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Energy Procedia 36 (2013) 130 – 141

TerraGreen 13 International Conference 2013 - Advancements in Renewable Energy

and Clean Environment

Electric Automobile Ni-MH Battery Investigation in diverse

situations
Brahim Mebarkia,*, Belkacem Draouib, Lakhdar Rahmanic, Boumediène Allaouad
a
Department of Technology, Faculty of the Sciences and Technology, BECHAR University, B.P 417 BECHAR (08000), ALGERIA.
b
Laboratory of Energy in Arid Region (ENERGARID) , BECHAR University, B.P 417 BECHAR (08000), ALGERIA.
c
Department of Technology, Faculty of the Sciences and Technology, BECHAR University, B.P 417 BECHAR (08000), ALGERIA.
d
Department of Technology, Faculty of the Sciences and Technology, BECHAR University, B.P 417 BECHAR (08000), ALGERIA.*

Abstract

The electronic differential system ensures the robust control of the vehicle comportment on the road. This paper
focuses Ni-MH Battery controlled by Buck Boost DC-DC converter power supply for EV. Sliding mode control
based on space vector modulation (SVM-SMC) is proposed to achieve the tow rear driving wheel control. The
performances of the proposed strategy controller give a satisfactory simulation results. The proposed control law
increases the utility EV autonomous under several speed variations. Moreover, the future industrial's vehicle must
take into considerations the battery material choice into design steps. The battery material model choice is a crucial
item, and thanks to an increasing emphasis on vehicle range and performance, the Ni-MH battery could become a
viable candidate that’s our proposal battery model in the present work , in this way the present paper show a novel
strategy of electric automobile (EA) power electronics studies when the current battery take into account the impact
of the sliding mode control based onspace vector machine technique in the several speed variations using the
primitive battery SOC of 60% state.

©
© 2013 TheAuthors.
2013 The Authors. Published
Published by Elsevier
by Elsevier Ltd. Ltd.
Selection and/or
Selection and/orpeer-review underunder
peer-review responsibility of the TerraGreen
responsibility Academy Academy.
of the TerraGreen

Keywords: State of Charge, Ni-MH battery, power, DC-DC Buck-Boost converter, SVM-SMC, electric automobile.

1. Introduction

Nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries have dominated the automotive application since 1990's due
to their overall performance and best available combination of energy and power densities, thermal
performance and cycle life. They do not need maintenance, require simple and inexpensive charging and

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +213.661.963.537 ;Fax: 00 213 49 81 52 44

E-mail address: [email protected].

1876-6102 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the TerraGreen Academy
doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2013.07.016
 Brahim Mebarki et al. / Energy Procedia 36 (2013) 130 – 141 131

electronic control and are made of environmentally acceptable recyclable materials. The capacity of
NiMH cell is relatively high but its cell potential is 1.35 V. The gravimetric energy density is about 95
Wh/kg and volumetric energy is about 350 Wh/L [1-3].
Battery technology is one of most important areas of research pertaining to the reliability and
commercial popularity of this alternative form of transportation .The battery forms a very crucial
component of the drive train [3]. It provides the desired electric power to the traction motor in accordance
with the driver's requirement. The battery properties widely vary with the chemistry. The battery should
be capable of storing sufficient energy, offer high energy efficiency, high current discharge, and good
charge acceptance from regenerative braking, high cycle time and calendar life and abuse tolerant
capability It should also meet the necessary temperature and safety requisites.
Electric vehicle, which address the “drive performance”
issue, may provide a more feasible opportunity for nickel metal hydride battery technology. Thanks to an
increasing emphasis on vehicle range and battery energy density, Nickel metal hydride could become a
viable candidate. The greatest advantages are the high cell voltage compared with nickel technology) and
superior energy density .Other attractive features are a very low self-discharge rate and no memory effect.
The sliding mode control strategy (SMC) is one kind of high performance driving technologies for AC
motors, due to its simple structure and ability to achieve fast response of flux and torque has attracted
growing interest in the recent years. SMC-SVM with PI controller sliding mode control without
hysteresis band can effectively reduce the torque ripple, but its system’s robustness will be fur there
enhanced. SMC-SVM method can improve the system robustness, evidently reduce the torque and flux
ripple, and effectively improve the dynamical performance. The DC-DC converter is use with a control
strategy to assure the energy require for the EV and the propulsion system.
State of charge (SOC) symbols the residual capacity of battery and it written as the residual capacity
percent by nominal capacity the estimation of SOC of any battery it’s a key point of energy in EV
management system, in this paper we study the NiMH ability to became an energy source candidate for
the next future electric vehicle by testing his power state changes performances under several speed driver
consigns [2,3].

