Coordinates: 5°30′S 141°00′E

New Guinea
New Guinea (Tok Pisin: Niugini; Hiri Motu: Niu Gini;
Indonesian: Papua, historically Irian) is the world's second- New Guinea
largest island and, with an area of 785,753 km2 (303,381 sq mi), Native name: Papua, Niugini, Niu
the largest island in the Southern Hemisphere. Located in Gini
Melanesia in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, it is separated by
the 150-kilometre (81 nmi; 93 mi) wide Torres Strait from the
Australian continent. Numerous smaller islands are located to the
west and east. The eastern half of the island is the major land
mass of the independent state of Papua New Guinea. The
western half, known as Western New Guinea or West Papua,[1]
forms a part of Indonesia and is organized as the provinces of
Papua and West Papua.
Geography
Location Oceania
(Melanesia)
Contents
Coordinates 5°30′S 141°00′E
Names Archipelago Malay Archipelago
Geography Area 785,753 km2
Relation to surroundings (303,381 sq mi)
Political divisions Area rank 2nd
People Highest elevation 4,884 m (16024 ft)
Biodiversity and ecology Highest point Puncak Jaya
Ecoregions Administration
Terrestrial
Indonesia
Freshwater
Marine Provinces Papua
West Papua
History
Largest Jayapura
Early history
settlement
Precolonial history
European contact Papua New Guinea
World War II Provinces Central
Since World War II Simbu
See also Eastern Highlands
Notes and references East Sepik
Bibliography Enga
External links Gulf
Hela
Jiwaka
Names
Madang
The island has been known by various names: Morobe
The name Papua was used to refer to parts of the island before Oro
contact with the West.[2] Its etymology is unclear;[2] one theory Southern Highlands
states that it derived from Tidore, the language used by the
Sultanate of Tidore, which controlled parts of the island's coastal Western
region.[3] The name appears to come from the words papo (to Western Highlands
unite) and ua (negation), which means "not united" or, "territory West Sepik
that geographically is far away (and thus not united)".[3][4]
Milne Bay
Ploeg reports that the word papua is often said to be derived National Capital
from the Malay word papua or pua-pua, meaning "frizzly- District
haired", referring to the highly curly hair of the inhabitants of
Largest Port Moresby
these areas.[5] Another possibility, put forward by Sollewijn
Gelpke in 1993, is that it comes from the Biak phrase sup i settlement
papwa, which means 'the land below [the sunset]', and refers to Demographics
the islands west of the Bird's Head, as far as Halmahera.[6] The Population ~ 11,306,940 (2014)
name Papua came to be associated with this area, and more
especially with Halmahera, which was known to the Portuguese Pop. density 14/km2 (36/sq mi)
by this name during the era of their colonization in this part of Ethnic groups Papuan and other
the world. Melanesians

When the Portuguese and Spanish explorers arrived in the island via the Spice
Islands, they also referred to the island as Papua.[3] However, Westerners,
beginning with Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez in 1545, used the
name New Guinea, referring to the similarities of the features of the
indigenous peoples to those of native Africans of the Guinea region of the
continent.[3] The name is one of several toponyms sharing similar
etymologies, ultimately meaning "land of the blacks" or similar meanings, in
reference to the dark skin of the inhabitants.
1644 map of New Guinea
The Dutch, who arrived later under Jacob Le Maire and Willem Schouten, and the surrounding area.
called it Schouten island. They later used this name only to refer to islands off
the north coast of Papua proper, the Schouten Islands or Biak Island. When
the Dutch colonized this island as part of the Dutch East Indies, they called it Nieuw Guinea.[3]

The name Irian was used in the Indonesian language to refer to the island and Indonesian province, as Irian
Barat (West Irian) Province and later Irian Jaya Province. The name was promoted in 1945 by Marcus
Kaisiepo,[2] brother of the future governor Frans Kaisiepo. It is taken from the Biak language of Biak Island,
and means "to rise", or "rising spirit". Irian is the name used in the Biak language and other languages such as
Serui, Merauke and Waropen.[3] The name was used until 2001, when Papua was again used for the island
and the province. The name Irian, which was originally favored by natives, is now considered to be a name
imposed by the authority of Jakarta.[2]

Geography
New Guinea is an island to the north of the Australian mainland, south of the equator. It is isolated by the
Arafura Sea to the west, and the Torres Strait and Coral Sea to the east. Sometimes considered to be the
easternmost island of the Indonesian archipelago, it lies north of Australia's Top End, the Gulf of Carpentaria
and Cape York Peninsula, and west of the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands archipelago.

