Electric Fields in Materials Space
Course Title: Engineering Electromagnetism
Dr. Sikder Sunbeam Islam
Associate Professor
Department of EEE
IIUC.
Topics to be covered…
Polarization in Dielectrics
Dielectric Constant and strength
Linear & Isotropic and
Homogeneous Dielectrics
Continuity Equation and Relaxation
Time
Boundary Conditions
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Introduction
Materials are broadly classified in terms of electrical
properties: Conductors (as metals) and Non-conductors
or Insulators or dielectrics.
Conductivity σ, in mhos per meter (mhos/m) or Siemens
per meter (S/m).
The conductivity of a material usually depends on
temperature and frequency.
A material with :
The conductivity of metals generally increases with
decrease in temperature.
Example: Metal: copper, aluminium; Semiconductor:
Germanium; Insulator: Glass; Superconductor:
Aluminum
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Important Definitions
Electric current is generally caused by the motion of
positive electric charges.
The current (in Amp.) through a given area is the electric
charge passing through the area per unit time.
The current density (vector) at a given point is the
current through a unit normal area at that point.
If increment of current ∆I flows through an incremental
surface ∆S, the current density is
u-flowing velocity
Conduction current density is
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Polarization in Dielectrics
Dielectrics do not contain free charge, contain bound charge.
Molecules or atom of dielectrics are macroscopically neutral-
have equal amount of positive and negative charge.
When electric field E is applied positive charge is displaced
form equilibrium and directed towards E by the force F+=QE
and while negative charge moves opposite direction by F-=QE.
This displacements creates dipole and dielectric is said to be
polarized.
In the polarized state, electron cloud (-Q) is distorted by the
applied electric field E. This distorted charge distribution is
equivalent to the original distribution plus a dipole whose
moment is, P=Qd ----------(1)
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Polarization in Dielectrics
The major effect of Electric field E on a dielectric is the creation
of dipole moment that align themselves in the direction of E.
This type of dielectric are called Non-polar Dielectrics.
Examples: Hydrogen, oxygen etc.
There are some dielectrics having built-in permanent dipoles
that are randomly oriented (as in Fig.), are called Polar
Dielectrics. Like, water sulfur dioxide etc.
With applied field E, these dipole tend to
be align parallel with E. 6
Dielectric Constant
(1)
(The negative sign arises due to the opposite signs on the
(2) charges in the dipoles (inside volume), one end is within the
volume of the object, the other at the surface. )
(3)
Therefore,
(4).
(5). (As Polarization P varies with Applied field E )
So,
(6). 7
Proof:
‘Total charge of dielectric material remain zero’.
Where polarization occurs the equivalent bound volume
charge density is formed throughout the dielectric,
while equivalent bound surface charge density is
formed throughout the surface of the dielectric. Bound
charge are those that are not free to move within the
dielectric material. (1)
(2)
Total positive bound charge on surface S bounding the dielectric is,
(3)
While charge that remains inside S is,
(4)
So, (5)
Thus, the total charge of dielectric material remain zero as dielectric
electrically neutral before polarization. 8
Dielectric Constant:
Dielectric Breakdown and Strength
Dielectric Breakdown:
When electric field in a dielectric is sufficiently
large, it begins to pull electrons completely out
of the molecules and dielectric becomes
conducting. It may results large currents. This
phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown.
Dielectric Strength:
The maximum electric field that a dielectric
can withstand without breakdown , is called
dielectric strength.
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Linear, Isotropic and Homogeneous Dielectrics
Linear and Non-Linear Material: A material is said to be linear if
D varies linearly with E; otherwise non linear.
Homogeneous and Non Homogeneous Materials: Materials for
which ε (or σ) does not vary in the region being considered and is
therefore the same at all points (i.e. independent of x,y,z) are said to
be homogeneous. Materials are said to be Non Homogeneous or
inhomogeneous when ε is dependent on space coordinate. The
atmosphere is an example of non homogeneous medium as its
permittivity varies with altitude.
Isotropic and Anisotropic Materials: Material for which D and E
are in the same direction are called Isotropic materials. So, isotropic
dielectrics are those which have the same properties in all directions.
For anisotropic (non- isotropic) material D, E and P are not parallel;
ε or χe has nine components that are collectively referred to as
tensor.
In short we can say,
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Example.1.
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Example:2
Solution:
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Example:3
Current density ,
Current in the surface,
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Continuity Equation
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Continuity Equation and
Relaxation time
Relaxation time:
Relaxation time is the time it takes a charge placed in the interior
of a material to drop to 1/e=36.8 percentage of its initial value.
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Relaxation time
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Boundary condition
In a homogeneous medium, if field exists in a region consisting
of two different media, the conditions that the field must
satisfy at the interface separating the media are called
boundary conditions.
These conditions helps to determine the field of one side of the
boundary if the field of the other side is known.
Obviously the conditions are dictated by the types of
material and the media are made of.
We shall consider the boundary conditions at the interface
separating ,
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Boundary Condition: Dielectric-Dielectric
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Boundary Condition: Dielectric-Dielectric
So,
Thus D undergoes some changes across the interface . Therefore, tangential
component of D is said to be discontinuous across the boundary interface.19
Boundary Condition: Dielectric-Dielectric
Similarly Applying Gauss law to pill box of Fig.1 and letting Δh 0;
So,
So, Dn undergoes no change at boundary.
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Boundary Condition: Conductor-Dielectric
Static electric field intensity inside a conductor is zero. The
evaluation of the potential difference between any two points on the
surface by the line integral leads to zero, as the path may be chosen
on the surface itself where, E.dl=0.
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Boundary Condition: Conductor-Dielectric
Applying Maxwell’s equation to the closed path abcda of Fig.2a,
Similarly Applying Gauss law to pill box of
Fig.2b and letting ;
So, ,
or,
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Example:
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References
Elements of Electromagnetics; M.O.
Sadiku, 4th Edition.
Engineering Electromagnetics, WH Hayat
& JA Buck; 7th Edition.
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