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Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental

Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses

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 16

Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory

and Experimental Implementations
for Femtosecond Pulses
T. Oksenhendler and N. Forget
Fastlite, Centre scientifique d’Orsay – Bât 503
Plateau du Moulon – BP45, 91401 ORSAY
France

1. Introduction
Femtosecond pulses are used in many fields due to their specificities of extreme short
duration, ultra high peak power or large spectral bandwidth.
Since the early days of the laser in the 60s, there has been a continous quest to generate
shorter and or higher peak power pulses.
Reliable generation of pulses below 100fs occurred the first time in 1981 with the invention
of the colliding pulse modelocked (CPM) ring dye laser (Fork R.L. and al., 1981). Despite
relative low energy per pulses, the ultrashort pulse duration leads to peak power large
enough for non linear pulse compression culminating in pulses as short as 6fs in the visible.
Recent advances in laser technology as the use of solid-state gain media, laser diode
pumping, fiber laser, have led to simple, reliable, turn key ultrashort laser oscillators with
pulse duration ranging form few ps down to 5fs.
Limitation to pulse energy in the range of a microJoule or less in the CPM laser has been
overcomed by the Chirped Pulse Amplification (CPA) technique (Strickland D., Mourou G.,
(1985)). This technique is the optical transposition of a Radar technique developped during
the second world war. The basic principle is to spread in time i.e to stretch the ultrashort
pulse before amplification. Indeed limitation of the pulse amplification because of the
damage threshold of the optics is mainly due to the pulse peak power. A stretch ratio of a
million gives the ability to amplify the stretched pulse, without optical damage, by a factor
of a million from less than a microJoule to more than a Joule per pulse. After amplification,
recompression of the pulse is achieved by an optical set-up that has a very high damage
threshold. To obtain the highest peak power, the pulse duration has to be “Fourier
transform limited”, ie its spectral phase is purely linear. The compensation of the chirp and
higher spectral phase order is highly simplified by the ability to introduced an arbitrarly
shaped spectral phase.
Application of these ultrashort pulses requires to control of optimize their temporal shape.
Dispersion of materials and optical devices has been used to compress, stretch or replicate
the pulses. Limitations on the ability to control the pulse temporal shape by classical optical
devices have lead to the development of arbitrary pulse shapers. These devices are linear
Source: Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications, Book edited by: Mikhail Grishin,
ISBN 978-953-7619-80-0, pp. 630, February 2010, INTECH, Croatia, downloaded from SCIYO.COM
348 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

filters enabling the independent control of the spectral amplitude and phase giving a
complete control of the temporal shape of the pulse.
Due to the extreme short duration of the pulses, the temporal control cannot be achieved
directly by temporal modulators. The control has to be done in the spectral domain. Two
technologies of pulse shapers are widely used: spatial amplitude and phase modulators
implemented in a zero-dispersion line or 4-f line, and acousto-optic programmable
dispersive filters based on longitudinal Bragg acousto-optic diffraction.
Both techniques will be theoretically reviewed to point out limitations, advantages and
drawbacks for femtosecond pulse shaping techniques. Starting from simulations of the two
techniques, some specific examples of pulse shaping will be invastigated such as pulse
compression, complex square pulse generation, pure linear chirp generation, double pulses
with a controlled delay or focal point power density optimization. These examples will then
be used to illustrate the limitations, advantages and drawbacks of each technology.
Experimental implementations of these pulse shaping examples will then be briefly presented.
In the last section, we discuss some special topics, Carrier Enveloppe Phase control and
indirect pulse shaping.

2. Ultrashort pulses characteristics

The extreme shortness of ultrashort pulses implies a large spectral bandwidth. The temporal
and spectral electric fields are dual i.e. Fourier transform. Thus the electric field can be
determined either by the temporal phase and amplitude or by the spectral phase and
amplitude.
The electric field is a real quantity that can be decomposed as:

1
E (t)= ⎡⎣E ( t ) + E * ( t ) ⎤⎦ (1)
2
with E(t) the complex electric field whose corresponds to positive frequency. This field can
be expressed as:

− iω0 t + iϕ ( t )
E(t ) = A(t ) e (2)

where ω0 is the central pulsation, A(t) its enveloppe and ϕ(t) its temporal phase.
Its Fourier transform corresponds to the spectral components:

= TF ⎣⎡E ( t ) ⎦⎤ω
iφ (ω )
E(ω ) = A(ω ) e (3)

where A(ω) is the spectral amplitude, and φ(ω) the spectral phase.
The spectrum I(ω), or spectral power density, is the square modulus of the spectral
amplitude. Its temporal equivalent, the temporal intensity I(t) equals the square modulus of
the temporal amplitude A(t).
One must be aware that the temporal amplitude A(t) depends upon both the spectral
amplitude and phase.
We assume a normalized field:

+∞ +∞
dω
∫|E(ω )| = ∫|E(t )|2 dt = 1
2
(4)
−∞ 2π −∞
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 349

The pulse center is then defined by:

+∞
t0 = t = ∫ t|E(t )|
2
dt (5)
−∞

The pulse duration by:

( t − t0 )
2 2
Δt = t2 − t = (6)

The central frequency by:

+∞
dω
ω0 = ω = ∫ ω|E(ω )|2 (7)
−∞ 2π

The spectral width or bandwidth by:

( ω − ω0 )
2 2
Δω = ω2 − ω = (8)

Duration and bandwidth are related by:

1
ΔωΔt ≥ (9)
2
The minimum is obtained for a pure linear spectral phase. As shown by the relations
between spectral phase and duration:

+∞
dφ
∫ t E(t )
2
t = dt = , (10)
−∞ dω

dφ
τg = , (11)
dω

2
⎛ dφ dφ ⎞
( )
2 2
t = Δtϕ = 0 2 + Δτ g 2 with Δτ g 2 = τ g − τ g = ⎜ − ⎟ . (12)
⎝ dω dω ⎠

For |E(ω)| fixed, the pulse is shortest when τg is independent of the frequency (Δτg=0).
The pulse is said to be a Fourier transform pulse or Fourier transform limited.
By opposition when τg changes linearly with frequency, the pulse is said to be chirped (as
when a bird sings).
To analyse the different effects of the spectral phase, it is used to expand the spectral phase
into a Taylor series:

φ ( 2 ) (ω0 ) φ ( 3) (ω0 ) ∂ kφ (ω )
φ (ω ) = φ (ω0 ) + φ ( 1) (ω0 )(ω − ω0 ) + (ω − ω0 ) (ω − ω0 ) with φ (
k)
(ω0 ) =
2 3
+ (13)
2! 3! ∂ω k ω0
350 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

The first order spectral phase term corresponds to a delay, the second order (also named
chirp) spreads linearly in time the frequency and so stretches the pulse. The third order
introduces pre-pulses or post-pulses around the main pulse.
Different set-ups combining gratings, prisms or grisms and optics can modify the spectral
phase but not arbitrarily. The different orders cannot be set independently.
The temporal intensity is modified by changing the spectral phase only, but its complete
control requires shaping both the spectral phase and amplitude. This kind of control is
expressed by a linear filtering.

3. Linear filtering
The femtosecond pulse shaping approach described in this article is based on the linear,
time-invariant filter, a concept well-known in electrical engineering. Here we apply linear
filtering to generate specially shaped optical waveforms on the picosecond and femtosecond
time scale.
Linear filtering can be described in either the time domain or frequency domain, as depicted
in figure 1. In the time domain, the filter is characterized by an impulse response function
h(t). The output of the filter Eout(t) in response to an input pulse Ein(t) is given by the
convolution of Ein(t) and h(t)

Eout ( t ) = Ein ( t ) ⊗ h ( t ) = ∫ Ein ( t ') h ( t − t ') dt ' (14)

where ⊗ denotes convolution. If the input is a delta function, the output is simply h(t).
Therefore, for a sufficiently short input pulse, the problem of generating a specific output
pulse shape is equivalent to the task of fabricating a linear filter with the desired impulse
response. Note that instead of the term “impulse response function”, which is common in
electrical engineering, h(t) may also be called a Green function, which is a common
terminology in other fields.

(a) TIME DOMAIN

Ein (t) h(t) Eout (t)=Ei n(t)⊗h(t)

Impulse response
(b) FREQUENCY DOMAIN

Ein (ω) H(ω) Eou t(ω)=H(ω) Ein(ω)

Frequency response

Fig. 1. Pulse shaping by linear filtering. (a) Time domain view. (b) Frequency domain view
In the frequency domain, the filter is characterized by its frequency response H(ω). The
output of the linear filter Eout(ω) is the product of the input signal Ein(ω) and the frequency
response H(ω) –i.e.,

Eout (ω ) = Ein (ω ) H (ω ) (15)

Here Ein(t), Eout(t), h(t), and Ein(ω), Eout(ω), H(ω), respesctively, are Fourier transform pairs.
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 351

A linear filter can emulate any linear combination of pulses such as for examples two, three,
four… pulses. Any optical system without frequency conversion or time-dependant
component is indeed a linear filter (Michelson or Mach-Zender interferometers, bandpass
filters, …).
For a delta function input pulse Ein(t), the input spectrum Ein(ω) is equal to unity, and the
output spectrum is equal to the frequency response of the filter. Therefore, due to the
Fourier transform relations, generation of a desired ouput waveform can be accomplished
by implementing a filter with the required frequency response. As the time scale of the
pulses (10fs-100fs) is shorter than any temporal modulator (>10ps), the pulse shaping
approach is based on frequency domain and naturally is described by frequency domain
point of view.

4. Theory of Pulse shaping techniques

The two main technologies of pulse shaping commonly used are the 4-f pulse shaper, or
Fourier transform femtosecond pulse shaping, and the acousto-optic programmable
dispersive filter (AOPDF). This part will review theoretically these two technologies and
introduces their simulation models in order to determine the frequency response of these
filters.

4.1 Femtosecond pulse shaping using spatial light modulators

4.1.1 Analytical analysis
The first use of the pulse shaping apparatus shown in Fig.2 was reported by Froehly, who
performed pulse shaping experiments with 30ps input pulses [Froehly (1983)]. Related
experiments demonstrating shaping of a few picoseconds pulses by spatial masking within
a fiber and grating compressor were performed independently by Heritage and Weiner in
1985. In those experiments a grating pair was used in a dispersive configuration without
internal lenses since grating dispersion was needed in order to compress the input pulses
which were chirped through non linear propagation in the fiber. The dispersion-free
apparatus in Fig.2 was subsequently adopted by Weiner et al. for manipulating pulses on
the 100fs time scale, initially using fixed masks and later using programmable Spatial Light
Modulators (SLM). The apparatus of Fig. 2 (without the mask) can also be used to introduce
dispersion for pulse stretching or compression by changing the grating-lens spacing. This
idea was introduced and analyzed by Martinez and is now extensively used for high-power
femtosecond chirped pulse amplifier.
The waveform synthesis is achieved by spatial masking of the spatially dispersed optical
frequency spectrum. Figure 2 shows the basic pulse shaping apparatus, which consists of a
pair of diffraction gratings and lenses, arranged in a configuration known as a “zero
dispersion pulse compressor”, and a pulse shaping mask. The individual frequency
components contained within the incident ultrashort pulse are angularly dispersed by the
first diffraction grating, and then focused to small diffraction limited spots at the back focal
plane of the first lens, where the frequency components are spatially separated along one
dimension. Essentially the first lens performs a Fourier transform which converts the
angular dispersion from the the grating to a spatial separation at the back focal plane.
Spatially patterned amplitude and phase masks (or a SLM) are placed in this plane in order
to manipulate the spatially dispersed optical Fourier components. After a second lens and
grating recombine all the frequencies into a single collimated beam, a shaped output pulse is
352 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

obtained, with the output pulse shape given by the Fourier transform of the patterned
transferred by the masks onto the spectrum.

x E3(x,ω)
ω) E4 (x,
E 2(x, ω)

m(x)
x
x
,t)
E 5(x E1 (x
, t)

Fig. 2. Basic layout for Fourier transform femtosecond pulse shaping.

