a a ‘CHAPTER 5 pean ead ics 1754-1776 Ora nth nrg Eel) erence APS) Cates Hammering Outa UST lita AYA) Revolution and Republican Culture 1754-1800 Although Part 3 is dominated by the causes and consequences of the War of Independence, it opens in 1754 to capture the changes wrought by the Great War for Empire, which were revolutionary in themselves — Britain had tri- umphed in the war, only to see its American empire unravel and descend into rebellion. Against all odds, thirteen colonies first united to win their inde- pendence, and then formed a federal republic that could claim a place among the nations of the world. “The American war is over.” Philadelphia Patriot Benjamin Rush declared in 1787, “but this is far from being the case with the American Revolution. On the contrary, nothing but the first act of the great drama is closed. It remains yet to establish and perfect our new forms of government” The republican revolution extended far beyond politics. It challenged many of the values and institutions that had prevailed for centuries in Europe and the Atlentic world. After 1776, Americans reconsidered basic assump- tions that structured their societies, cultures, families, and communities. ‘These social and cultural effects of the Revolution were only beginning to take shape by 1800, but we end Part 3 there, when the essential characteristics of the United States were becoming clear. (Chapter 7 carries the political story forward to 1820 in order to trace key themes to their conclusion, but Part 4 takes 1800 as its start date.) This periodization— 1754 to 1800—captures a critical phase in American history: the transition from imperial rivalry and wars among European powers and Native societies to the founding of a new nation-state and its political institutions. Three principal developments are discussed in Part 3:(EG CONCEPT CONNECTIONS From British North America to the United States of America ‘To administer the vast new American territory it gained in 1763, Britain had to reform its empire. Until that time, its colonies had been left largely free to manage their own affairs. Now, Parliament hoped to pay the costs of empire by taxing the colonies, while at the same time extending control over its new lands in the continental interior. Colonial radicals resisted these reforms. Calling themselves Patriots, they insisted on preserving local control over taxes, As Britain pressured local communities, colonists created intercolonial institutions and developed a broad critique of British rule that combined older, republican political principles with radical ideas of natural rights and the equality of all men. Their protests grew more strident, eventually resulting in open warfare with Grea: Britain and a decla- ration of independence, Experiments in Government ‘At the same tme they fought a war against Great Britain, Patriot leaders in the newly independent states had to create new governments, They drafted con- stitutions for their states while maintaining a loose confederacy to bind them together. In 1787, reformers put forward a new plan of government: a constitu- tion that would bind the states into a single nation, The new American republic emerged fitfully. Experiments in government took shape across an entire generation, and it took still longer to decide how much power the federal republic should wield over the states. Political culture was unformed and slow to develop. Political parties, for example, were an unexpected development. At first they were widely regarded as illegitimate, but by 1800 they had become essential to managing political confi heightening some forms of competition while blunting others. In the last half of the eighteenth century, American political culture was transformed as newly created governments gained the allegiance of their citizens. Conquest, Competition, and Consolidation ‘One uncontested value of the Revolutionary era was a commitment to economic opportunity. To achieve this, people migrated in large numbers, creating new pressures on the United States to meet the needs of its citizens. The federal gov- ermment acted against westerners who tried to rebel or secede, fought Indian ‘wars to claim new territory, and turned back challenges from Britain and France to maintain its control over western lands. By 1820, the United States had dra- ‘matically expanded its boundaries and extended control far beyond the original seaboard states, Even as the borders of the United States expanded, its diversity inhibited the effort to define an American culture and identity. Native Americans stil lived in their own clans and nations; black Americans were developing a distinct African ‘American culture; and white Americans were enmeshed in vigorous regional ethnic communities, But by 1800, to be an American meant, for many members of the dominant white population, to be a republican, a Protestant, and an enterprising individual(GJ THEMATIC UNDERSTANDING Revolution and Republican Culture 1754-1800 AMERICAN AND NATIONAL IDENTITY LeMay) oid LAS Nc PWD izaa elke ‘= Concept of popularsover- |» Stamp ActCongress(1768) |» Merchants defy Sugar and elgnty gains fore * Fist Continental Congress Samp At * Colorist claim rights of (7) + Patios moun tre boycons Englishmen of Bish goods in 1765, + Second Continental Congress oa 1767, and 17 * Boycots spur Patt women tomate toatles + ThomasPainesComnon | + TheDecaration of + Manufctring expands Sense(1776)causescionists | Independence 1770) durinathe war Th Ginger otc eo ‘orethnkpolticalinites | sitesadoptrepublcancon- | » Cutoffottadeand severe + New state constutonsry | stuns (17760n) inflata threaten econony Thistimeline arranges some sepeeeecuaicaionsto | prices of confederation a- | = Werdeb grows Gefine cizenship rights Porat = Treaty of Pais (1783) of the important events of this period into themes. Consider the items listed + Indians form Western + US.Consttution dntted | » Bankof the United States under the theme “Culture Confederacy (1780) 787) founded (1781) and Society.” How did ** Second Great Awakening = Conflict over Alexander ‘+ Land speculation increases in| the American Revolution (1780-1860) Hamitonseconome polices | — theWest challenge existing social + Emerging politcal divide |» First national partes: + Whiskey produces rebe ernnSREET Conidae between South and North Federals and Repsblcans | against taxes (1798) * Werin Europe raises wheat prices in Chesapeake and Middle colonies * Invention of cotton gin creates boom in cotton the role of religion in ‘American life, the status of women, and the institution of slavery, What tensions developed as a result of production those challenges? “+ Marshalfs Supreme Court |» Jefferson reduces activism of |» Congress cuts off atlantic affirms rational overstate national goveriment;end of | slave rade (1808) iad perenne + Easter formers chenge wop © Chief Justice Marshallasserts | mixand upgrade equipment federal judicial powers * “Era of Good “eeting"in pales 138rea aw) MIGRATION AND ra TV he Td rare SOCIETY Tagine THE ENVIRONMENT WORLD '* Patriots cal for American '* Migration into the Ohio Valley |» The trans-Appalachian west |» France and Spain cede all ors sity ater Pontiacs Rebelion attacts the interest of seers | "thelr tertorieseastfthe TELA eT Pl Git Act (i77n alows andinvestors Msssipp iver Btainin challenges the institution of Catholicism '* Ohio Indians resist Anglo- (halowaty is CES) chattel stavery ‘American expansion + patos invade Canada (1775) + Judith argent Murray pub- | + Deciningimmigration from | + Thevastgeographicalsale | * ThomasPaines Common RTA Tshes"On the Equality ofthe | Evope (1775-1820) enhances | ofthe American Revolstion | Sense (1776) assaults Sexes"(1779) American identity poses chalenges for, rronarchy ‘Emancipation of daves begins. | ican American slaves sok | Combatants (© US. atlances with France inthe Nort freedom trough military (0778) and Spain (1779) view + Vigna enactsrebfousfee: | se™e aly ensiteaPatot victory dom (1786) + Poltcns and misters deny | + Sotecessonslandord | + TheNorthwest Ordinance and | + WarbetweenBitainand — (RZ Yotetowomen; pase repub- | ances andindan wars sham Indanteaes open Fnce pus Armee et ican motherhood Create national domaininthe | westernlandtosetlement | — iyatisk * Bill of Rights ratified (1791) _ '* The French Revolution divides 1 seatlon astunterecaeor | * TR Allen Act makes it harder Aneticans : forimmigrantsto become eee zens and allows for deporting alens (1798) + Handsome Lake preaches | + conflicts wih Nave + The Loucana Purchase (1803) | + NapoleonicWarsleadto EEC Imiddlepathbetween Indian |” Americas increase assewlers | " neslydoubiesthe ie ofthe | — Bitshimpressment of thd Caton tations move wer United states ‘Anercan salon «The Westis explored by Lewis | + Jefferson enacts Embargo Act and Clark (1804-1800) omneor + antl of Tippecanoe elim: ites heat from Westem Confederacy + War of 1812 fought Jacksons Victory ralses nation’ pride * Monroe Doctrine (1823) ‘asserts American leadership InWestem Hemisphere PART 3 THEMATIC UNDERSTANDING 139C HAPTER The Problem of Empire 1754-1776 An Empire Transformed The Costs of Empire George Grenville and the Reform Impulse ‘AnOpen Challenge: The Stamp Act The Dynamics of Rebellion, 1765-1770 Formal Protests and the Politics of the Crowd The Ideological Roots of Resistance ‘Another Kind of Freedom Parliament and Patriots Square Off Again ‘The Problem of the West Parliament Wavers The Road to Independence, 1771-1776 ‘A Compromise Repudiated The Continental Congress Responds The Rising ofthe Countryside Loyalists and Neutrals Violence East and West Lord Dunmore's War ‘Armed Resistance in Massachusetts The Second Continental Congress Organizes for War ‘Thomas Paine's Common Sense Independence Declared 140 nJune 1775, the city of New York ar] PERCU OHS it a perplexing dilemma. Was colonial independence Word arrived that George _inevitable, and was war the Washington, who had just been only way to achieve it? named commander in chief of the newly formed Continental army, ‘was coming to town. But on the same day, William Tryon, the colony's crown- appointed governor, was scheduled to return from Britain. Local leaders orches- trated a delicate dance. Though the Provincial Congress was operating illegally in the eyes of the crown, it did not wish to offend Governor Tryon. It instructed the city’s newly raised volunteer battalion to divide in two, One company awaited Washington's arrival, while another prepared to greet the governor. The “residue of the Battalion” was to be “ready to receive either the General or Governour Tryon, which ever shall first arrive” Washington arrived first. He was met by nine compa- nies of the volunteer battalion and a throng of well-wishers, who escorted him to his roomsin a local tavern. Many of this same crowd then crossed town to join the large group assembled to greet the governor, whose ship was just landing. The crowd met hitn with “universal shouts of applause” and accompanied him home. This awkward moment in the history of one American city reflects a larger ctisis of loyalty that plagued colonists throughout British North America in the years between 1763 and 1776. The outcome of the Great War for Empire left Great Britain the undisputed master of eastern North America, But that success pointed the way to catastrophe, Convinced of the need to reform the empire and tighten its administration, British policymakers imposed a series of new administrative measures on the colonies. Accustomed as they were to governing their own affairs, colonists could not accept these changes. Yet the bonds of loyalty were strong, and the unraveling of British authority was tortuous and complex. Only gradually —as militancy slowly mounted on both sides —were the ties of empire broken and independence declaredCHAPTER CHRONOLOGY ‘As you read, ask yourself why this chapter begins and ends with these dates and then identify the links among related events. 1763 _> Proclamation Line limits white settlement 1772» Committees of correspondence form 1764» Sugar Act and Currency Act 1773» Tes Actleads to Boston Tea Party > Colonists oppose vice-admialty courts ce ars 1774 > Coercive Acts punish Massachusetts | 1765 > Stamp Act imposes direct tax > Dunmores War against the Shawnees | > Quartering Act requies barracks for British troops > Continental Congress meets | > Stamp Act Congress meets > Third American boycott | > Americans boycott British goods ih 2 1775 General Gage marches to Lexington and Concord 1766 > First compromise: Stamp Act repealed > Second Continental Congress creates Continental amy > Declaratory Act passed > Lord Dunmore recruits Loyalist slaves Peeves > Pats invade Canada and kish with Loyais 5768 > Second American boycott > Western setters occupy Kentucky 1779» Second compromise: partial repeal of Townshend Act 176» Thomas Palne’s Common Sense > Boston Massacre > Declaration of Independence ——————————————————— An Empire Transformed ‘The war that began as the French and Indian War in 1754 and culminated in the Great ‘War for Empxe of 1756-1763 (Chapter 4) transformed the British Empire in North America. TheBritish ministry could no longer let the colonies manage their own affairs while it minimally oversaw Atlantic trade. Its interests and responsibilities now extended far into the continental interior—a much more costly and complicated proposition than it had ever faced before. And neither its American colonies nor their Native American neighbors were inclined to cooperate in the transformation. British administrators worried about their American colonists, who, according to former Georgia governor Henry Ellis, felt themselves “entitled to a greater measure of Liberty than is enjoyed by the people of England” Ireland had been closely ruled for decades, and recently the East India Company set up dominion over millions of non- British peoples (Map 5.1 and AP* America in the World). Britain's American posses- sions were likewise filled with aliens and “undesirables”: “French, Dutch, Germans innumerable, Indians, Africans, and a multitude of felons from this country.” as one member of Parliament put it. Consequently, declared Lord Halifax, “The people of England” considered Americans “as foreigners” Contesting that status, wealthy Philadelphia lawyer John Dickinson argued that his fellow colonists were “not [East Indian] Sea Poys, nor Marattas, but British subjects who are born to liberty, who know its worth, and who prize it high” Thus was the stage set for a struggle between the conceptions of identity — and empire —held by British min- ‘sters, on the one hand, and many American colonists on the other. ‘AP’ PRACTICES & SKILLS CAUSATION What was the impact of the Great War for Empire on British Policymakers and the colonies? The Costs of Empire ‘The Great War for Empire imposed enormous costs on Great Britain, The national debt soared from £75 million to £133 million and was, an observer noted, “becoming the alarming object of every British subject” By war's end, interest on the debt alone consumed 60 percent of the nation’s budget, and the ministry had to raise taxes. During the eighteenth century, taxes were shifting from land —owned by the gentry and aristocracy — to consumables, and successive ministries became ever more inge- nious in devising new ways to raise money. Excise (or sales) taxes were levied on all kinds of ordinary goods —salt and beer, bricks and candles, paper (in the form of a stamp tax) —that were consumed by middling and poor Britons, In the 1760s, the per capita tax burden was 20 percent of income. 142{CHAPTERS — The Problem of Empire, 1754-1776 143, JAPAN PACIFIC, INDIAN OCEAN augtanp stax GR im.) 3 — Betshcontra.c 1770 GEE) <— Portuguese contol Gd < French controle 170) <— Spanish contro TB <— Date control..1779 EBD Russiam pire in 1763 Toho Taos MAP 5.1 Furasian Trade and Furopean Colonies, ¢. 1770. [By 1770, the Western European nations that had long dominated maritime rade had created vast colonial empires {and spheres ofinfuence. Spain controlled the western halves of North and South America, Portugal owed Bazil and Holland ruled Indonesia, Britain, a newer imperial power, boasted settler societies in North America, ict sugar islands inthe West Indes, slave ports in West Africa, and a growing presence on the Indian subcontinent. France had lost its [possessions on mainland North America but retained lucrative sugar islands in the Caribbean, To collect the taxes, the government doubled the size of the tax bureaucracy (Figure 5.1). Customs agents patrolled the coasts of southern Britain, seizing tons of contraband French wines, Dutch tea, and Flemish textiles. Convicted smugglers faced heavy penalties, including death or forced “transportation” to America as indentured servants, (Despite colonial protests, nearly fifty thousand English criminals had already been shipped to America to be sold as indentured servants.) ‘The price of empire abroad was thus larger government and higher taxes at home. ‘Members of two British opposition parties, the Radical Whigs and the Country Party, complained that the huge war debt placed the nation at the mercy of the “monied inter- ests" the banks and financiers who reaped millions of pounds’ interest from govern- ‘ment bonds. To reverse the growth of government and the threat to personal liberty and property rights, British reformers demanded that Parliament represent a broader spectrum of the property-owning classes. The Radical Whig John Wilkes condemned rotten boroughs— sparsely populated, aristocratic-controlled electoral districts —and demanded greater representation for rapidly growing commercial and manufacturing cities. The war thus transformed British politics. The war also revealed how little power Britain wielded in its American colonies. In theory, royal governors had extensive political powers; in reality, they shared power with the colonial assemblies, which outraged British officials. Moreover, colonial mer- chants had evaded trade duties for decades by bribing customs officials. To end thatAMERICA IN THE WORLD Britain’s Atlantic and ‘The following table enumerates the economic benefits derived by Great Britain from its various colonies, which sent a wide variety of goods to Britain and also served as Asian Empires ‘markets for British exports Peers England* Britain® = 1700-1701 1750-1751 772-1773 1789-1790 Imports from Asia, Africa, and America North America 372,000 877,000 1,997,000 41351,000 The Fisheries** ° 7,000 27,000 188,000 West indies 785,000 11,484,000 3,222,000 4,045,000 Africa 24,000 43,000 £80,000 87,000 East indies 775,000 1,101,000 2,203,000 3,256,000 Total 1,956,000 3,512,000 7,529,000 .8927,000 Exports to America, Asia, and Africa North America 362,000 1,355,000 3,254,000 3763,000 