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Let us find out how much you already know about this topic. Choose the letter that you
think best answers the questions. Please answer all items. Take note of the items that
you were not sure of the answer and look for the right answer as you go through this
lesson.

____1. The amount of time it takes for a waveform to transition from one voltage to
another.
a) Rise time
b) Bandwidth
c) Impedance

____2. VH and VL are called the _________________.

a) resistance
b) Impedance
c) logic thresholds

____3. The difference between the input threshold and the output threshold
a) noise margin
b) logic thresholds
c) average value

____4. Which is the dominant digital technology is history?

a) CMOS
b) TTL
c) Logic Gate

____5. Which is the dominant digital technology nowadays that is introduced with a 5-
volt power supply.
a) CMOS
b) TTL
c) Logic Gate

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WHAT IS IT?

Impedance

Many circuit components show a phase shift between voltage and current and
they are reactive. This form of voltage and current relation is usually described by the
use of complex impedance. Impedance of a device is represented as:

Where:
V0–P is the AC voltage across the impedance
θV is the phase angle of the voltage
I0–P is the AC through the impedance
θI is the phase angle of the current.

Simplifying the equation,

where θZ is the phase angle of the impedance and is equal to θV – θI

The preceding equations show the complex impedance in magnitude and phase
format. Alternatively, the impedance can be expressed in a rectangular format:

Z=R+jX

where
R = the resistive component of the impedance
X = the reactive component of the impedance
j = the square root of –1

Maximum power transfer occurs when the load impedance has the same
magnitude as the source impedance, but with an opposite phase angle, when the
source impedance and load impedance are not resistive just for maximum power
transfer. This can be stated mathematically as:

ZL = ZS *

Where:
* = indicates the complex conjugate

If the source impedance is zero, the load impedance should have the same
magnitude as the source impedance and an angle of zero (load impedance equals
source impedance). Remember that this is the same as the purely resistive case.

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Bandwidth

Instruments that measure AC waveforms typically have a certain maximum

frequency above which the accuracy of the measurement is degraded. This frequency
is the instrument's bandwidth and is generally defined as the frequency at which the
instrument's response falls by 3 dB.

Figure 6.20 The frequency response of a typical measuring instrument

Figure 6.20 shows the typical frequency response of a measuring instrument.

It rolls off at high frequencies but some instruments that do not measure DC also roll-
off at low frequencies. Remember that at 3-dB the response doesn't stop immediately
at the 3-dB bandwidth. It starts to decrease at frequencies below the bandwidth and
the response may still be available outside the bandwidth for frequencies outside. In
their highly precise specification, some instruments have their bandwidth implied.

Example: (from ptgmedia.pearsoncmg.com)

What instrument bandwidth is required for an electronic instrument that is used

to measure the voltage of a 2-kHz sine wave? What bandwidth would be required to
measure a square wave having the same frequency assuming that any harmonic
greater than 10% of the fundamental is to be included?

Solution:

Since a sine wave has only the fundamental frequency, the bandwidth of the
instrument must be at least the frequency of the waveform. BW = 2 kHz.

From Table 6.3, the highest significant harmonic of a square wave (greater than
10% of the fundamental) is the ninth harmonic. Therefore, the bandwidth must be at
least (and probably larger than): BW = 9 × 2 kHz = 18 kHz

Rise Time

Rise time is the amount of time it takes for a waveform to transition from one voltage
to another. It is normally measured at the 10% and 90% levels of the transition. A measuring
instrument's bandwidth can limit measured pulse or square wave rise time. The relation
between rise time and bandwidth is given by:

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

BW = 3-dB bandwidth (in Hertz)

The validity of this relation is based on the particular shape of the instrument's
frequency response meaning how quickly it rolls off above its bandwidth for
frequencies. It is accurate for single-pole roll-off instruments and is a good
approximation for many instruments. The major point here is that the bandwidth, which
is a concept of the frequency domain, restricts the calculation of the rise time which is
a concept of the time domain. The instrument's two properties (time domain and
frequency domain) are intertwined. The instrument should have a slightly shorter rise
time than the time estimated for the rise. An increase in time measurement using an
instrument twice as small as the one measured would result in an error of
approximately 10%. This error drops to 1 percent if the increment time of the
instrument is 7 times shorter than the rise time calculated.