In order for this technique to work as desired, one requires that in the absence of a pulse
shaping mask, the output pulse should be identical to the input pulse. Therefore, the grating
and lens configuration must be truly free of dispersion. This can be guaranteed if the lenses
are set up as a unit magnification telescope. In this case the first lens performs a spatial
Fourier transform between the plane of the first grating and the masking plane, and the
second lens performs a second Fourier transform from the masking plane to the plane of the
second grating. The total effect of these two consecutive Fourier transforms is that the input
pulse is unchanged in traveling through the system if no pulse shaping mask is present.
Note that this dispersion-free condition also depends on several approximations, e.g., that
the lenses are thin and free of aberrations, that chromatic dispersion in passing through the
lenses or other elements which may be inserted into the pulse shaper is small, and that the
gratings have a flat spectral response. Many optimized designs have been proposed in the
litterature to minimize optical aberrations [Monmayrant and Chatel (2003),
Weiner(2000),…].
The optimization of the apparatus for a quantitative control requires precise analysis and
simulation[Wefers and Nelson (1995), Vaughan and al (2006), Monmayrant (2005)]. In terms
of the linear filter formalism, we wish to relate the linear filtering function H(ω) to the actual
physical masking function with complex transmittance m(x). To do so, we must determine
the relation between the spatial dimension x on the mask and the optical frequency ω. The
input grating disperses the optical frequencies angularly:

λ = p ( sin θi + sin θ d ) (16)

where λ is the optical wavelength, p is the spacing between grating lines, and θi and θd are
angles of incidence and diffraction, respectively. The first lens brings the diffracted rays
from the first grating parallel. The lateral displacement x of a given frequency component λ
from the center frequency component λ0 immediately after the lens is given by

x ( λ ) = f tan ⎡⎣θ d ( λ ) − θ d ( λ0 ) ⎦⎤ (17)

Expanding x as a power series in angular frequency ω gives

Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 353

⎡ ∂θ 1 ∂ 2θ d ⎤
x (ω ) = f ⎢ d (ω − ω0 ) + (ω − ω0 )
2
+ ...⎥ , (18)
⎢⎣ ∂ω ω = ω0 2 ∂ω 2 ω = ω0 ⎥⎦
where

∂θ d 2π c ∂ 2θ d −4π c
= and = , (19)
∂ω ω = ω0 ω0 2 p cosθ d (ω0 ) ∂ω 2 ω = ω0
ω0 3 p cosθ d (ω0 )

c is the speed of light, and ω0 is the central carrier frequency of the input pulse.
Usually the second order term is neglected [except in Monmayrant thesis and Vaughan and
al.] so that the frequency components are laterally dispersed linearly across the mask.
However, for very broad bandwidth pulses (pulse with duration <20fs), or precise pulse
shaping, this assumption may break down. Subtle second order dispersion effects have been
noticed by Weiner and co-workers[Weiner (1988)], and Sauerbrey and co- workers[Vaughan
(2006)].
It is assumed that the lateral dispersion of the lenses and gratings is such that the mask can
accommodate the entire bandwidth of the input pulse. The “mask bandwidth” depends
upon the width of the mask L, the focal length of the lens f, the line spacing of the grating p
and the angle of diffraction θd(ω0):

⎛L⎞
ΔλM = arctan ⎜ ⎟ p cosθ d (ω0 ) . (21)
⎝f⎠
To avoid any significant cut, the “mask bandwidth” ΔΩM has to be larger than the input
pulse bandwidth Δω. We shall use as a criteria that ΔΩM>3Δω.
Considering an ideal mask, without pixelisation and other spurious effect, the space-time
coupling used for the temporal or spectral shaping by a spatial mask has some incidence on
the shaped pulse [Danailov (1989), Wefers (1995), Wefers (1996), Sussman (2008)]. The
principal issue is that the spectral content – and hence time evolution – at each point within
the output beam is not the same. Following the notations introduced on Fig.2 and by
considering the input field without space-time coupling, the electric field incident upon the
pulse shaping apparatus (immediately prior to the grating) is defined in the slowly varying
envelope approximation as

E1 ( x , t ) = Ein ( x ) A ( t ) e
− iω0 t + iϕ ( t )
. (22)

Following the results of Martinez [Martinez (1986)], the electric field immediately after the
grating in frequency and position space is given by

E2 ( x , Ω ) = β Ein ( β x ) A ( Ω ) e
iγΩx + iφ ( Ω )
(23)

with β = cosθ i / cosθ d , γ = 2π / ω0 p cos θ d , and Ω = ω − ω0 , where φ ( Ω ) = φ (ω ) and θi and

θd are the angles of incidence and diffraction respectively, and p the grating line spacing.
The electric field profile in the focal plane of the lens is given by the spatial Fourier
transform of (23) with the substitution k=2πx/λ0f, where f is the focal length of the lens and
λ0 is the center wavelength of the input field. The electric field is then multiplied by the
mask filter m(x) to give
354 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

E3 ( x , Ω ) = 2π / βλ0 f E in ( 2π x / βλ0 f + γΩ / β ) A ( Ω ) e m(x)

iφ ( Ω )
(24)

where E in ( k ) is the spatial fourier transform of Ein ( x ) .

To determine the electric field profile immediately before the second grating, a spatial
Fourier transform of Eq.(24) is taken again with the substitution k=2πx/λ0f, giving

E4 ( x , Ω ) = ( )
2πβ / λ0 f ⎡Ein ( − β x ) A ( Ω ) e ( )
⎣
iφ Ω − iγΩx
⊗ M ( 2π x / λ0 f ) ⎤
⎦
(25)

where M(k) is the spatial Fourier transform of the mask pattern m(x) and ⊗ denotes a
convolution.
Again following Martinez, the inverse transfer function of the second grating (which is anti-
parallel to the first) gives the electric field profile after the grating as

E5 ( x , Ω ) = ( )
2π / βλ0 f ⎡Ein ( − x ) A ( Ω ) e ( )
⎣
iφ Ω − iγΩx /β
⊗ M ( 2π x / βλ0 f ) ⎤
⎦
(26)

Taking the spatial Fourier transforms of (26) yields the electric field profile of the output
waveform in the spatial frequency domain

E out ( k , Ω ) = E 5 ( k , Ω ) = E in ( − k , Ω ) m ( λ0 f ( γΩ + β k ) ) = E in ( − k ) A ( Ω ) e ( ) m ( λ0 f ( γΩ + β k ) ) . (27)
iφ Ω

In space and time it is expressed as a convolution

Eout ( x , t ) = ( )
2π γλ f e iω0 t ∫ Ein ( − ( x + t β / γ ) , t − t ') M ( −2π t ' γλ f ) dt ' . (28)

The space-time coupling appears as a coupling between the spatial and spectral frequencies
onto the mask. If the mask does not modify the beam, it cancels out. But if the mask
introduces a modulation then the output pulse will be modified both on its spectral and
spatial dimensions. Due to this coupling, no simple expression of the pulse shaper response
function H(ω) can be given without the strong hypothesis that this effect is negligeable.
To illustrate this effect, we will consider a pure delay, and a quadratic phase sweep to
compensate for an initial chirp of the input pulse.
For a pure delay, the spectral phase is linear and the mask is given by

m (ω ) = e − iωτ . (29)

Applying eq. (27) with this mask and an inverse spatial Fourier transform yields the output
electric field

Eout ( x , Ω ) = E5 ( x , Ω ) = Ein ( x + ( β γ )τ ) A ( Ω ) e
iφ ( Ω ) − iωτ
. (30)

The output beam is spatially shifted and this shift is proportionnal to the applied delay.
Quantitavely, the slope of this time-dependent lateral shift is given by

−cp cosθ i
v = ∂x ∂t = − β γ =
λ, (31)

Which for typical parameters (p=1000-line/mm gratings, λ=800nm) is ≈0.2mm/ps. Equation

(31) shows that this slope depends only on the angular dispersion produced by the grating.
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 355

However, the effect of this lateral shift is measured relative to the spot size of the unshaped
incident pulse. Spatially large input pulses reduce the effect of space time coupling but also
reduce the spot size on the mask.
We now consider a mask pattern consisting of a quadratic phase sweep

i 2
− φ ( ) Ω2
m (ω ) = e 2
. (32)

This quadratic spectral phase sweep produces a “chirped” pulse with a temporally
broadened envelope and an instantaneous carrier frequency that varies linearly with time
under that envelope. The delay associated with each spectral components varies linearly
(τ(Ω)=φ(2)Ω). So from Eq.(30), by replacing τ by τ(Ω), the spatial dependance becomes
coupled with the optical frequency. Exact calculations have been done by Wefers[1996] and
Monmayrant [2005]. These analyses point out a complex spatio-temporal coupling
modifying the beam divergence and even the compression of the initial pulse. Supposing
that the initial pulse has gaussian shapes in space and spectral amplitude, and is “chirped”
as

φin( 2 ) 2
−Ω
2 φin( 2 )
i Ω2 −x −i Ω2
Ein ( x , Ω ) = Ein ( x ) A ( Ω ) e
ΔΩ 2
2
=e Δx 2
e e 2
. (33)

( ( )) t ⎞⎟⎠.
2

exp ⎛⎜ − ( 1 ΔΩ 2 ) − i φin( 2) 2 ( ) 4 ( 1 ΔΩ 2 ) + φin( 2) 2 ( )

−x 2 2
Ein ( x , t ) ∝ e Δx 2 2
(34)
⎝
Then the effect of the pulse shaper should be to recompress this pulse to its best compressed
pulse
2
−x 2 2
− ΔΩ t
Eout , best compressed ( x , t ) ∝ e Δx 2
e 4
. (35)

The exact calculation with the spatio-temporal coupling yields to

Eout ( x , t ) ∝ e −Φ x x e −Φt t e Φ xt xt e i Χ x x e i Χt t e − i Χ xt xt ,
2 2 2 2
(36)

( )
where Φ x = 1 Δx p 2 , Φ t = ( 1 ΔΩ 2 ) + v 2φ ( 2 ) 2 Δx p 2 ( ( )) 4Δ ,
((
Φxt = Aφ (2) v ) (( 1 ΔΩ ) + ( v φ Δx
2 2 (2) 2
p
2
) ) + ( vφ Δx ) (φ + φ + 2 Aφ 2 ) ) 4Δ , Χ = A v
(2)
p
2 (2)
in
(2) (2) 2
x
2
,

Χ xt = ( ( vφ (2)
Δx ) ( ( 1 ΔΩ ) + ( v φ
p
2 2 2 ( 2 )2
Δx ) ) − ( (αφ v ) ) (φ + φ
p
2
+ 2αφ 2 ) ) 4 Δ , and
(2) (2)
in
( 2) ( 2) 2

( (
Δ = ( 1 ΔΩ 2 ) + v 2φ ( 2) 2 Δx p 2 ) ) + (φ + φ + 2 Aφ 2 )
2 2
(2)
in
( 2) ( 2 )2
, v = − β γ = − pc cosθ i λ0 ,

( ) ( ( 2φ ) + ( Δx v ) ) , Δx = Δx ( 1 + ( 2 v φ )) , θ = − arctan ( 2φ )
2
2 2
A = 2φ ( 2) ( 2) 2
p
2 ( 2)
Δx 2 (2)
v 2 Δx 2 .
This equation illustrates the degree of complexity of the spatio-temporal coupling. The pulse
temporal ans spatial characteristics are modified by the pulse shaping. The temporal
amplitude and phase are altered through respectively Φt and Xt. The spatial properties are
affected through the dependance of Φx (amplitude) and Xx (phase) on φ(2) . The pure space-
time coupling is expressed by Φxt and Xxt.
356 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

