THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY-ITS DEVELOPMENT

AND NEEDS
Dee H. Barker' and C. R. Mitra

Birb Institute of Technology and Sdonw

Plknl, Rajasthan, India

I. hnmary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
11.Development to 1800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
111. Development from 1800 to 1947 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
I v. Structure of the Chemical Industry . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 147
V. Development since Independence . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . 154
A. Heavy Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
B. Organic Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
C. Soaps and Detergents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
D. Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
E. P l a st i c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . I70
F. Ironand Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 172
G. Nonferrous Metals . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . 175
H. Pharmaceutical Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
VI. Awards for Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . 184
VII. Professional Societies and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I87
VIII. Needs of the Chemical Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '. . . 189
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

In India the development of chemistry, chemical technology, and chem-

ical engineering has taken place over a vast span of time. The industry has
developed from the realm of secret practice and magic to the use of the
latest technology and the ability to export this technology and its asso-
ciated equipment to lands where development has not proceeded as rap-
idly or as far.
The progress in chemical engineering stems not so much from the ex-

* Present address: Chemical Engineering Department, Brigham Young University, Provo,

Utah 84601.
135

Copyright 0 1981 by Academic Press, Inc.

ADVANCES IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, VOL. 11 All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
ISBN 0- 12 -0085 I1-9
136 DEE H . BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

tension of theory into new fields, or from the discovery of new ideas, but
from adaptation to the conditions, materials, and methods available in a
developing country. Innovation consists of changing capital-intensive
practice to labor-intensive practice, of finding a path through the network
of regulations, of training workers, engineers, and individuals who have
had little association with technology in everyday life, and of adaptation.
Few people outside India are aware of the progress being made in that
country and in the rapid advance of technology, education, and attain-
ment of self-sufficiency. It is this progress and attainment that will be
described in this report.

1. Summary

A study of archeological findings and records indicates that chemistry

has been applied for the betterment of humanity in India for over 4000 yr.
However, this use of chemistry has been based on a technological rather
than a scientific standpoint. The earliest users concerned themselves with
metals for use in war and as money, ceramics for many and varied uses,
and mixtures of herbs for the betterment of health.
Applied chemistry will be considered here in its widest possible conno-
tation. The discussion will include not only chemistry but also mineralogy,
metallurgy, and pharmacology. Chemical developments from ancient
times to the present are considered, each of which has contributed to the
overall use of chemistry and chemical technology.
India, because of its location, climate, and people, has always been a
rich source of raw material. The British, like all the previous conquerors,
exploited these resources by taking raw materials to their own country for
processing rather than by developing industry within Jndia itself. As a
result of the conquerors’ entering and leaving India, the culture absorbed
the traits and characteristics of the conquering people, so that technology
and science, too, were assimilated. The industrial revolution in England
made it more profitable to use the low-cost labor and mechanization of
England rather than the bountiful low-cost labor of India; and as a conse-
quence the British used tariffs and other governmental actions to suppress
development of the industrial capacity of India.
The real history of the chemical industry in India began with the inde-
pendence of the country in 1947. Initially growth was slow, but later it
became very rapid as the effects of advanced planning began to be felt. An
understanding of this development requires a knowledge of the structure
of industry within India. The interrelationships among research, devel-
opment, and production, the control exercised by the government, and the
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 137

financial control exercised both by the government and by private indus-

try all have a critical bearing on the ability of the industry to progress.
Up to the present, the chemical industry has tended to concentrate in
several areas within India rather than being generally distributed. Plant
location is complicated by the lack of a proper water supply, even on the
plains of the Ganges. The amount of water in the Ganges is great, but its
location is not always fixed because the river wanders. For this reason,
elaborate means have to be provided to ensure a water supply for a
chemical plant. Thus, even though social planning dictates that plant loca-
tion benefit the overall development of the country, a geographical con-
centration of industry has occurred.
The needs of the chemical industry are discussed in regard to the educa-
tional system, research and development, changes in the structure of the
industry, and so on. Among the outstanding needs are a change in the
educational setup, the development of more self-sufficiency in the con-
struction of chemical plants, and the development of chemical processes.
As part of a great effort in this direction, study groups have published
documents (S4, SS,S6) summarizing the findings in regard to the research
needs of the country.
The bulk of research and development work is done by government
laboratories. Changes need to be made to encourage private companies to
carry out research. This will require a change in licensing and tax policies.
The appropriate independent technology is being developed and will re-
sult in phenomenal growth. The per capita consumption of chemical-
related products today is relatively small within India. For this reason
growth of the chemical industry over the coming years will be rapid, much
greater than throughout the world as a whole.

II. Development to 1800

India is an ancient country with a long and glorious history. Chemistry,

in its many ramifications, was one of the sciences used extensively by the
ancient inhabitants. Well-documented and comprehensive treatments of
the use of chemical technology in India are available (Bl, B2, B3, C2,
Wl), on which the material presented here is heavily based. A great deal
can be inferred as to the technical capability of the early inhabitants from
the archeological sites being excavated throughout India. Neither ar-
cheological records nor more recent written records actually describe the
technology, so that inferences have to be made as to its usage in everyday
life.
For the purpose of study, the Indian historical scene is divided into
138 DEE H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

several different ages or periods. The first of these is the pre-Vedic age
which includes all time prior to 1500 BC, an age of which our knowledge
depends almost exclusively on archeological findings. The pre-Vedic era
was followed by the Vedic, from 1500 to 600 BC. During this period
Aryans entered from the north and eventually settled over most of the
northern part of India, bringing with them their culture, technology, and
science where they mixed with the prevailing culture.
The Vedic period was followed by the classic period extending from 600
BC to A D 1200. During this period, the country was continually overrun by
outsiders whose cultures were assimilated into the Indian pattern. The
classic period was followed by the medieval, running from approximately
1200 A D to the end of the eighteenth century by which time the British
began to have a major influence in India. The nineteenth century saw
many changes take place in India, as in the rest of the world, in regard to
the development of sciences and their use for the aid of humanity. The
early twentieth century is classified as the preindependence period, and
the time since 1947 as the postindependence period.
The rise and fall of Indian industry in general and the chemical industry
in particular have been caused by many competing factors. India’s loca-
tion and climate have made it a veritable storehouse of raw materials-
both natural and agricultural-valuable for the development of humanity.
The people were peace-loving and not warlike. For this reason, envious
neighbors moved in and conquered and exploited the resources and the
people. These influences brought new ideas, new sciences, and a new
technology which were assimilated and improved upon by the local in-
habitants. Because India lived so long under foreign rule, there was little
freedom to choose the direction of expansion, growth, and development.
Under these conditions, the technological progress made in ancient India
is remarkable.
Humans have used chemical technology since the beginning of re-
corded history. The first evidences of the use of chemistry as a practical
and purposeful art are found in the use of clay which was fashioned into
useful articles and hardened by fire. The development and improvement
of the potter, from the standpoint of both artistic skill and use, led the
chemical technologist to develop processes involving prolonged heating,
fusion, evaporation, and often the treatment of minerals (B3).
The preservation and maintenance of health has also been a subject of
concern to humanity since early times. Archeological evidence from
about 4000 BC shows that in city planning the inhabitants were well aware
of the problems of health and sanitation and therefore were probably also
aware of the treatment necessary to cure certain diseases. Written records
from later times show they were well informed as to the operations used in
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 139

the manufacture of various chemicals, drugs, pharmaceuticals, and dyes.

These included emulsification, filtration, decantation, sedimentation, con-
centration, precipitation, dehydration, evaporation, and chemical combi-
nation. These were carried out on a small scale, not on the huge manufac-
turing scale of modern chemical industries. Other early chemical
technologies were in the areas of brewing, dyeing, metalworking,
glassmaking, the use of pigments, and the preparation of building mate-
rials such as burnt limestone and cement.
In the earliest times, pottery was made without benefit of the potter’s
wheel and was baked without adequate kilns. The low firing temperatures
made it impossible to develop high strength or elaborate designs. The
pottery was somewhat porous and was evidently the subject of continued
experimentation. During the Harappan period which lasted from about
2300 to 1750 BC in northern India, or just preceding this era, the potter’s
wheel was developed and most vessels were made by this method. The
firing procedure had been developed to take place under either oxidizing
or reducing conditions, and the many colors show an understanding of the
use of chemical change in developing the required colors. Many furnace
designs have been found indicating that wood and charcoal were used as
fuels.
Some of the earliest examples of glazed pottery appeared in India dur-
ing the Harappan period. (They did not appear in other countries, such as
Mesopotamia, until about 1500 yr later.) The use of terracotta was also
well known in early India. With the coming of the Indo-Aryans and the
Vedic age, pottery became refined in shape, size, color, and strength,
indicating an increasing awareness of the quality control needed to de-
velop utensils for use.
From the evidence available, the glass industry was well established in
the period from 1000 to 750 BC. By the post-Vedic, classic age the devel-
opment of pottery had reached a stage that included glasses and ceramics.
Glass was made in many different colors and molded for many different
uses. (Glass may have been introduced into India from Egypt, and some
Indian glass objects have been determined to be of Roman origin.) The
earliest uses of glass were for ornamentation; this was later followed by
use as vessels. Some evidence has been found of glass factories; blocks of
glass up to 120 lb have been discovered. It was also during this period that
northern black polished ware made its appearance. Its production indi-
cates a degree of technology that allowed firing under both oxidizing and
reducing conditions so as to obtain the desired colors.
The ability to control temperature in a furnace or oven as exemplified
by the appearance of high-fired ceramics and glasswork was also evi-
denced in the flourishing trade and production of metals that began in
140 DEE H . BARKER AND C. R. MlTRA

ancient times. The earliest metal used was copper. There is also evidence
of the use of bronze, lead, silver, and gold, although some of these metal
objects may have been manufactured outside India and brought in by
traders and conquerors. Most of the earlier finds are copper or bronze
implements, tools, and weapons of warfare. The refining of copper was so
carried out that almost pure copper could be obtained, as analysis of some
copper ingots shows. Melting was carried out near the mines in relatively
small furnaces. There are many places in India today where slag deposits
can be seen, but no remains of a furnace. In the early nineteenth century
copper smelting furnaces were described which were evidently much like
the earlier furnaces. These consisted of a small vertical cylinder about 15
in. in diameter and 3 ft tall, operated with two leather bellows which
supplied the blast air.
Copper and its alloys continued to be important commercial products
throughout all of India’s earlier history. Today the ancient skills are being
reactivated, and the production of copper is becoming an important indus-
try. During the classic age metal workers were sufficiently skillful and
technically educated to construct a copper image of Buddha 80 ft high and
temple bells 100 ft high. They were well versed in casting methods, includ-
ing the lost wax casting process. By the Mogul period, techniques had
developed to such an extent that a brass cannon over 14 ft long and
weighing 53 tons could be cast.
Iron was apparently unknown in the earliest of the Indian cultures.
However, by the Vedic age, it had been introduced or developed in India,
and there is evidence of slag piles and furnaces. The iron objects found
encompass the entire range of tools, weapons, and utensils and extend
throughout India. Following 800 BC, Indian iron and steel objects were
recognized and praised for their quality throughout the Western world.
When Alexander reached India, one of the gifts to him was 100 talents of
steel, a prized commodity. The Indians were also adept in using steel in
cutlery and for armor.
The production of iron and steel in India progressed rapidly, and during
the classic age some of the largest castings in the world were made. An
outstanding example is an iron pillar located near New Delhi, which is
over 24 ft high and weighs over 6 tons. By chance or by design this pillar
was made of nonrusting iron. It is a marvel to behold, standing after
centuries with no sign of rust and covered uniformly with a blackish
coating except near the base where it has become bright and shiny after
being touched by the hands of countless visitors. Iron was used for con-
struction purposes, as shown in the temple at Konarak in Orissa. Over 239
iron beams were used in its construction, some as long as 35 ft and 1 ft sq,
which in most cases have rusted. Another pillar located at Dhar was
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 141

probably over 43 ft long. In most cases the remains of blast furnaces show
them to have been very small, and it is difficult to understand how the
large pieces were cast.
Evidence indicates that the ancient people of India from as early as 4000
BC were well acquainted with the production of building materials such as
lime and plaster. By using crude equipment they fashioned the materials
they needed, some of which have lasted until the present day. Present-day
methods used in India probably resemble those used in ancient times. In
the production of bricks, it is still not uncommon to find that sun-dried
bricks are heaped or stacked in piles alternating with coal and arranged in
the form of a beehive oven for firing.
The production of pigments in ancient times was also well known and is
evident in the remains of paintings in various ruins throughout India. In
later times the development and exportation of dyes and pigments was an
important segment of the industry, particularly in regard to the native
indigo.
Another example of the development of Indian chemical technology lies
in the production of pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and perfumes. Early
chemical endeavors in India, as in the rest of the world, revolved around
the purposes of seeking an elixir for life and changing base metals into
gold. However, many developments in medicine werC also made. Many of
the preparations in India depended on mercury, and it is small wonder that
these compounds did not kill more people than they cured. The prepara-
tion of pharmaceutical compounds primarily depended on the collection of
plants and herbs. These were used either individually or in elaborate
compounds. Many of them are still used today; investigation of the plants
used in medicine is being made, with the result that many new drugs and
preparations are being found.
The use of pottery led to the development of a large amount of special-
purpose laboratory equipment for the preparation of cosmetics, medi-
cines, metals, and so on. Drawings show the existence of equipment for
evaporation, sublimation, prolonged heating, steeping, and distillation, all
made from pottery vessels of various sizes and shapes. Sometimes the
equipment was fired from below and sometimes from above. In all cases a
high degree of skill in chemical and laboratory preparation was indicated.
By the eleventh century A D , the art of making paper was well developed
in India. Indian artisans were highly skilled, and their paper was in great
demand throughout the world. Although much of the paper was made of
rags, a great deal of effort went into using many types of plants, some of
which are still grown in India but are not now used in paper manufacture.
Perhaps with the present shortage of paper some of these techniques
should be revived.
142 DEE H . BARKER AND C. R. MITRA

A later development, occurring in the beginning of the fifteenth century

AD, was the introduction of gunpowder and pyrotechnics, probably from
China. Indians became very skilled in their use and compounded many
different kinds of gunpowder for various applications such as in fireworks,
rockets, and cannons. They developed many formulas; in the literature,
98 different formulas for 20 different types of fireworks are given. They
were adept at using metal dust and other chemicals to give color and light
to fireworks.
The ancient history of Indian chemical technology mostly concerns the
production of small amounts of material in many different places. How-
ever, in the case of iron, as shown above, the ability to cast larger objects
was not exceeded elsewhere in the world. Exports in early times included
salt, sugar, and some metal products. Under the British during the
nineteenth century, both a development of and a decline in industrial
chemistry took place. Only after the departure of the British did the
chemical industry really begin to flourish in India.