Bandwidth Limitation on Square Wave

Figure 6.21 The effect of bandwidth on a square wave

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
If we closely observe the square wave shown in Figure 6.21, we can see that
with a very wide bandwidth, the square wave is undistorted; with a low bandwidth, the
square wave is distorted. The waveform is passed through a low-pass filter, which has
a frequency characteristic similar to Figure 6.21. The output still looks like a square
wave, but it has some imperfections that would cause a measurement error. For very
limited bandwidth, the square wave barely appears at all and is very rounded due to
the lack of high-frequency harmonics.

Example:

What will the rise time be at the output if the filter has a single-pole roll-off?
Consider a pulse with zero rise time is passed through a low-pass filter with a 3- dB
bandwidth of 15 kHz.

Solution:

Even though the rise time at the input is zero, due to the 15 kHz bandwidth
limitation the rise time at the output will be
tRISE = 0.35/ BW = 0.35/ 15 kHz = 23 µsec

Logic Families

There are many different technologies used to implement digital logic circuits,
with different characteristics of the speed and logic threshold. We need thresholds
(VH, VL) for any particular logic unit so that the digital signal can be correctly calculated
or interpreted.

Table 6.6 Logic Levels for Standard Digital Logic Families

The lists logic thresholds for the most popular logic families are shown in Table
6.6. The logic thresholds vary depending on whether you're working with a gate input
or a gate output. For input to a gate, the VL for output of a gate is lower than the VL.
Similarly, the output VH is higher for the input than the input VH.

This small amount of intentional design margin ensures that a digital circuit's
output can boost the next circuit's input well past its necessary logic threshold. The
difference between the input threshold and the output threshold is called the noise
margin, since any electrical noise in the circuit is compensated by the excess voltage.

In modern digital circuits, the dominant logic levels were propelled by the
popularity of TTL (transistor-transistor logic) technology, introduced with a 5-volt power
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
supply. In recent years the dominant digital technology has been CMOS
(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor). TTL level logic is still widely used,
however. Logic gates may be described as “TTL-compatible," while being
implemented using CMOS. Previously, the most common logic circuit power supply
voltage is 5 volts which has been used in several popular TTL logic families. The 5-
volt power supply standard was introduced when CMOS technology was gained in
use. More recent logic families use lower supply voltages, including 3.3-volt and 2.5-
volt supplies. Backward compatibility with the TTL input high and low of 2.0 volts and
0.8 volts is possible with the 3.3-volt supply but not with the 2.5-volt supply.
(ptgmedia.pearsoncmg.com)

SUM IT UP

• The Impedance of a device is represented as:

• Instrument bandwidth is generally defined as the frequency at which the
instrument's response falls by 3 dB.
• Rise time is the amount of time it takes for a waveform to transition from one
voltage to another.
• The bandwidth, which is a concept of the frequency domain, restricts the
calculation of the rise time which is a concept of the time domain.
• In recent years the dominant digital technology has been CMOS
(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor).
• In modern digital circuits, the dominant logic levels were propelled by the
popularity of TTL (transistor-transistor logic) technology, introduced with
a 5-volt power supply.

THINK OF THIS!

Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the lesson.

1. How do you describe impedance and bandwidth?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2. In your own words, define rise time.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. Give a brief explanation about logic families.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

KEEP LEARNING!

In a sheet of paper or digital pad, illustrate the effect of bandwidth on a square

wave without looking at the notes.

REFLECTION

After performing all the activities, it is assumed that you have understand the basic
theory of measurement. Now, it’s time to reflect on what you’ve learned from the topic.

