57:020

Fluid Mechanics

Class Notes
Fall 2015

Prepared by:
Professor Fred Stern

Typed by: Stephanie Schrader (Fall 1999)

Corrected by: Jun Shao (Fall 2003, Fall 2005)
Corrected by: Jun Shao, Tao Xing (Fall 2006)
Corrected by: Hyunse Yoon (Fall 2007  Fall 2015)
Corrected by: Timur Kent Dogan (Fall 2014)
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND

BASIC CONCEPTS

Fluids and the no-slip condition

Fluid mechanics is the science and technology of
fluids either at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics) and their effects on boundaries such as solid
surfaces or interfaces with other fluids.
Definition of a fluid: A substance that deforms
continuously when subjected to a shear stress
Consider a fluid between two parallel plates, which is
subjected to a shear stress due to the impulsive motion of
the upper plate

u=U
No slip condition: no relative motion
Fluid between fluid and boundary, i.e., fluid
Element
in contact with lower plate is
u=0 stationary, whereas fluid in contact
t=0 with upper plate moves at speed U.
Fluid deforms, i.e., undergoes
rate of strain θ̇ due to shear stress 


t=t
Newtonian fluid:
τ ∝ θ̇ = rate of strain
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 2

τ = μ θ̇
 = coefficient of viscosity

Such behavior is different from solids, which resist shear

by static deformation (up to elastic limit of material)

Elastic solid:    = strain

Solid =G

G = shear modulus
t=0 t=t

Both liquids and gases behave as fluids

Liquids:
Closely spaced molecules with large intermolecular forces
Retain volume and take shape of container
container

liquid

Gases:
Widely spaced molecules with small intermolecular forces
Take volume and shape of container

gas

Recall p-v-T diagram from thermodynamics:

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single phase, two phase, triple point (point at which solid,

liquid, and vapor are all in equilibrium), critical point
(maximum pressure at which liquid and vapor are both in
equilibrium).

Liquids, gases, and two-phase liquid-vapor behave as

fluids.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 4

Continuum Hypothesis

In this course, the assumption is made that the fluid

behaves as a continuum, i.e., the number of molecules
within the smallest region of interest (a point) are sufficient
that all fluid properties are point functions (single valued at
a point).

For example:
Consider definition of density  of a fluid

ρ ( x , t )=
lim δm x = position vector  xi  yj  zk
δ V →δ V δ V
¿
t = time

V* = limiting volume below which molecular variations

may be important and above which macroscopic variations
may be important

V*  10-9 mm3 (or length scale of l*  10-6 m) for all

liquids and for gases at atmospheric pressure

10-9 mm3 air (at standard conditions, 20C and 1 atm)

contains 3x107 molecules such that M/V = constant = 

Note that typical “smallest” measurement volumes are

about 10-3 – 100 mm3 >> V* and that the “scale” of
macroscopic variations are very problem dependent
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Exception: rarefied gas flow

δ∀* defines a point in the fluid, i.e., a fluid particle or

infinitesimal material element used for deriving governing
differential equations of fluid dynamics and at which all fluid
properties are point functions:
l* =10-6 m >> molecular length scales
 = mean free path = 610-8 m
t = 10-10 s = time between collisions
l* = 10-6 m << fluid length scales l = 10-4 m
For laminar flow: lmax ≈ smallest geometry scales of the
flow
Umax < U transition to turbulent flow
For turbulent flow: lmax and Umax determined by Kolmogorov
scales at which viscous dissipation takes place, which for
typical ship/airplane,
 ≈ 210-5 m (ship)/2.310-5 m (airplane)
u ≈ 0.05 m/s (ship)/1.64 m/s (airplane)
t ≈ 410-4 s (ship)/1.410-5 s (airplane)
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 6

Properties of Fluids
Fluids are characterized by their properties such as
viscosity  and density , which we have already discussed
with reference to definition of shear stress τ = μ θ̇ and the
continuum hypothesis.