111. Development from 1800 to 1947

Although the British occupied parts of India during the eighteenth cen-
tury, it was not until the nineteenth century that their influence spread to
such an extent that it had a marked effect on the industrialization of the
country. As will be shown, several attempts were made in specific indus-
tries to establish chemical processing, but without success. Except for one
or two products, the chemical industry did not flourish until World War I
which created a necessity for developing certain chemical industries in
India. The period of British rule in India was much like that of other ages
during which the people of the country were exploited. (In fairness to the
British, however, it is recognized that British rule was a major factor in
welding India into a united nation.) India was considered to be primarily a
source of raw materials, agriculturally produced (jute, raw cotton, raw
silk, indigo, and raw drugs such as opium), and in some cases minerals. In
the eighteenth century the Indian people became highly skilled in their
ability to spin thread and weave textiles, and India exported a consider-
able quantity of finished goods, particularly cotton and silk textiles. The
manufacture of textiles was “the most widespread industry of the coun-
try. The tropical climate made this article [cotton] suitable as a garment of
the vast majority of the people. On the Coast of Coromandel and in the
Province of Bengal, when at some distance from a high road or principal
town, it was difficult to find a village in which every man, woman or child
was not employed in making a piece of cloth.” (C2)
 T H E INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 143

As a measure of the decline in industry, in 1880 approximately 60% of

the people were engaged in agriculture, while in 1921 73% were thus
engaged. In the eighteenth century, the weaving industry in England had
not advanced to such stages that it required protection. With the advent of
steam power and mechanization, the cheap labor available in India was
offset by the combined cheap labor and mechanical power in England. For
this reason, the British instituted a program that strangled the developing
Indian industries. This was done primarily by imposing high tariffs on the
importation of Indian-made goods into Britain. It was only in fields such
as indigo, salt, and sugar that any chemical industrial development oc-
curred during this period. Basu (Bl) gives the following reasons for the
decline in all Indian industries: “Forcing of British free trade in India;
imposing heavy duties on Indian manufacturers in England; export of raw
products from India; exacting factory acts; transit and customs duties;
special privileges to Britishers in India; compelling Indian artisans to
divulge their trade secrets.” As another example, steel and iron were
exported at the beginning of the British period, while later only ore was
exported.
The iron and steel industry did not again become an important manufac-
turing process until after India gained independence. Much earlier the
direct process for the production of iron cementation had been developed
in India (Wl), which was utilized in Europe only several centuries later.
Damascus steel was derived from India.
The blast furnaces used in India were small, 3-4 ft in height and 2-3 ft in
external diameter, with the blast furnished by goat skin bellows. Two to
three hours’ operation yielded about 50% iron (B3). The charge consisted
primarily of iron ore and charcoal, sometimes with flux and sometimes
without. The use of charcoal proved in the long run to be uneconomical,
especially in view of the rapid advances in steel production in England.
The largest native blast furnaces were capable of producing about 1500 lb
of iron per week. At one location (in 1852) there were 70 furnaces in
operation, which were capable of producing about 1700 tons of iron per
year. The native steel and iron industry was virtually wiped out soon after
this time.
In about 1830 attempts to introduce steel and iron manufacture based on
European practice were at first unsuccessful, the main problem being a
short supply of high-quality iron and of coking coal. The first successful
steel mill was established in 1889 by a company that is still in operation. In
1902 the Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) came into being and
produced the first steel in India in 1913. In order to encourage growth of
the Indian iron and steel industry, protective tariffs were imposed in 1923,
which aided in development of the industry. By 1930four companies were
144 DEE H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

producing steel, with pig iron production reaching about 1.6 million tons in
1939 and about 500,000 tons being exported to Japan. Some early investi-
gations indicated that shipping iron ore to England for processing would
be uneconomical because of the low iron content (Wl). However, this was
later shown to be a mistake in sampling rather than in the quality of the
ore. Like the British earlier, the Japanese soon found it better to import
the ore and export iron and steel; hence today Japan is a major importer of
Indian iron ore.
Sugarcane is native to India, and the process of extracting sugar from
the cane originated early in Indian history. Early methods consisted of
crushing the cane in stone or wooden mortars and then processing the
juice by boiling. Gradually the crushing process was developed to include
the use of stone or iron rollers to express the juice. Boiling was still
carried out in open pans, the product (gur) needing very little subsequent
refining.
The sugar industry flourished in India up until about the time of Napo-
leon (MI). At that time the development of sugar beets in Europe inter-
fered with the growth of cane sugar manufacturing in India. Sugarcane
plants were exported from India to the West Indies, where the climate and
the labor supply made it possible to supply sugar at a cheaper rate to
England than from India. In addition, the British Empire imposed tax
duties that favored the West lndian merchants and utilized slave labor in
the West Indies. In 1903, however, attempts were made in India to start a
sugar factory, and in 1920 the government formed a sugar committee. By
1929, it was recognized that a tariff reduction by England would be re-
quired to help the Indian industry grow.
Sugar was available in India during this period in approximately seven
different grades from cane juice through refined sugar. The processes
employed including crushing, filtering, boiling, clarification, and subse-
quent refining steps. The finest white sugar was made by boiling, clarify-
ing, removing the scum, and draining molasses from the crystals. Further
clarification was carried out in a long, conical basket lined with fine cloth
and suspended so as to drain freely. Water was dripped over the top
through wet waterweeds. The many methods of refining sugar depended
on local materials, and each village or area had its own experts.
When steel became available wooden crusher rollers were replaced by
steel ones. Production went up, but the industry was hampered by the
inefficiency of juice extraction. This was improved in later years by the
use of larger central mills which could extract a larger fraction of the juice,
but the industry remained in a depressed state until after independence.
Today India is one of the largest sugar-producing nations in the world,
although the bulk of the product is used at home. Since a large part of the
 T H E INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 145

sugar is still produced by crude methods by local farmers, the production

per acre is very low.
As an industry in India, glassmaking is new even though the art is of
ancient origin. About 1892, five modern glass factories were established,
all of which were unsuccessful. Between 1906 and 1913, 16 other factories
were attempted unsuccessfully; they all utilized European or Japanese
techniques and did not take into account local conditions. The main use of
glass was for bangles and other decorative objects. By 1933 successful
glass factories were established, and there were about 20 glass factories in
operation in various parts of India. The primary problems were inade-
quate financing, lack of skilled labor, and competition from abroad. Only
after India became independent did glass manufacture become important.
Raw materials for glass were plentiful, and all that was needed was to
develop the indigenous manufacturing capability.
The use of cement and lime is of ancient origin. The earliest archeologi-
cal sites show a knowledge of their use in construction and structural
decoration. Even today lime is produced in small conical ovens charged
with limestone and charcoal or coke. The first production of portland
cement was started in Madras about 1904, based on imported technology.
Large-scale production began after World War I. By 1930 approximately
5.5 million tons of cement were being produced annually, almost entirely
for use inside India.
Salt has been of economic importance in India and is produced in large
quantities. About two-thirds of the supply comes from solar evaporation
and the remainder from natural salt deposits in dry lake beds. Solar pro-
duction is carried out in a series of open ponds, using hand labor and
making very little effort to purify or recrystallize the salt. In addition, in
some desert regions, evaporation of subsoil brine is camed out. The de-
velopment of the salt industry in India was curbed by the tax on its
production; in fact, the first confrontation between Gandhi and the British
government involved the salt tax.
An early chemical industry, of little importance today, was the produc-
tion of saltpeter or KNO,. The highly populated Bihar area of India has
climatic conditions that favor the growth of nitrifying bacteria in manure.
In addition, the population used wood and cow dung for fuel and scattered
the ashes over the fields. Following a monsoon, the scattered materal
effloresced, and the top t in. of nitrous earth was scraped up and placed in
long, shallow pits where it was leached with water. The resulting crude
KNO, was then transferred either to an iron evaporating pan about 5 ft in
diameter or to a solar pond. The rough material contained about 60%
KNO, with common salt as the major impurity. The purification process
(conducted in about 400 places in 1905) consisted of redissolving, boiling,
146 D E E H . BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

removal of scum and the first-formed crystallized material, and recrystal-

lization in vats containing bamboo latticework. The resulting white crys-
tals were placed in bags, water was trickled through to wash out the final
impurities, and the crystals were then spread out and dried. In 1905, about
20,000 tons of saltpeter were produced.
Up until the 1940s the manufacture of heavy chemicals in India was
insignificant. For example, the production of H2S04was only 18,000 tons
as contrasted with 7 million tons in the United States. Until the establish-
ment of the first contact acid plant in 1948, all production involved the
chamber process. The installed annual capacity in 1948 was 175,000 tons,
distributed among 49 different factories. Because India does not have a
source of free sulfur, the production of H2S04is one of the critical chemi-
cal industries. Development of the large deposits of iron pyrite in the
northern part of the country would alleviate this problem.
Drugs and pharmaceuticals were produced mainly at the cottage or
village level until well after independence. The chief production of drugs
was in the agricultural field, and they were given primary processing and
then shipped to other countries for further processing. Quinine, opium,
and belladonna were among the raw materials exported. Oils were pro-
duced in great quantity and involved crushing and expressing at the vil-
lage level.
Until the advent of modern dye-making techniques developed in Ger-
many, the production of indigo was an important industry. Accounts of
indigo production date from as early as 1607. The process at that time
consisted of steeping the leaves in water, putting the liquid in great pots
where it was beaten to allow oxidation to take place, and then settling the
resultant material. This process was repeated over a period of days, after
which the remaining solid was taken out, formed into balls, and laid on the
sand to dry. In the nineteenth century, efforts were expended to improve
the plant and to increase the yield and quality of dyestuff extracted. Indigo
was grown widely over most of northern India, usually with two crops a
year. Water supply was considered in factory location. Water was carried
through the plant by gravity. The steeping tanks were about 20 ft sq and
4-5 ft deep, and there were 15-20 in each factory. The vats were loaded
with plants, filled with water, and allowed to steep for 12-14 hr. After this,
the water was run into beating baths where the water was beaten with
primitive hand sticks for about 2 hr; in some cases mechanical means of
beating were arranged, or NH, and air were blown through the mixture.
After beating, the mixture was allowed to settle, and the supernatant
liquid was drummed off. The residual material was mixed with more wa-
ter, boiled, filtered through heavy canvas sheets, formed into thick cakes
in a press, allowed to dry, and then packed for shipment. In 1894, about
2.4 million lb were exported by India.
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 147

IV. Structure of the Chemical Industry

The organizational structure of the chemical industry in India has been

an inherent element in its progress and development and has played a
significant role in establishing India’s self-reliance. To quote (S4):
The existence of a protected economy, rising out of a controlled market because of
the matching of life and capacity with domestic demands, is one of the main reasons
for the lack of R&D inputs by industry in India. Another has been the ease with which
foreign technology could be imported in the period 1950 to 1970. In India nearly 94
percent of research funding is by government. The government, therefore, has a vital
stake in assuring that these funds are spent in a manner which will accelerate eco-
nomic development and promote human welfare.
In 1948, the government of India announced a policy of planned devel-
opment and regulation of industries. The objective was to ‘amve at a
“mixed economy” which overall would be beneficial to the nation. Since
India is dedicated to a form of social control through democratic proce-
dures, the term “mixed economy” refers to ownership of industrial units
supported partly by public funds and partly by private funds. Modifica-
tions have been made from time to time in the policy and in the actual
administrative structure.
Under this industrial policy, Indian industries were classified into three
groups (Ml):
The first category included arms and ammunitions, atomic energy, river valley
projects and railways. These were to be directly under the management of the State.
The second category included coal, iron and steel, aircraft, telephones, telegraphs,
ship building and mineral oils which were also the responsibility of the State. The
private undertakings in these industries were, however, to continue for at least 10
years. The third included the remaining industries which were to be developed by
private enterprise.
Lists of the specific industries included under these three categories have
been issued from time to time by the government. Although the first two
categories were to be exclusively state-owned, considerable private own-
ership is found in these categories at the present time. For industry as a
whole 30% is public and 60% is private, the remaining being in the joint
sector. The chemical industry shows the same pattern.
Overall industrial policy is under the control of the central government
and is the direct responsibility of a cabinet-level minister who works
through a director general and through the agencies shown in Fig. 1. A
central advisory council, with broad representation, advises the govern-
ment on all matters concerning the development and regulation of indus-
tries. Development councils for individual industries were also set up to
aid in the development policy.
The development councils for specific areas comprising the chemical
148 DEE H . BARKER A N D C. R. MlTRA

Prime
M i n i st e r

Cabinet Cabinet
Advisory - Member Member
Petrol eum Agriculture Other
Chemical
I Members

Director
General

FlFl Fl
Public Sector Private Sector
t
14 Development
Counci 1 s

Genera 1
Manager

Scale

General General
Ma nage r Manager

FIG. 1. Control of industrial development.

industry are inorganic chemicals; sugar, drugs and pharmaceuticals; non-

ferrous metals; oils, soaps, and paints; cosmetics: food processing: or-
ganic chemicals: paper, pulp, and industries; leather and leather goods;
and cloth and ceramics (see Fig. 1).
Three types of ownership of Indian industry are the public sector,
owned completely by the government; the private sector, supported by
private funds and private investors; and a joint group owned both pri-
vately and by the government. Certain areas are classified as core indus-
tries in which greater emphasis is placed on achieving public ownership.
There is a further classification based on the size of industrial units.
These are so-called large business houses on the one hand and small
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 149

industries on the other. A large number of industrial processes have been

rsserved primarily and specifically for small-scale users. The scale is
somewhat dependent on the amount of investment necessary for estab-
lishment of the industry, with greater than 200 million rupees ($2.5 mil-
lion) being classified as large-scale.
All industrial production, both large-scale and small-scale, is controlled
strictly by the issuance of licenses devised to control the type of produc-
tion, to prevent monopolies, and to ensure that production meets the
nation’s social needs. Until 1973 the licensing procedure was very compli-
cated and took an inordinate amount of time, up to 3-4 yr, between
application and approval. The steps which were, and are, required to
obtain a license and financing are shown in Fig. 2. In 1973, licensing was
streamlined and put under a single agency. Since then the backlog of
applications has been greatly reduced; approximately 75% of the applica-
tions received have been processed. The time lag is still great (about 2 yr),
as there is a bureaucratic tendency to shift the responsibility for decision
to some other part of the structure.
The licensing procedure has not been entirely successful. Many apply
for a license and then do not use it, thus blocking the intended economic
benefit. In addition, there is widespread evidence that materials that