West Indies 336,000 589,000 11,402,000 4,892,000 Aftica 145,000 188,000 777,000 799,000 Eastindia 125,000 653,000, 893,000 2,173,000 Total 968,000 2,785,000 6,326,000 '§627,000 “The “England column show dita for England and Wale" includes Scotland wx wal ‘includes Masachusets Bay, Mane and Newfoundland by the 1760s more than £500,000 werth of fish was blog sent annual tothe West Indes and a hap on Tie nr tay fe th re wl atl ese rene QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS 1. Compare Britains coloniesin ther roles as producers of British 2, How did the American Revolution (1776-1783) mpact the imports to their roles as consumers of British exports. Why are economic relationship between Great Britain and its mainland the mainland colonies of North America a distant thitd 2s prom colonies? sit reasonable to conclude that politiza indepen- ducers of imports, but ranked first as consumers of exoorts? dence did not bring economic independence? Identifying the causes for changes in British policies toward colonies after the French and Indian War Is critical for the AP* exam. 144 practice, Parliament passed the Revenue Act of 1762. The ministry also instructed the Royal Navy to seize American vessels carrying food crops from the mainland colonies to the French West Indies. It was absurd, declared a British politician, that French armies attempting “to Destroy one English province ...are actually supported by Bread raised in another” Britain's military victory brought another fundamental shift in policy: new peace- time deployment of 15 royal battalions — some 7,500 troops—in North America. In part the move was strategic. The troops would maintain Britains hold on its vast new North American territory: they would prevent colonists from defying the Proclamation of 1763 (see Chapter 4), while managing relations with Native Americans and 60,000 French residents of Canada, Britain’s newly conquered colony (Map 5.2).In part, too, the move had financial implica tions. The cost of supporting these troops was, estimated at £225,000 per year, and Parliament expected that the colonies would bear the cost of the troops stationed in America, The king’s minis- ters agreed that Parliament could no longer let them off the hook for the costs of empire. The greatest gains from the war had come in North America, where the specter of French encirclement had finally been lifted, and the greatest new postwar expenses were being incurred in North America as well. George Grenville and the Reform Impulse challenge of raising revenue from the colo nies fell first to George Grenville, Widely regarded as “one of the ablest_ men in Great Britain? Grenville understood the need for far-reaching imperial reform. He first passed the Currency Act of 1764, which banned the American colonies from using paper money as legal tender. Colonial, shopkeepers, planters, and farmers had used local CHAPTERS The Problem of Empire, 1754 1776 145 Net axincone (£ sterling, milion) Muay spending — Chilepending ‘American Wor ofindependence, 175-1785, War ofthe Auction Succession, 10-1748 rt t o} == 5 17301740 1750 17601770 1690 1700 1710 1720 1780 1790 FIGURE 5.1 The Cost of Empire, 1690-1790 cost money to bud and maintain an empire As britain bullta great navy, subsidized the armies of European allies, and fought four wars against France and Spain between 1702 and 1783, military expenditures soared, fax revenues did not keep pace, so the government created 2 large national debt by issuing bonds for millions of pounds. This policy created a class of wealthy financiers, led to political currency, which was worth less than British protests and eventually prompted attempts to tax the American colonists. pounds sterling, to pay their debts to British mer- chants. The Currency Act ensured that merchants would no longer be paid in money printed in the colonies, boosting their profits and British wealth. The Sugar Act Grenville also won parliamentary approval of the Sugar Act of 1764 to replace the widely ignored Molasses Act of 1733 (see Chapter 3). The earlier act had set a tax rate of 6 pence per gallon on French molasses, in effect outlawing the trade, since such a high tax made it unprofitable. Rather than pay it, colonial merchants bribed customs officials atthe going rate of 1.5 pence per gallon. Grenville intended to allow the trade and settled on a duty of 3 pence per gallon, which merchants could pay and still turn a profit ‘This carefully crafted policy garnered little support in America, New England mer- chants, among them John Hancock of Boston, had made their fortunes smuggling, French molasses. In 1754, Boston merchants paid customs duties on a mere 400 hogs- heads of molasses, yet they imported 40,000 hogsheads for use by 63 Massachusetts rum distilleries, Publicly, the merchants claimed that the Sugar Act would ruin the distilling industry; privately, they vowed to evade the duty by smuggling or by bribing officals. Academic & Historical Terms in the back of the book for definitions of bolded terms. @ Tum to the Glossary of oem ‘Take detailed nates on the ways British laws were designed to benefit British power in North America after the French and Indian War. The End of Salutary Neglect More important, colonists raised constitutional objec- tions to the Sugar Act. In Massachusetts, the leader of the assembly argued that the new legislation was “contrary to a fundamental Principall of our Constitution: That all ‘Taxes ought to originate with the people” In Rhode Island, Governor Stephen Hopkins warned: “They who are taxed at pleasure by others cannot possibly have any property, and they who have no property, can have no freedom.” The Sugar Act raised other constitutional issues as well. Merchants prosecuted under the act would be tried in vice-admiralty courts, tribunals governing the high seas and run by British-appointed judges, Previously, merchants accused of Navigation Acts violations were tried by local, common-law courts, where friendly juries aften acquitted them. The Sugar Act instead extended the jurisdiction of the vice-admiralty courts to all customs offenses. The Sugar Act revived old American fears, The influential Virginia planter Richard Bland emphasized that the American colonists “were not sent out to be the Slaves but146 PART 3 —-REVOLUIION AND REPUBLICAN CULTURE, 1754-1800 ATLANTIC OCEAN British Colonies: Compari BE Boys a Proprietary operate lon —Aveage Asma wa "EE pele Nina Gata) Chtngs Wttnnidode 10500 300800 Las6mp9 me Scuthen aiid 60000 39400 me Norte island 292.00 5000 En MAP 5.2 Reitain’s American Empire in 1763 “The Treaty of Paris gave Britain contol of the eastern hal of North America and returned a few captured sugar islands In the West Indies to France. To protect the empires new mainiand territories, British ministers dispatched troops to Florida and Quebec. They also sent troops to uphold th terms of the Proclamation of 1763, whichpprohibited Anglo- ‘American seitiement west ofthe Appalachian Mountains. To see alonger excerpt of the Richard Bland document, along with other primary sources from this period, see Sources for ‘America’s History. tobe the Equals of those that remained behind.” John Adams, the young Massachusetts lawyer defending John Hancock on a charge of smuggling, argued that the vice- admiralty courts diminished this equality by “degrad[ing] every American .. . below the rank of an Englishman” In fact, accused smugglers in Britain were also tried in vice-admiralty courts, so there was no discrimination against Americans. The real issue was the growing power of the British state, After decades of salutary neglect, Americans saw that the new impe- rial regime would deprive them “of some of their most essential Rights as British sub- jects,” as a committee of the Massachusetts assembly put it. In response, Royal Governor Francis Bernard replied: “The rule that a British subject shall not be beund by laws or Liable to taxes, but what he has consented to by his representatives must be confined to the inhabitants of Great Britain only? To Bernard, Grenville, and other imperial reform- cers, Americans were second-class subjects of the king, with rights limited by the Navigation Acts, parliamentary laws, and British interests. An Open Challenge: The Stamp Act Another new tax, the Stamp Act of 1768, sparked the first great imperial crisis. Grenville hoped the Stamp Act would raise £60,000 per year. The act would require a tax stamp on‘CHAPTER 5 all printed items, from college diplo- mas, court documents, land titles, and contracts to newspapers, almanacs, and playing cards, It was ingeniously designed. Like its counterpart in England, it bore more heavily on the rich, since it charged only a penny a sheet for newspapers and other com- ‘mon items but up to £10 for a lawyer's license. Italso required no new bureau- cracy; stamped paper would be deliv- ered to colonial ports and sold to printers in lieu of unstamped stock, Benjamin Franklin, agent of the Pennsylvania assembly, proposed a different solution: American repre sentation in Parliament. “If you chuse to tax us” he wrote, “give us Members in your Legislature, and let us be one People.” With the exception of William Pitt, British politicians rejected Franklin's idea as too radical. They argued that the colonists already had virtual representation in Parliament because some of its members were transatlantic merchants and West Indian sugar planters. Colonial leaders were equally skeptical of Franklin’ plan. Americans were “situate at a great Distance from their Mother Country? the Connecticut assembly declared, and therefore “cannot participate in the general Legislature of the Nation.” The House of Commons ignored American opposition and passed the act by an overwhelming majority of 205 to 49. At the request of General Thomas Gage, the British military commander in America, Parliament also passed the Quartering Act of, 1765, which required colonial governments to provide barracks and food for British troops. Finally, Parliament approved Grenville’ proposal that violations of the Stamp ‘Actbe tried in vice-admiralty courts. Using the doctrine of parliamentary supremacy, Grenville had begun to fashion a centralized imperial system in America much like that already in place in Ireland: British officials would govern the colonies with little regard for the local assemblies. Consequently, the prime minister’ plan provoked a constitutional confrontation on the specific issues of taxation, jury trials, and military quartering as well as on the general question of representative self-government. “Uber? IN YOUR OWN WORDS What changes in Britain's imperial policy were triggered by its victory in the Great War for Empire? a The Dynamics of Rebellion, 1765-1770 In the name of reform, Grenville had thrown down the gauntlet to the Americans. The colonists had often resisted unpopular laws and aggressive governors, but they had faced an all-out attack on their institutions only once before —in 1686, when James II had unilaterally imposed the Dominion of New England. Now the danger was even. greater because both the king and Parliament backed reform. But the Patriots, as the defenders of American rights came to be called, met the challenge posed by Grenville and his successor, Charles Townshend. They organized protests — formal and informal, violent as well as peaceful —and fashioned a compelling ideology of resistance. Protesting the Stamp Act in Portsmouth, New Hampshi disciplined mobs protesting tie Stamp Act forced stamp distributors to resign their offices. In this engraving, protesters inthe small city of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, stone an effigy ofthe distributor as other members ofthe mob carry off a coffin representing the death of American The Problem of Empire, 1754-1776 147 ‘Throughout the cooies, ‘The role of colonial leaders in energizing ideas of independence and resistance to British law isa “must know" for the AP* exam. foie ened POINT OF VIEW Why did most British and colonial leaders reject the idea that zhe colonies should be represented in Parliament?148 PART3_—_-REVOLUTION AND REPUBLICAN CULTURE, 1754-1800 Evaluate the role of popular movements that incorporate activism by laborers, artisans, and women in energizing the push for independence, AP” PRACTICES & SKILLS COMPARE & CONTRAST Why did the Stamp Act arouse somuch mare resistance than the Sugar Act? Formal Protests and the Politics of the Crowd ‘Virginia’s House of Burgesses was the first formal body to complain. In May 1765, hot- headed young Patrick Henry denounced Grenville’ legislation and attacked George IIL (1760-1820) for supporting it. He compared the king to Charles I, whose tyranny had led to his overthrow and execution in the 1640s. These remarks, which bordered on treason, frightened the Burgesses; nonetheless, they condemned the Stamp Act “man- ifest Tendency to Destroy American fieedom” In Massachusetts, James Otis, another republican-minded firebrand, persuaded the House of Representatives to call ameeting of all the mainland colonies “to implore Relief” from the act. The Stamp Act Congress Nine assemblies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress, which met in New York City in October 1765. The congress protested the loss of American “rights and liberties” especially the right to trial by jury. It also challenged the constitutionality of both the Stamp and Sugar Acts by declaring that only the col- onists’ elected representatives could tax them. Still, moderate-minded delegates wanted compromise, not confrontation. They assured Parliament that Americans “glory in being subjects of the best of Kings” and humbly petitioned for repeal of the Stamp Act. Other influential Americans favored active (but peaceful) resistance, orga- nizing a boycott of British goods. Crowd Actions Popular opposition also took a violent form, however. When the Stamp Act went into effect on November 1, 1765, disciplined mobs demanded the resignation of stamp-tax collectors. In Boston, a group calling itselfthe Sons of Liberty burned an effigy of collector Andrew Oliver and then destroyed Oliver's new brick warehouse. Two weeks letet, Bostonians attacked the house of Lieutenant Governor ‘Thomas Hutchinson, Oliver's brother-in-law and prominent defender of imperial authority, breaking his furniture, looting his wine cellar, and setting fire to his library. ‘Wealthy merchants and Patriot lawyers, such as John Hancock and John Adams, encouraged the mobs, which were usually led by middling artisans and minor merchants. In New York City, nearly three thousand shopkeepers, artisans, laborers, and seamen marched through the streets breaking windows and crying “Liberty!” Resistance to the Stamp Act spread far beyond the port cities. In nearly every colony, angry crowds —the “rabble. their detractors called them — intimidated royal officials. Near Wethersfield, Connecticut, five hundred farmers seized tax collector Jared Ingersoll and forced him to resign his office in “the Cause of the People” ‘The Motives of the Crowd Such crowd actions were common in both Britain and America, and protesters had many motives. Roused by the Great Awakening, evan- gelical Protestants resented arrogant British military officers and corrupt royal bureaucrats. In New England, where rioters invoked the antimonarchy sentiments of their great-grandparents, an anonymous letter sent to a Boston newspaper promising to save “all the Freeborn Sons of America” was signed “Oliver Cromwell” the English republican revolutionary of the 1650s. In New York City, Sons of Liberty leaders Isaac Sears and Alexander McDougall were minor merchants and Radical Whigs who feared that imperial reform would undermine political liberty. The mods also included apprentices, day laborers, and unemployed sailors: young men with their own notions of liberty who —especially if they had been drinking —were quick to resort to violence. ‘Nearly everywhere popular resistance nullified the Stamp Act. Fearing an assault on Fort George, New York lieutenant governor Cadwallader Colden called on General Gage to use his small military force to protect the stamps. Gage refused. “Fire from the Fort might disperse the Mob, but it would not quell them? he told Colden, and the result would be “an Insurrection, the Commencement of Civil War” The tax was col- lected in Barbados and Jamaica, but frightened collectors resigned their offices in all thirteen colonies that would eventually join in the Declaration of Independence. ThisCHAPTERS The Problem of Empire, 1754-1778 149 popular insurrection gave a democratic cast to the emerging Patriot movement. “Nothing is wanting but your own Resolution,” declared a New York rioter, “for great is the Authority and Power of the People” The Ideological Roots of Resistance Some Americans couched their resistance in constitutional terms. Many were lawyers or well-educated merchants and planters. Composing pamphlets of remarkable politi- cal sophistication, they gave the resistance movement its rationale, its political agenda, and its leaders. Patriot writers drew on three intellectual traditions. The first was English common. law, the centuries-old body of legal rules and procedures that protected the lives and property of the monarch’s subjects. In the famous Writs of Assistance case of 1761, Boston lawyer James Otis invoked English legal precedents to challenge open-ended search warrants. In demanding a jury trial for John Hancock in the late 1760s, John Adams appealed to the Magna Carta (1215), the ancient document that, said Adams, “has for many Centuries been esteemed by Englishmen, as one of the... firmest Bulwarks of their Liberties” Other lawyers protested that new strictures violated spe~ cific “liberties and privileges” granted in colonial charters or embodied in Britain's “ancient constitution” Enlightenment rationalism provided Patriots with a second important intellectual resource. Virginia planter Thomas Jefferson and other Patriots drew on the writings of John Locke, who had argued that all individuals possessed certain natural rights — life, liberty, and property—that governments must protect (see Chapter 4). And they turned to the works of French philosopher Montesquieu, who had maintained that a “separation of powers” among government departments prevented arbitrary rule. ‘The republican and Whig strands of the English political tra- dition provided a third ideological source for American Patriots. Puritan New England had long venerated the Commonwealth era (1649-1660), when England had been a republic (see ‘Chapter 2). After the Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689, many colonists praised the English Whigs for creating a constitutional monarchy that prevented the king from imposing