(1) Kinematic: Linear (V ) and angular (ω /2) velocity, rate

of strain (ε ), Vorticity (ω), and acceleration (a)
ij

(2) Transport: Viscosity ( μ), thermal conductivity (k ),

and mass diffusivity ( D)

(3) Thermodynamic: Pressure ( p), density ( ρ),

temperature (T ), internal energy (u^ ), enthalpy (h=^u + p/ ρ
), specific heat (C , C , γ =C / C , etc.)
v p p v

(4) Miscellaneous: Surface tension (σ ), vapor pressure ( p v

), etc.
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Properties can be both dimensional (i.e., expressed in either

SI or BG units) or non-dimensional:

Figure B.1 Dynamic (absolute) viscosity of common fluids as a

function of temperature.
Figure B.2 Kinematic viscosity of common fluids (at atmospheric
pressure) as a function of temperature.
Table B.1 Physical Properties of Water (BG Units)
Table B.2 Physical Properties of Water (SI Units)
Table B.3 Physical Properties of Air at Standard Atmospheric
Pressure (BG Units)
Table B.4 Physical Properties of Air at Standard Atmospheric
Pressure (SI Units)
Table 1.5 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common
Liquids (BG Units)
Table 1.6 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common
Liquids (SI Units)
Table 1.7 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common
Gases at Standard Atmospheric Pressure (BG Units)
Table 1.8 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common
Gases at Standard Atmospheric Pressure (SI Units)
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Basic Units

System International and British Gravitational Systems

Primary Units SI BG
Mass M kg slug=32.2lbm
Length L m ft
Time t s s
Temperature T C (K) F (R)

Temperature Conversion:
K = C + 273
R = F + 460

K and R are absolute scales, i.e., 0 at absolute zero.

Freezing point of water is at 0C and 32F.

Secondary
(derived) units Dimension SI BG
velocity V L/t m/s ft/s
acceleration a L/t2 m/s2 ft/s2
force F ML/t2 N (kgm/s2) lbf
pressure p F/L2 Pa (N/m2) lbf/ft2
density  M/L3 kg/m3 slug/ft3
internal energy u FL/M J/kg (Nm/kg) BTU/lbm

Table 1.3 Conversion Factors from BG and EE Units to SI Units.

Table 1.4 Conversion Factors from SI Units to BG and EE Units.
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 9

Weight and Mass

F=m a Newton’s second law (valid for both solids

and fluids)
Weight = force on object due to gravity

W = mg g = 9.81 m/s2
= 32.2 ft/s2

SI: W (N) = m (kg)  9.81 m/s2

BG: W (lbf) = m(slug)  32.2ft/ s2

m ( lbm )
EE: W (lbf) = gc 32.2 ft/s2
lbm⋅ft lbm
gc = 32. 2 = 32. 2
s 2⋅lbf slug , i.e., 1 slug = 32.2
lbm

1 N = 1 kg  1 m/s2
1 lbf = 1 slug  1 ft/s2
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 10

System; Extensive and Intensive Properties

System = fixed amount of matter

= mass m

Therefore, by definition
d(m)
=0
dt

Properties are further distinguished as being either

extensive or intensive.

Extensive properties: depend on total mass of system,

e.g., m and W
Intensive properties: independent of amount of mass of
system, e.g., p (force/area) and 
(mass/volume)
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Properties Involving the Mass or Weight of the

Fluid

Specific Weight,  = gravitational force (i.e., weight) per

unit volume V
= W/ V
= mg/ V
= g N/m3
(Note that specific properties are extensive properties per
unit mass or volume)
Mass Density  = mass per unit volume
= m/ V kg/m3

Specific Gravity S = ratio of liquid to water at standard T = 4C

= /water, 4C dimensionless
(or air at standard conditions for gases)
water, 4C = 9810 N/m3 for T = 4C and atmospheric pressure
air = 12.01 N/m3 at standard atmosphere (T = 15C and p =
101.33 kPa)
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 12

Variation in Density

gases:  =  (gas, T, p) equation of state (p-v-T)

= p/RT ideal gas
R = R (gas)

e.g. R (air) = 287.05 Nm/kgK

 (air) = 1.225 kg/m3 at Standard Atmosphere
(T = 15C and p = 101.33 kPa)
liquids:   constant

Water

Note: For a change in temperature from 0 to 100C, density changes about

29% for air while only about 4% for water.