P r o v i s iona 1 r e g i s t r a t i o n
Preparation o f feasi- a f t e r s c r u t i n y & approval
Product s e l e c t i o n
b i 1it y r e p o r t c o v e r i n g by t h e D i s t r i c t - I n d u s t r i es
on b a s i s o f raw
f i n a n c i a l / t e c h n i c a l and Officw(DI0)
m a t e r i a l , marketing,
l a b o r aspects

-
Loan A p p l i c a t i o n f i l e
w i t h RFC/Banks
( w i t h a l l documents)
Plant M/C Director o f Industries I)-
Erection for Industrial
Quota
150 DEE H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

should have gone into construction of a licensed capacity have been di-
verted to the black market. That is, materials that should have been used
in building and operating a plant have been sold on the black market rather
than used in the manner intended. This points out that there is no ade-
quate check on the use of licenses, a matter that is beginning to receive
attention in government circles.
In 1958, the National Productivity Council was established, and five
regional productivity directors were named. The production capacity and
growth of the chemical industry are also controlled to a large extent by
financing. Through the Indistrial Finance Corporation Act of 1957, the
Industrial Credit and Finance Corporation was set up to help private
investors, particularly small-scale investors, in various industries such as
paper, chemical, pharmaceutical, sugar, metal ore, lime, cement, and
glass manufacture. In 1970, the banks of India were nationalized with a
view to making more money available to small investors.
There has never been a great incentive for Indian industrialists to ex-
pend funds for the research and development necessary to maintain a lead
or to 'expand the chemical industries. All processes developed by any
industry have to be licensed, and there is no protecti.onfor a manufacturer
who develops a new method. These licensing policies have made it more
advantageous to hire foreign technology and then to use the equipment as
long as it can be used, without regard to replacement or improvement of
the processes. These policies are to be reviewed during the next 5-yr plan.
The bulk of industrial research within India is controlled through gov-
ernment funds, and a separate organization has been developed for the
pursuit of research and development. Figure 3 is an organization chart of
scientific and technical research in India as it applies to the chemical
industry, showing interrelationships among the various organizations
doing research. Most research institutions such as the Council of Scien-
tific and Industrial Research (CSIR) are autonomous bodies. The organi-
zation of the CSIR is shown in Fig. 4 together with the names of some of
the research laboratories. Similar organizationsexist in the various states;
a schematic of one is shown for Andhra Pradesh in Fig. 5 . In practice,
there exists a wide separation between research and development and
actual factory production. There is a great need for research and devel-
opment to be more closely tied to industry and to provide assistance in
solving the recurrent problems faced by production managers. An ex-
perimental scheme being carried out in India, called the practice school,
will be described in a later section.
Most research is carried out either in educational research institutes or
in national research laboratories, which are structured and operated much
like graduate research facilities at American universities. The
 tanding Grou
Central
o f Ministers
n Science an Cabinet

Planning Cen t r a 1
State
Government
Government
r-----
I Comni ssion Ministries/
I
I
I t

FIG.3. Organization chart of scientific and technological research in India. List A: Alembic Chemical Works Company, Ltd.,
Baroda; Alkali and Chemicals Corporation of India, Ltd., Calcutta; Amar Dye-Chemical Ltd., Mahim, Bombay; Associated Cement
Companies, Ltd., Thana, Bombay; ATIC Industries Ltd., Atul (Gujarat state); Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceuticals Works, Ltd.,
Calcutta; Bombay Chemical Pvt., Ltd., Bombay; Calcutta Chemicals Company, Ltd., Calcutta; plus 5Oothers. List B: BirlaResearch
Institute for Applied Sciences, Nagda; Drugs Research Laboratory, Indian Drugs Research Association, Poona; Engineering and
Mineral Industries Research Laboratory, Bangalore; Shri Ram Institute for Industrial Research, Delhi.
152 D E E H . BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

Council o f S c i e n t i f i c
& I n d u s t r i a l Research
Chairman: Prime Ministe

Governing Body
President
D i r e c t o r General

Research
Committees
Finance Sub-Committee

Coordination
Counci 1s
rn Head Q u a r t e r s

Executive Committees o f
National Laboratories

I n s t it utes/Centres/
Museums

N a t i o n a l Chemical Laboratory, Poona

C e n t r a l Electro-Chemical Research I n s t i t u t e , Karaikudi
C e n t r a l S a l t S Marine Chemicals Research I n s t i t u t e , Bhavanagar
Regional Research Laboratory, Hyderabad
I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f Petroleum, Dehradun
Regional Research Laboratory, J o r h a t
N a t i o n a l M e t a l l u r g i c a l Laboratory, Jamshedpur
C e n t r a l Glass and Ceramic Research I n s t i t u t e , C a l c u t t a
C e n t r a l Fuel Research I n s t i t u t e , Jealgora
Cement Research I n s t i t u t e o f I n d i a , New D e l h i
C e n t r a l Drug Research I n s t i t u t e , Lucknow
Tea Research A s s o c i a t i o n ( T o c k l a i Experimental S t a t i o n , J o r h a t )
Metals Research Committee
Pharmaceuticals and Drugs Research Committee
Physical Research Comnittee
FIG.4. Organization chart of the CSIR.
government-operated laboratories and their users have been somewhat
isolated. The use of processes developed at these institutions is small
compared with total production within the chemical industry, owing to
charges for use of the process and burdensome licensing procedures. Re-
cent steps have been taken to overcome these deficiencies through the
 o f Ministers

Department o f Department o f Department of Department o f Department o f

Industries Health P u b l i c Works Agriculture Education

D i r e c t o r of

Industrial
Research I n s t i -
t u t e s & Centres

& U n i t s i n Scienc

t
Engi n e e r i ng

O i l Technological Research I n s t i t u t e , Anantpur

Andhra Pradesh Engineering Research L a b o r a t o r i e s , Hyderabad
Chemistry Research Laboratory, Bapatla
S t a t e I n d u s t r i a l Laboratory, Patna

FIG.5. Organization chart for scientific and technical research in the government of Andhra Pradesh.
154 D E E H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

formation of advisory boards. The National Committee on Science and

Technology (NCST) made an extended study to determine the types of
research that are necessary. Many questionnaires were circulated
throughout the industry, and the results analyzed. Based on this study,
NCST technological plans (S4,S5, S6) have been published, which outline
the research needs of the industry. These have been supplemented by two
volumes on the chemical industry (J3,J4). These documents are used for
national planning and influence the allocation of research funds.
Among the major governmental research centers, particular mention
should be made of the following. The National Chemical Laboratory
(NCL) at Poona is charged with the development of methods for the
manufacture of a large number of chemicals, materials, and devices. Simi-
larly, the Indian Institute of Petroleum at Dehra Dun, the Central Fuel
Research Institute of Dhanbad, the Central Salt and Marine Chemicals
Research Institute at Bhatnagar, and the region research laboratories at
Hyderabad, Jorhat, and Jamma provide support for development of the
chemical industry. The emphasis is on research based on the immediate
needs of the country.
The NCL has the best record for adoption of developed processes, with
47 out of 75 in production. In 1973, the value of goods produced by these
techniques was $5.7 million. This represents a small but important con-
tribution to the progress of the indigenous technology.

V. Development since Independence

Since 1947, the development of Indian industry, particularly the chemi-

cal industry, has been rapid and dramatic. Chemical construction firms in
both the private and public sectors are now capable of building, on a
turnkey basis, many important types of chemical manufacturing plants.
Great emphasis is placed on the use of indigenous materials and of talent
developed within India. For many commodities the rate of growth is more
rapid than the rate of growth in developed countries. However, the pri-
mary deterrents are the difficulty of obtaining foreign help and the reluc-
tance of both industry and government to look far enough ahead to iden-
tify and meet the real needs of the industry and the country in general.
One of the main problems in the development of the industry has been
the lack of suitable materials and adequate instrumentation. For example,
one manufacturer had considerable difficulty in manufacturing gear boxes
needed for the preparation of rayon staple fiber because a suitable steel
was not available. An alternate solution was to redesign the gearbox to
use another type of steel or to import steel with the proper qualities.
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 155

Foreign exchange was in short supply, and obtaining import licenses was
very difficult. Originally, the manufacturer thought he lacked the skill to
redesign, but faced with the fact that he had to make a gearbox, a new
design was successfully carried out. Considerable progress is now being
made in developing the plastics industry and specialty metals so that in
the future this type of material shortage will be less of a problem in the
chemical industry.
The location of the various chemical industries in India is shown in Fig.
6. As shown by this map, chemical industries have been concentrated in a
few particular areas, which does not correspond to the widespread dis-
tribution of industry desired by the government. Although planners have
assumed it desirable to locate industry in a way that will help utilize
surplus agricultural labor, other factors have been more important and
have influenced the location of plants. Industry tends to expand in heavily
populated urban areas, especially adjacent to port facilities and along
established rail lines. Even the location of raw materials has played a
small part in siting a manufacturing unit. Planners have tried to locate

FIG.6. Chemical industries in India.

156 DEE H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

plants in accordance with social needs and not from the standpoint of
optimizing the economics involving water, materials, market, labor sup-
ply, and so on. For example, an attempt was made to locate a steel plant
based only on a large population and the availability of a seaport (Vis-
hakhapalanam). All raw materials would have had to come overland by
rail. The location of this plant has still not been decided.
A vital factor in siting chemical industries, perhaps the determining
factor, is the availability of suitable water for processing and cooling
needs. There are several major waterways in India such as the Ganges,
Indus (and its five main tributaries), Brahmaputra, Narmade, Mahanadi,
Godavari, Kushna, and Kaveri rivers. Two of these, the Indus and the
Brahmaputra, flow through Pakistan and Bangladesh. The control of these
waterways and the building of dams and canals are being disputed by the
various countries involved, with a consequent delay in effective utiliza-
tion. Other river systems flow through two or more states. Just as in the
western United States, the distribution and usage of these waters is highly
contested. The result is limited usage of the water for power, irrigation, or
industrial production. It is estimated that only 25% of the hydroelectric
potential is utilized. Large canal systems are slowly being developed,
especially in the northwest desert areas.
Most of India’s water supply depends on the monsoons, which occur in
the summer months between July and September and greatly affect indus-
try as well as agriculture. The waterways are seasonal and erratic. The
primary streams such as the Ganges flow over broad, flat plains with
relatively little fall between the mountains and the outlet at the ocean. The
flow of the Ganges in the central portion reaches a volume of 1 million sec
ft at flood crest. At Varanasi flood crests of 36 ft have been recorded.
These have been marked with a white painted line on the steeples of
riverside temples. The Ganges enters the plains at Rishekesh, having
fallen 12,800 ft. From this point, the 1200-mi path to the sea lies over a
gently falling plain from an elevation of about 1000 ft. The average fall is
about 0.8 ft/mi (9.5 cm/km). Since the Ganges sometimes is very high and
meanders, it can greatly change its channel over the flat plain country.
Because of the small fall, it is difficult to make storage facilities to store
the water during the monsoon period, the time when water is really avail-
able. This has impeded development of the chemical process industries
along the Ganges. Near the mouth of the river the flow is much more
stable, and it is easier to ensure a supply of water for a chemical plant. In
certain cases it has been possible to develop large underground infiltration
galleries to ensure a water supply. The eventual development of flood
control systems and dams should be a great aid in the development and
location of chemical process industries.
 T H E INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 157

Chemical development in India, as well as other industrial develop-

ment, has been carried out in five plan periods, nominally of 5 yr each.
The sixth 5-yr plan (Dl) is currently under review, and development in the
ensuing 5 yr will be guided by this plan when it is complete. During the
plan period, the overall growth pattern is projected on the basis of broad
social objectives. Control is maintained by the use of licensing and financ-
ing, both of which are in the public domain, as discussed above.
The periods covered by each plan are shown in the accompanying table.
During the period 1966-1%8 the war with Pakistan, general drought, and
political instability dictated the use of annual plans. The sixth and next
plan is in the final stages of development.

Plan Years covered

I 195 1- 1955
I1 1956-1960
111 1961-1965
Annual plans 1966-1968
IV 1969- 1973
V 1974- 1978
VI (in planning) 1978- 1993

Various degrees of success have been obtained; generally the invest-

ment requirements are met, but production does not usually meet the
target for a variety of reasons, including the weather.
The progress of several important parts of the chemical industry is
outlined below under several general broad categories. This outline indi-
cates the areas of rapid growth and documents the continuing develop-
ment of Indian self-sufficiency.
Since 1947, many important chemical industries have been established.
Examples of the beginning of the manufacture of various chemicals within
India can be seen by consulting the chronology given in Table I. Many
more new chemicals are being produced each year. In many cases, de-
pendence on imports from other countries has been entirely removed.

A. HEAVYCHEMICALS

1. Sulfuric Acid
The production of H2S04shown in Table I1 has risen from about 107,000
tons in 1950 to about 1.5 million tons in 1977. This rate of growth exceeds
the rate of growth in developed countries. The utilization factor for the
158 D E E H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

TABLE I
THIRTY
YEARS OF CHEMICALPROGRESS-INTRODUCTION
OF NEWPROCESSES A N D PRODUCTS

Year Process and products

1949 Benzene, HzS04. HCl, (NH&SO4

1950 Caustic soda, soda ash
1951 TiOz, penicillin, rayon
1952 Carbon or Cz
1953 BHC, acetic acid
1954 NKCI, sulfa drugs
1956 HzOz,DDT, antituberculosis drugs
1960 Urea, tetracyclines
1961 C.A.N.
1962 Hydrosulfite, streptomycin, nylon
1%5 Polyester, polyethylene, polystyrene
1%6 PVC
1967 Catalysts, synthetic rubber
1%8 Phthalic anhydride, methane
1969 Acetamide, cellulose acetate
1970 Ingrain dyes, ethylene oxide
1973 Hydrazobenzene, benzine dihydrochloride,
white phosphorus
1974 NaNOs, NaNOz
1975 Rayon from eucalyptus, terpene-based
chemicals

installed capacity is one of the highest of any industry within India. Be-
cause HzS04is used in phosphate fertilizer, rayon staple fiber, organic
dyestuffs, explosives, pickling of steel, petroleum refining, and the pro-
duction of other acids, the increase in its production has brought about
rapid growth in other industries.
The first contact HzS04plant went into production in 1948. Out of 49
plants in 1951, 30 utilized the chamber process. With the introduction of
ceiling prices on all sales of HzS04in excess of 1 ton in January 1956, the
chamber plants were gradually replaced by contact plants of larger capac-
ity. By 1%8-1%9 all the units were contact plants, with a total capacity of
1.121 million tons/year. To reduce the dependence on imported sulfur or
internal sulfur sources, the Fertilizer Corporation of India (FCI) has de-
veloped techniques in which the use of HzS04is greatly reduced. These
processes include: (1) the use of electrolytic instead of wet processes for
the manufacture of elemental phosphorus and &PO,, (2) the manufacture
of and phosphate fertilizers by using HCl, (3) the manufacture of
phosphate fertilizer using HN03.
 T H E INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 159

TABLE I1
SULFURIC
ACIDPRODUCTION

Capacity Production
Year (lo00 metric tons) (lo00 metric tons) Utilization (%)

1951 20 1 107 53.1

1952 192 96 50.1
1953 189 109 57.7
1954 193 151 76.5
1955 208 166 74.9
1956 245 165 67.4
1957 273 I 96 71.8
1958 290 227 78.1
1959 374 292 78.1
1960 476 354 74.4
1961 564 423 74.9
1962 702 470 66.9
1963 821 568 69.2
1964 101 1 580 67.2
1965 1082 685 63.3
1966 1328 690 51.9
1967 1529 805 50.8
1968 1955 lo08 51.5
1969 1921 1121 58.4
1970 1930 1051 54.4
1971 1963 1022 52. I
1972 1963 1028 52.4
1973 21 12 I434 67.7
1977" 2640 1900 72.0

Estimated.