Politically, the western half of the island comprises two provinces of Indonesia: Papua and West Papua. The
eastern half forms the mainland of the country of Papua New Guinea.
The shape of New Guinea is often compared to that of a bird-of-paradise
(indigenous to the island), and this results in the usual names for the two
extremes of the island: the Bird's Head Peninsula in the northwest (Vogelkop
in Dutch, Kepala Burung in Indonesian; also known as the Doberai
Peninsula), and the Bird's Tail Peninsula in the southeast (also known as the
Papuan Peninsula).
Regions of Oceania:
A spine of east–west mountains, the New Guinea Highlands, dominates the Australasia, Polynesia,
geography of New Guinea, stretching over 1,600 km (1,000 mi) across the Micronesia, and Melanesia.
island, with many mountains over 4,000 m (13,100 ft). The western half of Physiographically,
the island contains the highest mountains in Oceania, with its highest point, Australasia includes the
Puncak Jaya, reaching an elevation of 4,884 m (16,023 ft). The tree line is Australian landmass
around 4,000 m (13,100 ft) elevation, and the tallest peaks contain equatorial (including Tasmania), New
Zealand, and New Guinea.
glaciers—which have been retreating since at least 1936.[7][8][9] Various other
smaller mountain ranges occur both north and west of the central ranges.
Except in high elevations, most areas possess a
warm humid climate throughout the year, with some
seasonal variation associated with the northeast
monsoon season.

Another major habitat feature is the vast southern

and northern lowlands. Stretching for hundreds of
kilometres, these include lowland rainforests,
extensive wetlands, savanna grasslands, and some of
the largest expanses of mangrove forest in the world.
The southern lowlands are the site of Lorentz
National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The northern lowlands are drained principally by the
Mamberamo River and its tributaries on the western
side, and by the Sepik on the eastern side. The more
extensive southern lowlands are drained by a larger
number of rivers, principally the Digul in the west
and the Fly in the east. The largest island offshore,
Dolak, lies near the Digul estuary, separated by a
New Guinea located in relation to Melanesia
strait so narrow it has been named a "creek".

New Guinea contains many of the world's

ecosystem types: glacial, alpine tundra, savanna,
montane and lowland rainforest, mangroves,
wetlands, lake and river ecosystems, seagrasses, and
some of the richest coral reefs on the planet.

Relation to surroundings
The island of New Guinea lies to the east of the
Malay Archipelago, with which it is sometimes
included as part of a greater Indo-Australian
Archipelago.[10] Geologically it is a part of the same
tectonic plate as Australia. When world sea levels
were low, the two shared shorelines (which now lie New Guinea map of Köppen climate classification
100 to 140 metres below sea level),[11] and
combined with lands now inundated into the
tectonic continent of Sahul,[12][13] also known as
Greater Australia.[14] The two landmasses became
separated when the area now known as the Torres
Strait flooded after the end of the last glacial period.

Anthropologically, New Guinea is considered part

of Melanesia.[15]

New Guinea is differentiated from its drier,

flatter,[16] and less fertile[17][18] southern
counterpart, Australia, by its much higher rainfall
Topographical map of New Guinea
and its active volcanic geology. Yet the two land
masses share a similar animal fauna, with
marsupials, including wallabies and possums, and
the egg-laying monotreme, the echidna. Other than bats and some two
dozen indigenous rodent genera,[19] there are no pre-human
indigenous placental mammals. Pigs, several additional species of rats,
and the ancestor of the New Guinea singing dog were introduced
with human colonization.