Liquid and temperature Density Density

(kg/m3) (slugs/ft3)
Water 20oC (68oF) 998 1.94
Ethyl alcohol 20oC (68oF) 799 1.55
Glycerine 20oC (68oF) 1,260 2.45
Kerosene 20oC (68oF) 814 1.58
Mercury 20oC (68oF) 13,350 26.3
Sea water 10oC at 3.3% salinity 1,026 1.99
SAE 10W 38oC(100oF) 870 1.69
SAE 10W-30 8oC(100oF) 880 1.71
SAE 30 38oC(100oF) 880 1.71
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 13

For greater accuracy can also use p-v-T diagram

 =  (liquid, T, p)
T 
p 

Properties Involving the Flow of Heat

For flows involving heat transfer such as gas dynamics

additional thermodynamic properties are important, e.g.

specific heats cp and cv J/kgK

specific internal energy û J/kg
specific enthalpy h = û + p/ J/kg
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 14

Viscosity

Recall definition of a fluid (substance that deforms

continuously when subjected to a shear stress) and
Newtonian fluid shear / rate-of-strain relationship: τ = μ θ̇ .

Reconsider flow between fixed and moving parallel plates

(Couette flow)

ut=distance fluid particle travels in time t

y

f at t u=U
h y
U f at t
 y f=fluid element
h u=0

δθ
τ = μ θ̇ = μ
Newtonian fluid: δt
δuδt δuδt
tan δθ = or δθ =
δy δy for small 
δu du
δ θ̇= θ̇ =
therefore δy i.e., dy = velocity
gradient
du
τ=μ
and dy
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 15

Exact solution for Couette flow is a linear velocity profile

U
u( y) = y
h Note: u(0) = 0 and u(h) = U
i.e., satisfies no-slip
U boundary condition
τ=μ
h = constant

where

U/h = velocity gradient = rate of strain

 = coefficient of viscosity = proportionality constant for

Newtonian fluid
2
τ N /m Ns
μ= = = 2
du m
/m m
dy s
2
μ m
ν= =
ρ s = kinematic viscosity
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 16

 = (fluid;T,p) = (gas/liquid;T)

gas and liquid  p, but small 

gas:  T Due to structural differences, more molecular
liquid:  T activity for gases, decreased cohesive forces
for liquids
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57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
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Newtonian vs. Non-Newtonian Fluids

Dilatant (Shear thickening):  du/dy 

Newtonian:  du/dy
Pseudo plastic (Shear thinning):  du/dy 
Bingham plastic: Requires  before becomes fluid
Example: toothpaste, mayonnaise

Newtonian Fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids

n
du du
τ∝
dy
τ∝ ( )
dy

 = slope n > 1 (shear thickening) Slope

increases with increasing
; ex) cornstarch, quick-
sand

n < 1 (shear thinning) Slope

decreases with increasing
;
ex) blood, paint, liquid
plastic
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 19

Elasticity (i.e., compressibility)

Increasing/decreasing pressure corresponds to

contraction/expansion of a fluid. The amount of
deformation is called elasticity.

dV dV
dp=−E v
V
dp> 0  V
<0

Increase pressure, decrease volume.  minus sign used

and by definition, m=ρ V

dm= ρd V +V dρ=0
−d V dρ
=
V ρ

Thus,
−dp dp dp
E v= = =ρ [ N /m 2 ]
d V /V dρ/ ρ dρ

Liquids are in general incompressible, e.g.