1. Why is it important to have stable foundation in the electrical theory of electronic

measurements?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2. What important insights you have grasped in this topic?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

3. How can the theory of measurement help you as an engineering student?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

4. What do you think is the advantage of this lesson in the field of computer
engineering?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

5. After completing this module, in what way you want to use the learnings you have
grasped?
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

POST TEST

Congratulations! You’ve come this far. You have completed this chapter. Before you
go to the next chapter, you had to answer the following post-test questions.

Fill in the blank. Supply the blank on each item with the correct word.

1. The _______________ is defined by multiplying the instantaneous voltage and

instantaneous current.

2. FM and PM are generally considered to be __________________.

3. _______________ is defined as the flow of electric charge.

4. The most common unit of phase is ________________.

5. The ability of the instrument to measure the true value to within some stated error
specification is called ________________.

6. _____________ is the amount of time it takes for a waveform to transition from one
voltage to another.

7. The dominant digital technology nowadays that is introduced with a 5-volt power
supply is known as _________________.

8. ________________ is the ratio of the zero-to-peak value to the RMS value of the
waveform.

9. A __________ is an electrical device that obeys Ohm’s Law.

10. The _______________ of a sine wave is zero because the waveform is positive
for one-half cycle and is negative for the other half.

11. The smallest change in value that an instrument can detect known as
____________.

12. VH and VL are called the _________________.

13. __________________ is performed by modifying some parameter of the original

sine wave.

14. The simplest form of current is the _________________.

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
15. ______________ is sometimes used to express electrical quantities in a
convenient form.

16. The dominant digital technology in history is ______________________.

17. _______________ made up of the fundamental frequency plus an infinite number

of odd harmonics.

18. The difference between the input threshold and the output threshold is known as
____________.

19. _______________ are periodic waveforms, except for absolutely pure sine waves
that contain frequencies.

20. _____________ indicates the mathematics behind calculating the value of an

arbitrary waveform.

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GLOSSARY

Loaded- there is an external load connected to the point where the output voltage is
measured.

No-load- nothing is connected at the point where the output voltage is measured.

Single-ended- there is only one input or output connected.

Double-ended- both the input V1 and V2 are present. Also, both the output sides
are taken.

Sensor - A device that responds to a physical stimulus.

Transducer - A device that converts the energy of one form into energy of another
form.

Actuator -A device or mechanism capable of performing a physical action A device

or mechanism capable of performing a physical action.

Stimulus - The quantity that is measured or detected.

Contact- element of the switch

ANSWER KEY
UNIT 1
Lesson1
Pretest
1.a
2.b
3.b
4.a
5.a
Lesson 2
1. First Approximation
IE=6.67mA, IE=3.33mA
Second Approximation
IE=6.2mA, IE=3.1mA
2. The tail current doubled due to the decrease in the emitter resistance.
4. Output voltage is -266mV. The sign is negative because the inverting input is
greater than the non-inverting input.
Lesson 3
1. Verr= 0.195V
2. Verr=-0.195V
Lesson 4

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
1. Low CMRR means the amplifier accepts more unwanted signals versus the
desired signal.
2. Common mode signal can affect the operation of a differential amplifier by acting
as undesired input which affects the output.
Lesson 5
T/F
1. False, equal
2. False, Emitter resistor
3. True
4. True
Analysis
1. Improve CMRR and increase gain
2. Examples (not limited to the ff) Decoders, Arithmetic operators, constant current
source.
Lesson 6
1. Verr= 0.195V
2. Verr=-0.195V
Post Test
1. Tail Current
2. Directly proportional
3. Single input
4. Both
5. Resistor, transistor, capacitor
6. Decreases
7. Base current
8. Differential voltage
9. Thevenin’s Theorem
10. Half of differential input
11. Higher than the loaded output voltage
12. True
13. Very high
14. Amount at which the input signal is amplified
15. Zero common-mode gain
16. True
17. Output is in phase with the input
18. Vc2-Vc1
19. Vc2
20. Positive