Consider that the chirp introduced by the pulse shaper optimally compresses the pulse.
With Δx=2mm (half-width at 1/e), v=0.15mm/ps, ΔΩ=25ps-1 (half-width at 1/e),
φin(2)=160000fs2, the pulse is stretched to 1ps with a Fourier limit of 20fs (half-width at 1/e).
The optimal chirp compensation is φ(2)=-160000fs2. The optimally compressed pulse half-
width at 1/e is then given by Δt=1/4√Φt=22.6fs. The 10% error is due to the decrease of Φt
when φ(2) increases. These values are extreme and in most of the cases, the introduced chirp
is small enough not to impact the recompression. On the spatial characteristics the
modifications are small compared to the beam size, the output beam size is Δxp=1.998mm
compared to Δx=2mm at the input.
To decrease the effect of this coupling, the ratio v/Δx has to be kept small compare to the
value of φ(2), i.e. large input beams and highly dispersive gratings (p>600lines/mm).
As shown by Wefers [1996], it cannot by removed by a double pass configuration except for
pure amplitude shaping. Despite its relatively small incidence on the output beam, this
coupling can be very important when focusing the shaped pulse as shown by Sussman
[2008] and Tanabe [2005].
To further analyze this pulse shaping technology, the mask has to be defined. The different
technologies of spatial modulators are acousto-optic modulators (AOM) [Warren (1997)],
Liquid Crystals Spatial Light Modulator diffraction-based approach [Vaughan (2005)], and
Liquid Crystals Spatial Light Modulator. In the following, the mask used is a double Liquid
Crystal Spatial Light Modulators (LC SLM) as described in Wefers (1995). The arbitrary filter
is the combination of two LC SLM’s whose LC’s differ in alignment by 90 deg. This would
produce independent retardances for orthogonal polarizations. The LC’s for the two masks
are respectiveley aligned at –45 and +45deg from the x axis, the incident light were
polarized along the x axis, and the two LC SLM’s are followed by a polarizer aligned along
the x axis, the filter in this case for pixel n is given by

{ } { }
Bn = exp i ⎡⎣ Δφ (1) + Δφ ( 2 ) ⎤⎦ / 2 cos ⎡⎣ Δφ (1) − Δφ ( 2 ) ⎤⎦ / 2 = An e iφn , (37)

where the dependence on the voltage for pixel n Δφ(i) [Vn(i)] is implicitly included. In this
case neither mask acts alone as a phase or amplitude mask, but the two in combination are
capable of independent attenuation and retardance. Furthermore, as the respective LC
SLM’s act on orthogonal polarizations, light filtered by one mask is unaffected by the second
mask. As shown by Wefers and Nelson, this eliminates multiple-diffraction effects of the
two masks.
As discussed previously, spatially large input pulses reduce the space-time coupling effect.
Each dispersed frequency component incident upon the mask has a finite spot size
associated with it. However, this blurs the discrete features of the mask, the incident
frequency components should be focused to a spot size comparable with or less than the
pixel width. If the spot size is too small, replica waverforms that arise from discrete Fourier
sampling will be unavoidable. On the other hand, if the spot size is too big, the blurring of
the mask will give rise to substantial diffraction effects. As the spatial profile of a
wavelength on the mask is the Fourier transform of the spatial profile on the grating.
Minimizing the space-time coupling by using spatially large input pulses, discrete Fourier
sampling and pulse replica cannot be avoid as the following analysis (suggested by
Vaughan [2005] and Monmayrant[2005]) will show.
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 357

The modulating function m(x) is simply the convolution of the spatial profile S(x) of a given
spectral component with the phase and amplitude modulation applied by the LC SLM,

⎛ x − xn ⎞
N /2
m( x ) = S( x ) ⊗ ∑
n = − N /2
squ ⎜
⎝ δx ⎠
⎟ An exp ( iφn ) , (38)

where xn is the position of the nth pixel, An and φn are the amplitude and phase modulation
applied by the nth pixel (Anexp(iφn)=Bn), δx is the separation of adjacent pixels, and the top-
hat function squ(x) is defined as

⎧1 x ≤ 1
⎪ 2.
squ ( x ) = ⎨ (39)
1
⎪⎩0 x > 2

The spatial profile S(x) of a given spectral component is directly the Fourier transform of the
input spatial profile as

S( x ) = TF ⎣⎡Ein ( xin ) ⎦⎤ x = 2π xin , (40)

λfβ

where f is the focal length,

Here, the grating dispersion is assumed to be linear by

2π cf
x(ω ) = α (ω − ω0 ) , where α = . (41)
ω0 2 p cosθ d (ω0 )

Thus the position of the nth pixel xn corresponds to a frequency Ωn=nδΩ, where the
frequency Ωn of the nth pixel is defined relative to the center frequency ω0 by Ωn=ωn-ω0, and
where δΩ is the frequency separation of adjacent pixels corresponding to δx:

δ xω0 2 p cosθ d (ω0 )

δΩ = . (42)
2π cf

Assuming also that the spatial field profile of a given spectral component is a Gaussian
function S(x)=exp(-x2/Δx2), the modulation function may be written as

⎛ −Ω 2 ⎞ N /2
⎛ Ω − Ωn ⎞
m(Ω ) = exp ⎜ 2 ⎟
⊗ ∑ squ ⎜ ⎟ An exp ( iφn ). (43)
⎝ ΔΩ x ⎠ n =− N /2 ⎝ δΩ ⎠

Here the width of the spatial Gaussian function has been expressed in terms of ΔΩx, the
spectral resolution of the grating-lens pair, where ΔΩx=ΔxδΩ/δx. The spot size Δx
(measured as half-width at 1/e of the intensity maximum, assuming a Gaussian input beam
profile) is dependent upon the input beam diameter D (half-width at 1/e), the focal length f
and the angles of incidence and diffraction of the grating according to

(
Δx = ( λ0 f cos (θ i ) ) (π D cos (θ d ) ) . ) (44)

The width of the Gaussian function expressed in frequency is

358 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

ΔΩ x = (ω0 p cos (θ i ) ) (π D ) . (45)

If we assume that the input pulse is a temporal delta function, Ein(Ω)=1. The output field
corresponds to the response function of the filter and its Fourier transform yields an
expression of the impulse response function:
N /2
Eout (t ) = h ( t ) ∝ exp ( − ΔΩ x 2 t 2 4 ) sin c (δΩt 2 ) ∑ An exp ( i ( Ωnt + φn ) ). (46)
n =− N /2

The summation term describes the basic properties of the output pulse, such as would be
obtained by modulating amplitude and/or phase of the input pulse at the point Ωn with a
grating-lens apparatus that has perfect spectral resolution. The sinc term is the Fourier
transformation of the top-hat pixel shape, where the width of the sinc function is inversely
proportional to the pixel separation δx, or equivalently, δΩ. The Gaussian term results from
the finite spectral resolution of the grating lens-pair, where the width of the Gaussian
function is inversely proportional to the spectral resolution ΔΩx. Collectively, the product of
the Gaussian and sinc terms is known as the time window. Therefore to increase the time
window, both the frequency separation of adjacent pixel δΩ and the spectral resolution ΔΩx
have to be increased.
The expression of the impulse response function (eq.46) contains a summed term that is a
complex Fourier series. A property of Fourier series (with evenly-spaced frequency samples)
is that they repeat themselves with a period given by the reciprocal of the frequency
increment T0=1/δΩ. These pulses repetitions, refered as sampling replica, are a cause of
concern since they can degrade the quality of the desired output waveform.
While eq. 46 provides a compact and useful analytical result, it considers only the LC SLM
with perfect pixels and spatial spot size. It neglects some important limitations of these
devices. First, the pixels of the LC SLM are not perfectly sharp, and there are gap regions
between the pixels whose properties are somewhat intermediate between those of the
adjacent pixels. Second, LC SLMs typically have a phase range that is only slightly in excess
of 2π. Fortunately since phases that differ by 2π are mathematically equivalent, the phase
modulation may be applied modulo 2π. Thus, whenever the phase would otherwise exceed
integer multiples of 2π, it is “wrapped” back to be within the range of 0-2π. Although
smoothing of the pixelated phase and/or amplitude pattern might in general sound
desirable, when it is combined with the phase-wraps, distortions in the spectral phase
and/or amplitude modulation are introduced at phase-wrap points. Third, while the pixels
are evenly distributed in space, the frequency components of the dispersed spectrum are
not. This nonlinear mapping of pixel number to frequency makes difficult the determination
of an exact analytical expression for m(Ω).
The contribution of the gaps has been taken into account in the litterature (Wefers [1995],
Montmayrant[2005]) as a constant complex amplitude. This analysis supposes that the gap
region does not depend upon the neighbour pixels. As the filter in each gap is assumed to be
the same, the gaps simply reproduce the single input pulse at time zero with a reduced
complex amplitude given by (1-r)Bg where r is the ratio of the pixel width (rδx) by the pixel
pitch δx and Bg its complex response. The expression for m(x) including the gaps is

( (( ) ( ( 1 − r )δ x )) B )⎤⎥⎦. (47)
N /2
m( x ) = S( x ) ⊗ ∑ ⎡⎢⎣( squ ( ( x − x )
n =− N /2
n )
rδ x ) An exp ( iφn ) + squ x − xn + δ x
2 g
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 359

With the approximation of linear spectral dispersion, the filter response function can be
expressed as:

⎧⎡ ∞
i Ω t +φ ⎤ ⎡
∞
⎤⎫
h(t) ∝ Ein ( ( pω0 cosθi 2π ) t ) ⎨⎢r sin c ( r δΩt 2) ∑ Ane ( n n ) ⎥ + ⎢( 1 − r ) sin c ( ( 1 − r ) δΩt 2) ∑ Bg eiΩnt ⎥ ⎬. (48)
⎩⎣ n =−∞ ⎦ ⎣ n=−∞ ⎦⎭

The time extent of the contribution of the gap is a lot longer than the pixel one. The
theoretical ratio in intensity is (r/(1-r))2 in the order of thousand for up-to-date LC SLM. But
the experimental ratio is about 40 to 100. This order of magnitude is due to the hypthesis
that the gap region is the same and that the pixel edges are perfectly sharp. The smoothing
of the phase between pixels has to be considered.
The smoothing function has been first introduced by Vaughan and al. but without explicit
expression, and on a phase mask only. In fact no simple analytical model can reproduce this
effect. It will be introduce in the simulation part.
The phase wraps used to extend the phase modulation of the LC SLM above its limited
excursion of 2π by applying a phase that is “wrapped”back into 0-2π as

φapplied , n = mod 2π ⎣⎡φdesired , n ⎦⎤ . (49)

Due to the mathematical equivalence of phase values that differ by integer multiples of 2π,
there are an infinite number of ways to “unwrap”the applied phase. Sampling replica pulses
constitute an important class of these equivalent phase functions, and their phase as a
function of pixel,φreplica,n, may be described by

φreplica , n = φapplied , n + 2π Rn , (50)

where R is the sampling replica order and may be any non zero integer (0 corresponds to the
desired pulse). In the case of linear spectral dispersion, φreplica,n for different values of R
differ by a linear spectral phase 2πRω/δΩ, which corresponds to a temporal shift of R/δΩ.
This is another explanation of the sampling replica that are temporally separated by 1/δΩ.
In the case of a non linear spectral dispersion, the different replica phases do not differ by a
linear spectral phase but rather by a non linear one. The quadratic term will introduce a
second order spectral phase (chirp) linearly depending on the replica number R. A very
explicit illustration is given by Vaughan and al.(2006), but no analytical expression could be
given for the non linear dispersion.
Finally, the modulation function can be expressed analytically as

{
m(Ω) = squ[ Ω NδΩ] S(Ω) ⊗ comb [ Ω δΩ] ⎡squ ( Ω rδΩ ) H ( Ω ) + squ Ω + δΩ
⎢⎣ 2 (( ) ( ( 1 − r ) δΩ) ) B ⎤⎥⎦
g }, (51)
∞
where comb [ Ω] = ∑ δ ( Ω − n) ,
n =−∞
N is the number of pixels, H(Ω) is the desired transfer

function. This function combines the pixelization, the gap effect, the input beam spatial
dimension, the limited number of pixel. The impulse response function is then given by

⎡
M(t ) ∝ sinc [ N δΩt 2 ] ⊗ ⎢Ein ⎜ ⎜ 0
(
⎛ ⎛ pω cosθ i ⎞ ⎞ ⎧⎪ r sin c ( r δΩt 2 ) ( comb [δΩt ] ⊗ h ( t ) ) + ) ⎫⎤
⎪⎥
⎟t ⎟ ⎨ ⎬ ⎥ . (52)
⎢ ⎝⎝
⎣
2π
⎩ (
⎠ ⎠ ⎪r sin c (π ( 1 − r ) δΩt 2 ) comb [δΩt ] ⊗ Bg ) ⎭⎪ ⎦
360 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

where N is the pixels number, δΩ is the frequency extent of a the pixel pitch, S(x) is the
spatial profile of the input pulse, r the ratio between the pixel size and the pixel pitch, h(t)
the ideal impulse response function and Bg the gap complex transmission.
The figure 3 illustrates the different contributions of this model on the output temporal
intensity.