E = 2.2 GN/m2
v water
i.e. Δ V = 0.05%V for p = 1MN/m2
(G=Giga=109 M=Mega=106 k=kilo=103)

Gases are in general compressible, e.g. for ideal gas (i.e.,

p= ρRT ) at T = constant (isothermal)

dp
=RT
dρ
Ev =ρ RT =p
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 20

Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

When the pressure of a liquid falls below the vapor

pressure it evaporates, i.e., changes to a gas. If the pressure
drop is due to temperature effects alone, the process is
called boiling. If the pressure drop is due to fluid velocity,
the process is called cavitation. Cavitation is common in
regions of high velocity, i.e., low p such as on turbine
blades and marine propellers.

high V low p isobars

(suction side)

streamlines around lifting surface (i.e. lines tangent to velocity vector)

low V high p
(pressure side)
p− p v
Ca 1 2
ρV ∞
Cavitation number, = 2

C a< 0 implies cavitation

 57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 21

Surface Tension and Capillary Effects

At the interface of two immiscible fluids (e.g., a liquid and

a gas), forces develop to cause the surface to behave as if it
were a stretched membrane. Molecules in the interior
attract each other equally, whereas molecules along the
surface are subject to a net force due to the absence of
neighbor molecules. The intensity of the molecular
attraction per unit length along any line in the surface is
call the surface tension and is designated by the Greek
symbol σ .

F = surface tension force

AIR

F
F
Interface

Near surface forces are increased due to absence of neighbors such that surface is in tension per unit

Away from interface molecular forces are equal in all directions

WATER

air/water = 0.073 N/m

F    L  line force with direction normal to the cut
L =length of cut through the interface
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 22

Effects of surface tension:

Contact angle:

 < 90o, Wetting  > 90o, Non-wetting

e.g., Water,   0 e.g., Mercury, 130

1. Capillary action in small tube

Δh=4 σ /γd
2. Pressure difference across curved interface
p = /R R = radius of curvature
3. Transformation of liquid jet into droplets
4. Binding of wetted granular material such as sand
5. Capillary waves: surface tension acts as restoring force
resulting in interfacial waves called capillary waves
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 23

Capillary tube

F Fluid attaches to Fsolid with contact angle θ due to surface tension effect and wetty pr

water
reservoir
d = contact angle

Example:
Capillary tube d = 1.6mm = 0.0016m
F    L , L=length of contact line between fluid & solid
(i.e., L = D = circumference)

water reservoir at 20 C,  = 0.073 N/m,  = 9790 N/m3

h = ?
Fz = 0
F,z - W = 0
d cos- gV = 0 0  cos= 1
g = 
2 2
πd πd
σπ d−γΔh =0 V = Δh
4 =Volume
4 of
fluid above
4σ reservoir
Δh= =18.6mm
γd
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Pressure jump across curved interfaces

(a) Cylindrical interface

Force Balance:
2L = 2 RL(pi – po)
p = /R

pi > po, i.e. pressure is larger on concave vs. convex

side of interface

(b) Spherical interface (Droplets)

2R = R2p  p = 2/R

(c) General interface

p = (R1-1 + R2-1)
R1,2 = principal radii of curvature
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2015 25

A brief history of fluid mechanics

See textbook section 1.10. (page 27)

Fluid Mechanics and Flow Classification

Hydrodynamics: flow of fluids for which density is

constant such as liquids and low-speed gases. If in addition
fluid properties are constant, temperature and heat transfer
effects are uncoupled such that they can be treated
separately.

Examples: hydraulics, low-speed aerodynamics, ship

hydrodynamics, liquid and low-speed gas pipe systems

Gas Dynamics: flow of fluids for which density is variable

such as high-speed gases. Temperature and heat transfer
effects are coupled and must be treated concurrently.

Examples: high-speed aerodynamics, gas turbines,

high-speed gas pipe systems, upper atmosphere