Prior to the 1970s, archaeologists called the single Pleistocene

landmass by the name Australasia,[12] although this word is most
often used for a wider region that includes lands, such as New Mount Bosavi
Zealand, which are not on the same continental shelf. In the early
1970s, they introduced the term Greater Australia for the Pleistocene
continent.[12] Then, at a 1975 conference and consequent publication,[13] they extended the name Sahul from
its previous use for just the Sahul Shelf to cover the continent.[12]

Political divisions
The island of New Guinea is divided politically into roughly equal
halves across a north-south line:

The western portion of the island located west of 141°E

longitude (except for a small section of territory to the east
of the Fly River which belongs to Papua New Guinea) was
formerly a Dutch colony, part of the Dutch East Indies. After
Political divisions of New Guinea
the Dutch New Guinea Dispute it is now two Indonesian
provinces:
West Papua with Manokwari as its capital.
Papua with the city of Jayapura as its capital.
The eastern part forms the mainland of Papua New Guinea, which has been an independent
country since 1975. It was formerly the Territory of Papua and New Guinea governed by
Australia, consisting of the Trust Territory of New Guinea (northeastern quarter, formerly
German New Guinea), and the Territory of Papua (southeastern quarter). The Papua New
Guinea part encompasses three of four regions:
Southern, consisting of Western, Gulf, Central, Oro (Northern) and Milne Bay provinces.
Highlands, consisting of Southern Highlands, Hela Province, Jiwaka Province, Enga
Province, Western Highlands, Simbu and Eastern Highlands provinces.
Momase, consisting of Morobe, Madang, East Sepik and Sandaun (West Sepik) provinces.
People
The current population of the island of New Guinea is about eleven
million. Many believe human habitation on the island dates to as early as
50,000 BC,[20] and first settlement possibly dating back to 60,000 years
ago has been proposed. The island is presently populated by almost a
thousand different tribal groups and a near-equivalent number of separate
languages, which makes New Guinea the most linguistically diverse area
in the world. Ethnologue's 14th edition lists 826 languages of Papua
New Guinea and 257 languages of Western New Guinea, total 1073
Dani tribesman in the Baliem
languages, with 12 languages overlapping. They can be divided into two
Valley
groups, the Austronesian languages, and all the others, called Papuan
languages for convenience. The term Papuan languages refers to an
areal grouping, rather than a linguistic one, since so-called Papuan
languages comprise hundreds of different languages, most of which are not related.[21]

The separation is not merely linguistic; warfare among societies was a factor in the evolution of the men's
house: separate housing of groups of adult men, from the single-family houses of the women and children, for
mutual protection from other tribal groups. Pig-based trade between the groups and pig-based feasts are a
common theme with the other peoples of southeast Asia and Oceania. Most societies practice agriculture,
supplemented by hunting and gathering.

Current evidence indicates that the Papuans (who constitute the

majority of the island's peoples) are descended from the earliest
human inhabitants of New Guinea. These original inhabitants first
arrived in New Guinea at a time (either side of the Last Glacial
Maximum, approx 21,000 years ago) when the island was
connected to the Australian continent via a land bridge, forming the
landmass of Sahul. These peoples had made the (shortened) sea-
crossing from the islands of Wallacea and Sundaland (the present
Malay Archipelago) by at least 40,000 years ago.
Kurulu Village War Chief at Baliem
Valley The ancestral Austronesian
peoples are believed to have
arrived considerably later,
approximately 3,500 years ago, as part of a gradual seafaring
migration from Southeast Asia, possibly originating in Taiwan.
Austronesian-speaking peoples colonized many of the offshore
islands to the north and east of New Guinea, such as New Ireland and
New Britain, with settlements also on the coastal fringes of the main
island in places. Human habitation of New Guinea over tens of
thousands of years has led to a great deal of diversity, which was
further increased by the later arrival of the Austronesians and the more
recent history of European and Asian settlement through events like
transmigration. About half of the 2.4 million inhabitants of Indonesian
Papua are Javanese migrants.[22]