taxes and other ‘measures. Joseph Warren, a physician and a Radical Whig Patriot, suggested thatthe Stamp Act was part ofa ministerial plot “to force the colonies into rebellion” and justify the use of “military power to reduce them to servitude” John Dickinson's Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (1768) urged colonists to “remember your ances- tors and your posterity” and oppose parliamentary taxes. The let- ters circulated widely and served as an early call to resistance. If Parliament could tax the colonies without their consent, he wrote, “our boasted liberty is but A sound and nothing else” Such arguments, widely publicized in newspapers and pam- Explain the context in which common law, Enlightenment thought, and Whig ideals Influenced calls for independence. phlets, gave intellectual substance to the Patriot movement and Phillis Wheatley Sorn in West Mica and enslaved asa child, turned a series of impromptu riots, tax protests, and boycotts of Phils Wheatley was purchased by Boston merchant andtalior British manufactures into a formidable political force. John Wheatley when shewas eight. Tutored by Wheatley children, Phils learned to read English, Greek, and Latin by the age of “twelve. This engraving, which pictures her ata writing desk, was , the frontispiece for her Poerson Various Subjects, Religious and Another Kind of Freedom “Moral 1775), which wos prased by George Washington ana gained “We are taxed without our own consent)” attention in both Britain and the colonies. Freed upon the death of hher master, Wheatley married John Peters, a free black man. He was of his Letters. “We are therefore—SLAVES.” As Patriot writers later imprfzoned for debt forcing Wheatley to take employment argued that taxation without representation made colonists the 3s4mmald She died in 1744 atagethiry-onesnone other tee slaves of Parliament, many, including Benjamin Franklin in children survived infancy. Lay cones150 PART RFVOILITION AND RFPURIICAN CULTURE, 1754-1800 Mlustrating the contradictions between the ideals of the American Revolution and the system of slavery in the colonies is critical to success on the AP? exam. Pom ares ey COMPARE & CONTRAST Why were southerners more threatened by challenges to the institution of slavery than northerners? Philadelphia and James Otis in Massachusetts, also began to condemn the institution of chattel slavery itselfas a violation of slaves’ natural rights. African Americans made the connection as well. In Massachusetts, slaves submitted at least four petitions to the leg- islature asking that slavery be abolished. As one petition noted, slaves “have in common with other men,a natural right to be free, and without molestation, to enjoy such prop- erty, as they may acquire by their industry” In the southern colonies, where slaves constituted half or more of the population and the economy depended on their servitude, the quest for freedom alarmed slave: holders. In November 1773, a group of Virginia slaves hoped to win their freedom by supporting British troops that, they heard, would soon arrive in the colony. Their plan was uncovered, and, as James Madison wrote, “proper precautions’ were taken “to pre: vent the Infection” from spreading, He fully understood how important it was to defend the colonists’ liberties without allowing the idea of natural rights to undermine the insti- tution of slavery. “It is prudent,” he wrote, “such things should be concealed as well as suppressed” Throughout the Revolution, the quest for African American rights and lib- erties would play out alongside that of the colonies, but unlike national independence, the liberation of African Americans would not be fulfilled for many generations. Parliament and Patriots Square Off Again When news of the Stamp Act riots and the boycott reached Britain, Parliament was already in turmoil. Disputes over domestic policy had led George III to dismiss Grenville as prime minister. However, Grenville’ allies demanded that imperial reform continue, if necessary at gunpoint. “The British legislature.” declared Crief Justice Sir James Mansfield, “has authority to bind every part and every subject, whether such subjects have a right to vote or not” Yet a majority in Parliament was persuaded that the Stamp Act was cutting deeply into British exports and thus doing more harm than good. “The Avenues of Trade are all shut up? a Bristol merchant told Parliament: “We have no Remittances and are at our Witts End for want of Money to fulfill our Engagements with our Tradesmen.” Grenvilles successor, the Earl of Rockingham, forged a compromise. He repealed the Stamp Act and reduced the duty on molasses imposed by the Sugar Act to a penny gallon. Then he pacified imperial reformers and hard- liners with the Declaratory Act of 1766, ‘which explicitly reaffirmed Parliaments “full power and authority to make laws and statutes... to bind the colonies and people of America ...in all cases what. soever” By swifly ending the Stamp Act crisis, Rockingham hoped it would be forgotten just as quickly Charles Townshend Steps In Often the course of history is changed by a small event—an illness, a personal grudge, a chance remark. That was the case in 1767, when George III named William Pitt to head a new government, Pitt, chronically ill and often absent from parliamentary mn Meni debates, left chancellor of the exchequer Celebrating Repeal Thic Rtich cartoon macking supporters ofthe Stamp Act — “The Charles Townshend in command. Pitt was Repeal, or tie Funeral Procession of Miss Americ Stamp" —was probably commissioned by merchants ading with America. Preceded by two flag bearers, George Grenville the author of the legislation, carries a miniature coffin representing the act) toa tomb, as a dog trinates on sympathetic toward America: Townshend ‘was not. He had strongly supported the {heteader ofthe procession. wo bales on te wharrbbeegStampstfom Amerkx'and Block Stamp Act, and in 1767 he promised to cloth returr'd from America, testify to the failure of the act. The Granacr Cofsstian Nis find a new source of revenue in America.CHAPTERS — The Problem of Empire, 1754-1776 The new tax legislation, the Townshend Act of 1767, had both fiscal and political goals. It imposed duties on colonial imports of paper, paint, glass, and tea that were expected to raise about £40,000 a year. Though Townshend did allocate some of this revenue for American military expenses, he earmarked most of it to pay the salaries of royal governors, judges, and other imperial officials, who had always previously been paid by colonial assemblies. Now; he hoped, royal appointees could better enforce par- liamentary laws and carry out the king’s instructions. Townshend next devised the Revenue Act of 1767, which created a board of customs commissioners in Boston and vvice-admiralty courts in Halifax, Boston, Philadelphia, and Charleston. By using parlia- mentary taxes to finance imperial administration, Townshend intended to undermine American political institutions. ‘The Townshend duties revived the constitutional debate over taxation. During the Stamp Acterisis, some Americans, including Benjamin Franklin, distinguished between external and internal taxes, They suggested that external duties on trade (such as those long mandated by the Navigation Acts) were acceptable to Americans, but that direct, or internal, taxes were not. Townshend thought this distinction was “perfect nonsense” but he indulged the Americans and laid duties only on trade. ASecond Boycott and the Daughters of Liberty Even so, most colonial leaders rejected the legitimacy of Townshend’ measures. In February 1768, the Massachusetts assembly condemned the Townshend ‘Act, and Boston and New York merchants began a new boycott of British goods. Throughout Puritan ‘New England, ministers and public officials discour- aged the purchase of “foreign superfluities” and pro- moted the domestic manufacture of cloth and other necessities. ‘American women, ordinarily excluded from pub- lic affairs, became crucial to the nonimportation movement. They reduced their households’ con- sumption of imported goods and produced large quantities of homespun cloth. Pious farmwives spun yarn at their ministers’ homes. In Berwick, Maine, “true Daughters of Liberty” celebrated American products by “drinking rye coffee and dining on bear venison” Other women’s groups supported the boy cott with charitable work, spinning flax and wool for the needy. Just as Patriot men followed tradition by joining crowd actions, so women's protests reflected their customary concern for the well-being of the community. Newspapers celebrated these exploits of the Daughters of Liberty. One Massachusetts town proudly claimed an annual output of 30,000 yards of cloth; East Hartford, Connecticut, reported 17,000 yards. This surge in domestic production did not offset the loss of British imports, which had averaged about 10 million yards of cloth annually, gdenton Ladies’ Tea Party In October 1774, group offit-one women 151 but it brought thousands of women into the public from Edenton, North Carolina, led by Penelope Barker, created alocal association arena. tosupport a boycott of British goods. Patriots in the colonies praised the Edenton The boycott mobilized many American men as well. In the seaport cities, the Sons of Liberty pub- “Tea Party, which was one of the fst formal female political associations in North America, butt was ridiculed in Britain, where this cartoon appeared in March 1775. “The women are given 2 mannish appearance, and the themes ofpromisculty and lished the names of merchants who imported British peglectto their female duties are suggested by the presence ofa slave and an goods and harassed their employees and customers. amorous man the neglected child and the urinating dog. uranof congress152 PART3_—REVOIUITION AND RFPURIICAN CUITURE, 1754-1800 ATLANTIC OCkAN eS ceeeark ATLANTIC © company OCEAN @ 2 Seompmies @ sseompsies ‘Asthe Imperial crisis deepened, British military priorities changed. In 1763, most British battalions were stationed in Canada to deter indian uprisings and French Canadian revolts. After the Stamp Act riots of 1765, the British placed large ‘garrisons in New York and Philadelphia. By 1775, eleven battalions of Britsh regulars occupied Boston the center ofthe Patriot movement. Pome CAUSATION How did the nonimportation ‘movement bring women into the political sphere? By March 1769, the nonimportation movementhad spread to Philadelphia; two months, later, the members of the Virginia House of Burgesses vowed not to buy dutied articles, luxury goods, or imported slaves. Reflecting colonial self-confidence, Benjamin Franklin called for a return to the pre-1763 mercantilist system: “Repeal the laws, renounce the right, recall the troops, refund the money, and return to the old method of requisition” Despite the enthusiasm of Patriots, nonimportation—accompanied by pressure on ‘merchants and consumers who resisted it—opened fissures in colonial society. Not ‘only royal officials, but also merchants, farmers, and ordinary folk, were subject to new forms of surveillance and coercion—a pattem that would only become more pro- nounced as the imperial crisis unfolded. ‘Troops to Boston American resistance only increased British determination. When the Massachusetts assembly's letter opposing the Townshend duties reached London, Lord Hillsborough, the secretary of state for American affairs, branded it “unjustifi able opposition to the constitutional authority of Parliament.’ To strengthen the “Hand of Government” in Massachusetts, Hillsborough dispatched General Thomas Gage and 2,000 British troops to Boston (Map 5.3). Once in Massachusetts, Gage accused its leaders of “Treasonable and desperate Resolves” and advised the ministry to “Quash this Spirit at a Blow” In 1765, American resistance to the Stamp Act had sparked a parliamentary debate; in 1768, it provoked a plan for military coercion. The Problem of the West At the same time that successive ministries addressed the problem of raising a colonial revenue, they quarzeled over how to manage the vast new inland texsitory —about al‘CHAPTER 5 a billion acres—acquired in the Treaty of Paris in 1763 (see Chapter 4). The Proclamation Line had drawn a boundary between the colonies and Indian country. ‘The line was o:iginally intended as a temporary barrier. It prohibited settlement “for the present, and until our further Pleasure be known.” The Proclamation also created three new mainland colonies — Quebec, East Florida, and West Florida —and thus opened new opportunities at the northern and southern extremities of British North America. But many colonists looked west rather than north or south. Four groups in the col- nies were especially interested in westward expansion. First, gentlemen who had invested in numerous land speculation companies were petitioning the crown for large land grants in the Ohio country. Second, officers who served in the Seven Years’ War were paid in land warrants—up to 5,000 acres for field officers—and some, led by George Washington, were exploring possible sites beyond the Appalachians. Third, Indian traders who had received large grants from the Ohio Indians hoped to sell land titles. And fourth, thousands of squatters were following the roads cut to the Ohio by the Braddock and Forbes campaigns during the Seven Years’ War to take up lands in the hope that they could later receive a title to them. “The roads are ... alive with Men, Women, Children, and Cattle from Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland” wrote one astonished observer (AP* Thinking Like a Historian), All of this ectivity antagonized the Ohio Indians. In 1770, Shawnees invited hun- dreds of Indian leaders to gather at the town of Chillicothe on the Scioto River. There they formed the Scioto Confederacy, which pledged to oppose any further expansion into the Ohio country. Some British officers and administrators tried to protect Indian interests, while others encouraged their exploitation, leading to interpretive disagree ‘ments among historians (AP* Interpreting the Past) Meanwhile, in London, the idea that the Proclamation Line was only temporary gave way to the view that it should be permanent. Hillsborough, who became colonial secretary in 1768, adamantly opposed westward expansion, believing it would antago- nize the Indians without benefitting the empire. Moreover, he owned vast Irish estates, and he was alarmed by the number of tenants who were leaving Ireland for America. To preserve Britain’ laboring class, as well as control costs, Hillsborough wanted to make the Proclamation Line permanent. For colonists who were already moving west to settle in large numbers, this shift in policy caused confusion and frustration, Eventually, like the Patriots along the seaboard, they would take mat- ters into their own hands. — imports from Britain 45 40 Parliament Wavers 35 The Problem of Empire, 1754-1776 Boycout periods 153 The role ofthe Proclamation of 1763 in growing animosity between the British government and colonists Is a"must know” on the AP* exam. Cares ed CAUSATION ‘What groups were mostinterested inwestern lands, and why did Hillsborough oppose them? = Exports to Britain (6, millions) Credit crisis In Britain, the colonies’ nonimportation agreement was taking its toll. In 1768, the colonies had cut imports of British manufactures in half; by 1769, the ‘mainland colonies had a trade surplus with Britain of £816,000. Hard-hit by these developments, British merchants and manufacturers petiioned Parliament to repeal the Townshend duties. Early in 1770, Lord North became prime minister. A witty 1768 man aad a skillful politician, North designed a new 67 169 TL 77317751776 compromise. Arguing that it was foolish to tax British exports to America (thereby raising their price and decreasing consumption), he persuaded Parliament to repeal most of the Townshend duties. However, North retained the tax on tea as a symbol ‘of Parliament’s supremacy (Figure 5.2). FIGURE 5.2 Tradeas a Political Weapon, 1763-1776 Paltical upheaval did not affect the mainland colonies exports to Britain, which rose slightly over the period, but imports fluctuated greatly. The American boycott (of 1765-1766 prompted a dip in imports, but the second boycott of 1768-1770 led tu asharp drop in imports of British textiles, metal goods, and ceramics Imports of ‘manufactures soared after the repeal ofthe Townshend duties, only to plummet when the Ftst Continental Congress proclaimed a third boycott in 174[AP) | Beyond the Proclamation Line ‘Though the Royal Proclamation of 1763 called the territory between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River “indian country” the reality was more complex than this phrase indicates, The following documents illustrate some of the patterns that shaped life beyond the Proclamation Line between 1763 and 1776. 