Under the sixth 5-yr plan H2S04production will be expanded to 3.79

million tons/yr, an increase of 44%.
The contact H2S04plants are designed and their components built en-
tirely in India. These plants have been exported to other countries. How-
ever, the technology has not developed to such a point that the V20,
catalyst can be produced in India. Therefore, it must be imported. In
addition, equipment for use in the production of oleum and furnaces for
roasting sulfide ores must also be imported. These design capabitilies
await only production of the proper type of steel for India to be able
completely to design, fabricate, construct, and operate H2S04 plants
within the country.
A major problem is the lack of elemental sulfur deposits, already men-
tioned. Until a few years ago, all H2S04 plants were based on elemental
160 DEE H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

sulfur imported chiefly from the United States. Several plants have been
or are being built to obtain SO2 from the indigenous sulfide ore deposits
chiefly in the vicinity of the nonferrous metallurgical industries. A 400-
ton/day plant based on pyrites from Amjhore in Bihar was established
near the Sindri fertilizer factory (see Fig. 6). The Cominco-Binani zinc
smelter at Alwaye, the Udaipur smelter of Hindustan Zinc, and the Indian
Copper Corporation smelter at Ghatsila are other examples. The flash
smelter of the Khetri copper plant in Rajasthan will have a H2S04 plant to
utilize the SO2 from the flash smelter. When all these plants go into pro-
duction by 1977, they will provide an annual H2S04production of about
250,000 tons.
There has been some effort to recover elemental sulfur from high-sulfur
petroleum crudes. The Madras refinery has a capacity of 20,000 tons of
sulfur per year. As a resource not yet fully utilized, Amjhore in Bihar has
iron pyrite deposits estimated at 400 million tons. Development of these
deposits could make India entirely independent of imported sulfur. The
ore beds are in relatively narrow seams, so that the overall quality of the
ore is somewhat low. The technology needs to be developed to utilize this
low-grade ore, and the NCST (S4) lists this project as one of the primary
research needs for H2S04production. Location of plants utilizing the acid
should be considered for location near the source of the sulfur. Amjhore is
an area where there is also iron ore, coal, and bauxite, providing the
opportunity for constructing a well-integrated industrial complex.

2. Fertilizer
Fertilizer continues to be a critical need for the progress of India as a
nation. The acreage under treatment with fertilizer has been increasing at
about 1.4%per year. The application level in kilograms per hectare remains
low, as does the per capita use. For the world, the application rate is 47.4
kg/ha and the per capita rate is 18.3 kg (F2, Sl). The range is 13-749
kg/ha. The corresponding figures for India are 13.2 kg/ha and 4 kg per
capita. This indicates the great need for fertilizer in India if it is to meet its
food production targets. The production levels and percent of capacity
since 1947 are shown in Table 111. The rate of increase in production over
the period since independence has varied from 12 to 13% per year against
a target of about 23%. The percent utilization of installed capacity, indi-
cated in Table 111, is relatively poor even though the need for fertilizer has
not been met. The underutilization of capacity in recent years is caused by
a lack of adequate power, by labor problems, and by plant obsolescence.
Before 1951 the only indigenous fertilizer produced was (N&),SO4 made
mainly by coal carbonization at an annual rate of about 46,000 tons.
In 195 1, the Sindri fertilizer plant went into production with a capacity of
 T H E INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 16 1

TABLE 111
FERTILIZER (P A N D N)
PRODUCTION"

Year Capacity Production Utilization (%)

1961 548 347 63

1965 909 533 59
1966 1 I45 662 58
1969 2130 1392 65
1970 I855 1311 71
1971 3626 2237 62
1972 3650 2650 73
1973 4004 2622 65
1974 4333 2598 60
1977b 4400 2430 55

(I loo0 tons total nutrients.

Estimated.

1000 tons/day of (NH4)$04 based on gypsum and synthetic NH3. This

plant is scheduled for extensive remodeling during the next plan period.
The Sindri plant was followed by the Rourkela fertilizer unit in Orissa in
1961 and the Nangal complex in Punjab in 1963, which together intro-
duced calcium NH4N03to the country. These units differ in their produc-
tion of hydrogen for NH, synthesis. The Sindri unit uses the coke-steam
reaction, the Nangal unit electrolysis, and the Rourkela plant coke oven
by product gas.
Since 1947, the suitability of basic chemical ingredients for particular
soils has engaged the attention of fertilizer technologists. This led to a
stabilized fertilizer production strategy starting in 1956. It was thought
desirable to use refinery gases rather than coke or electrolytic hydrogen.
To reduce the price of available nitrogen, concentrated fertilizers such as
urea were stressed. Larger quantities of balanced fertilizers such as
(NH&HPO, also were considered important to agricultural development.
The government then planned at least one large fertilizer factory in each
state and recommended six sites: (1) Namrup in Assam for (NH&S04
based on natural gas, (2) Kotagudem in Andhra Pradesh for urea based on
coal, (3) Itarsi in Madhya Pradesh for urea based on coal, (4) Mangalore in
Mysore for (NHJ2S04based on naphtha, (5) Haumangarh in Rajasthan
for urea based on lignite and later on naphtha, and (6) Gorakhpur in Utter
Pradesh for urea based on naphtha from the Barouni refinery.
Units 1 and 6 were commissioned in 1965-1966. In Rajasthan a urea
plant, unit 5 , has been put into operation by the private sector. In Andhra
Pradesh, a private-sector unit has been built at Visakhapatnam. Other
162 DEE H . BARKER AND C. R. MlTRA

public and private projects have been started and are in different stages of
completion. At present there are 70 fertilizer plants of all sizes in India
operating at about 60% capacity. There are 18 new or enlarged plants
under implementation with a total capacity of 1.88 million tons. This will
bring the total installed capacity to 8.22 million tons.
There was a decline in the demand for fertilizer because of the great
increase in cost caused by the higher cost of oil. This demand, however, is
again increasing. There are three large plants (with a total capacity of 0.8
million tons) under construction, which will each use about 1 million tons
of coal a year. Other coal-based units are planned to make use of the
plentiful supply of coal.
A plant for NH&l (along with Na&O,) utilizing the modified Solvay
process was developed by the private sector in Varanasi in Utter Pradesh.
N&Cl was not effective for the soils present in this area. Recent tests
have shown that N b C 1 is an ideal fertilizer for the rice crop, and it is now
being used by rice farmers in Bengal. Therefore, the production rate of the
factory in Varanasi was doubled in 1976, and an additional plant was built
in Maharastra the same year. At the present time four more plants are
under construction. Although production is small, this represents a use of
local materials, coke and salt,.to help meet the needs of India.
It was planned that this large program for fertilizer production would
reduce the need for imports substantially. Actually, in 1971-1972, the
total production of indigenous nitrogen fertilizers was about 1 million tons
and the demand had risen by 1 million tons, so that it was still necessary to
import large quantities. In 1975-1976, it was necessary to import 1.54
million tons as against the production of 2.75 million tons (a total demand
of 4.29 million tons). This deficit was brought about largely by the “green
revolution” which resulted in improved strains of grain requiring a larger
fertilizer input. The worldwide fertilizer demand has increased, which
makes it more difficult for India to import it, resulting in an overall de-
crease in grain production.
A study committee has determined for the next few years, through
1979, the amounts of nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers that will be re-
quired by Indian farmers. Table IV shows the estimated production and
the deficit in terms of fixed nitrogen and of P205. By 1979, it is expected
that the total demand for nitrogen fertilizer will exceed 6 million tons and
the demand for phosphate fertilizer 2 million tons. This will leave a deficit
of about 3 million tons to be imported by the beginning of 1979. In recogni-
tion of this, a crash program was instituted to boost fertilizer production
to 8 million tons by the end of 1979. The progressive design and construc-
tion technology available in India is now adequate to handle all the man-
ufacture of fertilizer plants within India.
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 163

TABLE IV
ESTIMATED
PRODUCTION A N D DEFICIT OF FERTILIZER
COMFQNENTS

Estimated production Estimated deficit

(1000 tons) (lo00 tons)

Year Nitrogen P*0, Nitrogen P*O,

1974- 1975 2010 549 860 599

1975- 1976 2465 752 980 625
1976-1 977 2956 897 1074 755
1977- 1978 3725 983 1685 1001

1
7iththe technology available in India, it is possible to undert ke the
construction of additional fertilizer factory projects in oil-rich developing
countries in Asia and Africa. Plans are currently underway to manufac-
ture fertilizer in these countries and then import it into India, rather than
importing crude oil and then making fertilizer. (In India, only a small
fraction of the imported crude is used for transportation, the bulk being
used for fertilizer and petrochemicals.)

3. Chlor-Alkali Industry
Soda ash manufacture is another fast-growing heavy-chemical industry.
The actual production for India and the percent utilization are shown in
Table V. Again, the underutilization of capacity is caused primarily by
labor problems and by the energy shortage. (Development of the coal
reserves within India would be of great help in this connection.) Until
1951, only a plant at Dhrangadhra and another at Mithapur were in pro-
duction, both using the Solvay process and having a combined annual
output of 47,000 tons of soda ash. By 1956, their production had reached
about 90,000 tons through improvement and modernization. A plant at
Porbandar with a capacity of 200 tons/day was commissioned in 1969 and
has since increased its capacity. Maharashtra in western India provides an
ideal location in regard to availability of raw materials, that is, limestone
and salt. However, locating all the plants in Maharashtra was not consid-
ered desirable because of the difficulty in distributing products to the
eastern and southern regions.
After 1960, licenses were issued for soda ash plants in noncoastal re-
gions. This introduced pollution problems from the release of by-product
CaCl, into the river systems. The plant in Varanasi that went into produc-
164 DEE H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

TABLE V
SODAASH PRODUCTION

Capacity Production
Year (lo00metric tons) (lo00 metric tons) Utilization (%)

1951 55 48 87
1956 91 86 95
1961 91 176 193
1966 363 349 96
1961 435 42 1 97
1970 470 446 94
1971 470 477 101
I972 500 486 97
I973 508 470 93
1974 508 5 10 100
1977" 704 530 75

Estimated.

tion in 1959 therefore adopted a modified Solvay process; as already men-

tioned, it recovers by-product N&Cl for use as fertilizer.
The soda ash industry has nearly achieved self-sufficiency and has po-
tential for export. Sufficient know-how has been developed to design and
fabricate plants within the country and to establish similar plants in other
developing countries.
a. Caustic Soda. The annual production of caustic soda since about
1940 is shown in Table VI together with the percent utilization of the
installed capacity. This represents a growth rate of about 17% per year. In
general, utilization is excellent and not like that in many other industries.
Caustic soda, which has much wider application than soda ash in the
chemical industry, was not produced in India until about 1940, presuma-
bly because it was little needed in industry until that time. It was used
chiefly by the textile and soap industries, for which 25,000 tons were
imported in 1938-1939. The emergence of three major products in later
years increased the demand for caustic soda. These were viscous rayon,
paper pulp, and alumina from Bayer process extraction of bauxite.
Small units employing the electrolytic process were established in 1941
at Calcutta and Methur. Later, several plants were established using the
caustification of soda ash; total production inside India reached 15,000
tons in 1950-1951, but total imports at this time remained high at 63,000
tons. Mercury cells went into production in 1952, and the country
achieved self-sufficiency in 1967. By 1976-1977, total production in-
 T H E INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 165

TABLE VI
PRODUCTION SODA
OF CAUSTIC

Capacity Production
Year (lo00 metric tons) (lo00 metric tons) Utilization (%)

1951 27 14 53.2
1952 34 17 49.0
1953 38 23 60.3
1954 41 29 70.4
1955 44 34 77.2
1956 56 39 70.0
1957 45 42 93.8
1958 66 57 86.7
1959 98 69 70.7
1960 17 78 81.2
1961 124 119 96.3
1962 124 126 101.4
1963 187 152 81.1
1964 203 184 90.5
1965 268 214 80.0
1966 323 230 71.3
1 967 377 25 1 66.6
1968 366 3 18 86.9
1969 367 347 94.7
I970 367 373 101.7
1971 372 374 100.5
1972 428 397 92.8
1973 439 404 92.2
1977" 704 530 75.0

Estimated.

creased to 530,000 tons. Nearly all states in India now have caustic soda-
chlorine plants. Complete caustic soda plants using mercury cells are now
designed and produced entirely within India. All parts are manufactured
indigenously, and plants are being designed and constructed for other
countries.
b. Chlorine. Chlorine is produced (see Table VII), mainly as a by-
product of the electrolytic manufacture of caustic soda. At the present
time, the liquid chlorine produced is not completely utilized, so that the
utilization is lower than indicated. Auxiliary industries using chlorine as
an input have not been fully developed, and much of the chlorine pro-
duced is transformed into CaC1, and released into the river systems,
sometimes by way of large holding ponds which are discharged during the
monsoons when the river flow is high.
166 DEE H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

TABLE VII
PRODUCTION
OF LIQUID
CHLORINE

Capacity Production
Year (1000 tons) (lo00 tons) Utilization (%)

195 1 13 5 40
1956 21 15 72
1961 33 33 101
1966 136 62 46
1969 222 129 59
1970 293 147 63
1971 23 1 162 76
1972 23 1 I47 64
1973 261 122 46
1974 267 142 53