Large areas of New Guinea are yet to be explored by scientists and

anthropologists. The Indonesian province of West Papua is home to Korowai tribesman
an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups.[23]
Biodiversity and ecology
With some 786,000 km2 of tropical land—less than one-half of one percent (0.5%) of the Earth's surface—
New Guinea has an immense biodiversity, containing between 5 and 10 percent of the total species on the
planet. This percentage is about the same amount as that found in the United States or Australia. A high
percentage of New Guinea's species are endemic, and thousands are still unknown to science: probably well
over 200,000 species of insect, between 11,000 and 20,000 plant species, and over 650 resident bird species.
Most of these species are shared, at least in their origin, with the continent of Australia, which was until fairly
recent geological times part of the same landmass (see Australia-New Guinea for an overview). The island is
so large that it is considered 'nearly a continent' in terms of its biological distinctiveness.

In the period from 1998 to 2008, conservationists identified 1,060 new species in New Guinea, including 218
plants, 43 reptiles, 12 mammals, 580 invertebrates, 134 amphibians, 2 birds and 71 fish.[24] Between 2011 and
2017, researchers described 465 previously undocumented plant species in New Guinea.[25] As of 2019, the
Indonesian portion of New Guinea and the Maluku Islands is estimated to have 9,518 species of vascular
plants, of which 4,380 are endemic. In 2020, an international study conducted by a team of 99 experts
cataloged 13,634 species representing 1,742 genera and 264 families of vascular plants for New Guinea and
its associated islands (Aru Is., Bismarck Arch., D'Entrecasteaux Is., Louisiade Arch.), making it the world's
most floristically diverse island, surpassing Madagascar (11,488), Borneo (11,165), Java (4,598), and the
Philippines (9,432).[26]

Biogeographically, New Guinea is part of Australasia rather than the

Indomalayan realm, although New Guinea's flora has many more
affinities with Asia than its fauna, which is overwhelmingly
Australian. Botanically, New Guinea is considered part of Malesia, a
floristic region that extends from the Malay Peninsula across
Indonesia to New Guinea and the East Melanesian Islands. The flora
of New Guinea is a mixture of many tropical rainforest species with
origins in Asia, together with typically Australasian flora. Typical
Southern Hemisphere flora include the conifers Podocarpus and the
rainforest emergents Araucaria and Agathis, as well as tree ferns and
several species of Eucalyptus.

New Guinea has 284 species and six orders of mammals:

monotremes, three orders of marsupials, rodents and bats; 195 of the
mammal species (69%) are endemic. New Guinea has 578 species of
breeding birds, of which 324 species are endemic. The island's frogs
are one of the most poorly known vertebrate groups, totalling 282 The raggiana bird-of-paradise is
species, but this number is expected to double or even triple when all native to New Guinea.
species have been documented. New Guinea has a rich diversity of
coral life and 1,200 species of fish have been found. Also about 600
species of reef-building coral—the latter equal to 75 percent of the
world's known total. The entire coral area covers 18 million hectares
off a peninsula in northwest New Guinea.

As of 2020, the Western portion of New Guinea, Papua and West

Papua, accounts for 54% of the island's primary forest and about 51%
of the island's total tree cover, according to satellite data.[27]

The floristic region of Malesia

Ecoregions
Terrestrial

According to the WWF, New Guinea can be divided into twelve

terrestrial ecoregions:[28]

Central Range montane rain forests

Central Range sub-alpine grasslands
Huon Peninsula montane rain forests New Guinea crocodile
New Guinea mangroves
Northern New Guinea lowland rain and freshwater swamp
forests
Northern New Guinea montane rain forests
Southeastern Papuan rain forests
Southern New Guinea freshwater swamp forests
Southern New Guinea lowland rain forests
Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands
Vogelkop montane rain forests
Vogelkop-Aru lowland rain forests

Freshwater

The WWF and Nature Conservancy divide New Guinea into five
freshwater ecoregions:[29]

Vogelkop–Bomberai
New Guinea North Coast
New Guinea Central Mountains
Coral reefs in Papua New Guinea
Southwest New Guinea–Trans-Fly Lowland
Papuan Peninsula

Marine

The WWF and Nature Conservancy identify several marine ecoregions in the seas bordering New Guinea:[30]