1. Colonel John Bradstreet’s Thoughts on Indian Affairs, 1764, Colonel John Bradstreet led a force of British redcoats to Fort Niagara in response to Pontiac's Rebellion. He drafted these remarks shortly afterward. (fall the Savages upon the continent, the most knowing, the most intriguing, the less useful, and the greatest Villains, are those most conversant with the Europeans, and deserve most the attention of Govern{men]t by way of correction, and these are the Six Nations, Shawanese and Delawares; they are well acquainted with the defenceless state of the Inhabitants, who live on the Frontiers, and think they will ever have it in their power to distress and plunder them, and never cease raising the jealousy of the Upper Nations against us, by propagating amongst them such stories, as make them believe the English have nothing so much at heart as the extirpation of all Savages. The apparent design of the Six Nations, is to keep us at war with all Savages, but themselves, that they may be employed as mediators between us and them, 2, William Johnson to the British Lords of Trade, 1763. William Johnson, a New Yorker with extensive experience in Indian relations, was the crowns superintendent for Indian affairs in the northern colonies. {T]he Colonies, had all along neglected to cultivate a proper understanding with the Indians, and from a mis- taken notion, have greatly dispised them, without con- sidering, that itis in their power at pleasure to lay waste and destroy the Frontiers. ... Without any exageration, Took upon the Northern Indians to be the most formidable of any uncivilized body of people in the World. Hunting and War are their sole occupations, and the one qualifies them for the other, they have few wants, and those are easily supplied, their properties of little value, consequently, expeditions against them however successful, cannot distress them, and they have courage sufficient for their manner of fighting, the nature and sit- uation of their Countrys, require not more. 154 “indians Giving a Talk to Colonel Bouquet,’ 1766. Based ‘ona painting by Benjamin West, this engraving from a book ‘about Bouquet’ campaign to the Ohio following Pontiac's Rebelion depicts a meeting with Delaware, Seneca, and Shawnee representatives in October 1764 Scam The Grange Cleon, New Yor David Jones's journal, 1773. David Jones was a Baptist min- ister who traveled down the Ohio River in 1772 and 1773. His Journal offersa compelling glimpse of life inthe valley trading communities. FRIDAY [January] 22, in company with Mr. Irwine, set ‘out for Chillicaathee. ... Here Mr. Irwine kept anassortment of goods, and for that purpose rented an house from an Indian whose name is Waappee ‘Monneeto, often called the White Devil. ... Went to see ‘Mr. Moses Henry a gunsmith and trader from Lancaster. This gentleman has lived for some years in this town, and is lawfully married to a white woman, who was captivated so young that she speaks the language as well as any Indian. ‘Mr. Henry lives in a comfortable manner, having plenty of good beef, pork, milk, &c. ... Chillicaathee is the chief town of the Shawanee Indians —it is situated north of a large plain adjacent to a branch of Paint Creek. This plain is their corn-field, which supplies great part of their town. Their houses are made of logs. WEDNESDAY [February] 10. ... This is a small town consisting of Delawares and Shawanees. The chief is a Shawanee woman, who is esteemed very rich—~ she entertains travelers — there were four of us in company, and for our use, her negro quarter was evacuated this night, which had a fire in the middle without any chim- ney. This woman has a large stock, and supplied us with milk, Here we also got corn for our horses at a very expensive price... FRIDAY [February] 12 ... We passed [the Delaware chief] Captain White Eye’ Town. ... He told me that he intended to be religious, and have his children educated. He saw that their way of living would not answer much Jonger — game grew scarce — they could not much lon- ger pretend to live by hunting, but must farm, &c.—But, said, he could not attend to matters of religion now, for he intended to make a great hunt down Ohio, and take the skins himself to Philadephia. 5. Killbuck to the governors of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, December 1771. John Killbuck J, or Gelelemend, a Delaware headman, aired grievances on behalf of Ohio Delaware, Munsie, and Mahican Indians. Great numbers more of your people have come over the Great Mountains and settled throughout this country, and we are sorry to tell you, that several quarrels have happened between your people and ours, in which people have been killed on both sides, and that we now see the nations round us and your people ready to embroil in a quarrel, which gives our nations great con- cerns, as we, on our parts, want to live in friendship with you. As you have always told us, you have laws to govern your people by, — but we do not see that you have; there- fore, brethren, unless you can fall upon some method of governing your people who live between the Great ‘Mountains and the Ohio River and who are now very ‘numerous, it will be out of the Indians’ power to govern their young men, for we assure you the black clouds begin to gather fast in this country. ... We find your people are very fond of our rich land, We see them quar- relling every day about land and burning one another's houses, so that we do not know how soon they may come over the river Ohio and drive us from our villages, nor do we see you, brothers, take any care to stop them, 6. Aeneas MacKay to Pennsyivania governor John Penn, April 4, 1774. MacKay, a magistrate of Pennsylvania's Westmoreland County, reported on Virginia's effort to create a competing jurisdiction in the vicinity of Pittsburgh. Dr. John Connolly, appointed by Governor Dunmore as commander of the militiain Pittsburgh, was at the center of the controversy. Since the return of the Celebrated Doctor Connelly from Virginia last to this place, which he did on the 28th of ‘March, our village is become the scene of anarchy and Confusion. ... ‘The Doctor now is in actual possession of the Fort, with a Body Guard of Militia about him, Invested, as we are told, with both Civil & military power, to put the Virginia Law in Force in these parts, and a considerable ‘Number of the Inhabitants of these back Parts of this Country, Ready to join him on any emergency, every artifice are used to seduce the people, some by being promoted to Civil or military employments, and others with the promises of grants of Lands, on easy Terms, & the giddy headed mobs are so Infatuated as to suffer themselves to be carried away by these Insinuating Delusions... ‘The Indians are greatly alarmed at seeing parties of armed men patrolling through our streets Daily, not knowing but there is hostility intended against them and their country. Sources: (12) Eh Oallaghan and Berthold Fernow, es, Documents Relative tthe Cotnial sory ofthe Stato New York, 15 vl (Aba, 186=1887) 7: 690-654 574 (4) David fone, oural of Two Visits Mad to Some Nations of nas on the Wn Sd ofthe Re Oh tS 1772 ae 1773 (Bago, 174 ep. T9710.) K-G. isis ed Document ofthe Aeron Resolution 1770-1783, 1940s, (Shannon snd Dublin, 1972-1981. 3:254-255; (6 Samuel Haare Pennsania Archies, series 1, 12 vals. (Philadelphia: Joseph Severs & Co. ANALYZING THE EVIDENCE 1, Joan Bradstreet, a career British army officer, based his ‘observations (source 1) on hs wartime experiences in the West. Willlam Johnson (source 2} had lived in close proxim- ityte Iroquois Indians for many years, Compare thelr views: what do they agree upon, and where da they differ? 9. Charles Grignion’s engraving (source 3) appeared in print a short time after Pontiac’ Rebellion. How does it portray the Ohio Indians? Compare Grignion’s image with the descriptions in sources 1 and 2 and John Killbuck’s speech (source 5).What parallels or differences do you see? . What do you find most surprising about source 4? What evdence of European influence do you see in the Indian towns Jones describes? Sources 5 and 6 describe the state of affairs on the upper Olio shortly before the outbreak of Dunmore's War. What concerns does Killbuck express? Why was Virginia’ willing- ress to organize a militia so important tothe residents of the region? (J ova practice Using these documents and what you have learned in Chapter write ashort esa that surveys sh and Anglo- American attitudes toward the Oho Indans and explores he conttoicions between these attads and the realty of Me Inthe Oni county 155(AP] INTERPRETING THE PAS Despite official British policy to prohibit colonial settlement west of the Proclamation Line of 1763, Anglo-American colonists nonetheless continued to push into the Ohio Valley (see Map 5.5, p. 164). Not surprisingly, the Indian peoples living in the Ohio Valley continued to be alarmed at the influx. In an effort to manage the empire and the potential for conflict, British officials had to balance relations wth the Indian nations while also preventing conflict between Indians and Anglo-American colonists. In the excerpts below, historians Eric Hinderaker (one of the authors of this textbook) and, Did British Administrators Try to Protect or Exploit Native Americans? Gregory Evans Dowd highlight one aspect of this conflict British imperial policy toward the Indian nations. ERIC HINDERAKER ‘GREGORY EVANS DOWD Souncx ri Hinderaker, Bane Empires: Constructing Colitis in the Ohi Valley, 1673-1800 (Cambridge Cambridge University Pres, 1987) 175. Officers of empire and Indian leaders had consistently sought, through long years of association, to create patterns of leadership and diplomacy that would mute conflict and encourage accommodation. ... The collapse of British authority in the Ohio Valley dealt the final blow to the already badly weakened principles of accommodation and mediation. ‘Sovsce: Gregory Evans Dowd Wa Under Heaven: Ponta the Indio Nations, the Bris Empire (Baltimore: The Jos Hopkins University Pes, 2002), 175, Official policy, highly confused though it was, tended to place Indians far beyond the rule of law, and it intended, even in the long run, to keep them there by pushing them away from any civil jurisdiction in the colonies... . During the war... officers urged, ordered, and approved the indis- criminate slaughter of Indians. (EG stort answer PRACTICE 1. Identify the major difference between these two historians’ arguments concerning British policy toward Native Americans. 2. How does each historian assess the effectiveness of 3. How does the textbook’ discussion of Anglo-American set- tlers in the Ohio Valley support or challenge each of the histo- rians’ arguments regarding British policy? British imperial officials in managing relations with Native ‘Americans? The Boston Massacre Even as Parliament was debating North’s repeal, events in Boston guaranteed that reconciliation between Patriots and Parliament would be hard. to achieve. Between 1,200 and 2,000 troops had been stationed in Boston for a year and a half. Soldiers were also stationed in New York, Philadelphia, several -owns in ‘New Jersey, and various frontier outposts in these years, with a minimum of conflict or violence. But in Boston —a small port town on a tiny peninsula—the troops num- bered 10 percent of the local population, and their presence wore on the locals. On the night of March 5, 1770, a group of nine British redcoats fired into a crowd and killed five townspeople. A subsequent trial exonerated the soldiers, but Boston's Radical ‘Whigs, convinced of a ministerial conspiracy against liberty, labeled the ircident a “massacre” and used it to rally sentiment against imperial power. Sovereignty Debated When news of North’s compromise arrived in the colonies in the wake of the Boston Massacre, the reaction was mixed. Most of Britain’s colonists remained loyal to the empire, but five years of conflict had taken their toll. In 1765, American leaders had accepted Parliamert’s authority; the Stamp Act Resolves had opposed only certain “unconstitutional” legislation. By 1770, the most outspoken Patriots —Benjamin Franklin in Pennsylvania, Patrick Henry in Virginia, and Samuel ‘Adams in Massachusetts — repudiated parliamentary supremacy and claimed equality for the American asscmblics within the empire. Franklin suggested that the colonies ‘were now “distinct and separate states” with “the same Head, or Sovereign, the King” 156CHAPTERS The Problem of Empire, 1754-1776 157 Patriot Propaganda Silversmith Paul Revere isued this engraving ofthe confrontation between British redcoats and snowball throwing Bostonians in the days after it occurred. To whip up opposition tc the military occupation of ‘Whig belle that‘standing armies" were instruments of tyranny, ey of Coys Franklin’ suggestion outraged Thomas Hutchinson, the American-born royal gov- ernor of Massachusetts. Hutchinson emphatically rejected the idea of “two indepen- dent legislatures in one and the same state” He told the Massachusetts assembly, “T know of no line that can be drawn between the supreme authority of Parliament nd the total independence of the colonies” ‘There the matter rested. The British had twice imposed revenue acts on the colo- nies, and American Patriots had twice forced a retreat. If Parliament insisted on a policy of constitutional absolutism by imposing taxes a third time, some Americans were pre- pared to pursue violent resistance. Nor did they flinch when reminded that George III condemned their agitation. AAs the Massachusetts House replied to Hutchinson, “There is more reason to dread the consequences of absolute uncontrolled supreme power, whether of a nation or a monarch, than tkose of total independence.” Fearful of civil was, Lord North's ministry hesitated to force the issue. Nerd i eevee owes IN YOUR OWN WORDS Whatwas the relationship between formal | Bolsa Faron Posner ua ‘es ana 170 a ee : et their town, Revere and other Patriots labeled the incident “The Boston Massacte: The shooting confirmed their Radical CHANGE OVER TIME \What was Benjamin Franklins position on colonial representation i 1765, and why had his view cchenged by 1770?158 PART3 REVOLUTION AND REPUBLICAN CULTURE, 1754-1800 To practice identifying examples of cause and effect relationships trace events from 1771 to 1776 that weakened ties between Britain andits colonies. COE eresr en POINT OF VIEW. Why did colonists react so strongly ‘against the Tea Act, which Imposed a small tax and actually lowered the price cftea? The Road to Independence, 1771-1776 Repeal of the Townshend duties in 1770 restored harmony to the British Empire, but strong feelings and mutual distrust lay just below the surface, In 1773, those emotions erupted, destroying any hope of compromise. Within two years, the Americans and the British clashed in armed conflict, Despite widespread resistance among loyal colonists, Patriot legislators created provisional governments and military forces, the two essen- tials for independence. A Compromise Repudiated Once aroused, political passions are not easily quieted. In Boston, Samuel Adams and other radical Patriots continued to warn Americans of imperial domination and, late in 172, persuaded the town meeting to set up a committee of correspondence “to state the Rights of the Colonists of this Province” Soon, eighty Massachusetts towns had similar committees. When British officials threatened to seize the Americans responsi ble for the burning of the customs vessel Gaspée and prosecute them in Britain, the Virginia House of Burgesses and several other assemblies set up their own committees of correspondence. These standing committees allowed Patriots to communicate with leaders in other colonies when new threats to liberty occurred, By 1774, among the colonies that would later declare independence, only Pennsylvania was without one. The East India Company and the Tea Act These committees sprang into action ‘when Parliament passed the Tea Act of May 1773. The act provided financial relief for the East India Company, a royally chartered private corporation that served as the instrument of British imperialism. The company was deeply in debt; it also had a huge surplus of tea as a result of high import duties, which led Britons and colonists alike to drink smuggled Dutch tea instead. The Tea Act gave the company a government loan and, to boost its revenue, canceled the import duties on tea the company exported to Ireland and the American colonies. Now even with the Townshend duty of 3 pence a pound on tea, high-quality East India Company tea would cost less than the Dutch tea smuggled into the colonies by American merchants. Radical Patriots accused the British ministry of bribing Americans with the cheaper East India Company tea so they would give up their principled opposition to the tea ‘ax, As an anonymous woman wrote to the Massachusetts Spy, “The use of [British] tea is considered not as a private but as a public evil... a handle to introduce a variety ‘of... . oppressions amongst us” Merchants joined the protest because the East Int ‘Company planned to discribute its tea directly to shopkeepers, excluding American ‘wholesalers from the trades profits. “The fear of an Introduction ofa Monopoly in this ‘Country” British general Frederick Haldimand reported from New York, “has induced ‘the mercantile part of the Inhabitants to be very industrious in opposing this Step and added Strength to a Spirit of Independence already too prevalent” ‘The Tea Party and the Coercive Acts The Sons of Liberty prevented East India Company ships from delivering their cargoes in New York, Philadelphia, and arleston. In Massachusetts, Royal Governor Hutchinson was determined to land the tea and collect the tax. To foil the governor’ plan, artisans and laborers disguised as Indians boarded three ships—the Dartmouth, the Eleanor, and the Beaver—on December 16, 1773, broke open 342 chests of tea (valued at about £10,000, or about $900,000 today), and threw them into the harbor. “This destruction of the Tea... must have so important Consequences,” John Adams wrote in his diary, “that I cannot but consider it as an Epoch in History?” The King was outraged. “Concessions have made matters worse” George IIL declared. “The time has come for compulsion” Early in 1774, Parliament passed four Coercive Acts to force Massachusetts to pay for the tea and to submit to imperialCHAPTERS The Problem of Empire, 1754-1776 158 authority. The Boston Port Bill closed Boston Harbor to shipping; the Massachusetts Government Act annulled the colony's charter and prohibited most town meetings; a new Quartering Act mandated new barracks for British troops; and the Justice Act allowed trials for capital crimes to be transferred to other colonies or to Britain. Patriot leaders throughout the colonies branded the measures “Intolerable” and ral- lied support for Massachusetts. In Georgia, a Patriot warned the “Freemen ofthe Province” that “every privilege you at present claim as a birthright, may be wrested from you by the same authority that blockades the town of Boston” “The cause of Boston.” George Washington declared in Virginia, “now is and ever will be considered as the cause of America.” The committees of correspondence had created a firm sense of Patriot unity. In 1774, Parliament also passed the Quebec Act, which allowed the practice of Roman Catholicism in Quebec. This concession to Quebec’ predominantly Catholic population reignited religious passions in New England, where Protestants associated Catholicism with arbitrary royal government. Because the act extended Quebec’s boundaries into the Ohio River Valley, it also angered influential land speculators in Virginia and Pennsylvania and ordinary settlers by the thousands (Map 5.4). Although the ministry did not intend the Quebec Act as a coercive measure, many colonists saw it as further proof of Parliament’ intention to control American affairs. The Continental Congress Responds In response to the Coercive Acts, Patriot leaders convened a new continent-wide body, the Continental Congress. Twelve mainland colo- nies sent representatives. Four recently acquited colonies—Florida, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland —refused to send delegates, as did Georgia, where the royal governor controlled the legislature. The assemblies of Barbados, Jamaica, and the other sugar islands, although wary of British domination, were even more fearful of revolts by their predominantly African populations and therefore declined to attend. ‘The delegates who met in Philadelphia in September 1774 had different