The problem of chlorine is being solved by the rapid growth of

chlorine-based industries. The bulk of the chlorine is utilized for pes-
ticides, disinfectants, and bleaching powder. The remainder is converted
into HC1. A notable growth in the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) industry has
increased the utilization of chlorine. As the chemical industry in the coun-
try grows during the next decade, it is expected that the demand will
double and that production will increase accordingly, with little being
discharged as waste.
B. ORGANIC
CHEMICALS
Like most chemical industries in India, organic chemical production
was in its infancy at the time of independence. There were a number of
plants engaged in coke manufacture, particularly for the steel industry.
However, in only a few were the valuable coal tar by-products recovered.
In the mid- 1950s when the production of benzyl hexachloride (BHC) and
dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDT) was started, the demand for ben-
zene went up steeply and the coke ovens used in the public sector steel
plants were rearranged so as to recover by-product organic chemicals.
In the early 1950s, the country had a moderately developed fermenta-
tion industry with an annual production of alcohol of about 10 million gal
(compared with 88 million gal in 1977). Nearly 50% of this was used for
fuel. The production of glycerine at this time from soap manufacturing
was nearly 5000 tons. A little methanol was produced by wood distillation
at Bhadravati, Mysore, while CaCz was nonexistent. During that period,
important chemicals such as phenol, phthalic anhydride, urea, acetic acid,
and organic and various solvents required by the dyestuff, pharmaceuti-
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 167

cal, and plastics industries were imported, involving over $19 million of
foreign exchange.
The need for a strong organic and fine chemical industry in India was
recognized; therefore, several governmental committees were established
to promote such an industry. Concurrently, several private bodies inves-
tigated the profitability of this industry and instituted several production
projects. European manufacturing organizations were instrumental in col-
laborating with government and private-sector plants to begin the man-
ufacture of organic chemicals. The times these started are shown in Table
I. Thus, a beginning was made in the field of organic chemistry in the late
1950s and early 1960s. Plants based on coal tar products, CaC,, alcohol,
and naphtha were brought into production.
The annual growth rate of many of these industries has been between 15
and 20% per year. Table VIII compares the installed capacity for a few
chemicals in 1963 with those for 1973 and estimated for 1978-1979 (S4).
The production of organic chemicals doubled between 1973 and 1978.
Even with this increase, the need remains to import many of these chemi-
cals. The political priority of other sectors of the industry make more
rapid growth impossible.
As a result of the recommendation of the Petrochemical Advisory
Committee, several petrochemical complexes were planned, each with a
naphtha throughput on the order of 200,000 tons/yr. The first of these
complexes, set up by National Organic Chemicals in Bombay, went into
production in 1 %7. This complex mainly produces polyethylene oxide
(20,000 tons), butanol, butadiene, and benzene. Another complex at Koy-
ali near Baroda (1974) produces aromatics and has a capacity of 24,000
tons of DMT, 21,000 tons ofo-xylene, and 25,000 tons of mixed xylene. A

TABLE VIII
INSTALLED CAPACITY ESTIMATED REQUIREMENTS

Substance 1963 (tons) 1973 (tons) 1978-1979 (tons)

Acetone 1500 16,000 28,000

Acetic acid 6000 17,000 40,000
Plasticizers 900 20,000
Ethylene oxide 12,000 33,000
Ethylene glycol - 10,000 25,000
Butanol 3500 12,000 12,000
Phenol - 16,000 25,000
Forrnalde hyde 7000 33,000 -
Phthalic anhydride 10,Ooo 60,000
168 DEE H. BARKER AND C. R. MITRA

large olefin project in this complex produces feedstocks required by the

polymer industry. One other similar project is underway-at Bongaigaon
(1979) in Assam.

C. SOAPSA N D DETERGENTS
Soap making is one of the country's oldest industries and originated as
early as 1879. The industry grew rapidly during and after World War 11.
The total production of soap in 1948 was estimated to be 180,000 tons.
Soap and detergent manufacturing has increased markedly since indepen-
dence, as shown in Tables XI and X. Many of the units are small and of
the village type, so that the total installed capacity and percent utilization
are based on the larger units. This part of the chemical industry has an
outstanding record of utilization.
TABLE IX
PRODUCTION
OF SOAP

Capacity Production
Year (lo00 metric tons) (loo0 metric tons) Utilization (%)

1951 192 83 43
1952 193 86 44
1953 I93 82 42
1954 193 88 45
1955 240 99 41
1956 253 110 43
1957 253 111 44
1958 253 I23 48
1959 253 130 51
1960 257 I42 55
1961 257 149 57
1%2 242 164 67
1963 232 164 70
I964 232 158 68
1965 232 169 72
1966 232 181 77
1967 232 176 75
1968 212 189 89
1969 212 224 105
1970 217 23 1 106
1971 217 259 119
1972 217 297 136
1973 218 235 107
1977' 233 290 124

Estimated.
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 169

TABLE X
PRODUCTION
O F SYNTHETIC
DETERGENTS

Capacity Production
Year ( lo00 metrictons) (lo00 metric tons) Utilization (%)

1%1 7 8 100
1965 7 8 116
1966 15 8 57
1968 30 18 61
I969 30 22 75
1970 30 31 103
1971 47 53 113
1972 55 61 111
1973 55 60 108
1974 88 84 96
1977" 210 104 50

a Estimated.

With the ban on soap imports in 1957 and continued facilities for import-
ing the raw materials, the industry has recorded phenomenal growth dur-
ing recent years. However, the annual per capita availability of soap
remains low, 1.5 kg as against about 10 kg in developed countries, and
there is considerable room for development.
There is a worldwide tendency to replace conventional soaps (made
from fats and oils derived from animals and plants) with synthetic deter-
gents (syndets) from petroleum sources. In developed countries syndets
have replaced soaps to the extent of 7040%. In India, the situation is
nearly the reverse; the total estimated production of soaps exceeds
700,000 tons, while that of syndets is only 100,000 tons. With the increas-
ing demand for soap, the import of oils and fats tends to increase tre-
mendously, affecting not only the soap industry but also the edible oils
industry which is closely linked to it and also is subject to an ever-
increasing demand (based on the improving standards of living and the
increase in population425 million in 1977).
The combined demand has greatly increased the price of edible oils in
the world's markets. Imports from Western countries must now be paid
for in hard foreign currency and have therefore been curtailed greatly. For
this reason, it is considered desirable to switch from soaps to syndets as
soon as possible and to undertake further large-scale production of syn-
dets. This would make more edible oils available for use in cooking and in
manufacturing hydrogenated oils. If soaps are replaced rapidly by syn-
dets, another problem which is social in nature will develop. As men-
170 DEE H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

tioned above, much of the soap production is carried out in small-scale

units, over 3000 in all, employing perhaps 200,000 people. If soap produc-
tion were cut drastically, over 100,000 people would be jobless and the
machinery presently used would become idle. Since syndet plants require
heavy investments, small-scale producers cannot easily switch over to
syndet production. In consideration of the socioeconomic problem, soap
production should be phased out over a number of years but not stopped
abruptly. Plans could also be made for small-scale producers to begin
compounding and packaging soaps and detergents rather than only man-
ufacturing them from edible oils.

D. PESTICIDES
It is estimated that about one-fourth of the crops in India are damaged
by either rodent or insect infestation (11, 12). This means that there is a
great need for pesticides and rodent poisons. The 1977 production was
about 39,000 metric tons at about 78% utilization. Increased production
will help to utilize the excess chlorine production within India.
With emphasis on the need for pesticides in agriculture a BHC plant
was commissioned in the private sector in 1952. A DDT plant in the public
sector was established near Delhi in 1955. Production, which was only 462
tons in 19541955, increased to about 28,000 tons in 1968-1969. Other
related pesticide products the country produces are organic phosphates,
parathion, Al,P, methyl bromide, and ethylene dibromide, along with
about 20 other compounds.
In 1965-1966, the government spent $5 million to import both pesticide
(45%) raw materials and finished products (55%). In 1975-1976, the use of
pesticides was 47,000 metric tons. Thus, the policy of the government in
the matter of importing pesticides has been liberal, corresponding to its
classifying pesticides as “key” and “priority” materials.
The recent growth of petrochemical complexes has improved the avail-
ability of numerous basic raw materials and intermediates for pesticides.
The possibility of reducing the use of scarce metals such as copper, mer-
cury, and nickel in pesticides by using nonmetallic alternatives has been
considered and appears to be feasible.

E. PLASTICS
In India, as in the rest of the world, the use of plastics has increased
rapidly. It is possible to replace many metals and other scarce materials
with plastics. The production of selected plastics is shown in Table XI for
the years since independence, along with the percent of utilization of
capacity. This table does not include the many existing fabrication plants.
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 171

TABLE XI
RESINSP L U S
PLASTICS ( M O L D I N G POWDER P L U S
PHENOFORMALDEHYDE MOLDINGPOWDER)

Capacity Production
Year (lo00tons) (lo00tons) Utilization (%)

1951 0.457 0.208 45

1956 0.8% 1.001 112
1961 16.1
1%6 42 43 102
1%9 108 89 92
1970 112 102 91
1971 119 117 98
1972 132 117 89
1973 142 124 87
1974 157 114 73

The plastics industry was in its infancy in the years just following inde-
pendence. A few small-scale industries existed, which mainly converted
molding powders into finished products by compression or injection mold-
ing. The production of plastic goods has rapidly increased to a point
where it furnishes considerable employment in small-scale industrial
units. This will increase rapidly in the future as the capability for produc-
ing plastics increases.
The total investment in the plastics industry rose from $31 million in
1961 to $125 million in 1970 and, in the same period, production rose from
13,000 tons to over 100,000 tons. The manufacture of processing ma-
chinery has also increased rapidly. Bulk production is increasing, but the
manufacture of sophisticated materials and quality products is still not
being carried out. All major raw materials are now produced in the coun-
try with the establishment of petrochemical complexes, so that the indus-
try will play a vital role in future economic development. In spite of the
rapid growth, the annual per capita production in 1971 was only 0.2 kg as
against 81 kg in West Germany, 59 kg in Japan, and 40 kg in the United
States. Thus, there is an ample market in the country and room for
growth. Acrylic plastics, Teflon, silicones, and so on, are yet to be devel-
oped and manufactured. Such specialty plastics are essential for the re-
placement of more critical materials and therefore need to be developed
within India. The processes and know-how for the manufacture of these
types of plastics should be imported from more highly developed coun-
tries, and efforts should then be made to adapt this information to local
economic and labor conditions.
172 DEE H. BARKER A N D C. R. MlTRA

F. IRONA N D STEEL
India’s modern steel industry is about 75 yr old. The first fully success-
ful iron and steel mill was established in 1907 by Jamshedji Tata. There
were as many as 17 earlier unsuccessful attempts to establish Indian iron-
works using Western-type technology. Some of the reasons for failure
were as follows:
(1) In the Western technology adopted, charcoal was used by most
plants, even though coke was widely available. The importance of coke
was not perceived by either the British or the Indians. Had coke been
used, production costs would have been much lower and Indian iron
would have been more competitive.
(2) Most plants produced pig iron for export at a time when world
prices were falling.
(3) Most projects were started with too little capital.
(4) Some plants were established in areas too inaccessible for profit-
able marketing.
( 5 ) Central and provincial governments neglected to support or en-
courage these ventures.
(6) Those who attempted these ventures neither possessed the neces-
sary managerial and technical skills nor did they employ persons who did.
Such mistakes were avoided by the Tata company. Coke, not charcoal,
was used. The mill did not produce pig iron for export, but steel for
internal consumption. The mill was sited at a location accessible to the
important raw materials. The most important factor that contributed to
the success of the Tata ventures was the employment of highly trained
personnel; technical skills were imported, and the advice of foreign ex-
perts was sought. Finally, full cooperation of the government was ob-
tained. The favorable environment created by the Indian government,
including tariff protection and guaranteed purchase of much of TISCO’s
steel for government-owned railways, contributed greatly to the com-
pany’s rapid growth.
TISCO grew rapidly. In 1917, it undertook expansions which resulted in
a fourfold increase in output. By the advent of World War 11, its produc-
tion capacity had doubled again. By 1939, TISCO had become one of the
largest steel mills in the British Empire and also one of the lowest-cost
producers in the world. In 1939, TISCO produced three-fourths of the
steel consumed in India.
About 1918, two more iron mills were established. The Indian Iron and
Steel Company (IISCO), founded by British interests, erected a mill at
Burnpur in West Bengal. Mysore Iron and Steel Works (MISW) was
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 173

founded by the maharaja of Mysore, and its mill was erected at Bhad-
ravati. At first, IISCO restricted production to pig iron, primarily for
export to the United Kingdom and Japan. In 1936, it undertook an expan-
sion and acquired the Bengal Iron Company which had previously failed.
The management of IISCO formed the Steel Corporation of Bengal
(SCOB) to undertake the construction of a steel mill adjacent to IISCO’s
blast furnace. SCOB went into production in 1939, and in January 1953
IISCO and SCOB were formally merged.
The MISW plant was originally designed to use charcoal produced by a
wood distillation plant owned by the maharaja. About 1920, synthetic
products were developed which rendered the maharaja’s wood distillation
plant obsolete and caused it to close. However, pig iron continued to be
produced by MISW with charcoal from other sources. By the mid-l930s,
MISW had added facilities for the production of steel, which have never
been economical because of the use of charcoal. In the earlier years, the
losses were absorbed by the Mysore state government, and recently sub-
sidies have been given to this plant by the government. Even though it is
uneconomical, it still affords a source of steel for which scarce foreign
exchange does not have to be expended.
By World War 11, steel imports were replaced with the output from
SCOB. India’s production of steel since 1951 is shown in Table XII.
India was self-sufficient in steel until about 1954. The inability of the
industry to keep pace with the demand for steel after 1954 is attributed to
failure to expand during the immediate postwar period.
In 1945, the government established the Iron and Steel Panel to look
into India’s steel industry and suggest future programs. The panel rec-
ommended, in addition to expansion of the existing mills, that one or two
new mills with a combined capacity of 1 million tons of steel be erected. In
1947, the new government commissioned three non-Indian firms to inves-
tigate the feasibility of this proposal, and all three firms concluded that
two mills, with an initial capacity of 3 million tons each, should be estab-
lished.
The industrial policy resolution of 1948 dictated that the new steel
plants should be the responsibility of the government. Under the industrial
act, private steel companies were allowed to continue operating and were
given licenses to increase their production capacity.
During the first 5-yr plan, inaugurated in 1950, one new steel mill was to
be erected by the government, IMSW was to triple its production, and the
private-sector mills were to increase their combined capacities by nearly
50%. The most significant increase during this period resulted from ex-
pansion programs at IISCO. TISCO modernized its plant, which had de-
teriorated during World War 11, so as to increase production. The MISW
174 DEE H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

TABLE XI1
PRODUCTION,
IMPORTS,
A N D EXPORTS
OF STEEL
SINCE1951

Production Imports Exports

Year (lo00 tons) (lo00 tons) (lo00 tons)