(a) (b)

No gaps
&
No spatial

Gaps

Gaps
&
spatial

Fig. 3. output temporal intensity examples in logarithmic scale for a 4-f pulse shaper
(f=220mm,2000lines/mm, δx=100μm, r=0.9, D=1.7mm half-width at 1/e, Bg=1) with (a) a
delay 2000fs, (b) adding a chirp 4000fs2 to the delay. The first row does not include
contribution of gaps and spatial filtering, second row includes gaps contribution, third row
gaps and spatial input beam profile contribution. The black line is the output waveform, the
grey line the envelope of the filter response pulse shaper pixels.
Other contributions can only be numerically simulated as the non linear dispersion, the
smoothing effect, the spatio-temporal coupling.
The pulse replicas can be filtered out as the spatio-temporal coupling by using a spatial filter
at the output (cf Fig.5). This filtering effect is only efficient if the filter select the lowest
Hermite-Gaussian mode as shown by Thurston and al. (1986). Regenerative amplifiers or
monomode optical fibers are good fundamental Hermite-Gaussian mode filters. A simple
iris cannot be considered as such a filter as shown by Wefers (1995). With perfect filtering,
the filter modulation becomes
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 361

{
m filtered (t ) ∝ Filter ( t ) ⋅ m(t ) ∝ sinc [ N δΩt 2 ] ⊗ rh(t ) + ( 1 − r ) Bg . } (53)

The filter function Filter(t) introduced by the spatial filtering decreases the overall efficiency
and does not filter out the contribution of the gaps. It can be estimated as applying another
enveloppe on the time profile with a restricted area limiting the time window. The
contribution of the filters response has to be taken into account for exact pulse shaping.

4.1.2 4-f pulse shapers numerical simulations

4-f pulse shapers are commonly used with a simple iris aperture filtering directly at the
output before the experiment. As seen in the previous part, the filter response can be
affected by limitations of the 4-f apparatus (spatio-temporal coupling, non linear dispersion)
and of the LC SLMs (smoothing) that cannot be expressed analytically. Complex input pulse
and pulse shaping as multiple pulses or square pulses can only be simulted numerically.
This part gives an adavnced numerical models combining models used in the litterature
(Wefers [1995], Vaughan [2005], Monmayrant [2005], Sussman [2008], Tanabe [2002], Tanabe
[2005]).
The effects of pulse propagation through a pulse shaper have been carefully detailed by
Danailov [1989] and Wefers [1995]. As Tanabe (2005) and Sussman (2008), the propagation is
simulated by a Fresnel propagation as:

E ( kx , ω , z ) = e x ( 0 ) E ( kx , ω , z0 ) ,
− iπ k 2 z − z c /ω
(54)

where E ( kx , ω , z ) is the spatial Fourier transform of the electric field,

U Fresnel ( kx ) = e
− iπ kx 2 ( z − z0 ) c /ω
is the Fresnel propagator. The field will be simulated at a focal
plane as oftenly used experimentally.
For the shaper in Fig.4, there are 17 different steps from input beam to focal field, as
enumerated below.
1. An input beam E(x,t,0) is propagated from its origin to the diaphragm aperture of the
pulse shaper by Fresnel propagation.
2. An iris aperture spatially of diameter Diris filters the beam:
E ( x , t , z ) → Rect ( x Diris ) E ( x , t , z ) .
3. The beam is propagated form the iris to the input grating by Fresnel propagation.
4. The beam is dispersed by the input grating by applying Martinez:
E ( x , Ω , z ) → β e 2 iπγΩx E ( β x , Ω , )
5. The beam is Fresnel propagated a distance f.
6. A perfect thin lens of focal length f introduces a quadratic spatial phase:
E ( x , Ω , z ) → E ( x , Ω , z ) e − iπΩfx
2
2c
.
7. The beam is Fresnel propagated a distance f.
8. The spatial mask is applied via multiplication:
E ( x , Ω, z ) → E ( x , Ω, z ) m ( x )
9. The beam is Fresnel propagated a distance f.
10. A perfect thin lens of focal length f introduces a quadratic spatial phase :
E ( x , Ω , z ) → E ( x , Ω , z ) e − iπΩfx
2
2c
.
362 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

11. The beam is Fresnel propagated a distance f.

12. The second grating is applied in the inverted geometry by applying Martinez:
(
E ( x , Ω, z) → 1 )
β e 2 iπγΩx E ( − x β , Ω , z ) .
13. The beam is Fresnel propagated from the grating to the output iris.
14. The beam is spatially filtered by the iris: E ( x , t , z ) → Rect ( x Diris ) E ( x , t , z ) .
15. The beam is Fresnel propagated a distance L
16. A thin lens of focal length fL is applied: E ( x , Ω , z ) → E ( x , Ω , z ) e − iπΩf L x
2
2c

17. The beam is propagated to the focal plane.

The spatio-temporal coupling is directly include in these steps. All the other effects can be
introduced directly on the mask and grating functions.
The non linear dispersion is estimated through a modification of the mask by introducing:

Ω ( x ) = ax + bx 2 + O( x 2 ) , (55)

where a = pω0 2 cosθ d 2π cf , b = p 2ω0 3 ( cosθ d ) 8 (π cf ) . This contribution has to be corrected

2 2

for the main pulse but still remains for the replica.
The pixelization is introduced on the mask by
N /2 − 1
⎡ x − xn ⎤
m(x) = ∑
n =− N /2
rect ⎢
⎣ δx ⎦
iφn
⎥ An e . (56)

The smoothed-out pixel regions may cause an entirely different class of output waveform
distortions from the pixel gap as mentionned by Vaughan and al. (2006). Although the exact
nature of the smooth pixel boundaries is expected to be highly dependent upon the specific
device that is being considered, it has been approximated by convolving a spatial response
function L(x) with an idealized phase modulation function that would result in the case of
sharply defined pixel and gap regions (Vaughan [2005]). But no explicit smoothing function
has been given in the litterature. Moreover this approximation stands only for a phase only
pulse shaper. The exact analysis of a phase step between two adjacent pixels is very
complex. A simple model can consider that the phase introduced by a LC SLM is given by

2πΔn ( λ ,V ) eLC
φ ( λ ,V ) = = e P (V ) + C . (57)
λ
Despite the sharp edges of the pixel, a relaxation process occurs in the Liquid Crystal
material whose anisotropy is very strong (ε// ≈ 5 ε⊥ ) [Khoo (1993)]. For an up-to-date LC
SLM, the pixel pitch is 100μm and the gap 2μm, the thickness is about 10μm. Without taking
into account the anisotropy, the smoothing is about 1/20 of the pixel pitch independantly of
the gap size. With the anisotropy, the smoothing covers more than half the pixel. A rather
good smoothing function is a Lorentzian:

Γ 2π
L( x ) = , (58)
x + (Γ 2)
2 2

where Γ is the width.

Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 363

With the relaxation, the small gaps completely disappear. This smoothing has to be done on
the potential of the LC SLM directly. So from the desired phase modulation on both LC
SLMs, the potential is calculated, smoothed by the Lorentzian, and discretized according to
to the voltage resolution of the device.
So the estimation of the mask modulation can include the non-linear dispersion, the
pixelization and pixels smoothing by applying the following algorithm:
1. From a regular array of points in the space domain of the mask xn, estimation of the
corresponding frequencies with the non linear dispersion : Ωn.
2. Determination of the amplitude and phase of the ideal mask on these frequencies:
An(Ωn) and φn(Ωn).
3. Determination of the frequencies relative to each pixel: Ωkpixel.
4. Pixelization of the phase and amplitude by applying the same phase and amplitude
over a pixel i.e. for Ωn∈[Ωkpixel, Ωk+1pixel].
5. Pixels smoothing by:
a. Estimation of the phases on the two LC SLMs:
Δφ (1) = ( a cos ( An ) + φn ) 2 , Δφ ( 2 ) = ( a cos ( An ) − φn ) 2 .
b. Determination of the voltage on the pixels by inverting eq.57:
V1 = f −1 ( Δφ (1) ) ,V2 = f −1 ( Δφ ( 2 ) ) .
c. Smoothing of this voltages by convolving with the Lorentzian function (eq.58):
Vi , smoothed ( Ω ) = L ( Ω ) ⊗ Vi ( Ω ) .
d. Calculation of the two LC SLMs phases: Δφ ( i )smoothed = f (Vi , smoothed ) .
e. Calculation of the mask modulation from eq.37.
The numeric propagation of pulses is efficiently achieved using the fast Fourier transform
(FFT) and its inverse (IFFT), for transforming between space to frequency and time to
frequency. Care should be taken to assure that the sampling is done correctly. Propagating
through large distances or studying the intensity close to the focal point requires resampling
the spatial grid. The spatio-temporal complete simulation requires a bidimensionnal grid in
space and time restricting the resolution in time. Specific study of sampling replica, pixels
smoothing effects and gaps should be done with a simplified model without the space-time
coupling. For example, for a pulse shaper with 640 pixels and pixel gaps about 3% of the
pixel pitch, the number of sampling points (>10000) is too high for this bidimensionnal
simulation. The simplification consists in directly multiplying the input pulse by the mask
function in the frequency domain as

Eout ( Ω ) = Ein ( Ω ) M(Ω) ∝ Ein ( Ω ) TF ⎡⎣Exin ( t / v ) TF −1 ⎣⎡ M ( Ω ) ⎦⎤ ⎤⎦ , (59)

where M(Ω) is calculated by the algorithm described just beneath.

These models are in quantitative agreement with experimental published results. The
different contributions (pixelization, non-linear dispersion, pixel gaps and pixels smoothing)
are illustrated on the figure 4 below on a 100fs Fourier transform pulse at 800nm delayed by
–2ps, or stretched by a 7.105fs2 chirp, with a pulse shaper using two LC SLMs 0f 640 pixels
(pixel pitch=100μm, pixel size=0.97), a focal length of 200mm and a 2000lines/mm grating
with equal input and output angles. The input beam diameter is 2.3mm gaussian shape.
364 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

-2000fs 700000fs2

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig. 4. Contributions on pulses with a –2ps delay or a 0.7ps2 chirp of (a),(b) non-linear
dispersion, (c),(d) pixel gaps, (e),(f) pixels smoothing.

4.1.3 Conclusions on 4-f pulse shapers

This pulse shaper technology based on the coupling between space and time in a 4f-zero
dispersion line apparatus allows complex pulse shaping over a large range of pulse
characteristics. Its optical set-up allows to adapt the performances of the pulse shaper.
Despite its relative simple concept, its optimization requires a trade-off between parameters
and side effects.
The parameters are: p the grating pitch, f the focal length, θi the incidence angle, θd the
diffracted angle, δx the pixel pitch, N the number of pixels and D the input beam diameter.
The relevant characteristics are:
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 365

- The spectral bandwidth: ΔΩ M = (ω0 2 p cosθ d 2π c ) arctan ( N δ x f ) ,

- spectral resolution or initial time window : δΩ = 1 δ T = δ xω0 2 p cosθ d / 2π cf ,
- spatio-temporal slope : v = − γ β = 2π / ω0 p cosθ i ,
- real time window (spatial filtering) : ΔT = D / v ,
- Rayleigh length at the mask: zR = λ f 2 / π D2 .