agendas. Southern, representatives, fearing a British plot “to over- turn the constitution and introduce a system of 3 Towndsries afer arbitrary government” advocated a new eco- : re nomic boycott. Independence-minded repre- “\ATLANTIC \ OCEAN Siete sentatives from New England demanded ‘i ther Bah posssions political union and defensive military prepara- / oat tions. Many delegates from the Middle Atlantic icncnim colonies favored compromise. Precio no Led by Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania, these men of “loyal principles” proposed a new political system similar to Benjamin Franklin’s propos at the Albany Congees of 1754: each A aay anga-azza Sly niletin ia send oicon MAP Eablet ety local matters, and a new continent-wide body jyoyntins Nonetheless, Anglo-American sets and land speculators proposed the would handle general American affairs. The new colonies of vandals and Tansylvani to the wes of Virginia and North Carctin. The King would appoint a president-general to pre- Quebec Act of1774 designated most western lands as Indian reserves and vastly enlarged side over a legislative council selected by the the boundaries of Quebec, dashing speculators hopes and eliminating the old sea-to- colonial assembles. Galloway’ plan failed by afar tno condemned aang Fences psiee cam single vote; a bare majority thought it was 00 and colonial political leaders, who protested its failure to provide Quebec with a conciliatory (AP* Analyzing Voices) representative assembly.ANALYZING VOICES These two documents offer formal statements of political principles. To analyze them effectively, think carefully about the ways in which the abstract ideas they express might shape the lives of ordinary people. Why did Parliament believe the taxing ower was essential to its authority? Why would colonists disagree? And why would people like Joseph Galloway wanttofind a way to reconcile their differences? Consider ‘what motivated the authors of these documents as you read them; then turn to the Questions for Analysis that follow. ‘Speaking before the House of Commons, Benjamin Franklin declared that be- fore 1763 Americans had paid little attention to the question of Parliament's “right to lay taxes and duties"in the colonies. The reason was simple, Franklin said:"A right to lay internal taxes was never supposed to be in Parliament, as we are not repre- sented there” Frankin recognized that representation was central to the imperial debate. As the following selections show, the failure to solve the problem of rep- resentation, and the closely related issue of parliamentary sovereignty, led to the ‘American rebellion. The Debate over Representation and Sovereignty JARED INGERSOLL Report on the Debates in Parliament (1765) Connecticut lawyer Jared Ingersoll (1722-1781) served as is col ‘ony’s agent, or lobbyist in Britain. inthis 1765 letter to the gover- nor of Connecticut, Ingersoll summarizes the debate then under ‘way in Patiament over the Stamp Act. When the act passed, he returned home to become the stamp distributor in Connecticut. ‘Amob forced him to resign that post. Ingersoll ater served as a vice-admiralty judge in Philadelphia and, during the Revolution, remained loyal to Britain Souncr: New Haven Colony Historical Society, apes (1918), 9 306-315, 6 The principal Attention has been to the Stamp bill that has been preparing to Lay before Parliament for taxing America. The Point of the Authority of Parliament to ‘impose such Tax I found on my Arrival here was so fully and Universally yielded {accepted], that there was not the least hopes of making any impressions that way. .. Teg leave to give you a Summary of the Arguments which are made use of in favour of such Authority. The House of Commons, say they, is a branch of the supreme legislature of the Nation, and which in its Nature is sup- posed to represent, or rather to stand in the place of, the ‘Commons, that is, ofthe great body of the people. ... ‘That this house of Commons, therefore, is now ...a art of the Supreme unlimited power of the Nation, as in every State there must be some unlimited Power and Authority... ‘They say a Power to tax is a necessary part of every Supreme Legislative Authority, and that if they have not that Power over America, they have none, and then America is at once a Kingdom of itself. ‘On the other hand those who oppose tie bill say it is true the Parliament have a supreme unlimited Authority over every Part and Branch of the Kings dominions and as well over Ireland as any other place. Yet [they say] we believe a British parliament will never thinkit prudent to tax Ireland [or America]. Tis true they say, that the Commons of England and of the British Empire are all represented in and by the house of Commons, but this representation is confessedly on all hands by Construction and Virtual [because most British subjects] ... have no hand in choosing the representatives, .. (They say further] that the Effects of this implied Representation here and in America must be infinitely di ferent in the Article of Taxation. .. . By any Mistake an act of Parliament is made that prove injurious and hard the ‘Member of Parliament here [in Britain] sees with his own Eyes and is moreover very accessible to the people. ... [Also] the taxes are laid equally by one Rule and fall as well ‘on the Member himselfas on the people. But as to America, from che great distance in point of Situation {they are not represented in the same way]. ... [Finally, the opponents of the Act say] we already by the Regulations upon their trade draw from the Americans all that they can spare... . This Step [of taxation] should not, take place until or unless the Americans are allowed to send ‘Members to Parliament. Thus I have given you, I think, the Substance of the Arguments on both sides of that great and important Instead, the delegates demanded the repeal of the Coercive Acts and stipulated that British control be limited to matters of trade. They also approved a program of economic retaliation: Americans would stop importing British goods in December 1774. If Parliament did not repeal the Coercive Acts by September 1775, the Congress vowed to ccut off virtually all colonial exports to Britain, Ireland, and the British West Indies, Ten years of constitutional conflict had culminated in a threat of all-out commercial warfare. Compare the Continental Congress to earlier attempts to unify colonies in the Albany Congress (p. 159) ‘and Stamp Act Congress (p. 148). 160Question of the right and also of the Expediency of taxing, ‘America by Authority of Parliament, .. . (But) upon a Division of the house upon the Question, there was about 250 to about 50 in favour of the Bill. 99 JOSEPH GALLOWAY Plan of Union (1775) Speaker of the Pennsylvania assembly Joseph Galloway was a delegate to the First Continental Congress, where he proposed a plan that addressed the issue of representation. The color would remain British but operate under a continental govern- ment with the power to veto parliamentary laws that affected ‘America. Radical Patriots in the Congress, who favored indepen- dence, prevented a vote on Galloway's plan and suppressed mention of it in the records. Galloway remained loyal to the crown, fought on the British side in the War for Independence, and moved to England in 1778. Source Joseph Galloway Hltorcl and Plt Raflctonson the Rite and Progress of ‘the American Rebelion (London, 1780), 70. 66 If we sincerely mean to accommodate the difference between the two countries, . . . we must take into consider- ation a number of facts which led the Parliament to pass the acts complained of. ... (You will recall] the dangerous situa- tion of the Colonies from the intrigues of France, and the incursions of the Canadians and their Indian allies, at the commencement of the last war... Great-Britain sent over her fleets and armies for their protection. In this state of the Colonies, it was not unreasonable to expect that Parliament would have levied a tax on them pro- portionate to their wealth, . .. Parliament was naturally led to exercise the power which had been, by its predecessors, so often exercised over the Colonies, and to pass the Stamp Act. ‘Against this act, the Colonies petitioned Parliament, and denied its authority ... [declaring] that the Colonies could not be represented in that body. This justly alarmed the British Senate. It was thought and called by the ablest men. {in} Britain, a clear and explicit declaration of the American Independence, and compelled the Parliament to pass the Declaratory Act, in order to save its ancient and incontrovert- ible right of supremacy over all the parts of the empire. Having thus briefly stated the arguments in favour of par- liamentary authority, ... Iam free to confess that the exercise of that authority is not perfectly constitutional in respect to the Colonies. We know that the whole landed interest of Britain is represented in that body, while neither the land nor the people of America hold the least participation in the leg- {slative authority of the State. ... Representation, or a partici- pation in the supreme councils ofthe State, is the great principle upon which the freedom of the British Government is established and secured. wish to see ... the right to participate in the supreme councils ofthe State extended, in some form... . to ‘America . .. [and therefore] have prepared the draught of a plan for uniting America more intimately, in constitutional policy, with Great-Britain. .. . Tam certain when dispassion- ately considered, it will be found to be the most perfect, union in power and liberty with the Parent State, next to a representation in Parliament, and I trust it will be approved of by both countries. The Plan That the several {colonial] assemblies shall [form an American union and] choose members for the grand council... That the Grand Council ... shall hold and exercise all the like rights, liberties and privileges, as are held and exer- cised by and in the House of Commons of Great-Britain, That the President-General shall hold his office during, the pleasure of the King, and his assent shall be requisite to all acts of the Grand Council, and it shall be his office and. duty to cause them to be carried into execution. ... ‘That the President-General, by and with the advice and consent of the Grand-Council, hold and exercise all the leg- islative rights, powers, and authorities, necessary for regulat- ing and administering all the general police and affairs of the colonies. ‘That the said President-General and the Grand Council, be an inferior and distinct branch of the British legislature, united and incorporated with it,... and that the assent of both [Parliament and the Grand Council] shall be requisite to the validity of all such general acts or statutes [that affect the colonies]. 99 QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS 1, According to Ingersoll, what were the main arguments of those in Patiament who opposed the Stamp Act? Did those opposing the Stamp Act agree with the act's sup- porters that Parliament had the right to tax the colonies? 2. How did Galloway's plan solve the problem of colonial rep- resentation in Parliament? How would the British ministers who advocated parliamentary supremacy have reacted to the plan? 3. The framers ofthe US. Constitution addressed the problem of dividing authority between state governments and the national government by allowing the states to retain legal authority over most matters and delegating limited powers ‘to the national government. Could such a solution have been Implemented in the British Empire? Why or why not? A few British leaders still hoped for compromise. In January 1775, William Pitt, now sitting in the House of Lords as the Earl of Chatham, asked Parliament to renounce its power to tax the colonies and to recognize the Continental Congress as a lawful body. In return, he suggested, the Congress should acknowledge parliamen- tary supremacy and provide permanent source of revenue to help defray the national debt. 161162 PART3 REVOLUTION AND REPUBLICAN CULTURE, 1754-1800 Lord North Frederick North, the second earl of Gulford, served as George Is prime minister from 1370 until the tend of the American Revolution. He began his term of service ay seeking reconciliation withthe colonies. In that spirit, he championed the repeal of most of the Townshend duties. After the destruction of the East Incla Company tea in Boston, however, Lord North pursued a hard line, sponsoring the Coatciye Aets and insisting that Boston should pay for the tea it destroyed. In ‘aking this approach, North had the full support ofthe king, who was appalled by the destruction of the teaand believed that the colonies had to be pressed to acknowledge riish authority. Te Gang ‘COMPARE & CONTRAST Why did Parliament prefer North's solution to the Boston lea arty to William Pitt's? The British ministry rejected Pitts plan. Twice it had backed down in the face of colo- nial resistance; a third retreat was impossible. Branding the Continental Congress an ille- gal assembly, the ministry rejected Lord Dartmouth’ proposal to send commissioners to negotiate a settlement. Instead, Lord North set stringent terms: Americans must pay for their own defense and administration and acknowledge Parliament’ authority to tax them. To put teeth in these demands, North imposed a naval blockade on American trade ‘with foreign nations and ordered General Gage to suppress dissent in Massachusetts, “Now the case seemed desperate” the prime minister told Thomas Hutchinson, whom the Patriots had forced into exile in London. “Parliament would not—could not—concede” North predicted that the crisis “must come to violence” The Rising of the Countryside ‘The fate of the urban-led Patriot movement would depend on the colonies’ large rural population. Most farmers had little interest in imperial affairs. Their lives were deeply rooted in the soil, and their prime allegiance was to family and community. But impe- rial policies had increasingly intruded inte the lives of farm families by sending their sons to war and raising their taxes. In 1754, farmers on Long Island, New York, had paid an average tax of 10 shillings; by 1756, thanks to the Great War for Empire, their taxes had jumped to 30 shillings. The Continental Association ‘The boycotts of 1765 and 1768 raised the political consciousness of rural Americans. When the First Continental Congress established the Continental Association in 1774 to enforce a third boycott of British goods, it quickly set up a rural network of committees to do its work. In Concord, Massachusetts, 80 percent of the male heads of families and a number of single women signed a “Solemn League and Covenant” supporting nonimportation. In other farm towns, men blacked their faces, disguised themselves in blankets “like Indians?” and threat- ened violence against shopkeepers who traded “in rum, molasses, & Sugar, &c” in violation of the boycott. Patriots likewise warned that British measures threatened the yeoman tradition of landownership. In Petersham, Massachusetts, the town meeting worried that new British taxes would drain “this People of the Fruits of their Toil” Arable land was now scarce and expensive in older communities, and in new settlements merchants were seizing farmsteads for delinquent debts. By the 1770s, many northern yeomen felt per- sonally threatened by British policies, which, a Patriot pamphlet warned, were “paving the way for reducing the country to lordships” (Table 5.2). Southern Planters Fear Dependency Despite their higher standard of living, southern slave owners had similar feats. Many Chesapeake planters were deeply In debt to British merchants, Accustomed to being absolute masters on their slave-labor plantations and seeing themselves as guardians of English liberties, planters resented their financial dependence on British creditors and dreaded the prospect of political subservience to British officials ‘That danger now seemed real. If Parliament used the Coercive Acts to subdue Massachusetts, then it might turn next to Virginia, dissolving its representative assembly and assisting British merchants to seize debt-burdened properties. Consequently, the Virginia gentry supported demands by indebied yeomen farmers to close the law courts so that they could bargain with merchants over debts without the threat of legal action. “The spark of liberty is not yet extinct among our people. declared one planter, “and if properly fanned by the Gentlemen of influence will, I make no doubt, burst out again into a flame” Loyalists and Neutrals Yet in many places, the Patriot movement was @ hard sell. In Virginia, Patriot leaders were nearly all wealthy planters, and many of their poorer neighbors regacded theCHAPTERS — The Problem of Empire, 1754-1776 163, veers Date British Action Patriot Response 1762 Revenue Act Merchants complain privately 1763 Proclamation Line Land speculators voice discontent 1764 Sugar Act Merchants and Massachusetts legislature protest 1765 Stamp Act Sons of Liberty riot; Stamp Act Congress first boycott of British goods (76s Quartering Act ‘New York assembly refuses to fund until 1767 1767-1768 | Townshend Act; military occupation of Boston Second boycott of British goods; harassment of pro- British merchants | 172 Royal commission to investigate Gaspée affair Committees of correspondence form 173 Tea Act Widespread resistance; Boston Tea Party 174 Coercive Acts; Quebec Act First Continental Congress; third boycott of British goods 175 British raids near Boston; king's Proclamation for ‘Armed resistance; Second Continental Congress; ‘Suppressing Rebellion and Sedition invasion of Canada; cutoff of colonial exports 176 Military attacks led by royal governors in South Paine's Common Sense; Declaration of Independence ‘movement with suspicion. In regions where great landowners became Patriots—the Hudson River Valley of New York, for example—many tenant farmers supported the king because they hated their landlords. Similar social conflicts prompted some Regulators in the North Carolina backcountry and many farmers in eastern Maryland to oppose the Patriots there. ‘There were many reasons to resist the Patriot movement, Skeptics believed that Patriot leaders were subverting British rule only to advance their own selfish interests. Peter Oliver ‘wrote of Samuel Adams, for example, “He was so thorough a Machiavilian, that he divested himself of every worthy Principle, & would stick at no Crime to accomplish his Ends.” Some “Gentlemen of influence” worried that resistance to Britain would undermine all political institutions and “introduce Anarchy and disorder and render life and property here precarious” Their fears increased when the Sons of Liberty used intimidation and violence to uphold the boycotts. One well-to-do New Yorker complained, “No man can be in a more abject state of bondage than he whose Reputation, Property and Life are exposed to the discretionary violence ... of the community” As the crisis deepened, such men became Loyalists—so called because they remained loyal to the British crown. Many other colonists simply hoped to stay out of the fray. Same did so on principle: in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, thousands of pacifist Quakers and Germans resisted conscription and violence out of religious conviction. Others were ambivalent or con. fused about the political crisis unfolding around them. The delegate elected to New York’s Provincial Congress from Queen's County, on Long Island, chose not to attend since “the people (he represented] seemed to be much inclined to remain peaceable and quiet” ‘More than three-fourths of Queen's County voters, in fact, opposed sending any delegate at all. Many loyal or neutral colonists hoped, above all, to preserve their families’ prop- erty and independence, whatever the outcome of the imperial crisis. Historians estimate that some 15 to 20 percent of the white population — perhaps as ‘many as 400,000 colonists — were loyal to the crown, Some managed to avoid persecu- tion, but many were pressured by their neighbors to join the boycotts and subjected to violence and humiliation if they refused. As Patriots took over the reins of local govern- ‘ment throughout the colonies, Loyalists were driven out of their homes or forced into164 PART3.