UNIT 2
Lesson 1
Pretest
1. A
2. C
3. A
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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
4. B
5. B
Lesson 2
Pre test Think of This
1. True 1. v2 = 67.5 mV
2. positive 2. CMRR = 60 dB
3. True 3. SR = 4 V/µs
4. MPP
5. SR
Keep Learning
6. Slew
7. True 1. fmax = 398 kHz
8. True
9. True
10. Output
Lesson 3
Keep Learning
1. vout = 50 mV
Lesson 4
Keep Learning
1. Av(CL) = 50; vout = 250 mVp-p
Lesson 5
Pre-Test
1. Integrated Circuits
2. Audio Amplifiers
3. pnp
4. Video Amplifiers
5. Radio-frequency amplifier
6. Intermediate-frequency amplifiers
7. MBC13720.
8. DC voltage
9. LM340
10. Dual

POST TEST

1. D 11. C 21. C
2. B 12. D 22. B
3. A 13. D 23. C
4. B 14. D 24. D
5. D 15. D 25. B
6. A 16. C 26. B
7. B 17. C 27. D
8. A 18. C 28. C
9. B 19. B 29. C
10. C 20. A 30. A

UNIT 3
251
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
Lesson 1
1. The magnitude of the gain is decreased.
2. The resistances must be computed for the desired frequency range.
3. It provides a loop for the input to increase and it adds stability to the circuit.

Lesson 2
1. The output of an inverting amplifier is out of phase whereas the non-inverting is in
phase.
2. When the capacitance or the resistance is increased the frequency decreases. To
simplify they have an inverse relationship.
3. Av=11

Lesson 3
1. The principle of comparator is that when an input signal is present, it tells whether
it is higher or lower as compared to the reference signal.
2. (See application of comparators part in the discussion). Applications are
commonly detection of levels.
Lesson 4 and 5 answers are not limited to the module content.
Post-test:
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
5. False
6. False
7. True
8. False
9. False
10. True
11-20. See applications in lesson

UNIT 4
Lesson 4.1
Pretest
1. A
2. B
3. B
4. A
5. C
Lesson 4.1.1
Pre test
1. B
2. C
3. A
4. A
5. B

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CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
Lesson 4.2.1
Pre test
1. C
2. A
3. B
4. B
5. C
POST TEST
1. Dual Slope ADC
2. Flash type ADC
3. No
4. successive approximation type ADC
5. analog
6. counter type ADC
7. Clock signal
8. Control logic
9. Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
10. two
11. Indirect Type ADC
12. Conversion time
13. Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
14. resolution
15. binary code
16. single
17. analog
18. binary weighted resistors
19. R and 2R
20. Parity Encoder
UNIT 5
Lesson 1 – Answers not limited to module content
Lesson 2– Answers not limited to module content
Lesson 3– Answers not limited to module content
Lesson 4
1. It provides safety, for device tag out and creation of user interfacing.
2. Switch, Relay, and Solenoid.
POST TEST:
1.Sensors
2. Active
3. Passive
4. SPST
5. SPDT
6-10. See list in Lesson2-3
11-20
SPST
SPDT
DPDT
253
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
Toggle Switch
Push Button
(See Lesson 5 for schematic diagram)
UNIT 6
Lesson 1
Pretest Keep Learning
1. C 1. 3A
2. B 2. I = 0.8A and V2 = 8V
3. A 3. I = 0.0125A
4. A
5. C

Lesson 2
Pretest
1. B
2. C
3. A
4. A
5. B

Lesson 3
Pretest
1. B
2. A
3. C
4. A
5. A

Lesson 4
Pretest
1. A
2. C
3. A
4. A
5. B

POST TEST

254
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS

1. instantaneous power 11. Resolution

2. Angle Modulation 12. logic thresholds
3. current 13. Modulation
4. degree 14. Direct current
5. accuracy 15. Decibel
6. rise time 16. CMOS
7. TTL 17. Square wave
8. Crest Factor 18. Noise margin
9. Resistor 19. Harmonic
10. average value 20. RMS