The Rayleigh length has to be larger than the two LC SLMs mask thickness which is
typically about 1mm.
To decrease the spatio-temporal coupling, v/D has to be minimized, but this also reduces
the time window. Thus a trade-off between the side-effects of the spatio-temporal coupling
and the required time window and the pulse replica has to be done.
As mentionned by Wefers (1995), Monmayrant (2005) and Tanabe (2002), the pixel gaps and
some other effects can be compensated for by iterative algorithms. As the models are not
precise enough, this compensation has to be done experimentally (Tanabe).
The effects of misalignement and tolerances of the optical set-up is beyond the scope of this
chapter but can be very significant on the output waveform as shown by Wefers (1995),
Tanabe (2002).

4.2 Acousto-optic programmable dispersive filter

The second pulse shaping technology has been invented by Pierre Tournois in 1997
(Tournois (1997)). The basic idea is to make a programmable Bragg grating or chirped
mirror. Through an acousto-optic longitudinal Bragg cell, the acousto-optic diffraction
directly transfers the amplitude and phase modulation of the acoustic wave onto the optical
diffracted beam.
A schematic of the AOPDF is shown on fig.5. An acoustic wave is launched in an acousto-
optic birefringent crystal by a transducer excited by a temporal RF signal. The acoustic wave
propagates with a velocity V along the z-axis of the crystal and hence reproduces spatially
the temporal shape of the RF signal. Two optical modes can be coupled efficiently by
acousto-optic interaction in the case of phase matching. If there is locally only one spatial
frequency in the acoustic grating , then only one optical frequency can be diffracted at a
position z. The incident optical short pulse is initially polarized onto the fast axis
polarization of the birefringent crystal. Every optical frequency ω travels a certain distance
before it encounters a phase matched spatial frequency in the acoustic grating. At this
position z(ω), part of the energy is diffracted onto the slow axis polarization. The pulse
leaving the device onto the extraordinary polarization will be made up all the spectral
components that have been diffracted at various positions. Since the velocities of the two
polarizations are different, each optical frequencies will see a different time delay τ(ω) given
by:

z (ω ) L − z (ω )
τ (ω ) = + , (60)
vg 1 vg 2

where L is the crystal length, vg1 and vg2 are the group velocities of ordinary and
extraordianry modes respectively.
366 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

Ex: compressed
pulse
st)
(fa
ary
din
Or
Ex: stretched
pulse
z

ary
z(w) rdin
o
tra
Ex w)
(s l o

Fig. 5. Schematic of the AOPDF.

The amplitude of the output pulse, or diffraction efficiency, is controlled by the acoustic
power at position z(ω). The optical output Eout(t) of the AOPDF is a function of the optical
input Ein(t) and of the acoustic signal S(t). More precisely, it has been shown (Tournois
(1997)), for low value of acoustic power density, to be proportionnal to the convolution of
the optical input and of the scaled acoustic signal:

Eout ( t ) ∝ Ein ( t ) ⊗ S ( t α ) ⇔ Eout (ω ) ∝ Ein (ω ) S (αω ) , (61)

where the scaling factor α is the ratio of the acoustic frequency to the optic frequency.
In this formulation, the AOPDF is exactly a linear filter whose filter response is S(αω). Thus
by generating the proper function, one can achieve any arbitrary convolution with a
temporal resolution given by the inverse of the available filter bandwidth.
This physical discussion qualitatively explains the principle of the AOPDF. A more detailed
analysis is given in the following part based on a first order theory of operation, and second
order influence will then be estimated.

4.2.1 First order theory of the AOPDF

The acousto-optic crystal considered in this part is Paratellurite TeO2. The propagation
directions of the optical and acoustical waves are in the P-plane which contains the [110]
and [001] axis of the crystal. The acoustic wave vector K makes an angle θa with the [110]
axis. The polarization of the acoustic wave is transverse, perpendicular to the P-plane, along
the [/110] axis. Because of the strong elastic anisotropy of the crystal, the K vector direction
and the direction of the Poynting vector are not collinear. The acoustic Poynting vector
makes an angle βa with the [110] axis. When one sends an incident ordinary optical wave
polarized along the [/110] direction with a vector k0 which makes an angle θ0 with the [110]
axis, it interacts with the acoustic wave. An extraordinary optical wave polarized in the P-
plane with a wave vector kd is diffracted with an angle θd relative to the [110] axis. To
maximize the interaction length for a given crystal length, and hence to decrease the
necessary acoustic power, the incident ordinary beam is aligned with the Poynting vector of
the acoustic beam, i.e. βa=θ0. Figure 10 shows the k-vector geometry related to the acoustical
and optical slowness curves. V110 and V001 are the phase velocities of the acoustic shear
waves along the [110] axis and along the [001] axis respectively. no and ne are the ordinary
and extraordinary indices on the [110] axis and nd is the extraordinary index associated with
the diffracted beam direction at angle θd.
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 367

[001]
z
Xac

no

ko
kd
a
d

1/V0 0 1 Zac
x K
no ne
a [110]
1/V11 0

Fig. 6. Acoustic and optic slowness curves and k-vector diagram

The optical anisotropy Δn=(ne-no) being generally small as compared to no, the following
relations can be obtained to first order in Δn/no:

δ n = nd − no = Δn.cos 2 θ0 , (62)

V (θ a ) = V001 2 sin 2 θ a + V110 2 cos 2 θ a , (63)

θ d − θ0 = − ( Δn n0 ) .cos 2 θ 0 .tan (θ 0 − θ a ) , (64)

K = k0 ( Δn n0 ) . ( cos 2 θ 0 cos (θ 0 − θ a ) ) , (65)

α = (V (θ a ) Δn c ) . ( cos 2 θ 0 cos (θ0 − θ a ) ) , (66)

where c is the speed of light.

The single frequency solution of the coupled mode theory for plane waves (Yariv and Yeh)
allows to relate the diffracted light intensity to the incident light intensity and to the acoustic
power density P(αω) present in the interaction area by the formula:

⎛ P (αω ) ⎞ π 2 ⎡π 2 ⎤ ⎡
2
⎤
I d ( ω ) = I 0 (ω ) ⎜ ⎟ sin c 2 ⎢ ( P (αω ) P0 ) + ⎛⎜ δϕ ⎞
⎟ ⎥ with P0 =
1
⎢
λ
⎥ ,(67)
⎝ P0 ⎠ 4 ⎢2
⎣ ⎝π ⎠ ⎥
⎦
2 M2 ⎣⎢ L cos (θ 0 − θ )
a ⎦⎥

with δφ is an asynchronous factor proportional to the product of the departure δk from the
phase matching condition and of the interaction length along the acoustic wave vector K:

δk Δn ⎡ −δω ⎤
δϕ = L cos (θ 0 − θ a ) ≈ k0L cosθ 0 ⎢ + δθ 0 ( 2 tan θ 0 − tan (θ 0 − θ a ) ) ⎥ , (68)
π no ⎣ ω ⎦
368 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

L being the interaction length along the optical wave vector k0, λ the wavelength of the light
in vacuum, ρ the density of TeO2 crystal, p an elasto-optic coefficient, and M2 the merit
factor given by:

no 3 ⎣⎡nd (θ d ) ⎦⎤ ⎡⎣ p (θ 0 ,θ a ) ⎦⎤
3 2

M2 = with p (θ 0 ,θ a ) = −0.17 sin θ a cosθ 0 + 0.09 sin θ 0 cosθ a . (69)

ρ ⎣⎡V (θ a ) ⎦⎤
3

From eq.67, with a perfect matching condition (δϕ=0), complete diffraction of an optical
frequency ω corresponds to an acoustic power density P(αω)=P0. As the interaction is
longitudinal or quasi-collinear the efficiency of diffraction is excellent. P0 is in the order of
few mW/mm2.
The spectral resolution and angular aperture are defined by the phase matching condition
through the condition that the efficiency η=Id/I0=0.5 for δϕ=±0.8 when P(αω)=P0 as:

⎛ δλ ⎞ ⎛ δω ⎞ 0.8 λ
⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = , (70)
λ
⎝ ⎠1 2 ⎝ ω ⎠12 Δ n cos 2
θ 0 L

δλ ⎞
(δθ0 ) 1 2 = ⎛⎜
1
⎟ . (71)
⎝ λ ⎠ 1 2 ⎡⎣ 2 tan θ 0 − tan (θ 0 − θ a ) ⎦⎤

By using conventionnal acousto-optic technology, diffraction efficiencies can be up to 50%

over 100nm. If Δλ is the incident optical bandwidth, the number of programming points N
and the estimation of the acoustic power density to maximally diffract the whole bandwidth
will be:

Δλ ΔnL cos 2 θ 0 Δλ
N= = , (72)
(δλ ) 1 2 0.8 λ2

1.25Δn cos 2 θ 0 Δλ
PN = NP0 = . (73)
2 M 2 cos 2 (θ 0 − θ a ) L

The different applications of the AOPDFs call for two different cut optimizations of the TeO2
crystal. When the goal is to control the spectral phase and amplitude in the largest possible
bandwidth, to obtain the shortest possible pulse, the diffraction efficiency has to be
maximized and hence P0 minimized (Wide Bandc cut). When the goal is to shape the input
pulse width with the higher resolution, the optimization is a trade-off between the spectral
resolution and the diffraction efficiency (High Resolution cut). The parameters for the Wide
Band and High Resolution AOPDFs for λ=800nm are given in table 1.
Since Paratellurite crystals are dispersive, the acoustic to optic frequency ratio α depends on
the wavelength through the spectral dispersion of optical anisotropy.
The dispersion becomes very large below λ=480nm. For limited bandwidth Δλ, the
dispersion of the crystal can be compensated b y programming an acoustic wave inducing
an inverse phase variation in the diffracted beam. This self-compensation is, however,
limited by the maximum group delay variation given by:
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 369

P0 Δλ
L θa θ0 θd-θ0 α no(δθ0)1/2 (δλ)1/2 T
AOPDFs name MW/ (η=0.5 for N
mm deg deg deg 10 -7 deg nm ps
mm2 0.6W/mm2) nm
Wide Band 25
25 8 58.5 1.25 1.42 0.04 4.5 0.6 3.7 100 170
(WB25)
High
8.0
Resolution 25 25 3.9 38.5 1.60 2.3 0.045 3.8 0.25 50 200
(HR25)
Wide Band 45
45 8 58.5 1.25 1.42 0.022 1.4 0.33 6.7 180 540
(WB45)
High
Resolution 45 45 3.9 38.5 1.60 2.3 0.025 1.2 0.14 14.4 90 640
(HR45)
Table 1. Standard AOPDFs parameters.