— REVOLUTION AND REPUBLICAN CULTURE, 1/54-18UU silence. At this crucial juncture, Patriots commanded the allegiance, or at least the acquiescence, of the majority of white Americans, IN YOUR OWN WORDS What actions did the Continental Association take ‘to support the efforts of the Continental Congress? Violence East and West By 1774, British authority was wavering. At the headwaters of the Ohio, the abandon- ‘ment of Fort Pitt left a power vacuum that was filled by opportunistic men, led by a royally appointed governor acting in defiance of his commission. In Massachusetts, the attempt to isolate and punish Boston and the surrounding countryside backfired as Patriots resisted military coercion. Violence resulted in both places, and with it the collapse of imperial control. Lord Dunmore’s War In the years since the end of Pontiac's Rebellion, at least 10,000 people had traveled along Braddock’ and Forbes’ Roads to the headwaters of the Ohio River, where Eort Pitt had replaced Fort Duquesne during the Great War for Empire, and staked claims to land around Pittsburgh (Map 5.5). They relied for protection on Fort Pitt, which remained one of Britain’ most important frontier outposts. But the revenue crisis forced General Gage to cut expenses, and in October 1772, the army pulled down the fort’ log walls and left the site to the local pop- ulation. Settler relations with the neighboring Ohio Indians were tenuous and ill-defined, and the fort’s abandonment left them exposed and vulnerable. Inthe ensuing power vacuum, Pennsylvania and Virginia both claimed the region. Penn- sylvania had the better claim on paper. It had organized county governments, established courts, and collected taxes there. But—in keep- ing with its pacifist Quaker roots—it did not organize a militia. In this omission, Vieginils royal governor, the Earl of Dunmore, recog- nized an opportunity. Appointed to his post in 1771, Dunmore was an irascible and unscru- pulous man who clashed repeatedly with the House of Burgesses. But when it suited him, he ‘was just as willing to defy the crown. In 1773, he traveled to Pittsburgh, where, he later wrote, “the people flocked about me and beseeched me... to appoint magistrates and officers of militia” He organized a local militia; soon, MAP 5.5 The Ohio Country, 1774-1775 ‘The erosion of British imperial authority caused chaos inthe Ohio country. Pennsylvania and Virginia each claimed Pitsburgh and the surrounding countryside, while the Indian ‘communities on the upper Ohio increasingly eared colonist aggression. The fears ‘were realized inthe summer of 1774, when Lord Dunmore led a force of Viginia militia. into the valley. After defeating a Shawnee force in te Batle of Point Pleasant, many Virginians began surveying and staking claims to land in the Kentucky bluegrass. In the summer of 1775, perhaps a dozen new towns were selle Une, i vivation of te Royal Proclamation of 1763 and the Quebec Act of 1774 ‘men armed by Virginia were drilling near the rruins of Fort Pit In the summer of 1774, Dunmore took the next step. In defiance of both his royal instruc- tions and the House of Burgesses, he called out Virginia’s militia and led a force of 2,400 men against the Ohio Shawnees, who had a long- standing claim to Kentucky as a huntingCHAPTERS The Problem of Empire, 1754-1776 165 ground. They fought a single battle, at Point Pleasant; the Shawnees were defeated, and Dunmore and his militia forces claimed Kentucky as their own. A participant justified his actions shortly afterward: “When without a king.” he wrote, “[one] doeth according to the freedom of his own will” Years of neglect left many colonists in the backcoun- try feeling abandoned by the crown, Dunmore’s War was their declaration of independence. Armed Resistance in Massachusetts Meanwhile, as the Continental Congress gathered in Philadelphia in September 1774, Massachusetts was also defying British authority. In August, a Middlesex County Congress had urged Patriots to close the existing royal courts and to transfer their political allegiance to the popularly elected House of Representatives. Subsequently, armed crowds harassed Loyalists and ensured Patriot rule in most of New England, In response, General Thomas Gage, now the military governor of Massachusetts, ordered British troops in Boston in September 1774 to seize Patriot armories in nearby Charlestown and Cambridge. An army of 23,000 militiamen quickly mobilized to safe- guard other Massachusetts military depots. The Concord town meeting raised a defen- sive force, the famous Minutemen, to “Stand at a minutes warning in Case of alarm.” Increasingly, Gage’s authority was limited to Boston, where it rested on the bayonets of his 3,500 troops. Meanwhile, the Patriot-controlled Massachusetts assembly met in nearby Salem in open defiance of Parliament, collecting taxes, bolstering the militia, and assuming the responsibilities of government. In London, the colonial secretary, Loré Dartmouth, proclaimed Massachusetts to be in “open rebellion” and ordered Gage to march against the “rude rabble” On the night of April 18, 1775, Gage dispatched 700 soldiers to capture colonial leaders and supplies at Concord, However, Paul Revere and a series of other riders warned Patriots in many towns, and at dawn, militiamen confronted the British regulars first at Lexington and then at Concord. Those first skirmishes took a handful of lives, but as the British retreated to Boston, militia from neighboring towns repeatedly ambushed them. By the end of the day, 73 British soldiers were dead, 174 wounded, and 26 miss- ing. British fire had killed 49 Massachusetts militiamen and wounded 39. Twelve years of economic and constitutional conflict ha¢ ended in violence. The Second Continental Congress Organizes for War ‘A month later, in May 1775, Patriot leaders gathered in Philadelphia for the Second Continental Congress. As the Congress opened, 3,000 British troops attacked American fortifications on Breed’s Hill and Bunker Hill overlooking Boston. After three assaults and 1,000 casualties, they finally dislodged the Patriot militia, Inspired by his countrymen’ valor, John Adams exhorted the Congress to rise to the “defense of ‘American liberty” by creating a continental army. He nominated George Washington to lead it. After bitter debate, the Congress approved the proposals, but, Adams lamented, only “by bare majorities” Congress Versus King George Despite the bloodshed in Massachusetts, a majority in the Congress still hoped for reconciliation. Led by John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, these moderates won approval of a petition expressing loyalty to George Tl and asking for repeal of oppressive parliamentary legislation, But Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and other zealous Patriots drummed up support for a Declaration of the Causes and Necessities of Taking Up Arms. Americans dreaded the “calamities of civil war” the declaration asserted, but were “resolved to die Freemen rather than to live [as] slaves.” George III failed to exploit the divisions among the Patriots; instead, in August 1775, he issued a Proclamation for Suppressing Rebellion and Sedition, Poa CONTEXTUALIZATION What led to Durmore's War, and why did western settlers support it?166 PART3__REVOLUTION AND REPUBLICAN CULTURE, 1754-1800 oar CAUSATION How did the violence around Boston inthe spring of 1775 affect proceedings in the Second Continental Congress? Befoce the king’s proclamation reached America, the radicals in the Congress had ‘won support for an invasion of Canada to prevent a British attack from the north. Patriot forces easily defeated the British at Montreal; but in December 1775, they failed ‘to capture Quebec City and withdrew. Meanwhile, American merchants waged the financial warfare promised at the First Continental Congress by cutting off exports to Britain and its West Indian sugar islands. Parliament retaliated with the Prohibitory Act, which outlawed all trade with the rebellious colonies, Fighting in the South Skirmishes between Patriot and Loyalist forces now broke out in the southern colonies. In Virginia, Patriots ousted Governor Dunmore and forced him to take refuge on a British warship in Chesapeake Bay. Branding the rebels “traitors” the governor organized two military forces: one white, the Queen's Own Loyal Virginians; and one black, the Ethiopian Regiment, which enlisted 1,000 slaves who had fled their Patriot owners. In November 1775, Dunmore issued a controversial proclamation promising freedom to black slaves and white indentured servants who joined the Loyalist cause. White planters denounced this “Diabolical scheme?’ claim- ing it “point{ed] a dagger to their Throats” A new rising of the black and white under- classes, as in Bacon's Rebellion in the 1670s, seemed a possibility. In Fincastle County in southwestern Virginia, Loyalist planter John Hiell urged workers to support the ing, promising “a Servant man” that soon “he and all the negroes would get their freedom. Frightened by Dunmore’s aggressive tactics, Patriot yeomen and tenants called for a final break with Britain. In North Carolina, too, military clashes prompted demands for independence. Early in 1776, Josiah Martin, the colony’ royal governor, raised a Loyalist force of 1,500 Scottish Highlanders in the backcountry. In response, Patriots mobilized the lowcountry militia and, in February, defeated Martins army at the Battle of Moore’ Creek Bridge, capturing ‘more than 800 Highlanders. Following this victory, radical Patriots in the North Carolina assembly told its representatives to the Continental Congress to join with “other Colonies in declaring Independence, and forming for- cign alliances” In May, the Virginia gentry fol- lowed suit: led by James Madison, Edmund Pendleton, and Patrick Henry, the Patriots met in convention and resolved unanimously to support independence. Occupying Kentucky Beginning in the spring of 1775, in the wake of Dunmore’s War, independent parties of adventurers began to occupy the newly won lands of Kentucky. Daniel Boone led one group to the banks of the Kentucky River, where they established the town of Boonesboroughs nearby was Lexington, named in honor of the Massachusetts town that had resisted British troops a few months earlier. The Shawnees and other Ohio Indians opposed the settlers, and colonists built their tiny towns in the form of stations to protect Daniel Boone Escorting Settlers Through the Cumberland Gap In17750Deris!_ themselves — groups of cabins connected by Boone led group of prospective settles into Kentucky on behalf of Richard Henderson, palisades to form small forts. ' North Carolina judge and self-appointed proprietor ofa land speculation venture called the Transylvania Colony. Henderson's venture soon collapsed, but Boonesborouch was one ‘of pethapsa dozen towns founded in Kentucky in violation of crown policy that summer, ical loyal ‘These western seitlers had complex polit- Many had marched under Boone became a folk hero, and in the mid nineteenth century George Caleb Bingham Dunmore and hoped to receive recognition painte this memorable scene. Using biblical imagery (the woman on horsebackrecalls or Uhinir catmnetfrada the crow” Bat an tke May riding Betheher on donkey and damaging Bingham portaysBcene=s —yeballon unfolded, most recognized thet the an agent of progress bringing civilization to @ howling and dangerous wilderness. Wesinson vey SLs USHarageran ees Patriots’ emphasis on liberty and equality{CHAPTER 5 The Problem of Empire, 1754-1776 167, squared with their view of the world. They soon petitioned Virginia’s rebel government, asking it to create a new county that would include the Kentucky settlements. They had “Fought and bled” for the land in Dunmore’s War and now wanted to fight against the ‘crown and its Indian allies in the Ohio country. Virginia agreed: in 1776, it organized six new frontier countiesand sent arms and ammunition to Kentucky. In July, the Continental Congress followed suit, dispatching troops and arms to the Ohio River as well. Thomas Paine’s Common Sense As military conflicts escalated, Americans were divided in their opinions of King George III. Many blamed him for supporting oppressive legislation and ordering armed retaliation, but other influential colonists held out the hope that he might mediate their conflict with Parliament. John Dickinson, whose Letters did so much to arouse Patriot resistance in 1768, nevertheless believed that war with Great Britain would be folly. In July 1775, he persuaded Congress to send George III the Olive Branch Petition, which pleaded with the king to negotiate, John Adams, a staunch supporter of independence, was infuriated by Dickinson’s waffling, But Dickinson had many supporters, both inside and outside of Congress. For example, many of Philadelphia's Quaker and ‘Anglican merchants were neutrals or Loyalists. In response to their passivity, Patriot artisans in the city organized a Mechanics’ Association to protect America’ “ust Rights and Privileges” With popular sentiment in flux, a single brief pamphlet helped tip the balance. In January 1776, Thomas Paine published Common Sense, a rousing call for independence and a republican form of government. Paine had served as a minor customs official in England until he was fired for joining a protest against low wages. In 1774, Paine ‘migrated to Philadelphia, where he met Benjamin Rush and other Patriots who shared his republican sentiments. In Common Sense, Paine assaulted the traditional monarchical order in stirring lan- guage. “Monarchy and hereditary succession have laid the world in blood end ashes,” Paine proclaimed, leveling a personal attack at George Ill, “the hard hearted sullen Pharaoh of England” Mixing insults with biblical quotations, Paine blasted the British system of “mixed government” that balanced power among the three estates of king, lords, and commoners. Paine granted that the system “was noble for the dark and slav- ish times” of the past, but now it yielded only “monarchical tyranny in the pe-son of the king” and “aristocratical tyranny in the persons of the peers.” Paine argued for American independence by turning the traditional metaphor of patriarchal authority on its head: “Is it the interest of a man to be a boy all his life?” he asked. Within six months, Common Sense had gone through twenty-five ecitions and reached hundreds of thousands of people. “There is great talk of independence’ a worried New York Loyalist noted, “the unthinking multitude are mad forit.... A pamphlet called ‘Common Sense has carried off... thousands” Paine urged Americans to create indepen dent republican states: “A government of our own is our natural right, 'tis time to part” Independence Declared Inspired by Paine’ arguments and beset by armed Loyalists, Patriot conventions urged a break from Britain. In June 1776, Richard Henry Lee presented Virgitia’ resolution to the Continental Congress: “That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states”” Faced with certain defeat, staunch Loyaiists and anti- independence moderates withdrew from the Congress, leaving committed Patriots to take the fateful step. On July 4, 1776, the Congress approved the Declaration of Independence (see Documents, p. D-1). ‘The Declaration’s main author, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, had mobilized resis- tance to the Coercive Acts with the pamphlet A Summary View of the Rights of British ‘America (1774). Now, in the Declaration, he justified independence and republicanism to Americans and the world by vilifying George III: “He has plundered out seas, tav- aged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people” Such a prince ‘Outline the ideals expressed in ‘Thomas Paine's Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence.168 PART 3 rear Beritak wig der Koniglicher ill La Destruction de la Statue Royale, Paris On July 9, 1776—Just days afterthe Continental ‘Congress approved the Declaration of Independence —a New York crowd removed symbols of the monarchy from buildings throughout the city and smashed or burned them. The crowd then proceeded to Bowling Green on the southern end of Manhattan and pulled down a statue of King ‘George Ill on horseback. Constructed of gilded lead, the two-ton statue was beheaded. The horse ‘and its headless rider were melted down to make bullets. Patriots intended to place the kings head on a spike, but Bitish soldiers recovered it and shipped it to England, inthis engraving, printed in Pars the work s being done by slaves, suggesting how Europeans imagined le in the American colonies, ubixy i canges REVOLUTION AND REPUBLICAN CULTURE, 1754-1800, was a “tyrant” Jefferson concluded, and “is unfit to be the ruler of a free people” Employing the ideas ofthe European Enlightenment, Jefferson proclaimed a series of “self-evident” truths: “that all ‘men are created equal”; that they pos- sess the “unalienable rights” of “Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness”; that government derives its “just powers from the consent of the governed” and can rightly be overthrown ifit “becomes destructive of these ends” By linking these doctrines of individual liberty, popular sovereignty (the principle that ultimate power lies in the hands of the electorate), and republican government with American independence, Jefferson established them as the defining politi cal values of the new nation, For Jefferson, as for Paine, the pen proved mightier than the sword. The Declaration won wide support in France and Germany; at home, it sparked cele- brations in rural hamlets and seaport cities, as crowds burned effigies and toppled statues of the king. On July 8, 1776, in Easton, Pennsylvania, a “great number of spectators” heard a reading of the Declaration, “gave their hearty assent with three loud huzzahs, and cried out, ‘May God long preserve and unite the Free and Independent States of America’ ” royale IN YOUR OWN WORDS How did the colonies’ long controversy with Parliament influence the ideals that shaped the independence movement? SUMMARY Chapter S has focused on a short span of time _ little more than a decade—and out- lined the plot of a political drama. Act I of that drama resulted from the Great War for Empire, which prompted British political leaders to implement a program of imperial reform and taxation. Act Il is full of dramatic action, as colonial mobs riot, colonists chafe against restrictions on western lands, Patriot pamphleteers articulate ideologies of resistance, and British ministers search for compromise between claims of parlia- mentary sovereignty and assertions of colonial autonomy. Act III takes the form of tragedy: the once-proud British Empire dissolves into civil war, an imminent nightmare of death and destruction, Why did this happen? More than two centuries later, the answers still are not clear. Certainly, the lack of astute leadership in Britain was a major factor. But British leader faced circums.ances that limited their actions: a huge national debt and deep commi ments to both a powerful fiscal-military state and the absolute supremacy of Parliament, Moreover, in America, decades of salutary neglect strengthened Patriots’ demands for political autonomy and economic opportunity. Artisans, farmers, and aspiring western settlers all feared an oppressive new era in imperial relations. The trajectories of their conflicting intentions and ideas placed Britain and its American possessions on course for a disastrous and fatal collision.CHAPTER 5 REVIEW (EG) CONTENT REVIEW | Answerthese questions to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter's main ideas, 1. What changes in Britain’ imperial policy were triggered by its victory in the Great War for Empire? 