Papua
Bismarck Sea
Solomon Sea
Southeast Papua New Guinea
Gulf of Papua
Arafura Sea

History

Early history
The first inhabitants, from whom the Papuan people are probably
descended, adapted to the range of ecologies and, in time, developed one
of the earliest known agricultures. Remains of this agricultural system, in
the form of ancient irrigation systems in the highlands of Papua New
Guinea, are being studied by archaeologists. Research indicates that the
highlands were an early and independent center of agriculture, with
evidence of irrigation going back at least 10,000 years.[31] Sugarcane
was cultivated for the first time in New Guinea around 6000 BC.[32]

The gardens of the New Guinea Highlands are ancient, intensive

permacultures, adapted to high population densities, very high rainfalls The continent of Sahul before the
(as high as 10,000 mm per year (400 in/yr)), earthquakes, hilly land, and rising ocean sundered Australia
occasional frost. Complex mulches, crop rotations and tillages are used in and New Guinea after the last ice
rotation on terraces with complex irrigation systems. Western age.
agronomists still do not understand all of the practices, and it has been
noted that native gardeners are as, or even more, successful than most
scientific farmers in raising certain crops.[33] There is evidence that New Guinea gardeners invented crop
rotation well before western Europeans.[34] A unique feature of New Guinea permaculture is the silviculture
of Casuarina oligodon, a tall, sturdy native ironwood tree, suited to use for timber and fuel, with root nodules
that fix nitrogen. Pollen studies show that it was adopted during an ancient period of extreme deforestation.

In more recent millennia, another wave of people arrived on the shores of New Guinea. These were the
Austronesian people, who had spread down from Taiwan, through the South-east Asian archipelago,
colonising many of the islands on the way. The Austronesian people had technology and skills extremely well
adapted to ocean voyaging and Austronesian language speaking people are present along much of the coastal
areas and islands of New Guinea. These Austronesian migrants are considered the ancestors of most people in
insular Southeast Asia, from Sumatra and Java to Borneo and Sulawesi, as well as coastal new Guinea.[35]

Precolonial history

The western part of the island was in contact with kingdoms in other
parts of modern-day Indonesia. The Negarakertagama mentioned the
region of Wanin in eastern Nusantara as part of Majapahit's tributary.
This has been identified with the Onin Peninsula, part of the
Bomberai Peninsula near the city of Fakfak.[36][37] The sultans of
Tidore, in Maluku Islands, claimed sovereignty over various coastal
parts of the island.[38] During Tidore's rule, the main exports of the
island during this period were resins, spices, slaves and the highly
priced feathers of the bird-of-paradise.[38] Sultan Nuku, one of the Group of natives at Mairy Pass.
Mainland of British New Guinea in
most famous Tidore sultans who rebelled against Dutch colonization,
1885.
called himself "Sultan of Tidore and Papua",[39] during his revolt in
1780s. He commanded loyalty from both Moluccan and Papuan
chiefs, especially those of Raja Ampat Islands. Following Tidore's
defeat, much of the territory it claimed in western part of New Guinea came under Dutch rule as part of Dutch
East Indies.[39]

European contact
The first European contact with New Guinea was by Portuguese and
Spanish sailors in the 16th century. In 1526–27, Portuguese explorer
Jorge de Meneses saw the western tip of New Guinea and named it
ilhas dos Papuas. In 1528, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra
also recorded its sighting when trying to return from Tidore to New
Spain. In 1545, Spaniard Íñigo Ortíz de Retes sailed along the north
coast of New Guinea as far as the Mamberamo River, near which he
landed on 20 June, naming the island 'Nueva Guinea'.[40] The first
map showing the whole island (as an island) was published in 1600
and shows it as 'Nova Guinea'. In 1606, Luís Vaz de Torres explored Papuans on the Lorentz River,
the southern coast of New Guinea from Milne Bay to the Gulf of photographed during the third South
Papua including Orangerie Bay, which he named Bahía de San New Guinea expedition in 1912–13.
Lorenzo. His expedition also discovered Basilaki Island naming it
Tierra de San Buenaventura, which he claimed for Spain in July
1606.[41] On 18 October, his expedition reached the western part of the island in present-day Indonesia, and
also claimed the territory for the King of Spain.