L L
δτ g = τ gd − τ g 0 = ( ngd − ng 0 ) ( )
= ngd − ng 0 cos 2 θ 0 . (74)
c c
More precisely, when the dispersion of the crystal is compensated by an adapted acoustic
waveform, all the wavelength in the optical bandwidth Δλ=λ2-λ1 have to experience the
same group delay time, i.e. the same group index ng0(λ1)=ngd(λ2). The maximum bandwidth
of self compensation depends upon the central wavelength and the crystal type (cf table 2).
If the bandwidth of operation is larger than this maximum bandwidth Δλ, it is necessary to
use an outside compressor. The major component of the dispersion in TeO2 is the second
order. If this second order is externally compensated this leads to a new limit bandwidth
Δλ1>Δλ associated to higher orders compensation.
650 800 1064 1550
Central lambda
nm nm nm nm
Δλ nm/ φ(2) fs2 / 45 / 17300 / 70 / 12800 / 150/ 8900 / 500/ 5370
Δλ1 nm WB 25 300 560 >600 />1000
Δλ nm/ φ(2) fs2 / 130 / 17300 / 200 / 12800 / 420/ 8900 / 800/ 5370
Δλ1 nm HR 25 >400 >800 >800 />1000
Δλ nm/ φ(2) fs2 / 80 / 17300 / 125 / 23000 / 270/ 1600 / 900/ 9660
Δλ1 nm WB 45 >400 800 >800 />1000
Δλ nm/ φ(2) fs2 / 230 / 17300 / 360 / 23000 / 725/ 1600 / >1000/ 9660
Δλ1 nm HR 45 >400 >800 >800 />1000

Table 2. Self-compensation bandwidth Δλ, second order dispersion and higher order limited
bandwidth Δλ1.

4.2.2 Rigourous theory of the AOPDF

The first order theory is a good approximation despite strong hypothesis of acoustic and
optic plane waves, acoustic and optic single frequencies. The validity of these two
hypothesis is studied in the following parts.
4.2.2.1 From the single frequency to the multiple frequencies
The multi-frequencies general approach (Laude (2003)) is complex and not actually required
for the simulation of the AOPDF (Oksenhendler (2004)). In the AOPDF crystal geometry, as
370 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

only one diffracted mode can exist, the coupled-wave equation can be simplified and
expressed in a matrix notation such as:

ˆ κ ( z) ⎞ ˆ
∂D ˆ where M( z) = ⎛ 0
= jM( z)D
⎛ D0 ⎞
⎜ * ⎟ , D( z) = ⎜ ⎟ (75)
∂z ⎝ κ ( z ) 0 ⎠ ⎝ D1 ⎠

j
(
with κ ( z) = − k0 n03 nd3 L ∫ A (ωac ) e _ jψ (ωac ) e ( 0 z 1 z
4
j k − k + K( ωac )) z
dωac , )
where the index 0,1 corresponds respectively to the incident and diffracted beam, D is the
electric displacement vector, A the acoustic complex amplitude.
This equation can be solved independently of the number of acoustic frequencies
considered. The solutions are:

⎛ D0 ( L ) ⎞ ⎛ L ⎞⎛ 1⎞
⎜ ⎟ = exp ⎜⎜ j ∫ M ( z ) dz ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ . (76)
⎝ D1 (L ) ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠⎝ 0 ⎠

The difference with the first order theory is within 1% on the spectral amplitude. The
spectral phase is conserved even in the saturated or over saturated regime because it comes
directly from the phase matching condition (fig.6).

1 Pa c=10W
Spectral phase
0.9 Pac=4.8W

0.8 2.5

0.7
2
0.6 Pac=1.2W
1.5
A.U.

0.5
radian

0.4 1

0.3
0.5
0.2 Pac=0.1W
0
0.1
Pac=0.001W -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
0 -0.5
790 795 800 805 810 Relative optical pulsation (THz)
nm

(a) (b)

Fig. 7. Simulation of acousto-optic diffraction for (a) spectral amplitude, (b) spectral phase.
The first order can then be used to precompensate the saturation within few percents but
exact pulse shaping requires to monitor and loop on the spectral amplitude. The spectral
phase is automatically conserved through the Bragg phase matching condition.
4.2.2.2 Acoustic beam limitation
This coupled-wave analysis considers plane waves. Due to the size of the beam relatively to
the wavelength, the acoustic wave cannot be considered as a single plane wave. The acoustic
beam finite dimension Da results in the limitation in spatial aperture of each wave that
allows to represent the acoustic field in the components of angular spectrum as:
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 371

(
eac ( t , X ac , Zac , ξ , ωac ) = A (ξ , ωac ) exp ⎡⎣i ωac ,0t + Kϕ zac Zac + Kϕ xac X ac ⎤⎦ )
A LD ⎛ ( ω − ω0 ) L ⎞ ⎛ ωac sin (ξ ) Da ⎞
= 0 a sin c ⎜ ac ⎟ sin c ⎜⎜ ⎟ (77)
2 ⎝ 2V 0 ⎠ ⎝ 2V (ξ ) ⎟⎠
⎡ ⎛ ω ω ⎞⎤
× exp ⎢i ⎜ ω0t + ac cos (ξ ) Zac + ac sin (ξ ) X ac ⎟ ⎥ .
⎜
⎢⎣ ⎝ V (ξ ) V (ξ ) ⎟
⎠ ⎥⎦
where Xac and Zac are the coordinate along the acoustic central wavevector (cf. fig.10), ξ is
the relative angle between the wavevector and the Zac direction, ωac the acoustic pulsation
(ωac=2πfac), A(ξ,ωac) the amplitude of the acoustic plane wave of direction ξ and frequency
ωac, ωac,0 the central acoustic pulsation (ωac,0=2πfac,0).
Due to the strong anisotropy of the crystal (Zaitsev (2003)), the phase matching condition or
Bragg synchronism condition can be rewritten as:

⎡ Δn ωac (ξ ) ⎤ λωac (ξ ) cos 2 (θ 0 )

δ k (ξ ) = 2π ⎢ cos 2 θ 0 − cos (θ 0 − θ a + ξ ) ⎥ = 0 ⇔ = (78)
⎣⎢ λ 2π V (ξ ) ⎦⎥ 2π V (ξ ) Δn cos (θ 0 − θ a + ξ )

The acoustic matched frequency can be expressed from the other parameters as:

ωac ( 0 )V (ξ ) cos (θ 0 − θ a )
ωac (ξ ) = . (79)
V ( 0 ) cos (θ 0 − θ a + ξ )

The expression for the diffracted light field can be written as a superposition of plane waves:

Ed (t , X ac , Zac ) ∝ ∫ Ein (t , X ac , Zac )eac ( t , X ac , Zac , ξ , ωac (ξ ) ) dξ . (80)

The intensity of the diffrated field can be expressed as the superposition of the plane wave
contribution with propagation angle ξ:
π /2
⎡ L ⎤ ⎡ D ⎤
I d (ω0 ) ∝ ∫ sin c 2 ⎢ ( ωac (ξ ) − ω0 ) ⎥ sin c 2 ⎢ωac (ξ ) sin ξ a ⎥ dξ . (81)
− π/2 ⎣ 2V0 ⎦ ⎣ 2V0 ⎦

The acoustic wave velocity can be developped under a small deviation of the angle ξ as:

V (ξ ) = V0 ( 1 + aξ + bξ 2 ) ,
where a = − cot (θ 0 − θ a ) , . (82)

b=
(V 001− V110 ) ⎛
2 2
(V − V
⎜ cos 2θ a − 001 2 110
2 2
) sin 2θ ⎞
⎟,
2V0 2
⎜ 4V0
a
⎟
⎝ ⎠
a characterizes the acoustic “walk-off” angle and b is the acoustic field spread.
The acoustic pulsation changes on the angle according to the parabolic law:

⎣ ( )
ωac (ξ ) = ωac ,0 ⎡1 + b + 1 2 ξ 2 ⎤ .
⎦
(83)

The diffracted field intensity has the form

372 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

π /2
⎡ Lω ⎤ ⎡ ω ξ Da ⎤
I d (ω0 ) ∝
− π
∫
/2 ⎣ 2V0
⎣ ( 2 )
sin c 2 ⎢ ac ,0 ⎡1 + b + 1 ξ 2 ⎤ − ω0 ⎥ sin c 2 ⎢ ac ,0
⎦ ⎦ ⎣ V0 2 ⎦
⎥ dξ . (84)

As expected from the first order theory, any divergence of the beams decreases the
resolution of the device. While optical beam direction modifies mostly linearly the peak
diffraction position in frequency, the acoustic direction has a quadratic dependance in the
AOPDF configuration which modifies the symetry of the diffracted field intensity profile
versus the frequency (or wavelength) as shown on figure 8.

(a) (b)

Fig. 8. Simulation of acousto-optic diffraction for (a) Da=8mm, L=25mm, (b) Da=2mm,
L=25mm, the black and red curves are respectively with and without acoustic beam
limitation.
Considering a gaussian optical beam of 2mm at 800nm, its rayleigh length is zR=15m and its
divergence about δθ≈250μrad. Without initial divergence, the resolution of the device is not
affected by such a divergence.
This effect can be combined with the multi-frequencies through the momentum mismatch
δk of optical and acoustic wave vectors:

⎡ Δn ωac (ξ ) ⎤
δ k (ξ ) = k0 z − k1 z + K z (ωac (ξ ) ) = 2π ⎢ cos 2 θ 0 − cos (θ 0 − θ a + ξ ) ⎥ (85)
⎣⎢ λ 2π V (ξ ) ⎦⎥
and summation over the acoustic spectral and spatial frequencies.
These effects can be neglected in standard configuration.
4.2.2.3 Walk-off contribution
The main physical effect not already considered is the walk-off of the diffracted beam and of
the acoustic beam. These walk-offs are due to the anisotropy of the crystal. The figure 13
illustrates the two walk-offs and their consequences on the output diffracted beam.
These effects combine each other also with the diffracted beam direction dispersion and
finally result in a diffracted beam whose angular chirp is compensated by an adequate
output face orientation but the spatial chirp illustrated on fig.9.a still remains. The effect is
only a variation of the position of the different frequencies spatially. The maximum value
corresponds to the walk-off over the complete crystal length and is given in table 1 for the
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 373

different crystals. By opposition to the 4f-line, this effect is not a coupling between optical
frequencies and beam direction but rather a coupling between optical frequencies and beam
position. The consequence of this coupling on a focal spot is very small.

Diffracted optical wave

[001]
[001]

no
θo

kd

1/V001

θa
K no
[100]
no ne 1/V100
[100] Acoustic wavefront

Incident optical wave Incident optical wave

(a) (b)
Acoustic energy front

Fig. 9. Illustration of optical walk-off (a), acoustic walk-off (b).

The simulation of the device considering the walk-offs requires the following steps:
1. An input beam E(x,t,0) is propagated from its origin to the diaphragm aperture of the
AOPDF by Fresnel propagation.
2. An iris aperture of diameter Diris spatially filters the beam:
E ( x , t , z ) → Rect ( x Diris ) E ( x , t , z )
3. The spatio-temporal response fonction of the AOPDF H(x,ω) is applied to the pulse
4. The beam is propagated a distance L to the lens
5. A thin lens of focal length fL is applied
6. The beam is propagated to the focal plane.
The spatio-temporal caracteristics of the pulse shaping are directly include in the filter
response function H(x,ω). This function is estimated from the desired ideal filter function
H(ω)=A(ω)exp(iφ(ω)) by applying the following algorithm:
1. Estimation of the dispersion of the crystal
2. Adding the compensation of the spectral phase introduced by the crystal to the output
phase
3. Determination of the acoustic wave in the crystal
4. Determination of the crystal length L(x) integrating the prismatic output face
5. Estimation of the acoustic temporal window corresponding to L(x)
6. Introduction of the acoustic walk-off
7. Estimation of the acoustic filter function Hac(x,ω)
8. For each x, calculus of the acoustic delay τ(ωac) and determination of its longitudinal
position in the crystal : Z(x,ωac)
9. Estimation of the walk-off for each pulsation: W(ωac)
10. For each ωac, an effective walk-off displacement X is estimated : X(ωac)
11. The filter optical function is calculated from Hac(x,ω) including saturation of the
diffraction and its correction: H(x,ω)
374 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

12. The ouput pulse is estimated by multiplying the input pulse E(x,ω) by the filter function
H(x,ω) and applying the walk-off as Eout(x,ω)=Eout(x-X(ω),ω).
This model strongest hypothesis is the localization of the diffraction at a specific position
Z(x,ωac). As long as the bandwidth is large enough, this hypothesis is valid.
In the extreme case, a monochromatic acoustic wave fills completely the crystal. There are
no specific position but in the same time there are no chromatic displacement at the output
because of the monochromaticity!
Figure 10 shows simulation of a chirp, a delay and two pulses for the temporal intensity.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 10. AOPDF simulation including walk-off, temporal intensity in logarithmic scale and
spatio-temporal vizualisation (inset) for (a) a 500fs delay, (b) a chirp 10000fs2, (c) two pulses
delayed by 500fs.