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REFERENCES:
UNIT 1
Boylestad, L. N. (2012). Electronic Devices and Circuits Theory 11th Ed. Pearson.
Malvino, A. (2016). Electronic Principles. Mcgraw-Hill.
Sinclair, I. R. (2001). Sensors and Transducers. Newnes.
Zumbahlen H. (2007). Basic Linear Design. Analog Devices.
Online sources:
https://whatswho.com/a-c-emitter-resistance-ac-emitter-resi/
https://www.analog.com/media/en/training-seminars/tutorials/MT-038.pdf
https://www.ti.com/lit/an/sloa059/sloa059.pdf
https://www.maximintegrated.com/en/design/technical-
documents/tutorials/2/2045.html
https://wiki.analog.com/university/courses/electronics/text/chapter-11
http://www.ecircuitcenter.com/Circuits/op_voff/op_voff.htm
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/offset-voltage
https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/analogue_circuits/transistor/current-
mirror-circuit.php

UNIT 2
ALBERT MALVINO, DAVID BATES. (2006). ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES. McGraw-
Hill Education,.
Chaniotakis and Cory. (2006). Operational Amplifiers.
Electronics Notes. (n.d.). Op Amp Inverting Amplifier: Operational Amplifier Circuit.
Retrieved from Electronics Notes: https://www.electronics-notes.com
Operational Amplifier Basics. (n.d.). Retrieved from Electronic Tutorial:
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/opamp/opamp_1.html
Solaymanewu. (n.d.). OperationalAmplifier Circuits.

UNIT 3
Boylestad, L. N. (2012). Electronic Devices and Circuits Theory 11th Ed. Pearson.
Malvino, A. (2016). Electronic Principles. Mcgraw-Hill.
Sinclair, I. R. (2001). Sensors and Transducers. Newnes.
Zumbahlen H. (2007). Basic Linear Design. Analog Devices.

Online sources:
https://whatswho.com/a-c-emitter-resistance-ac-emitter-resi/
https://www.analog.com/media/en/training-seminars/tutorials/MT-038.pdf
https://www.ti.com/lit/an/sloa059/sloa059.pdf
https://www.maximintegrated.com/en/design/technical-
documents/tutorials/2/2045.html
https://wiki.analog.com/university/courses/electronics/text/chapter-11
http://www.ecircuitcenter.com/Circuits/op_voff/op_voff.htm
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/offset-voltage
https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/analogue_circuits/transistor/current-
mirror-circuit.php
https://www.studyelectronics.in/linear-and-nonlinear-applications-of-op-amp/
256
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/opamp/opamp_2.html
http://aries.ucsd.edu/najmabadi/CLASS/ECE60L/02-S/NOTES/opamp.pdf
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/linear_integrated_circuits_applications/linear_integrat
ed_circuits_applications_op_amp_applications.htm#:~:text=A%20circuit%20is%20sa
id%20to,between%20its%20input%20and%20output.&text=This%20chapter%20disc
usses%20these%20basic%20applications%20in%20detail.
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/opamp/op-amp-comparator.html
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/linear_integrated_circuits_applications/linear_integrat
ed_circuits_applications_comparators.htm
https://www.ti.com/amplifier-circuit/comparators/applications.html
https://www.elprocus.com/op-amp-comparator-circuit-working-
application/#:~:text=Comparator%20Circuit%20Working%20and%20Applications,hig
h%20or%20low%2Dlevel%20signal.
https://www.elprocus.com/zero-crossing-detector-circuit-and-
working/#:~:text=A%20zero%2Dcrossing%20detector%20or,crosses%20the%20zer
o%20voltage%20condition.
http://portal.unimap.edu.my/portal/page/portal30/Lecture%20Notes/KEJURUTERAA
N_MIKROELEKTRONIK/SEMESTER1/ANALOG/NOTE/LECTURE%20NOTE%206.
PDF
https://circuitdigest.com/tutorial/op-amp-integrator-circuit-working-construction-
applications
https://learnabout-electronics.org/ac_theory/filters84.php
https://www.electronicshub.org/operational-amplifier-as-
differentiator/#:~:text=amp%20Differentiator%20Summary-
,Introduction,of%20the%20applied%20input%20voltage.&text=An%20op%2Damp%
20differentiator%20is,series%20with%20the%20input%20voltage.
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/media-arts-and-sciences/mas-836-sensor-technologies-
for-interactive-environments-spring-
2011/readings/MITMAS_836S11_read02_bias.pdf
http://vaedrah.angelfire.com/lm348_opamp.htm