2. What was the relationship between formal protests against Parliament and popular resistance in the years between 1765 and 170? 3. What actions did the Continental Association take to support the efforts of the Continental Congress? 4, How did the colonies’ long controversy with Parliament influence the ideals that shaped the independence movement? 5. Consider the events listed under “Politics and Power” and “Work, Exchange, and Technology’ for the period. 1763-1776 on the thematic timeline on page 138. How important were the linkages between economic developments and political ones in these years? EXGJ TERMS TO KNOW dentfy and explain the significance ofeach term below. Key Concepts and Events Sugar Act of 1764 (p. 145) Sons of Liberty (p. 148) vice-admiralty courts English common law (p. 149) (p.145) natural rights (p. 149) Stamp Act of 1765(p.146) Declaratory Act of 1766 virtual representation (p.150) (p.147) Townshend Act of 1767 Quartering Act of 1765 (p.151) (p.147) nonimportation movement Stamp Act Congress(p. 148) (p. 151) Key People George Grenville (p. 145) John Dickinson (p. 149) Charles Townshend (p. 150) Lord North (p. 153) Key Academic Terms specter (p. 145) incursion (p. 145) effigy (p. 148) veneration (p. 149) explicit (p. 150) committees of Samuel Adams (p. 158) Lord Dunmore (p. 164) exchequer (p. 150) stringent (p. 162) ‘Dunmore’s War correspondence (p. 158) (p.165) ‘Tea Act of May 1773 ‘Minutemen (p. 165) (p. 158) Second Continental Coercive Acts (p. 158) Congress (p. 165) Continental Congress Declaration of (p.159) Independence (p. 167) Continental Association _ popular sovereignty (p.162) (p.168) ‘Thomas Paine (p. 167) ‘Thomas Jefferson (p. 167) palisade (p. 166) vilify (p. 167) EG MAKING CONNECTIONS _ Recognize he larger developments and continuities within and across chapters by answering these questions. 1. Chapter 4 presented a turbulent era, marked by social and cultural conflict and imperial warfare. during. which the regions of British North America were dispa- rate and without unity. Yet by 1776—only thirteen years after the Treaty of Paris ending the Great War for Empire — thirteen of Britain's mainland colonies were prepared to unite in a Declaration of Independence. ‘What happened in that intervening time to strengthen and deepen colonists’ sense of common cause? As they drew together to resist imperial authority, what aN political and cultural resources did they have in common? Return to the Paul Revere engraving of the Boston Massacre on page 157. This image was aninstrument of political propaganda. What features of the image are most important to its political purpose? Consider his depiction ofboth the soldiers and the townspeople. Look, too, at the buildings surrounding the crowd, especially the Custom House on the right. List the ways in which Revere invokes the idea of tyranny in this image. CHAPTERS CHAPTER REVIEW 169169-a CHAPTERS CHAPTER REVIEW KEY TURNING POINTS _ Referto the chapter chronology on page 142 for help in answering the questions below. ‘The Boston Tea Party (1773), the Coercive Acts (1774), and the First Continental Congress (1774): What did Parliament hope to achieve with the Coercive Acts? How did the (GJ PRACTICE QUESTIONS ‘Questions 1-3 refer to the graph below. tay ending —-— Net texincome ——— ae 1690 1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 ‘The Cost of Empire, 1690-1790 1. Which of the following most directly contributed to the trends seen in the graph between 1740 and 1765? a. Inability ofthe British navy to secure trade on the high seas b, Failure of the British government to recognize colonial dissatisfaction with imperial policy Decreased British imperial interest in governing its North American colonies d._Intensifying rivalries in North America between European powers seeking to expand 2. The graph would be most useful as a source of informa- tion about which of the following? a. European and American Indian alliances during the Seven Years’ War b. British attempts to consolidate control over its American colonies American colonists’ increasing demands for self-rule d._ British efforts to collect taxes without direct colonial ‘consent 3. Which of the following pieces of evidence would best support the graphis depiction of economic changes uring this era? a. Ship logs recording the goods carried between the colonies and the Caribbean b. Political pamphlets calling for increased resistance to British imperial policies decision to convene a continent-wide congress demonstrate the failure of Parliament's efforts? © Parliamentary records detailing the cost of staio troops in the colonies d. The diary of an American merchant describing the collection of customs duties ‘Questions 4-6 refer to the below engraving depicting events of the 1760s. Protesting the Stamp Act in Portsmouth, New Hampshire suseaten tom eso Ese th say ofthe Sb LW Baba D8 Resch 4, The activities of the colonists in the 1760s depicted in the engraving could best be used as evidence to support which of the following arguments? @. Colonial elites feared the dangers of self-rule and popular sovereignty. b. Commoners sought to preserve policies favoring Protestantism in the colonies. c. Colonists ofall classes protested Britain's pro- expansion policies. . British efforts to raise revenue from the colonies sparked major resistance. 5. Political protests of the 1760s, such as the one depicted in. the engraving, flourished for all of the following reasons EXCEPT a. parliament's adoption of a policy of salutary neglect after the Seven Years’ War. colonial leaders such as Benjamin Franklin organized resistance to British imperial policy. the spread of a transatlantic print literature across the colonies d. British efforts to restrict colonists’ westward expan- sion into unsecured areas.6. In response to events in the 1760s, American colonists most commonly ‘a. embraced ideas of hereditary privilege. b. argued for natural rights and republicanism, ¢. demanded abolition of slavery. ._ departed from ideas popularized by the Enlightenment. Questions 7-8 refer to the excerpt below. “This widespread ownership of property is perhaps the most {important single fact about the Americans ofthe Revolutionary period. It meant that they were not divided so widely between rich and poor as the people of the Old World. Most ofthe men ‘and women who settled the colonies had come with expecta- tions ofa better life for themselves and their children, and most had achieved it. [T}here was as yet no professed beliefin social equality... in every colony there were aristocrats [but] there were no peasants for them to lord it over — except always the slaves?” Edmund Morgan, The Birth ofthe Republic: 1763-1788, 1992 CHAPTERS CHAPTERREVIEW — 169-b 7. Which of the following most likely resulted in the period from 1754 to 1776 from the trend described in the excerpt? a. The colonies began to unite after perceived con- straints on their political and economic activities. b, Colonists provided financial and material support for the Revolution despite economic hardships. The American Revolution was energized by laborers, and women, as well as elites and intellectuals. d._ ‘The Patriots succeeded in overthrowing Britain because of their overwhelming financial advantages. 8. The passage would be most useful as a source of informa- tion about which of the following? a. The impact of Enlightenment ideas on colonial society Radical agitators and extralegal violence Changing notions of family and gender roles d, Growing sectionalism and regional specialization SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS Read cach question carefully and write a short response, Use complete sentences. “Officers of empire and Indian leaders had consistently sought, through long years of association, to create patterns of leadership and diplomacy that would mute conflict and ‘encourage accommodation... The collapse of British authority in the Ohio Valley dealt the final blow to the already badly weakened principles of accommodation and mediation” Eric Hinderaker, Elusive Empires: Constructing Colonialism in the Ohio Valley, 1673-1800, 1997 “Official policy, highly confused though it was, tended to place Indiars far beyond the rule of law, and it intended, even in the long ran, to keep them there by pushing them away from any ‘civil jurisdiction in the colonies... During the war ... officers, urged, ordered, and approved the indiscriminate slaughter of Indians” Gregory Evans Dowd, War Under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations, & the British Empire, 2002 1. Using the two excerpts above, answer (a), (b), and (c). a. Briefly explain ONE major difference between inderaker’s and Dowd's historical interpretations of British policies toward Native American Indians. b. Briefly explain how ONE specific historical event or development during the period 1754 to 1776 that is not explicitly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Hinderaker’s argument. Briefly explain how ONE specific historical event or development during the period 1754 to 1776 that is not explicitly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Dowd’s argument. 2. Answer (a), (b), and (0) a. Briefly explain ONE specific historical cause of British participation in the Seven Years’ War (1754~ 1763). b, Briefly explain ONE specific historical event or development that resulted from British participation in the Seven Years’ War (1754-1763). © Briefly explain how ONE specific British imperial policy resulting from the Seven Years’ War (1754-1763) changed relations between Britain and its North American colonies. 3, Answer (a), (b), and (c). Briefly explain ONE specific historical difference between the goals ofthe First Continental Congress (1774) and the Second Continental Congress (1775) b. Briefly explain ONE specific historical difference between a policy or action undertaken by the First Continental Congress and a policy or action under- taken by the Second Continental Congress. Briefly explain ONE important historical factor that accounts for the difference in the goals between the First and Second Continental Congress you explained in (a) OR ONE important historical factor that accounts for the difference in a policy or action between the First and Second Continental Congress you explained in (b).CHAPTER Making War and Republican Governments 1776-1789 The Trials of War, 1776-1778 War in the North ‘Armies and Strategies Victory at Saratoga The Perils of War Financial Crisis Valley Forge The Path to Victory, 1778-1783 The French Alliance War in the South ‘The Patriot Advantage Diplomatic Triumph ‘Creating Republican Institutions, 1776-1787 “The State Constitutions: How Much Democracy? Women Seeka Public Voice The War's Losers: Loyalists, Native ‘Americans, and Slaves ‘The Articles of Confederation Shays's Rebelion The Constitution of 1787 The Rise of aNationalist Faction The Philadelphia Convention ‘The People Debate Ratification 170 hen Patriots in Frederick EG LEARNING FOCUS \ A ] County, Maryland, de- How revolutionary was the manded his allegiance American Revolution? What to their cause in 1776, Robert political, social, and economic Gassaway would have none of it changes did it produce, and “it was better for the poor people what stayed the same? to lay down their arms and pay the duties and taxes laid upon them by King and Parliament than to be brought into slavery and commanded and ordered about [by youl,’ he told them. The story was much the same in Farmington, Connecticut, where Patriot officials imprisoned Nathaniel Jones and seventeen other men for “remaining neutral” In Pennsylvania, Quakers accused of Loyalism were rounded up, jailed, and charged with treason, and some were hanged for aiding the British cause. Everywhere, the outbreak of fighting in 1776 forced fam: ilies to choose the Loyalist or the Patriot side. The Patriots’ control of most local governments gave them an edge in this battle, Patriot leaders organized militia units and recruited volunteers for the Continental army, a ragtag force that surprisingly held its own on the battlefield. “| admire the American troops tremendously!” exclaimed a French officer. “It is, incredible that soldiers composed of every age, even children of fifteen, of whites and blacks, almost naked, unpaid, and rather poorly fed, can march so well and withstand fire so steadfastly” Military service created political commitment, and vice versa. Many Patriot leaders encouraged Americans not only to support the war but also to take an active role in government. As more people did so, their political identities changed. Previously, Americans had lived within a social world dominated by the links of family, kinship, and locality. Now, the abstract bonds of citizenship connected them directly to more distant institutions of government. "From sub- jects to citizens the difference is immense," remarked South Carolina Patriot David Ramsay. By repudiating monarchical rule and raising a democratic army, the Patriots launched the age of republican revolutions. Soon republicanism would throw France into turmoil and inspire revolution- aries in Spain’s American colonies. The independence of the Anglo-American col- nies, remarked the Venezuelan political leader Francisco de Miranda, who had been in New York and Philadelphia at the end of the American Revolution, “was bound to be ... the infallible preliminary to our own [independence movement)” ‘The Patriot uprising of 1776 set in motion a process thal gradually replaced an Atlantic colonial system that spanned the Americas with an American system of new nations,Washington, 1781 raving, printed in P holds copies ofthe DecCHAPTER CHRONOLOGY ‘As youread, ask yourself why this chapter begins and ends with these dates and then identify the links among related events. } k — = 1776» Second Continental Congress declares independence 1780 > Clinton seizes Charleston (May) | > Howe ‘orcas Washington to reteat from New York and > Franch troops land in Rhode Island New Jersey Pea ceansitan sp prcves Nennsn te see const ator] 1781 > Cornwallis invades Virginia (Apri, surrenders atYorktown > John Adams publishes Thoughts on Government {Cetober) > States finally ratify Articles of Confederation W777» Articles of Confederation create central government 1783 Treaty of Paris September 3) officially ends war >» Howe acupies Philadephia (September) > Gates defeats Burgoyne at Saratoga (October 1784~ > Congress enacts politica and land ordinances for new 178» Franco-Ametcan alliance (February) cee > Lore North seeks political settlement 1786» Nationalitz hold convertion in Annapolis Maryland > Congress rejects negotiations > Shay Rebelion ols Massachusetts > British adopt southern strategy > Briteh capture Savannah (December) 1787» Congres pases Northwest Ordinance > Constitutional Convention in Phitedelphia > Severe inftion of Continental currency 1787» Joy,Madison, and Harton write TheFederalt WBE > Eleven sate ati US. Constitution Joseph Brant Mohawk chief Thayendanegea, known to whites as Joseph Brart, was a devout member lof the Church of Fngland and helped totranslate the Bible into the Mohawk language. Brant persuaded four of the sh roquois nations to support Britain inthe War. He received a captain's commission in the British army an led lroquols warriors an¢ Tory rangers in devastating attacks on American settlements in the \Wyorming Valley of Pennsylvania and Cherry Valley in New York. After the war, he wasinstrumental in resetting ‘Mohawks and other Britsh-allied Indians on the Grand River in Ontario, Canada. Brant was depicted many ti by painters and sculptors. In this 1786 portrait, painted during one of his tris to England, Gilbert Stuart depicts his hybrid Identity andcaptures a haunting sense of melancholy, vis vitocomevi ety 72 and American forces battle in Georgia The Trials of War, 1776-1778 The Declaration of Independence appeared just as the British launched a full-scale mil itary assault. For two years, British troops manhandled the Continental army. A few inspiring American victories kept the rebellion alive, but during the winters of 1776 and 1777, the Patriot cause hung in the balance. War in