4.2.3 Conclusions on AOPDFs

The AOPDF devices are bulk and all the characteristics depend upon the parameters of the
crystal. Different orientations and crystal lengths give either higher diffraction efficiency or
higher resolution from 3ps, 0.6nm to 14ps,0.15nm at 800nm. The principal limitations are :
- the limited length of the crystal limiting the temporal window,
- the propagation of the acoustic wave (about 30μs for the crystal length),
- the efficiency of diffraction.
The crystal cuts optimization is a trade-off between the temporal window maximization and
the efficiency of diffraction. The efficiency is determined by the acoustic power for each
wavelength. This power depends upon the acoustic pulse shape and the maximal RF power
acceptable by the transducer for the acoustic generation. This power is in the range of 10W.
With an optimal chirp acoustic pulse high efficiency of diffraction can be achieved over
large bandwidth. But if the acoustic pulse is compressed, then all the wavelength “share”
the 10W peak power. This effect can decrease the efficiency of diffraction by an important
factor. For example compensation of third order spectral phase influences the efficiency of
diffraction.
The propagation of the acoustic wave through the crystal at about 720m/s implies to
synchronize the acoustic wave generation with the optical pulse. The jitter on the
synchronization has a direct incidence on the absolute phase of the diffracted pulse. The
delay in acoustic generation can be directly linked to the optical delay by the acoustic and
optical temporal windows lengths. This effect will be review on the CEP control off the
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 375

pulse. As the crystal length equivalent acoustic duration is about 30μs, a single acoustic
wave can be synchronized perfectly with a single optical pulse only for laser repetition rate
below 30kHz. For higher repetition rate, laser pulses will be diffracted by a same acoustic
pulse at different position in the crystal leading to distortions.
As seen on the Fig.10, the walk-off in the crystal modifies spatially the output beam. The
main effect is to spread the different wavelength at different positions. Depending upon the
crystal caracteristics, the maximal displacement is in the range of 0.5mm or 1.5mm. This
effect can be completely nullify by a double pass configuration as shown in the experimental
implementations.

5. Pulse shaping examples

In this section, we compare the results obtain with the two technologies simulated with the
models described in the previous part on identical pulse shaping examples. The ultrashort
pulse considered is 20fs gaussian shape with a 2.3mm spatial gaussian shape.
This pulse will be pulse shaped by the four devices (table 3) to obtain first the best
compressed pulse at the focal point of a perfect lens with an initial dispersion of 2000fs2 and
50000fs3 at 800nm, secondly a square pulse with a time/bandwidth product of 100, thirdly
double pulses.
The table 3 sums up the parameters and caracteristics of the different pulse shapers used in
this part at 800nm.
4f-SLM 128 4f-SLM 640
pixel pixel
pitch=100μm pitch=100μm
AOPDF
Parameters gap=3μm gap=3μm AOPDF HR45
WB25
f=200mm f=500mm
θI=θd=20deg θI=θd=20deg
p=600lines/mm p=1200lines/mm
Spectral resolution δλ nm 0.8 0.16 0.6 0.15
Bandwidth Δλ nm 100 100 >200 >200
Temporal window @ 3dB (10%) 2.5ps 12 ps 3ps 15ps
Spatio-temporal slope or maximal
0.783mm/ps 0.293mm/ps 0.2mm/ps 0.1mm/ps
walk-off
Number of points on 100nm 128 640 167 667
Table 3. Pulse shapers parameters.

5.1 Compressed pulses and focal spots

In this part, we simulate the compression obtained for (1) a pulse but stretched by 2000fs2
and 50000fs3 spectral phase with a gaussian shape of 50nm full-width at half-maximum,
2.3mm diameter. The compressed pulse for each pulse shaper will be caracterized on for its
ps contrast, and the comparison between ideal compressed pulse energy distribution
around the focus and the simulated one.
The ps contrast is shown directly by the intensity profile on a logarithmic scale.
The energy distribution is represented by plotting the energy distribution in the focal spot
area and its difference with the ideally compressed pulse.
The initial pulse is stretched in time over about 100fs by the chirp and with a trailing edge
due to the third order spectral phase on one ps at 10-6. The compression of this pulse by the
376 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

(a) 0.25 (f)

-0.25 z
-2.5 2.5
(b) 0.25 (g) (k)

-0.25
-2.5 2.5 -2.5 2.5

(c) 0.25 (h) (l)

-0.25
-2.5 2.5 -2.5 2.5

(d) 0.25
(i) (m)

-0.25
-2.5 2.5 -2.5 2.5

0.25
(e) (j) (n)

-0.25
-2.5 2.5 -2.5 2.5

Fig. 11. Compression of 50nm gaussian shape pulse with φ(2)=2000fs2 and φ(3)=50000fs3. The
first column shows the temporal intensities in logarithmic scale of (a) initial stretched pulse,
(b) SLM128 compression, (c) SLM640 compression, (d) AOPDF WB25 compression,
(e) AOPDF HR45. The second and third columns contain respectively peak power and
energy distribution maps for respectively (f) initial stretched pulse, (g,k) SLM128, (h,l)
SLM640, (i,m) AOPDF WB25, (j,n) AOPDF HR45.
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 377

pulse shaper points out specificities on the contrast. Due to pixelization, phase wraps and
smoothing, the SLM128 and SLM640 4f-pulse shapers create pulse replicas at a level 10-3 and
10-4 respictevely. These pulses mainly due to gaps, pixelization and phase wraps are on top-
off a background at 10-6 due to pixel smoothing. On the focal spots the deviation of the
energy distribution is about 1% for these two devices. The AOPDFs recompression leads to a
pulse without any temporal alteration for the High Resolution 45 device and a small
pedestal at 10-8 for the Wide Band 25. This pedestal is due to a cut of the acoustic wave
which is slightly longer than the crystal itself. On the focal spot the effect of the walk-off is
more than 10 times smaller than for 4-f pulse shaper.
High contrast compression of pulses clearly requires no pixelization, gaps, phase wraps or
smoothing and thus is better achieved by AOPDFs.

5.2 Square pulse with Time/Bandwidth product >100

Temporal square pulses are of interest both for Free Electron Laser electron bunch seeding
and for optical parametric amplification pumping. The temporal intensity required has fast
rise time (<500fs) and a flat top pulse without ripples. The very first idea to obtain such a
pulse is to apply a flat temporal phase and Fourier transform the square root of this
temporal intensity profile. This leads to a spectral amplitude with a sinus cardinal shape.
This shape has a large pedestal bandwidth and a relatively narrow central peak.
Considering that the initial pulse to shape has a gaussian shape with 50nm fwhm, obtaining
a 2.3ps square pulse with a sinus cardinal spectral shape will loose most of the energy and
required a very precise shaping on the edge of the spectrum.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 12. Creation of a square temporal intensity pulse from a 50nm gaussian shape Fourier
transform pulse by applying an amplitude filter super gaussian of order 6 with a fwhm of
52nm and a spectral phase with φ(2)= 20 103 fs2,φ(4)=-5.2 106 fs4, φ(6)= 600 106 fs6, with (a) ideal
pulse shaper, (b) SLM128, (c) SLM640, (d) AOPDF WB25 or AOPDF HR45.
378 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

If no temporal phase shape is required, the optimal shape is a mix of amplitude and phase
shaping. The fast rise time will be obtain by linear phase on the sides, the flat top by a chirp.
The optimal shaping is obtained by applying a super gaussian amplitude filter of order 6
and fwhm 52nm on top of the 50nm fwhm gaussian spectrum, and a spectral phase
composed by φ(2)= 20 103 fs2,φ(4)=-5.2 106 fs4, φ(6)= 600 106 fs6. Such pulse shaping is shown on
the fig.16 below for the different pulse shapers and for an initial Fourier transform pulse.
The effects of pixelization and smoothing clearly modify the temporal shape for the 4-f
pulse shapers. The effect of the beam size is not taken into account in this simulation. The
central peak for the SLM640 pulse shaper can be compensated as proposed by Wefers and
Nelson but only by an experimental feedback loop. This kind of feedback loop depends
upon the measurement technique and accuracy. For the AOPDF, no default appears as long
as the acoustic wave fits in the crystal.

5.3 Double pulses

To evaluate the quality of the pulse shaping for compressed pulse at the focal spot, three
parameters are considered: the temporal intensity integrated over the focal volume
considered; the spatial overlap integrals, within the focal volume, between frequencies; the
relative strength of multiphoton transition probabilities, integrated across the focal volume.
The last parameters have been introduced by Sussman [2008] to be relevant criteria in
multiphoton experiments. The normalized overlap integrals measure the spatial variation of
different colors through the focus:

Oλ1 λ2 =
∫ Iλ I λ dxdz
1 2
, (86)
(∫ λ ∫ λ )
I dxdz
1
2
I dxdz 2
2

where Iλ1(x,z) represents the field intensity for a particular wavelength. The values of the
overlap integrals Oλ1λ2 may vary considerably. A value of 1 indicates that two colors have a
complete overlap throughout the focal volume. Variations below 1 are significant for any
multiphoton experiments.
The probability for a vertical n-photon transition having no intermediate resonances is given
by the nth-order power spectrum:
2

∫ ( E(t , x , z))
n
Pn ∝ e − iωt dt . (87)

Without space-time coupling, this transition probability is proportionnal to the peak intensity I
at a point: Pn∝In. Therefore, the ratio between the nth-order and the mth-order multiphoton
transitions Pn/Pmn/m should be constant if only the peak intensity – and not the spectral
content- at a spatial point is altered. In order to quantify this effect, this ratio is integrated over
the focal volume, normalized and compare with the non space-time coupled one as

rmn =
∫ (Pn / Pm n /m ) − 1 dxdz
. (88)
∫ dxdz
In the absence of space-time coupling, these values would be zero. However, since the
spectral content at each point is modified, the ratios are not constant and their deviation
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 379

from 1 can be considerable. The global value is integrated over the volume of interest, for
example the focal volume.

(a) (b)
x P2 5E-2 P1 5E-2 P2 5E-2 P1 5E-2
0.25

-5E-2 -5E-2 -5E-2 -5E-2

-0.25 z
-2.5 2.5
r21=0.08 r21=0.01
(c) (d)
x P2 5E-4
P1 5E-4
P2 5E-4 P1 5E-4
0.25

-5E-4 -5E-4 -5E-4 -5E-4

-0.25 z
-2.5 2.5

r21=0.001 r21=0.0004

Fig. 13. Comparison of two pulses delayed by +250fs and –250fs and maps of the differences
of energy P1 and power P2 at the focal plane of a 100m focal length lens for (a) SLM128, (b)
SLM640, (c) AOPDF WB25 and (d) AOPDF HR45.
The influence of the spatio-temporal coupling is caracterized both by the r21 ratio and the
energy and power difference maps. As pointed out by the spatio-temporal parameter, the
SLM128 has the highest coupling, and the AOPDF HR45 the lowest. These effects can be
very important when the pulse shaper is used to optimize a non linear effect at the focus on
a non strictely homogeneous media. Indeed, modification of the spatial profile instead of the
temporal one can be the predominant effect in the optimization.

5.4 Conclusions
Depending upon the relevant parameters of a pulse shaping experiment, the pulse shaper
has to be adapted. An adequate simulation of the pulse shaper should estimate the
minimum requirements. Also experimental implementation and alignement tolerances that
are beyond the scope of this chapter should be taken into account. Feedback loop can be
used to optimize the temporal shape. But some inherent defaults of the pulse shaping
technology can also compromise the experimental results and cannot be compensated by
any feedback loop. Moreover the accuracy and dynamic of the measurement that should be
used for the loop is already an experimental challenging part.