UNIT 4
ANALOG-DIGITAL CONVERSION. (n.d.). Retrieved from FUNDAMENTALS OF
SAMPLED DATA SYSTEMS: https://www.analog.com/media/en/training-
seminars/design-handbooks/Data-Conversion-Handbook/Chapter2.pdf
Cheung, Peter. (2016). Analogue-to-Digital Conversion. London: Imperial College.
Dapeng Zhu, Todd Sifleet, Travis Nunnally, Yachun Huang. (n.d.). Analog to Digital
Converters.
Dr. Walid Ghoneim. (n.d.). Converters: Analogue to Digital.
Jungchul Lee, Kamran Jeelani, Jonathan Beckwith. (n.d.). Digital to Analog
Converter. Georgia: Georgia Institute of Technology.
M. Rabiee. (n.d.). Analog to Digital (ADC) and Digital to Analog (DAC) Converters.
Kentucky: Eastern Kentucky University.

UNIT 5:

257
CPE 206: FUNDAMENTALS OF MIXED SIGNALS AND SENSORS
References
Boylestad, L. N. (2012). Electronic Devices and Circuits Theory 11th Ed. Pearson.
Malvino, A. (2016). Electronic Principles. Mcgraw-Hill.
Sinclair, I. R. (2001). Sensors and Transducers. Newnes.
Zumbahlen H. (2007). Basic Linear Design. Analog Devices.

Online sources:
https://web.iit.edu/sites/web/files/departments/academic-affairs/academic-resource-
center/pdfs/SENSORS.pdf
http://engineering.nyu.edu/gk12/amps-cbri/pdf/Intro%20to%20Sensors.pdf
https://www.egr.msu.edu/classes/ece480/capstone/480-sensors.pdf
https://www.rohm.com/electronics-basics/sensor/accelerometer-sensor
https://www.arrow.com/en/categories/sensors/accelerometers
https://engineering.eckovation.com/10-ir-sensor-projects-that-you-can-do/
https://www.fierceelectronics.com/sensors/what-a-gas-sensor
https://www.elprocus.com/tilt-sensor-types-working-principle-and-its-applications/
https://www.variohm.com/news-media/technical-blog-archive/how-does-an-rtd-work-
https://www.surecontrols.com/rtd-vs-thermocouple/
http://physics.bu.edu/~redner/211-sp06/class-thermodynamics/exp_bimetal.html
https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-bimetallic-strip-construction-and-its-types/
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-9/strain-gauges/
https://sciencing.com/magnetic-sensor-work-5021878.html
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/arduino/arduino_ultrasonic_sensor.htm
https://www.migatron.com/ultrasonic-detections-and-control-applications/
https://www.electronicshub.org/switches/
https://www.cedengineering.com/userfiles/Circuit%20Control%20Devices.pdf
http://www.autoshop101.com/forms/hweb5.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1_YfuH_AcxQ
https://www.electgo.com/what-is-a-relay/

UNIT 6

REFERENCES:
http://www.industrial-electronics.com/. (2016-08-10). Electronic Test Instruments:
Measurement Theory (part 1).
http://www.industrial-electronics.com/. (2016-08-10). Electronic Test Instruments:
Measurement Theory (part 2).
Prentice-Hall PTR. (2002). Electronic and Test Instrument: Analog and Digital
Measurements Second Edition. Pearson Education

258