the North Once the British resorted to military force, few Europeans gave the rebelsa chance. The population of Great Britain was 11 million; the colonies, 2.5 million, 20 percent of whom were enslaved Africans. Moreover, the British government had access to the immense wealth generated by the South Atlantic System and the emerging Industrial Revolution. Britain also had the most powerful navy in the world, a standing army of 48,000 Britons plus thousands of German (Hessian) soldiers, and the support of thou- sands of American Loyalists and powerful Indian coalitions. In the Carolinas, the Cherokees resisted colonists’ demands for their lands by allying with the British, as did four of the six Iroquois nations of New York (Map 6.1). In the Ohio country, Shawnees and their allies, armed by the British, attacked the new Kentucky settlements. By contrast, the Americans were economically and militarily weak. They lacked a strong central government and a reliable source of tax revenue. Their new Continental army, commanded by General George Washington, consisted of 18,000 poorly trained and inexperienced recruits, To demonstrate Britain's military superiority, Prime Minister Lord North ordered General William Howe to capture New York City. His strategy was to seize control of the Hudson River and thereby isolate the radical Patriots in New Engand from the colonies to the south, As the Second Continental Congress declared independence in Philadelphia in July 1776, Howe landed 32,000 troops — British regulars and German ‘mercenaries — outside New York City. In August 1776, Howe defeated the Americans in the Battle of Long Island and forced their retreat to Manhattan Island. There, Howe outflanked Washington's troops and nearly trapped them. Outgunned and outmaneu- vered, the Continental army again retreated, eventually crossing the Hudson River to ‘New Jersey. By December, the British army had pushed the rebels across New Jersey and over the Delaware River into Pennsylvania.CHAPTER 6 — Making War and Republican Governments, 1776-1789 173 From the Patriots’ perspective, winter came just in time. Following eighteenth-century custom, the British halted their military campaign for the cold months, allowing the Americans tocatch them off guard. On Christmas night 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River and staged a successful surprise attack on Trenton, New Jersey, where he forced the surrender of 1,000 German soldiers. Inearly January 1777, the Continental army won a small victory at nearby Princeton (Map 6.2). But these minor triumphs could not mask British military supe ority, “These are the times;” wrote Thomas Paine, “that try men’s souls” Armies and Strategies ‘Thanks in part to General Howe, the rebellion survived. Howe had opposed the Coercive Acts of 1774 and still hoped for a political compromise. Sohe did not ry to destroy the American army but instead tried to show its weakness and persuade the Continental Congress to give up the struggle, Hovies restrained tactics cost Britain the opportunity to nip the rebellion in the bud. For his part, Washington acted cautiously to avoid a major defeat: “On our Side the War should be defensive,” he told Congress. His strategy was to draw the British away from the =a seacoast, extend their lines of supply, and sap their morale. ‘Congress had promised Washington a regular force of 75,000 men, but the Continental army never reached even a third of that number. Yeomen, refusing to be “Harasdl with callouts” that took them avay from their families and farms, ‘would serve only in local militias. When the Virginia gentry MAP 6.1 Patriotand Loyalist trongholds aly In los ‘ Patrots were inthe majority in mot ofthe thirteen mainland colonies imposed a military drat and thre yeas of service on proper- Sr wed he contol aoa ovat oul men, money tyless men —the “Lazy fellows who lurk about and ae pestst©Shgseples tothe bel ase soughtojel cote foun Society” —they resisted so fiercely that the legislature had to every colony, thelr strongholds were limited to Nova Scotia, eastern pay them substantial bounties and agree to shorter terms of New York New Jersey, and certain teasin the South, However most fervice, The Continenal solders reruited in Maryland by "sve Arecan pope fovoed te Bish ase and bite eneal WitarnSmelhwood were poor Aroerican youth and Seattle ncn orn p63 a older foreign-born men, often British ex-convicts and former indentured servants. Most enlisted for the $20 cash bonus (about $2,000 today) and the promise of 100 acres of land. Molding such recruits into an effective fighting force was nearly impossible. Inexperienced soldiers panicked in the face of British attacks; thousands deserted, ‘unwilling to submit to the discipline of military life. The soldiers who stayed resented the contempt their officers had for the “camp followers” the women who made do with the meager supplies provided to feed and care forthe troops. General Philip Schuyler of New York complained that his troops were “destitute of provisions, without camp equi- page, with little ammunition, and nota single piece of cannon” ‘The Continental army was not only poorly supplied but was also held in suspicion by Radical Whig Patriots, who believed that a standing army was a threat to liberty. Even in wartime, they preferred militias to a professional fighting force. Given these handicaps, Washington and his army were fortunate to have escaped an overwhelming defeat. ‘AP’ PRACTICES & SKILLS POINT OF VIEW ‘Why was control of New York City Britain's first military objective Inthe emerging war? ‘AP’ PRACTIC! rs CAUSATION ‘What factors made it difficult ‘or the Continental Congress ‘create an effective army? Victory at Saratoga After Howe failed to achieve an overwhelming victory, Lord North and his colonial secretary, Lord George Germain, launched another major military campaign in 1777.17" PART 3 REVOLUTION AND REPUBLICAN CULTUNE, 1754 1600, — American forces x Bets forces American videry Bri vito Lake Huron ATLANTIC OCEAN ATLANTIC OCEAN oF Hobionetes MAP 6.2 The Warinthe North, 1776-1777 in 1776 the British army drove Washington’ forces across New Jersey into Pennsyivania. The Americens counteratacked successtully at Trenton and Princeton and then set up winter headquarters in Morristown. in 1777, Bish forces stayed ‘on the offensive. General Howe attacked the Patriot capital, Philadelphia, from the south and capture tin early October. Meanwhile, General Burgoyne and Colonel St Leger launched simultaneous invasions from Canada, With the help of thousands of New England militiamen, American troops commanded by General Horatio Gates defeated Burgoyne in August at Berinyton, Vermont, din Outober at Saratoga, New York, he military turning point in me wat. Isolating New England remained the primary goal. ‘To achieve it, Germain planned a three-pronged attack converging on Albany, New York. General John Burgoyne would lead a large contingent of regulars south from Quebec, Colonel Barry St. Leger and a force of Iroquois would attack from the west, and General Howe would lead troops north from New York City. Howe instead decided to attack Philadelphia, the home of the Continental Congress, hoping to end the rebellion with a single decisive blow. Howe’ troops easily outflanked the American positions along Brandywine Creek in Delaware and, in late September, ‘marched triumphantly into Philadelphia. However, the capture of the rebels’ capital did not end the uprising; the Continental Congress, determined to continue the struggle, fled to the countryside. In the north, Burgoyne’ troops had at first advanced quickly, overwhelming the American defenses at Fort Ticonderoga in early July and driving south toward the Hudson River. Then they stalled. Burgoyne —nicknamed “Gentleman Johnny” — was used to high living and had fought in Europe in a leisurely fashion; underestimating the extent of popular support for the rebels, he stopped early each day to pitch comfortabletents and eat elaborate dinners with his officers. The American troops led by General Horatio Gates also. slowed Burgoyne’s progress by felling huge trees in his path and raiding British supply lines to Canada, ‘At summer's end, Burgoyne’s army of 6,000 British and German troops and 600 Loyalists and Indians was stuck near Saratoga, New York. Desperate for food and horses, in August the British raided nearby Bennington, Vermont, but were beaten back by 2,000 American militiamen. Patriot forces in the Mohawk Valley also threw St. Leger and the Iroquois into retreat. Making mat- ters worse, the British commander in New York City recalled 4,000 troops he had sent toward Albany and ordered them to Philadelphia to bolster Howe's force. While Burgoyne waited in vain for help, thousands of Patriot militiamen ‘CHAPTER 6 75 Making War and Republican Governments, 1776-1789 Victory at Saratoga The surrender of Genera John Burgoyne to American forces at Saratoga, New York, n October 1777 was the mast important Patriot victory in the ealy years ofthe war. General Horatio Gates, wearing the blue and buff officers uniform ofthe Continental amy, stands at the center ofthis pointing by John Trumbull, which hangin the US. Capitol. Burgoyne inthe scarlet uniform of ‘the British ary, forlomly offers Gates his sword as Gates invites him into his tent The Patriots victory a Saratoga, which unfolded over several weeks ina complex set of military maneuvers, proved to their from Massachusetts, New Hampshire, _allesand enemies alte that they could defeat aBrtish army in thee. Achecrrte cart and New York joined Gates. The Patriots “swarmed around the army like birds of prey” reported an English sergeant, and in October 1777, they forced Burgoyne to surrender. The victory at the Battle of Saratoga was the turning point of the war. The Patriots captured more than 5,000 British troops and ensured the diplomatic success of American representatives in Paris, who won a military alliance with France. The Perils of War ‘The Patriots’ triumph at Saratoga was tempered by wartime diffi- culties, A British naval blockade cut off supplies of European ‘manufactures and disrupted the New England fishing industry; meanwhile, the British occupation of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia reduced trade. As Patriots, along with unemployed artisans and laborers, moved to the countryside, New York City’s population declined from 21,000 to 10,000. The British blockade cut tobacco exports in the Chesapeake, so planters grew grain to sell to the contending armies. All across the land, farmers and artisans adapted to a war economy. With goods now scarce, governments requisitioned military supplies directly from the people. In 1776, Connecticut officials asked the citizens of Hartford to provide 1,000 coats and 1,600 shirts, and soldiers echoed their pleas. After losing all his shirts “except the one on my back’ in the Battle of Long Island, Captain Edward Rogers told his wife that “the making of Cloath ... must go on” Patriot women responded; in Elizabeth, New Jersey, they promised “upwards of 100,000 yards of linnen and woolen cloth” American Militiamen Beset by continuing shortages of cloth, “the Patriot army dressed ina variety of uniforms and fabrics. this German engraving, taken from a drawing by a Hessian officer, shows two American militiamen (one of them barefoot) wezting hunting shires and trousers made of ticking, the strong liner fabric often used to covermattresses and pillows. Ames K sonny Other women assumed the burdens of farmwork while their men ‘were away at war and acquired a taste for decision making, “We have sow our oats 2s you desired” Sarah Cobb Paine wrote to her absent husband, “Had I been master I should have planted it to176 PART3 Identify the ways that men and, ‘women motilized resources in support of the Patriot movement In the American Revolution. Turn to the Glossary of ‘Academic& Historical ‘Terms in the back of the book ‘for definitions of bolded terms, REVOLUTION AND RFPURIICAN CLUTURE, 1754-1200, Corn” Their self-esteem boosted by wartime activities, some women expected greater legal rights in the new republican society. Still, goods remained scarce and pricey. Hard-pressed consumers assailed shop- keepers as “enemies, extortioners, and monopolizers” and called for government regu- lation, But when the New England states imposed price ceilings in 1777, many farmers and artisans refused to sell their goods. Ultimately, a government oficial admitted, consumers had to pay the higher market prices “or submit to starving” The fighting endangered tens of thousands of civilians. A British officer, Lord Rawdon, favored giving “free liberty to the soldiers to ravage [the country] at will, that these infatuated creatures may feel what a calamity war is.” As British and American armies marched back and forth across New Jersey, they forced Patriot and Loyalist fam- ilies to flee their homes to escape arrest—or worse. Soldiers and partisans looted farms, and disorderly troops harassed and raped women and girls. “An army, even a friendly one, are a dreadful scourge to any people” wrote one Connecticut soldier. “You cannot imagine what devastation and distress mark their steps.” ‘The war divided many farm communities, Patriots formed committees of safety to collect taxes and seized the property of those who refused to pay. “Every Body submitted to our Sovereign Lord the Mob” lamented a Loyalist preacher. In parts of Maryland, the ‘number of “nonassociators” — those who refused to join either side —was so large that they successfully defied Patriot mobs. “Stand off you dammed rebel sons of bitches)” shouted Robert Davis of Anne Arundel County, “Lwill shoot you if you come any nearer” Financial Crisis Such defiance exposed the weakness of Patriot governments. Most states were afraid to raise taxes, so officials issued bonds to secure gold or silver from wealthy individu- als, When those funds ran out, individual states financed the war by issuing so much paper money—some $260 million all told—that it lost worth, and most people refused to accept it at face value, In North Carolina, even tax collectors eventually rejected the states currency. The finances of the Continental Congress collapsed, too, despite the efforts of Philadelphia merchant Robert Morris, the government’ chief treasury official. Because the Congress lacked the authority to impose taxes, Morris relied on funds requisitioned from the state, but the states paid late or not at all. So Morris secured loans from France and Holland and sold Continental loan certificates to some thirteen thousand firms and indi- viduals. All the while, the Congress was issuing paper ‘money—some$200 million between 1776and1779— which, like state currencies, quickly fell in value. In 1778, a family needed $7 in Continental bills to buy goods worth $1 in gold or silver. As the exchange rate deteriorated —to 42 to 1 in 1779, 100 to 1 in 1780, and 146 to 1 in 1731—it sparked social upheaval. In Boston, a mob of women accosted mer- chant Thomas Boyleston, “seazd him by his Neck,” and forced him to sell his wares at traditional prices. In rural Ulster County, New York, women told the committee of safety to lower food prices or “their husbands and sons Paper Currency Tesiying to their independent status, the newstate ‘governments printed “hci own currencies. Rejecting the English system ‘of pounds and shilings Virginia used the Spanish gold dollar as its basic unit of currency, although the equivalent in English pounds is also shown. Initially, $1,200 was equal to £360—a ratio of 3.3 to 1. By 178!, Vigna had printed so much paper money to pay its soldiers and wartime expenses that the value ofits currency had depreciated. It now took $40 in Viginia Currency to buy the same amount of goods 5 £1 sterling, cout ms ees mina Scat shall fight no more” As morale crumbled, Patriot leaders feared the rebellion would collapse. Valley Forge Fears reached their peak during the winter of 1777. While Howe's army lived comfortably in’ Philadelphia, Wash ington’ army retreated 20 miles to Valley Forge, whereCHAPTER6 — Making War and Republican Governments, 1776-1789 177 12,000 soldiers and hundreds of camp followers suffered horribly. “The army ... now begins to grow sickly” a surgeon confided to his diary. “Poor food — hard lodging — cold weather — fatigue— nasty clothes—nasty cookery... . Why are we sent here to starve and freeze?” Nearby farmers refused to help. Some were pacifists, Quakers and German sectarians unwilling to support either side. Others looked out for their own families, selling grain for gold from British quartermasters but refusing depreciated Continental currency. “Such a dearth of public spirit, and want of public virtue” lamented ‘Washington. By spring, more than 200 officers had resigned, 1,000 hungry soldiers had deserted, and another 3,000 had died from malnutrition and disease. That winter at Valley Forge took as many American lives as had two years of fighting. In this dark hour, Baron von Steuben raised the readiness of the American army. A former Prussian military officer, von Steuben was one of a handful of republican- minded foreign aristocrats who joined the American cause. Appointed as inspector general of the Continental army, he instituted a strict drill system and encouraged offi- cers to become more professional. Thanks to von Steuben, the smaller army that emerged from Valley Forge in the spring of 1778 was a much tougher and better- disciplined force. IN YOUR OWN WORDS What challenges did Patriot forces confront in the first two years of the war, and what were their key achievements? The Path to Victory, 1778-1783 ‘Wars are often won by astute diplomacy, and so it was with the War of Independence. The Patriots’ prospects improved dramatically in 1778, when the Continental Congress concluded a military alliance with France, the most powerful nation in Europe. The alliance gave the Americans desperately needed money, supplies, and, eventually, troops. And it confronted Britain with an international war that challenged its domina- tion of the Atlantic and Indian oceans. The French Al France and America were unlikely partners, France was Catholic and a morarchy: the United States was Protestant and a federation of republics. From 1689 to 1763, the two peoples had been enemies: New Englanders had brutally uprooted the French populla- tion from Acadia (Nova Scotia) in 1755, and the French and their Indian allies had raided British settlements. But the Comte de Vergennes, the French foreign minister, was determined to avenge the loss of Canada during the Great War for Empire (see Chapter 4} and persuaded King Louis XVI to provide the rebellious colories with a secret loan and much-needed gunpowder. When news of the rebel victory