6. Experimental implementations
This part gives examples of experimental implementations of pulse shaping with their
advantages and limitations. As pulse shapers can be applied to a wide range of applications,
380 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

experimental implementations are reviewed in the scope of the laser source from oscillators
to multi-TeraWatt laser systems. Example of feedback loop with measurement devices will
also be given.

6.1 Oscillators
Applications of pulse shaping with oscillators are direct pulse shaping of the output train of
pulses. Among them are for examples, multiphoton microscope imaging, white light
optimization for spectroscopy. The pulse shaper is used directly before the experiment.
For 4-f pulse shaper there are no modification of the pulse shaping response function due to
the high repetition rate of the laser. The mask can be considered as fix. An imaging relay
optics should be used to avoid magnification of the space-time coupling effects [Tanabe
(2005)]. Many different kind of experiments have benefit from optimization by feedback
loop such as multiphoton microscopy or coherent control (fig.14). This feedback can be
either used to optimize the pulse shape [Coello 2008], or to directly optimize an
experimental result by blind algorithms [Assion 1998, Brixner 2000]. Refreshing rate of
standard LC SLM is about few tens of millisecond. Higher modulation refreshing rate can be
obtain by using two lines LC SLM and switching from one line to the other.
For AOPDF, the acoustic wave is moving at 720m/s in the crystal. Therefore, the acoustic
pulse is moving in the crystal from pulse to pulse. Synchronization of the measurement
system with the acoustic wave is then needed to eliminate the measurement with a partial
acoustic wave in the crystal. In standard 25mm crystals, the complete acoustic time window
is about 30μs. Thus depending upon the duration of the acoustic wave (Δta) used for the
shaping, this acoustic wave is totally include in the crystal during 30μs-Δta. The
measurement has to be gated on during this time and off in between to consecutive acoustic
pulse (Δta) (fig.14). This drawback of AOPDF can be overcomed by its higher refreshing rate
(up to 30kHz) that can be used for differential measurements between two pulses shapes
[Ogilivie 2006] eventually with heterodyne detection.

80MHz 80MHz
Laser Laser
t t

Dazzler 30μs
4-f SLM
AOPDF
80MHz

t Δta t
Relay imaging
optics

t
Experiment Experiment

Measurement Feedback loop Measurement Synchronization

Fig. 14. Implementation of 4-f pulse shaper and AOPDF at the output of an oscillator.
New implementations of these two techniques for multiphoton or CARS microscopy,
coherent control are currently published demonstrating higher efficiency or sensitivity.
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 381

6.2 Amplified systems

In amplified system, depending upon the damage threshold energy and non linearities in
the pulse shaper, the device is inserted in the laser chain or at the output.
The irradiance limit (W.m-2) of pulse shaper is different for AOPDF and for 4f-pulse shaper.
For AOPDF, this limit is defined upon the non-linearities in the massive TeO2 crystal. To
avoid any significative distorsion, this limit is defined as an upper value of cumulative effect
of self-phase modulation (B-integral):

⎛ 2π ⎞
B = max (ϕnonlinear ) = max ⎜ ∫ n2 I ( t , l ) dl ⎟ , (89)
⎝ λ ⎠
where n2 is the nonlinear index (n2≈23 x 10-13esu ≈ 67 x 10-16 cm2/W for TeO2), λ is the
optical wavelength, I(t,l) the irradiance or intensity (W.m-2). Depending upon the tolerances
on spatial and temporal distorsions due to this slef-phase modulation, the B-integral limit is
set to 0.1, 1 or π [Perry (1994)]. Considering a medium value of 1, the input irradiance can be
up to 200μJ/cm2 for 30fs pulses [Monmayrant (2005)]. This value includes the dispersion of
the pulse by the crystal itself. A 200μJ/cm2 pulse of 25fs and a 220μJ/cm2 pulse of 35fs at
800nm lead to the same B-intergal of 1. Thus depending upon the pulse duration and size,
pulses up to mJ level can be used with AOPDF before compression.
For 4f-pulse shaper, the gratings can have high damage threshold and the limitation is about
1GW/cm2. This implies that a 4f-pulse shaper can be used at the output of an amplified
system at the milliJoule level.
The figure 15 details the different position where the pulse shaper can be inserted. The
stretcher and compressor are linear elements and do not affect the pulse shaping. The
amplifier can be either a CPA amplifier or an optical parametric amplifier. Amplifiers are in
general non linear because of saturation, red shift, four wave mixing [Liu (1995)].

Pulse
Oscillator
shaper
Stretcher Amplifier(s) Compressor Experiment

(a)
Pulse
Oscillator Stretcher
shaper
Amplifier(s) Compressor Experiment

(b)
Pulse
Oscillator Stretcher Amplifier(s)
shaper
Compressor Experiment
(c)

Pulse
Oscillator stretcher Amplifier(s) Compressor
shaper
Experiment
(d)
Fig. 15. Implementations of a pulse shaper amplified systems: (a), (b) indirect pulse shaping,
(c), (d) direct pulse shaping.
382 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

Depending upon the position of the pulse shaper, before or after the “non linear” element,
the amplifier(s), the shaping will be linear or not. The linear case is “named direct pulse
shaping” because the shaping will be transmitted from the pulse shaper to the experiment
directly. In the non linear case, or “indirect pulse shaping”, the shaping introduced is altered
by the non linear element. Indeed, as the amplification distords the spectral amplitude,
when the pulse shaper is inserted before the amplifier, the shaping is modified by the
amplifier. Indirect pulse shaping restricts the possibilities of pulse shaping as mentionned in
the Special Topics hereafter. As an example, a double pulse injected in the amplifier will
result in multiple pulses at the output [Liu (1995), Boyle (2001)]. Limitations are due the
amplifier caracteristics. In CPA systems, the phase shaping can be considered as a small
perturbation of the Chirped introduced and is generally conserved linearly through the
amplification. Main limitation comes from spectral amplitude distorsions. Part of the
distortions can be pre-compensated by a feedback loop but not all of them.

6.3 Feedback loops

As mentionned previously, there is a strong interest of feeding back the pulse shaper with
measurements of the shaped pulses. This loop can overcome some defaults of the pulse
shaper or optimize experimental results such as compression via non linear generation
optimization or specific excitation in coeherent control.
To illustrate such a loop, optimization of the pulse duration by flattening the spectral phase
will be described for the two techniques.
Many publications describes feedback loop for optimization with 4f-pulse shaper after
amplification but very few with the shaper before the amplifier. When the pulse shaper is
directly before the amplifier, the feedback loop is used to overcome inaccuracy of the pulse
shaper. Few publications present loops with advanced measurement devices as Frequency
Resolved Optical Gating (FROG) [Kane (1993)] or Spectral Phase Interferometry for Direct
Electric-field Reconstruction (SPIDER) [Iaconis (1998)] with 4f-pulse shaper. Direct shaping
optimization with a SPIDER (pulse shaper just in front of the SPIDER) on a ultrashort pulse
(3.8fs) requires 5 iterations [Schenkel (2003)].
For AOPDF, optimization in indirect pulse shaping configuration with a SPIDER is
regularly used in CPA laser system with a single correction step.
This feedback loop can be sketched as:

Amplifiers
Pulse
Source
shaper
and/or Experiment
optical system(s)

Measures

Fig. 16. Implementations of a pulse shaper feedback loop for pulse compression
optimization.
The feeding parameters are the spectral amplitude and phase, but they can be obtained
through different type of mesurements. With SPIDER, care should be taken on the spectral
Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses 383

phase on the sides of the spectrum where the measurement is inaccurate. Polynomial
prolongation from valid area of measurement shouold be used to avoid significant cut due
to the pulse shaping [Oksenhendler (2003)]. With FROG, the feedback is more efficient if
done by direct reference to FROG traces [Ohno (2002)].
In conclusion, implementing a feedback loop with a pulse shaper can overcome indirect
shaping or inaccuracy of the pulse shaper. Special attention should be taken onto
convergence and limitation problem. As an example if the compression of the pulse requires
a shaping that is out of the scope of the pulse shaper used, the optimal solution will not be
the compressed pulse (best optimum) but a second and local optimum that can be achevied
by the pulse shaper. User should check that the solution seeked is in the scope of the loop.

7. Special topics
As described previously, a precise determination of the key parameters of the experiment
should be done to select and adapt the proper pulse shaping technology. This part deals
with some examples that are experimentally important and point out the relevant
parameters to consider and the technologies that can be applied.

7.1 Carrier Envelope Phase control

In attosecond pulse generation, the Carrier Envelope Phase has to be stable to get a stable
generation. The time dependence of the electric field associated with an optical pulse can be
described as a fast sinusoidal oscillation, called the carrier, multiplied by a more slowly
varying envelope function. When the pulse propagates through a medium, the relative
position between the carrier wave and envelope will in general change due to chromatic
dispersion causing a difference between phase velocity and group veocity, and possibly also
due to optical nonlinearities. The carrier envelope offset phase (or absolute phase) of a pulse
is defined as the difference between the phase of the carrier wave and the envelope position,
the latter being converted to a phase value.
As the pulse shaper has the ability to control directly the realtive absolute phase, it can
control the carrier envelope phase.
For a 4-f pulse shaper, this phase is directly introduced by the mask and can be changed at
the refreshing time of the mask (about 10ms). Two effects can introduce fluctuations on the
carrier envelope phase: beam pointing fluctuations and mechnanical vibration of the optical
components of the pulse shaper.
For an AOPDF pulse shaper, the absolute phase value is directly linked to the phase value of
the acoustic wave and its relative position in the crystal. The synchronization of the acoustic
wave generation with the optical pulse fixes this position. A delay of δτ on this acoustic
synchronization will result in an optical delay δτopt≈δτ(3ps/30μs). This delay introduces a
modification of the absolute phase δφ=2π(δτopt.fopt). So for a phase modification lower than
π/20, the jitter on the acoustic wave generation has to be lower than 500ps. This low jitter
operation requires a synchronization of the RF clock with the oscillator laser repetition rate.
With this synchronization, the AOPDF can control the phase with an accuracy determined
by the residual jitter, at refreshing time down to 30kHz. As for 4-f pulse shaper, the beam
pointing will affect the carrier envelope phase stability. But mechanical vibration as it is a
bulk crystal are less important.
384 Advances in Solid-State Lasers: Development and Applications

7.2 Indirect pulse shaping

In some experiments, pulse shapers cannot be used directly on the pulse to shape. For
example on high peak power TeraWatt laser system, the pulse shaper can’t stand the output
energy of the laser. In these cases, the pulse shaper is used before non linear systems as
amplifiers or non-linear elements. The shaping of the wanted pulse is then obtained through
an indirect process. This indirect pulse shaping modifies the possibilities of shaping. For
example, with a Ti:Saphire CPA amplifier, the spectral amplitude is modified by redshift as
shown on the figure 17. The spectral phase introduced by the pulse shaper is only a
perturbation compared with the chirp of the stretcher. The amplifier is linear for the spectral
phase and non linear for the amplitude. The limitations on the pulse shapes are due to the
distorsion in the amplifier. A feedback loop on the amplitude can overcome some of the
distorsions.

1.2

1 After
Before amplifier
spectrum (a.u.)

0.8 amplifier
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
740 760 780 800 820 840 860
lambda (nm)

Fig. 17. Indirect pulse shaping.

8. Conclusion
Pulse shaping techniques introduces the concept of linear filter in the field of ultrashort
pulses. Optimization of pulse duration, simulation of linear optical set-up (interferometers,
pass band filters …) can be achieved, modified or adapted directly by programming
different filter function. This capability opens new possibilities such as illustrated by the
pulse measurement techniques using an acousto-optic programmable dispersive filter.
An careful analysis of the pulse shaper limitations and defaults such as pulse replica, space-
time coupling, should be done, prior to the choice of the pulse shaper technology, to fit the
experimental needs.

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