1951-1952 1091 140 4

1952- 1953 1118 160 3
1953- 1954 1040 188 4
1954- 1955 1264 25 1 5
1955-1956 1280 834 2
1956- 1957 1359 1256 1
1957-1958 1438 1286 1
1958- I959 1439 806 -
1959- 1960 1795 793 -
1%0-1%1 2337 1238 2
I96 1- 1962 2939 1002 3
1962- 1%3 3864 870 8
1963- I964 4347 888 32
1964-1965 4508 929 76
1965- 1966 4604 734 140
1966-1967 455 1 405 251
1967- 1968 4078 452 525
1968- 1%9 480 1 385 682
1969- 1970 5078 367 4758
I97 1-1976 13,300 - -

expansion programs were abandoned as being uneconomical. To replace

this capacity, three new mills were started in the public sector.
In 1953, a steel mill was established at Rourkela with German collabora-
tion. In 1955, a steel mill at Durgapur was started with British collabora-
tion and; in 1956, one at Bhillai with Russian collaboration. Most of the
foreign exchange requirements of these three mills were to be met by
loans from the participating governments.
The second-plan targets for steel were ambitious, namely, to triple the
actual production between the beginning and the end of the plan period.
Both the public and private sectors were to participate, the role of the
public sector being more predominant. TISCO and IISCO were also al-
lowed to expand under the second plan. Although the output of steel in
1960-1%1 was far short of the target, the country’s industrial expansion
programs were mostly successful.
Under the third 5-yr plan which started in 1961, the three public-sector
steel mills were to be expanded and a fourth one to be started at Bokaro,
while the private-sector mills were not to be expanded. This entire pro-
gram was delayed until the first year of the fourth 5-yr plan. Originally it
was thought that the United States government would participate in the
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 175

Bokaro project, but the U.S. Congress objected. In early 1%4, the Soviet
Union agreed to help the Bokaro project as well as the expansion of the
one at Bhillai. Construction of the Bokaro plant started in 1966, and the
production of pig iron and ingot steel began in 1973. This plant is still
under construction and has expanded from a capacity of 1.7 million t o 4
million tons/yr.
At the present time, there are six integrated steel plants and two spe-
cialty steel plants with a total installed capacity of 10.6 million tons of
steel and pig iron and 137,000 tons of specialty steel. In 1976 the integrated
production was 8.4 million tons or 79% of capacity. Alloy steel produced
was 103,000 tons at 75% of capacity. India now stands thirteenth in steel
production in the world.
Construction is expected to start in 1979 on a 6-million-ton plant at
Salem in TAMIL Nadu (southern sector). This plant will be entirely of
Indian design. Two other plants are under consideration, one at Vis-
akhapatna in Andhra Pradesh and the other at Vijay Yagar in Karuataka.
It is expected that the investment decisions will be made during the sixth
plan and that construction will be started at the same time.
The domestic demand for finished steel and pig iron by 1973-1974 was
assessed at 7.12 million and 2.0 million tons, respectively. The fourth plan
took into account the need for increasing output to meet this demand and
to ensure additional capacity for meeting future requirements during the
fifth plan.

G. NONFERROUS
METALS

1. Aluminum
Among metals, aluminum is second only to iron in industrial impor-
tance. It is so popular now that aluminum utensils for household purposes
can be found in the average Indian home, having displaced iron and brass.
Today aluminum is widely used in the aircraft, electrical, and building
industries. In the electrical industries, it has almost completely replaced
copper, not only as a bare conductor but also in insulated cables. The
greatest single use of aluminum is in high-voltage electrical house
wiring-about 50%. The production and percent utilization for aluminum
are shown in Table XIII.
The consumption of aluminum in India rose from 12,000 tons in 1951 to
220,000 tons in 1977. The estimated demand in 1984 is to 400,000 metric
tons. The demand is likely to increase dramatically, since the per capita
use in India is 0.4 kg versus 22 kg in the United States and 2.9 kg else-
where in the world.
The first production of aluminum in India was at the Indian Aluminum
176 DEE H . BARKER AND C. R. MITRA

TABLE XI11
PRODUCTION
OF A L U M I N U M

Capacity Production
Year (lo00 metric tons) (lo00 metric tons) Utilization (%)

1951 4 3 96
1956 7 6 87
1961 22 18 83
1966 73 65 89
1%9 117 132 112
1970 I47 161 109
1971 167 178 107
1972 I77 179 101
1973 196 154 179
1974 196 128 66
1977" 275 180 65

Estimated.

Company at Alupuram, Kerala, in 1943. The production that year was

1300 metric tons. At present, there are five producing plants in the coun-
try. Of these, four are in the private sector and one in the public sector.
The largest plant of the Hindustan Aluminum Corporation, Ltd., at Re-
nekoot in Bihar has an installed capacity of 95,000 metric tons. The
newest plant in the public sector at Korda in Madhya Pradesh will have an
installed capacity of 100,000 tons. The first unit was commissioned in
1975. A sixth plant with a capacity of 50,000 tons is in the planning stage
and will be located at Ratnagiri in Maharashtra.
The aluminum plants have operated at less than 65% capacity since
1974, the primary problem being a lack of adequate power. Although the
government recognizes the critical need for aluminum for use in power
transmission, this industry was the first to undergo power cuts in favor of
farming and other industries. There are also many labor problems which
further reduce productivity.
Another serious problem in the aluminum industry is the pricing policy.
By law, 50% of the production goes to the government at a fixed price,
so-called levy metal. The current price is $903/metric ton versus a pro-
duction cost of $lOM/metric ton.
It was estimated that the existing bauxite resources would be exhausted
by 1990. This led to the need for a further geological survey of India, and
new deposits were located in various parts of the country; for example, in
Ranchi (Bihar), Kutui Jabalpur, Bhopal, Mysore, Bombay, Salem, Jammu
and Kashmir, Kerala, and Goa.
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 177

In addition to bauxite, other raw materials used in the manufacture of

the metal are AlF,, fluorspar, cryolite, caustic soda, coke, and coal. At
present, most of the cryolite and AlF, have to be imported, since there is
no adequate supply within India.
The present installed capacity for the production of cryolite is 4830
metric tons, with a production of 4000 metric tons. The process is based
primarily on the recovery of fluorine compounds from phosphate fer-
tilizer. About 1000 metric tons/ yr are being recovered from pot cases and
old pot linings. There are two plants producing AlF, at the rate of 2500
metric tons/yr versus a demand of 8000 metric tons/yr.

2. Copper
Copper has been known in India from prehistoric times. The technology
of its production was also known and is evident from archeological dis-
coveries. In modern times, with increased demands for the metal, there is
an urgent need for increased production. The first major attempt to locate
and work copper mines in modern times was made by the Indian Copper
Corporation which was established in 1924 and started production in 1928.
Major supplies of copper are converted into alloys such as bronze and
brass. The production of copper pipes and tubes, arsenical copper rods,
and so on, was started only during World War I1 and, at the same time,
metal recovery from commercial scrap was initiated. It was only in the
third 5-yr plan that plans for adequate production of copper were formu-
lated. The demand in 1971 was 85,000 metric tons, and the estimated
demand in 1979 is 116,OOO metric tons. Estimated production and scrap
recovery are 45,000and 16,000metric tons. This leaves 57,000metric tons
for import.
Copper represents the largest tonnage of any metal imported. The elec-
trical cable industry came into existence quite early and created a large
demand for copper metal. It is vital for the production of much electrical
generating machinery, even though in power transmissions it has been
supplanted by aluminum. Until recently, the bulk of the imported copper
supply came from Rhodesia. However, with economic sanctions against
Rhodesia by the United Nations and by India, this importation was
stopped. Therefore the principal recent supplier of copper has been the
United States. The large amount of foreign exchange now required for the
purchase of copper has increased the urgency for developing indigenous
resources for the production of copper metal.
The chief deposits of copper ores are found in Singhbhumi (Bihar), and
other sources have been located in Utter Pradesh, Rajasthan, West Be-
ngal, Kashmir, Madkya Pradesh, Mysore, and Andhra Pradesh. The bet-
ter known deposits are found near Jaipur-Alwar in Rajasthan, Kumyun
178 DEE H . BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

and the Kangra Valley in the Himalayan region, Sindu-Bara-Buunda in

Sikkim, and Mysore. In Rajasthan rich deposits have been located in the
Khetri Dariboo area. The total reserves are estimated at 26 million tons
with an average content of 1.8%.
A geological survey of India recently discovered three major deposits at
Nallakonda, the lead-copper belt in Andhra Pradesh. The total reserves
of all three are about 60.7 million tons. The interesting part of the investi-
gation was that the samples indicated the presence of significant amounts
of silver, cobalt, arsenic, and nickel, recovery of which was considered
economically possible.

3. Lead
Resources for the production of lead are very small; India contributes
only 0.2% of the estimated world output of lead. India’s principal re-
sources are the Zawar mines and Banjare mines in Rajasthan. Other
sources are in Utter Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, and Jammu-Kashmir, but these are not commercially significant.
Recently in South Arcot, Madras, and Mamandur near Madras, lead ores
have been located. The geological survey of India has estimated that this
deposit contains 300,000 tons of mixed metal ores. This ore deposit is
under the control of the government of Madras, and a private company,
Cominco Binani, Ltd., has been licensed to exploit it commercially. A
150,000-ton/yr plant has been proposed by Hindustan Copper, Ltd., to
utilize the Nallakonda (Andhra Pradesh) deposit mentioned above. A fur-
ther project, based on the refining of imported concentrated ores, has been
sanctioned by the government at Vishakpataman.
The demand in 1974 was 47,000 metric tons of which only 2500 metric
tons were produced. Thus, a large part of the lead must be imported. A
single lead smelter exists at the present time, located at Junda in Bihar.
The installed capacity is 3600 metric tons and is being increased to 6000
metric tons. Two additional plants are in the design stage-one at Vizag
and one at Dariba.
Lead is very important for development of the various sectors of India’s
economy. For example, it is necessary for advanced development of the
electrical industry, the paints and pigments industry, and other areas. The
chief need of the industry is for the location and development of additional
ore bodies.

4. Zinc
The main use of zinc is in the production of alloys, particularly brass. It
is also used for galvanizing steel sheets and wires and for producing zinc
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 179

oxide for the paint and pigment industries. The demand for galvanized
sheets was estimated at about 700,000 tons at the end of the fourth plan.
The two main zinc smelters are located at Debari, Rajasthan, and at
Alwaye, Kerala. The former is in the public sector, and the latter is in the
private sector. The installed capacity is 38,000 metric tons/yr with a
production of 25,000 metric tons. This leaves an import requirement of
75,000 metric tons. By 1979, the demand should be 150,000 metric tons.
To help meet this demand, the Debari plant is being expanded to 45,000
metric tons from 18,000. Thus, the total installed capacity will be 65,000
metric tons. A new zinc smelter is under construction at Visha Khapatray,
with a capacity of 30,000 metric tons. Completion should be in the early
1980s.

5 . Atomic Minerals
Thorium is among the minerals that are useful in the production of
atomic energy. Thorium deposits have been found in Kerala and in the
Madras area. According to the survey made by the Atomic Energy De-
partment, 30,000 tons of uranium are available in economic quantities in
Saurastra and Kuch, and steps are being taken to develop these deposits.
Another atomic mineral available is beryl ore from which beryllium is
produced. Reserves of this mineral are located mainly in Rajasthan,
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, and Mysore and are large enough to meet India’s
requirements for beryllium.
Cadmium is used in atomic reactors and in the electrical and steel
industries. With the establishment of zinc smelters from which cadmium
metal can be obtained, imports (80,000 tons/yr in 1970) have been reduced
and are expected to be discontinued.

6. Research and Development Needs of the Metal Industries

The NCST (S6), which drafted the science and technology plan for
India for the period 19761979, has observed that most of the plants set up
are underutilized (S5). On the other hand, the demand for metals by
various sectors of the economy has been growing rapidly, necessitating
extensive imports. The slow growth rate in production has been attributed
to poorer techniques of beneficiation and extraction of minerals, lack of
indigenous maintenance capability, lack of materials that meet specifica-
tions, breakdowns, and lack of personnel who can solve production-
breakdown problems. To alleviate these problems, the NCST in its sci-
ence and technology plan (STP) (S4) has identified 243 research, devel-
opment, and design projects with an allocation of about $1 12 million, to be
completed within a period of 5 yr. These plans have been projected while
180 DEE H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

keeping in view the gaps existing in exploration, mining, and production.

The plans include proposals developed separately by the Department of
Steel and the Department of Mines. The Department of Steel’s proposal is
to set up a $3.8 million electrolytic manganese plant based on the dioxide
process developed by the National Metallurgical Laboratory at Jamshed-
pur. The proposals of the Department of Mines are development of gold
mining, seismic and microseismic projects, and a materials testing labora-
tory. The NCST plan includes programs for the production of formed
coke, magnesium special metals, and superalloys, as well as improved
facilities for ore dressing. It has been suggested that the underlying re-
search in the metallurgical sector be encouraged at universities and insti-
tutes of technology.
The metals considered by the NCST are aluminum, copper, lead, zinc,
and magnesium. With a view toward the demand for these metals and
their alloys, the plans proposed by the NCST panel include (1) facilities
for hydrometallurgy and electrometallurgy, (2) production of magnesium,
and (3) production of high-strength aluminum and magnesium alloys for
the defense and space industries.
In 1975 and 1976 the state of emergency that existed in India slowed
down or postponed many of the.plans outlined above. The planned re-
search and expenditures have been extended to the end of the sixth 5-yr
plan.
In view of the unsatisfactory position of nonferrous metals in India,
research is proposed on development of roasting techniques, treatment of
residues for increased metal recovery, utilization of waste for conserva-
tion of metals, imported substitutes, treatment of lower-grade ores to
supplement the indigenous supply, and preventing surface tarnishing of
metal products.
High-purity metals and superalloys are required for the aeronautics,
electronics, instruments, space, and defense industries; the raw materials
are at present imported. Primarily, these special metals include nickel-
and cobalt-based superalloys, high-strength iron-based alloys, titanium-
based alloys, controlled-expansion alloys, and magnetic materials. Keep-
ing in view the importance of these metals and alloys and the expertise
available in India for making them, the NCST has identified two projects
for their development: the setting up of a special metal and superalloys
plant and the development of controlled-expansion alloys.

H. PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY
The growth of the pharmaceutical industry in India, shown in Tables
XIV and XV, has been much more rapid than elsewhere around the world
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 181

TABLE XIV
PHARMACEUTICAL SALES

Year Millions of dollars

1948 12
1954 65
1966 84
1%8 21 1
1975 65 1
I976 77 1

(13, Rl). Table XIV is based on sales, since the available data are in terms
of dollars rather than weight or other units. Table XV compares 1977 and
1978 production figures for selected drugs. Utilization of capacity is good
and ranges from 60 to 75%. The opportunity for further expansion is also
very great. The percentage of pharmaceuticals in the chemical industry is
above the world average (world average, 11.6%; Indian average, 31.1%).
The remarkable growth in India during the past 25 yr can be attributed
to the strong base of the chemical industry and to favorable governmental
policies. In the 1950s and early 1960s, foreign companies took advantage

TABLE XV
POSITION OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS

Target for end

Production in of fifth plan
Compound I972 (1978-1979)

Antibiotics
Penicillin 230 MMU 780 MMU
Streptomycin sulfate 199 tons 825 tons
Tetracycline 71.4 tons 200 tons
Chloramphenicol 41.05 tons 390 tons
Sulfa drugs 1285 tons 2 195 tons
Antituberculosis drugs 532.54 tons 1380.32 tons
Antimalarials
Quinine 36.23 -
Chloroquin 23.82 150
Hormones
Sex hormones, including
corticosteroid 1747 kg 15.510
Antihistamines
Diphenhydramine 2210 kg 16,000 kg
182 DEE H. BARKER AND C. R. MITRA

of the huge market and expanded rapidly. In addition, a large number of

bulk drugs worth about $44 million were imported. With all this expan-
sion, medicines have reached only about 20% of the population of the
country, despite the fact that in the last 24 yr their production has in-
creased 30-fold. The annual per capita consumption of drugs in India is on
the order of 8 rupees ($1.00), compared to 235 rupees ($29.30) in Ger-
many, 252 rupees ($3 1.50) in Japan, and 3 10 rupees ($38.70) in the United
States.
At present, there are more than 2900 plants making drugs and phar-
maceuticals. Of these, 116 are large-scale units which produce more than
80% of the total supply. Of these units, 82 produce basic pharmaceuticals
and formulations, while others depend on the 82 for most of their raw
materials. The industry needs to increase production, because it currently
provides only la times the value of investment. In the advanced countries,
this ratio is between 1 : 15 and 1 : 50.
The targets for the pharmaceutical industry by the end of the sixth plan
period are ambitious. During this period, the industry aims at increasing
production from the present $375 million to $750 million. The present
output of $63 million of bulk drugs will be expanded three times, and
exports from $12.5 million to $44 million. According to the Development
Council of Drugs and Pharmaceuticals, the fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-plan
targets for production are $456 million, $750 million, and $1500 million,
respectively, at current prices. To achieve the targets of the fifth plan, an
investment of $125 million between 1973 and 1976 was needed. An addi-
tional investment of $312 million between 1976 and 1980 will be needed to
achieve the targets for the sixth plan.
To help control the price of drugs, the government of India instituted the
Drug (price control) Order of 1970. The Bureau of Industrial Cost and
Prices is continuing its work on the matter and has submitted further
recommendations to the government. The position of the pharmaceutical
industry is difficult, since it has to consider both fixed prices and growing
costs. This will require strict control on spending and also steps to see that
productivity increases.
The progress of small-scale units has been quite impressive. Of about
1900 units in this sector, 673 are located in Maharashtra, 232 in West
Bengal, 192 in Tamil Nadu, 168 in Andhra Pradesh, 129 in Gujarat, and
108 in Madhya Pradesh. Some of these units prepare basic drugs and are
suppliers of raw material to other countries. The export performance of
the industry is quite good. From $4.5 million in 1967-1968, it reached
$12.2 million in 1970-1971. It is estimated that by 1988-1989 the industry
will be able to balance its foreign trade in drugs and formulations.
There is a need for intensive research and development in the drug and
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 183

pharmaceutical industry, and more attention is now being given to these

areas. Present annual research and development expenditures are about
$10 million (2% of total turnover)-inadequate in view of the industry’s
annual turnover. In 1978-1979, the planned annual amount available for
research and development was $37.5 million and at the end of the sixth
plan should rise to $75 million per annum, representing about 5% of the
present total turnover. A large number of units have started research and
development activities and are trying to expand them. At present, re-
search in the field of pharmaceutical and medicinal chemistry is carried
out at a number of schools, as well as at a number of research institutes in
both the public and private sectors.
There are five well-defined areas of research and development for the
industry:
(1) Establishment of good quality control techniques and good man-
ufacturing practices and of facilities for formulation and packaging devel-
opment activity to undertake compatibility and stability tests as well as
safety testing and bioavailability studies.
(2) Improvements in recovery procedures, cost reduction, process
control, methods of assay, and so on.
(3) Substitution of native raw materials for imports in drug formula-
tion and drug manufacture (recommended for top priority).
(4) Basic research involving the discovery of new products or new
uses of existing projects.
( 5 ) Applied research involving the translation of laboratory discov-
eries into profitable commercial processes.
The NCST in the science and technology plan for 1974-1979 (S6) has
identified the following major problems for the industry.
(1) Imbalance with respect to the production of basic drugs and phar-
maceuticals required for formulations. The current consumption of drugs
is valued at $94 million, and the indigenous production is worth about
$62.5 million.
(2) Inadequate supply of raw materials and intermediates for attaining
the desired production levels.
(3) Inadequate field trials for ensuring extensive testing of the drug
preparations proposed for formulation and marketing.
The NCST has also recognized that there is heavy domination of the
drug industry by foreign companies and foreign-owned manufacturing
units and that the next 5 yr will require substantial inputs in research and
development. One of the major projects envisaged is a new Fermentation
Technology and Enzyme Research Centre to be located at Hindustan
184 DEE H. BARKER AND C. R. MlTRA

Antibiotics, Ltd., Poona. These areas of study have a great potential for
industrial growth; antibiotics, of course, play an important role in the
health program. Other proposed projects relate to newer routes for the
synthesis of important drugs and pharmaceuticals, as well as the cultiva-
tion of aromatic plants for extracting perfumery aromatics and gums used
in pharmaceutical preparations.
The pharmaceutical industry has been instrumental in generating exten-
sive employment opportunities. In 1975, the industry gave direct em-
ployment to 2.04 million persons. Of these, 10% were technical and scien-
tific, 4% executive, and 8% marketing personnel. Employment rose to
about 3.06 million by 1976, an increase of 50% over the previous year.
Employment figures continue to advance steadily with the increase in
turnover.
In addition, the industry provides indirect employment to large num-
bers of people in the distribution trade and associated industries. In the
distribution trade alone, more than 1.06 million persons are employed, and
another 1.02 million work in industries producing containers, cartons,
packaging cases, and so on. On an average, the industry provides indirect
and indirect employment to about 5 million people.
The industry is taking big strides so far as the export of drugs and
formulations is concerned. Fifteen years ago, the export figures were
almost negligible, amounting to about $1.2 million per annum. The indus-
try has recently ventured into the export market; in 1975 it exported
products worth $30 million. Indian industry has created markets mainly in
the developing countries and is vigorously striving to capture bigger and
bigger shares of markets in the developing nations of Asia and Africa.

VI. Awards for Progress

Each year since 1964 the Indian Chemical Manufacturers’ Association

(ICMA) has presented awards to chemical industries in recognition of
their progress and service to the chemical industry. Three awards are
given, two of which are indicative of the progress being made in the
chemical industry. The first of these is the Sri P. C. Ray Award which
recognizes the chemical industries that have made the greatest progress
during a particular year. This award is named after P. C. Ray who was an
early leader in the chemical industry. The second is the ICMA award
which recognizes and encourages industrial units showing outstanding
examples of forward development of technology in the chemical industry
in India. Tables XVI and XVII list some of these awards. The year, firm,
and the reason for the award are detailed in these tables. As can be seen,
they encompass a wide range of firms and technologies. These tables
 TABLE XVI
RECIPIENTS OF T H E P. c, R A Y AWARDFOR BESTINDUSTRIAL UNIT DEVELOPED
IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY IN INDIA

Year Name of firm Basis of award

1964 Exeol Industries, Ltd., Bombay Production of chemicals-H,PO, B. P., oxalic

acid, ethylene dichloride, and organo-
mercurials for the first time in India
1965 Amar Dye Chemicals, Ltd., Development and manufacture for the first time
Bombay in India of hot and cold types of fiber-reactive
dyestuffs
I967 M/s Sudarshan Chemical Manufacture of inorganic and organic pigments;
Industries, Ltd., Poona the company produced 26% of the country’s
production of organic pigments and 47% of its
inorganic pigments and has started producing
several intermediates
1968 Ws Alembic Chemical Works, Contribution to developments in the design and
Ltd., Baroda engineering of penicillin technology
1970 M/s Gharde Chemicals, Pvt., Outstanding achievement in developing its own
Ltd., Bombay process for making ingrain dyes
M/s Hico Products, Pvt., Development of a varied chemical complex
Ltd., Bombay which supplies chemicals for drugs, pharma-
ceuticals, insecticides, paints, varnishes,
and food: tamed ethylene oxide gas by
developing a technique for its handling and
harnessed the highly hazardous gas by
manufacturing wetting agents, emulsifiers
1971 Dharamsi Morarji Chemicals, Research, developments, and import substitu-
Ltd., Bombay tion: the 300-tons/day single-stream H2S04
plant which started in 1964 was entirely
designed, constructed, and directed by its
own technical personnel; it utilizes process
heat to generate high-pressure steam which is
used to drive turbines; this steam is ex-
hausted at low pressure, and its heating value
is made use of in other processes
1973 M/s Gharda Chemicals, Pvt., Developed, with its own research and develop
Ltd., Bombay ment efforts, a new process for the manu-
facture of hydrazobenzene and benzidine
dihydrochloride; the unit has developed a
novel catalyst for the reduction of nitro
compounds such as nitrobenzene and nitro-
toluene with methanol and caustic soda, the
reduction reaction being highly exothermic:
it successfully engineered the process
I973 M/s Cxel Industries, Ltd., Setting up of a unique plant for the manufac-
Bombay ture of white phosphorous at Bhavanagar
involving the designing and building of a huge
electric air furnace with monolithic carbon
(Contiwed)
186 D E E H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

TABLE XVI (Continued)

Year Name of firm Basis of award

electrodes weighing more than I 0 0 tons, with

its own technical and engineering knowledge
and with the least reliance on imported
equipment and components; designing and
erection of the Rs. 2.5 core plant was
accomplished by engineers of the company;
quite a few improvements in technique were
introduced in construction of the furnace
operating at working temp. of 1600°C
1974 M/s Deepak Nitrite, Ltd., Successful completion of the first factory in
Navsari. District Baroda India for commercial production of NaN02
and NaNO,; although it was the first venture
of the company based on its own efforts, it
developed an efficient process with innova-
tions in the basic technique obtained from
the Fertilizer Corporation of India and set up
its unit almost entirely with indigenous plant
and equipment; it has succeeded also in en-
suring the production. of nitrite and nitrate in
the favorable ratio of 1 : I ; this production has
helped in shipping imports of NaN02
1975 M/s Harihar Polyfibres, The production of rayon-grade pulp from
Harihar, Kamstak hybrid eucalyptus; this development was
probably the first successful effort with
eucalyptus; the achievement is most im-
pressive because initial research on the
process as well as on the development of a
new engineering design was done by the com-
pany in India and most of the equipment
was fabricated within the country
1975 M/s Camphor and Allied, Ltd., Development of an indigenous technology for
Bombay the manufacture of terpene-based chemicals;
the company has also developed the catalyst
required for the production of capolyte CP
Resin, and this catalyst is economical and is a
perfect substitute for the imported varieties
1976 Hindustan Lever, Ltd., Manufacture and distribution of soaps,
Bombay synthetic detergents, toilet preparations,
edible fats and other foods, animal nutrition
products, chemicals, and so on
I977 Raymon Glues and Chemicals Development of unique processes for convert-
ing low-value crushed bones and hides into
higher-value products
1977 D. D. Shah and Company, Adoption of a novel process for the manufac-
Bombay ture of phenylacetamide and phenylacetic
acid based on acetophenone; this plant is
perhaps the only one of its kind in the world
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 187

TABLE XVII
INDIAN MANUFACTURERS
CHEMICAL ASSOCIATION(BOMBAY) AWARDFOR THE MOST
OUTSTANDING
EXAMPLE
OF FORWARDDEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGYIN
INDUSTRIAL
CHEMISTRYI N INDIA

Year Name of firm Basis of award

1965 M/s Gwalior Rayon and Silk Significant achievement in establishing commercial
Manufacturing (Wig.) production of rayon-grade pulp for the first time,
Company, Ltd. and from a nontraditional material, bamboo
1966 Tata Chemicals, Ltd.
1967 M/s Synthetics and First synthetic rubber complex company to
Chemicals, Ltd., establish local production facilities to meet its
Bareilly own basic requirements and to supply styrene
and butadiene monomers needed to produce
several grades of synthetic rubber
I975 Bhabba Atomic Research Development of radiation technology using a
Centre, Isotope Group, cobalt-60 source to sterilize prepackaged medical
Bombay products
M/s Fertilizer Corporation Achievement in the implementation of various
of India, Ud. fertilizer projects using varied feedstocks and
employing different sophisticated technologies
1977 D. C. M. Chemical Works, Production of dimensionally stable anodes for
New Delhi diaphragm cells for the electrolytic manufacture
of caustic soda and chlorine

furnish a good indication of the progress being made and of the areas
considered by the ICMA to be important to the chemical industry in India.
Years missing in the tables are those in which no award was made.