A successive European claim occurred in 1828, when the

Netherlands formally claimed the western half of the island as
Netherlands New Guinea. In 1883, following a short-lived
French annexation of New Ireland, the British colony of
Queensland annexed south-eastern New Guinea. However, the
Queensland government's superiors in the United Kingdom
revoked the claim, and (formally) assumed direct responsibility in
1884, when Germany claimed north-eastern New Guinea as the
New Guinea from 1884 to 1919. The
protectorate of German New Guinea (also called Kaiser-
Netherlands controlled the western half of
Wilhelmsland).
New Guinea, Germany the north-eastern
part, and Britain the south-eastern part.
The first Dutch government posts were established in 1898 and
in 1902: Manokwari on the north coast, Fak-Fak in the west and
Merauke in the south at the border with British New Guinea. The
German, Dutch and British colonial administrators each attempted to suppress the still-widespread practices of
inter-village warfare and headhunting within their respective territories.[42]

In 1905, the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over southeast New Guinea to
Australia (which renamed the area "Territory of Papua"); and, in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility
to Australia. During World War I, Australian forces seized German New Guinea, which in 1920 became the
Territory of New Guinea, to be administered by Australia under a League of Nations mandate. The territories
under Australian administration became collectively known as The Territories of Papua and New Guinea (until
February 1942).

Before about 1930, European maps showed the highlands as uninhabited forests. When first flown over by
aircraft, numerous settlements with agricultural terraces and stockades were observed. The most startling
discovery took place on 4 August 1938, when Richard Archbold discovered the Grand Valley of the Baliem
River, which had 50,000 yet-undiscovered Stone Age farmers living in orderly villages. The people, known as
the Dani, were the last society of its size to make first contact with the rest of the world.[43]

World War II

Netherlands New Guinea and the Australian territories were invaded in 1942 by the Japanese. The Australian
territories were put under military administration and were known simply as New Guinea. The highlands,
northern and eastern parts of the island became key battlefields in the South West Pacific Theatre of World
 War II. Papuans often gave
vital assistance to the Allies,
fighting alongside Australian
troops, and carrying
equipment and injured men
across New Guinea.
Approximately 216,000
Japanese, Australian and
U.S. soldiers, sailors and
A Japanese military map of New
airmen died during the New Australian soldiers resting in the
Guinea from 1943.
Guinea Campaign.[44] Finisterre Ranges of New Guinea
while en route to the front line.

Since World War II

Following the return to civil administration after World War II, the Australian section was known as the
Territory of Papua-New Guinea from 1945 to 1949 and then as Territory of Papua and New Guinea. Although
the rest of the Dutch East Indies achieved independence as Indonesia on 27 December 1949, the Netherlands
regained control of western New Guinea.

During the 1950s, the Dutch government began to prepare

Netherlands New Guinea for full independence and allowed elections
in 1959; the elected New Guinea Council took office on 5 April
1961. The Council decided on the name of West Papua for the
territory, along with an emblem, flag, and anthem to complement
those of the Netherlands. On 1 October 1962, the Dutch handed over
the territory to the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority,
until 1 May 1963, when Indonesia took control. The territory was
Map of New Guinea, with place
renamed West Irian and then Irian Jaya. In 1969, Indonesia, under the
names as used in English in the
1962 New York Agreement, organised a referendum named the Act
1940s of Free Choice, in which hand picked Papuan tribal elders reached a
consensus to continue the union with Indonesia.