VII. Professional Societies and Education

Part of the overall development and progress in the chemical industry is

dependent on the education system and the activity of the professional
societies associated with it.
The chemical engineering profession is represented by the Indian Insti-
tute of Chemical Engineers (IIChE). This institute was formed May 18,
1947, at Jadaupur University, near Calcutta (T2). In 1948, there were 101
members; in 1958, there were 384; and there was a total membership of
over 2800 in 1978. This enrollment represents about 10% of the 18,000
chemical engineers in India. At present, the country is divided into 18
regional centers (sections), The institute moved into its own facilities on
the Jadaupur University campus in 1973 and was recognized by the Amer-
ican Institute of Chemical Engineers, as well as other professional soci-
188 DEE H. BARKER AND C. R. MITRA

eties, in 1958. Publication of the society’s journal, Indian Chemical En-

gineers was started in 1959.
The IIChE is a dynamic, growing organization. In 1959, an associate
membership became available. To obtain this membership, a rigorous
examination is given by the institute to chemical engineers who have not
had the benefit of a formal education at a recognized university. This
associate membership is recognized as equivalent to a degree by the gov-
ernment of India. The institute is a member of the Federation of Engineer-
ing Institutions representing chemical engineers. It promotes excellence
among students by sponsoring an essay contest and aiding in the formation
of student chapters. It is also active in setting standards for education,
establishing continuing education programs, providing programs to pro-
mote the development of appropriate technology, and advising the gov-
ernment.
Another group that plays an important part in development of the chem-
ical industry is the ICMA. The awards given by this group were discussed
in the previous section.
The education problem in India is vast and complicated. In 1977 there
were 625 million people in India, with an annual increase of 12-13 mil-
lion/yr. The age distribution is heavily skewed toward the lower ages
which constitute about 42% of the population (11). Those of college age
represent about 17% or 106 million persons. There are 118 universities
with a total enrollment of about 3.2 million (R2). There are 32 chemical
engineering departments with an annual capacity of 1400 students (in
contrast to 8 departments with a 200-student capacity in 1948). Thus, only
about 7000 students are chemical engineers-a very small fraction of the
students in the colleges and universities.
At the postgraduate level, 25 institutions offer a M.E. degree, and 20 of
these offer a Ph.D. Because of the competition with jobs and going to a
larger university, postgraduate programs are limited, and the available
students are not always the best. In addition, the wage structure does not
favor a person with an M.E. degree.
In the past, the education pattern was 11 yr of grade school followed by
.
a 5-yr program leading to a B .S degree. In 1977, a uniform pattern of 12 yr
in high school was initiated. The course of study in chemical engineering
compares well with the subject matter offered in the institutions of the
United States. In general, however, the curricula are rigid and must be
passed year-wise rather than course-wise. That is, failure of a single sub-
ject requires repetition of the course for a given year. The number of
lectures or contact hours is high, and laboratory time is limited. There is
very little opportunity to interact with jobs in industry, summer jobs, or
otherwise, before graduation.
 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 189

A Chemical Engineering Development Center was set up in Madras in

1971 by the Ministry of Education. The center has developed and pub-
lished a suggested first-degree course in chemical engineering.
The chemical engineer is supposed to spend 6-8 weeks in “practical
training.” This consists of an extended plant visit during which the stu-
dent is often considered a hindrance by plant management (B4).Plans are
under way to modify this procedure so as to involve faculty members in
working with students at plant locations. A more expanded version of this
program, called practice school, is also under study and development. An
explanation of this plan in relationship to one institution is presented later.
Suggestions have also been made to plan more elaborate plant trips and to
establish regional pilot plants.
Another area under development is continuing education or collabora-
tive education, also described later. Great effort is being expended to
make the education fit the needs of the developing Indian chemical indus-
try.

VIII. Needs of the Chemical Industry

The individual needs and research directions for specific industries have
been discussed above. However, there are a number of needs common to
all industries that, if supplied, will aid materially in their future develop-
ment: education, more rational research and development schemes, initia-
tion of more mission-oriented research, and certain organizational
changes.
A foremost need is to change the educational pattern of the country; not
only undergraduate education but also education and research projects
leading to M.S. and Ph.D. degrees. Some of these have been indicated
above. The problems of education in India are not new; in 1933, C. L.
Dhawan wrote (MI):
Indian universities are year-in and year-out turning out thousands upon thousands
of graduates and undergraduates whose market value, these days, has gone down to
practically nothing. These unfortunate young men are swelling the ranks of the unem-
ployed, thus bringing about misery not only to themselves and their near ones, but
also to the whole country. It is, indeed, a painful fact that almost .every Indian
university these days shelter more such youths for whom finding work in this world
has become a problem. The loss to the nation on account of such widespread compul-
sory idleness can be better imagined than described.

In general, the teachers at universities and colleges and the workers in

government research laboratories have not been exposed to industrial
practices. In most cases, their information is based entirely upon textbook
190 D E E H. BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

learning and on some small amount of laboratory work carried out under
the usual university laboratory conditions. In addition, much of the re-
search taking place in both the national laboratories and the universities is
of a highly theoretical nature not strongly related to actual needs. This is
borne out by the relative poor rate of acceptance by industry of the
projects completed by the national laboratories. Part of industry’s prob-
lem also lies in the high cost of doing its own research and development,
relative to the potential financial return. The large business houses are
mostly managerial or holding companies which have too little perception
of the possible economic improvements of their processes. There are,
however, some outstanding examples of modest-scale industrial laborato-
ries which have been and are being established in India for research on
specific problems (Fig. 3).
An outstanding need, therefore, for the development of self-reliance in
the chemical industry is a better interchange between the scientific labora-
tory and the professional personnel of the industries. This lack of dialogue
between industry and research personnel is magnified by the lack of
awareness on both sides of the need for it.
Considerable study has gone into this problem both at the national and
local levels. For instance, the Education Commission report of 1966 (R2)
strongly emphasized the need for this type of interchange and also for an
increase in vocational training. A later report (Vl) has recommended the
establishment of continuing education programs to be carried out at man-
ufacturing plants. A successful and innovative program is being carried
out at the Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS) located at
Pilani on the eastern edge of the Rajasthani Desert. One of the few private
engineering and science schools in India, established in 1964, the institute
has continually recognized the need for coordination between industry
and education. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology chemical en-
gineering practice school, numerous cooperative programs elsewhere in
the United States, and the sandwich programs in England were all studied
to determine how they might be adapted to Indian conditions. As a result,
the practice school concept was adopted and implemented in 1972.
The practice school programs now encompass all areas of engineering
as well as other branches of study. BITS’S chief sponsor is one of the
largest industrialists in India, who has many chemical and industrial
plants under his control. Therefore, the first practice school programs
were established in Birla industries. Now, they are also in operation in
other private industries and in the public sector. In all, there are 20 sta-
tions which service about 200 students every 6 months. These include
banks, newspapers, design companies, manufacturing companies, and na-
tional laboratories. Most of these locations offer accommodations or pay
 T H E INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 191

up to 500 rupees/month ($65.60). Over 95% of BITS students participate

in the practice school program.
New stations are located and organized by negotiation between the
faculty and the personnel at the industrial location. Prior to the establish-
ment of a station, selected faculty members spend 6 months at the site in
order to identify and list the possible problems. An interdisciplinary team
of teachers and students is then sent to the site for about 6 months to work
on these problems to find their solutions.
In addition to the practical problems the students solve or attempt to
solve, many extensions of the problems are brought back to the classroom
and to the institute research laboratories for subsequent discussion. A
large number of faculty members have become acquainted with industrial
practices, and this has had a marked effect on the quality of teaching and
on the students’ enthusiasm for their courses. Industrial staffs have re-
ported a positive contribution to their work by the students and faculty.
Employers visiting campuses find that students who have completed the
practice school program are much better prepared than students who have
not. Other educational institutions are now beginning similar programs,
and it is hoped that the overall procedure will have a measurably benefi-
cial effect on the industrial capability of India.
The structural concept of the practice school program, shown in Fig. 7,
indicates that each educational branch has from one to three components.
At BITS, all students completing the third year enter the first phase of the
practice school program, a 2-month interdisciplinary training period at a
laboratory or factory, which is designed to familiarize them with industrial
practices. Therefore, in subsequent treatment, all practice schools are
considered equivalent.
After the fourth year, each student spends 6 months undertaking the full
program (95% of all science and engineering students) at an industrial
location and is expected to work on several problems. At the location,
students are placed in groups and, in turn, each person assumes a man-
agerial position within the group. The groups hold internal seminars, as
well as both formal and informal discussions with plant personnel. En-
gineering students, after the fifth year of study, participate in a third
practice school project which involves designing industrial equipment at a
design firm. Other chemical engineering departments are also developing
a similar concept but are not as far advanced.
A collaborative education program is also under development at BITS
under which a M.E. degree will be given at selected practice school loca-
tions. This will involve both teachers from the BITS faculty and qualified
personnel at the site. Degree work will be possible for plant personnel as
well as students.
5-Year I n t e g r a t e d Programmes
(With P r a c t i c e School o r Without) Chemical, C i v i l ,
B.E. (Hans) E l e c t r i c a l & E l e c t -
r o n i cs
Mechani ca 1

B. (Hons)

B i o l o g i c a l Sciences,
M.Sc. (Hons) Chemistry, Mathe-
matics, Physics
I n p u t : Higher Sec.
w i t h Phy, Chem, Maths,
and Adequate E n g l i s h
M.A. (Hons) English, H i n d i

M.A. (Hons) Economics

( a t present)
SOC. Sci. Stream
w i t h two Semester
and Semester Term Master o f
M.M.S. Management Studies

P r a c t i c e School

FIG. 7. Academic program at BITS.

 THE INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 193

Another way in which the relationship between industry and educa-

tional institutions can be improved is to have qualified personnel from
industry spend a period of time at the various educational institutions.
Some institutions have started a system of hiring adjunct professors for
this purpose. Outstanding individuals in the fields of business manage-
ment, systems analysis, history of science, materials science, and so on,
are currently employed in this type of activity. The number of such per-
sons is being increased yearly. In this system, the expert spends a mini-
mum of 1 week each month on the campus teaching courses and helping
the faculty to develop courses.
On a broader note, considerable effort and change in direction are
needed in India’s overall research and development activities. Since al-
most 94% of the research is funded by the government, there are only a
few examples of industrial research in specific areas. In the past, a great
deal of the research done in government laboratories was not connected
with the immediate needs of the industry. In addition, the licensing poli-
cies make the processes developed by the national laboratories somewhat
uneconomical and, thus, unused by Indian manufacturers. In the relation-
ship between government laboratories and industry it would be beneficial
to have some sort of interchange of personnel. One the one hand, the
laboratories could give technical assistance to the industries by sending
research workers to the plants for a year or so. This could be particularly
effective in the public sector where the matter of proprietory information
should not arise. On the other hand, the production person could benefit a
research laboratory by going to the location and working on a specific
problem related to his or her own industry and expertise. Recently con-
siderable effort has been made in regard to industrial research in the
report on the science and technology plan (S3) for the chemical industry
and in the NCST forward plan (S4).
One area of needed organizational change involves the dissemination
throughout industry of information developed both in industry and indus-
trial laboratories. At the present time, publication of such material is
fragmentary and slow. Consolidated publication, or abstracting of some
type spread over a wide audience, should be considered.
Organizational changes in the chemical industry should be considered
with the possibility of increasing competition, removing the sheltered
production the industry has, and developing increased self-reliance.
These organizational changes should include a broader look at the licens-
ing policy and the actual effects it has upon the economy. Changes should
then be made that will speed licensing so as to increase the production of
critical items. Both licensing and research should be guided by the pri-
mary needs of the Indian economy: food, clothing, shelter, and health.
194 DEE H . BARKER A N D C. R. MITRA

Often in the past, this was not done either in allocating industrial licenses
or in setting research policy. Lack of follow-up to check how national
needs are actually met by research and development efforts has been one
of the detrimental factors in industrial development.
A major item needing serious consideration in India is the scale of
operation. In general, the larger a chemical plant, the more economical its
capital and its operation costs and the cheaper the resulting output. In
general, a decrease in production costs is gained through a decrease in
labor costs, as well as an increase in volume, and a decrease in costs can
only come about when the plant is operating at almost full capacity. In
India, because of problems involving materials supply, transport of fin-
ished goods, labor, a lack of developed skills, and so on, chemical plants
often operate at less than 60% of capacity, and the necessary conditions
are not met in regard to the size of the plant. Serious consideration should
be given to the availability of supplies and the ability to operate at full
capacity. It is certainly not economical to operate one or two large plants
at 40% capacity when perhaps several smaller plants by judicious location
and scheduling could be operated at 70 or 80% of capacity. With the
prevailing shortage of transportation (railroads, trucks, and so on), power,
and fuel and with the current labor situation, it is doubtful that large-scale
plants will be able to operate at full capacity for the next 10-15 yr (a
substantial fraction of the life of a normal chemical plant). Consideration
should, therefore, be given to building smaller plants closer to the source
of supply or to markets. This would utilize the effect of the scale factor
while taking into account local conditions and transportation problems.
Some means also needs to be found to encourage the proper mainte-
nance, updating, and improvement of existing plant facilities. This per-
haps could be done in the form of tax relief.
The problem of substituting the natural resources of India for imports is
of paramount importance in development of the chemical industry. The
outstanding examples of this are the importation of oil to feed the fertilizer
and petrochemical industries and the importation of sulfur for the man-
ufacture of H2S04. Extensive deposits of iron pyrites containing enough
sulfur to supply India’s needs for 400 yr are located in Bihar. Although
considerable effort has been expanded in developing this resource, India
still imports 60% of its sulfur as elemental sulfur from the sulfur market of
the world. Proper development of the pyrite as a source of sulfur and
H2S04would reduce this dependence and would allow the further expan-
sion of industries requiring H2S04as a feedstock.
Because of the current prices of petroleum in world markets, with no
sign of a reduction in the near future, the development of hydrocarbon
resources in India in the form of coal should be of primary importance and
research funds should be expended in this direction. India’s coal re-
 T H E INDIAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 195

sources are enormous, and the use of coal as a chemical feedstock would
considerably reduce dependence on foreign oil. At present, about 70% of
India’s oil imports are used in the production of fertilizer. By suitable
design, it would be possible to use the volatile material from the coal,
forming a chemical feedstock, and still have coke left over to furnish
energy for industry, for cooking in homes, and so on. In addition, Indian
coal contains about 30% ash which results in a loss in heating value and an
increase in shipping cost to the place of use. Research in the beneficiation
of coal, using some of the processes being developed in other countries,
might reduce the critical transportation problem as well as increase the
value of coal as a fuel.
Another critical area that could occupy the chemical industry is the
production of methane by biological conversion processes. Large
amounts of organic materials are burned as fuel, including cattle manure,
bagasse from the sugarcane industry, and many other materials. Proper
utilization of these waste materials would help to ease the fuel shortage
and would contribute significantly to the fertilizer capacity of India.
The problem of meeting the food, clothing, shelter, and health needs of
the increasing population of India is critical. For example, an increase of 2
or 3 million tons of food grains is required to cover the poeulation increase
per year. The food crop in 1978 is sufficient to supply food for approxi-
mately 650 million people if there is no loss. Since about 25% of the grain
is lost to insects and vermin, the present production of food is marginal.
The development of insecticides and preservatives is a critical need for
the chemical industry. Governmental policies and expenditure of funds
must reflect this need. The question to be asked regarding all expenditures
is whether they will lead to increased food or clothing production. Devel-
opment of consumer goods industries and the like will not solve these
problems.
The chemical industry is experiencing, and will experience, rapid
growth in the Indian economy. From a consideration of the per capita
consumption, the rapid growth in population and the developing aspira-
tions of the Indian people, the growth and development of the Indian
chemical industry offer exciting possibilities and will continue to be a
challenge during the 1980s.

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