There has been resistance to Indonesian integration and

occupation,[22] both through civil disobedience (such as Morning Star flag raising ceremonies) and via the
formation of the Organisasi Papua Merdeka (OPM, or Free Papua Movement) in 1965. Amnesty International
has estimated more than 100,000 Papuans, one-sixth of the population, have died as a result of government-
sponsored violence against West Papuans.[45]

From 1971, the name Papua New Guinea was used for the
Australian territory. On 16 September 1975, Australia granted full
independence to Papua New Guinea. In 2000, Irian Jaya was
formally renamed "The Province of Papua" and a Law on Special
Autonomy was passed in 2001. The Law established a Papuan
People's Assembly (MRP) with representatives of the different
indigenous cultures of Papua. The MRP was empowered to
protect the rights of Papuans, raise the status of women in Papua, Western New Guinea was formally
and to ease religious tensions in Papua; block grants were given annexed by Indonesia in 1969
for the implementation of the Law as much as $266 million in
2004.[46] The Indonesian courts' enforcement of the Law on
Special Autonomy blocked further creation of subdivisions of Papua: although President Megawati
Sukarnoputri was able to create a separate West Papua province in 2003 as a fait accompli, plans for a third
province on western New Guinea were blocked by the courts.[47] Critics argue that the Indonesian
government has been reluctant to establish or issue various government implementing regulations so that the
legal provisions of special autonomy could be put into practice, and as a result special autonomy in Papua has
failed.[48]

The culture of inter-tribal warfare and animosity between the neighboring tribes are still present in New
Guinea.[49]

See also
West New Guinea dispute

Notes and references

1. https://web.archive.org/web/20200209234437/https://www.tapol.org/our-work/west-papua
2. Pickell, David; Kal Müller (2002). Between the tides: a fascinating journey among the Kamoro
of New Guinea (https://books.google.com/books?id=WUtz2hjvPvMC&pg=PA153). Tuttle
Publishing. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-7946-0072-3.
3. Bilveer Singh (2008). Papua: geopolitics and the quest for nationhood (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=pwbO-uRZQx0C). Transaction Publishers. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-4128-1206-1.
4. Tarmidzy Thamrin (2001). Boven Digoel: lambang perlawanan terhadap kolonialisme (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=uEl0AAAAMAAJ) (in Indonesian). Ciscom-Cottage. p. 424.
5. Ploeg, Anton (2002). " 'De Papoea' What's in a name?". Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology. 3
(1): 75–101. doi:10.1080/14442210210001706216 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F144422102100
01706216). S2CID 145344026 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145344026).
6. Jason Macleod (2015). Merdeka and the Morning Star: Civil Resistance in West Papua (https://
books.google.com/books?id=JtwUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT12). University of Queensland Press.
ISBN 978-0-7022-5567-0.
7. Prentice, M.L. and G.S. Hope (2006). "Climate of Papua". Ch. 2.3 in Marshall, A.J., and
Beehler, B.M. (eds.). The Ecology of Papua. Singapore: Periplus Editions. The authors note
that "The magnitude of the recession of the Carstensz Glaciers, its causes, and its implications
for local, regional, and global climate change are only qualitatively known. The recession of the
Carstensz Glaciers from ~11 km2 in 1942 to 2.4 km2 by 2000 represents about an 80%
decrease in ice area."
8. Kincaid and Kline, "Retreat of the Irian Jaya Glaciers from 2000 to 2002 as Measured from
IKONOS Satellite Images", paper presented at 61st Eastern Snow Conference, Portland,
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31. "The team also dated features consistent with the planting, digging, and tethering of plants and
localized drainage systems to 10,000 years ago. Mounds constructed to plant water-intolerant
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arly_origins_and_spread.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090706140248/http://w
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027A2) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20091011112729/http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/rem
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49. "Papua New Guinea massacre of women and children highlights poor policing, gun influx" (http
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olence/11297136). ABC News. 11 July 2019.

Bibliography
Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the last 13,000
Years, 1997.

External links
Facsimile of material from "The Discovery of New Guinea" by George Collingridge (https://web.
archive.org/web/20101129025545/http://www.papuaweb.org/gb/peta/sejarah/collingridge/)
Scientists hail discovery of hundreds of new species in remote New Guinea (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20060209023212/http://news.independent.co.uk/environment/article343740.ece)
PapuaWeb official website (http://www.papuaweb.org/)
detailed map of New Guinea (https://parasiticplants.siu.edu/NewGuineaLoranths/NewGuineaM
ap.html)
"New Guinea" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work/New_
Guinea). The New Students Reference Work (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student
s_Reference_Work). 1914.

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