2. Electric Vehicle description

According to Fig. 1 the opposition forces acting to the vehicle motion are: the rolling resistance force
Ftire due to the friction of the vehicle tires on the road; the aerodynamic drag force Faero caused by the
friction on the body moving through the air ; and the climbing force Fslope that depends on the road slope
[1,2 3]. The total resistive force is equal to Fr and is the sum of the resistance forces, as in (1).
Fr Ftire  Faero  Fslope (1)

Faero
Fslope
E

mg Ftire
E F
te

Fig. 1. The forces acting on a vehicle moving along a slope.

132 Brahim Mebarki et al. / Energy Procedia 36 (2013) 130 – 141

The vehicle considered in this work is two-rear-wheels drive EV destined to urban transportation. Two
induction motors are coupled in each of the rear wheels. The energy source of the electric motors comes
from the NI-MH battery controller by Buck boost DC-DC converter [2,9].

3. Ni-MH description

The following equations (2) provide basic cell reactions of a NiMH battery. In a fully charged state, the
active material on the positive electrode is Nickel oxy-hydroxide and that on the negative electrode is
metal hydride. During the charge reaction, hydroxide from the electrolyte reacts with the nickel oxy-
hydroxide Ni(OH)2 found on the positive electrode to form NiOOH and water, while, on the negative
electrode, water reacts with the metal alloys to form metal hydride. The charge reaction is exothermic. The
heat produced during the charge process must be released to avoid continuous temperature rise of the cells
[5-2-1].

Fig.2 .Basic chemistry reaction for of nickel-metal hydride battery

ch arg e o
M  Ni( OH )2 MH  NiOOH
dech arg e m (2)
Fig 3. describe the equivalent circuit of Nickel metal hydride battery where, E is the no load voltage ;
E 0 is the constant voltage; K is the polarization constant or polarization resistance; Q is maximum
battery capacity; Q is exponential voltage ; B is exponential capacity .All the parameter of the equivalent
circuit type ,based on its discharge characteristics.

Q
E E 0  K.  A.e (  E  it )
Q  it
t

it Internal
³0
resistance I batt

Controlled
voltage Vbattery
E batt source

Fig. 3. The equivalent circuit of Nickel metal hydride battery

 Brahim Mebarki et al. / Energy Procedia 36 (2013) 130 – 141 133

The State-Of-Charge (SOC) of the battery (between 0 and 100%). The SOC for a fully charged battery
is 100% and for an empty battery is 0%. The SOC can be defined by equation (2):
§ ·
¨ Q.1.05 ¸ (3)
SOC 100¨ 1  ¸
¨ i .dt ¸ ³
© ¹
Fig.4 explain the different state of discharge curve, the first section represents the exponential voltage drop
when the battery is charged. Depending on the battery type, this area is more or less wide. The second section
represents the charge that can be extracted from the battery until the voltage drops below the battery nominal
voltage. Finally, the third section represents the total discharge of the battery, when the voltage drops rapidly.
Nominal Current Discharge Characteristic

240
Fully charged
Voltage [V]

220
Exponentiel

Nominal 200

Discharge curve
180 Nominal area
Exponential area

160

140
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Exponentiel Nominal Maximum
Capacity [Ah]

Fig. 4. Nickel metal hydride battery typical discharge curve.

The NiMH battery parameters using in the propulsion system proposed are illustrate in table blow.

Table 1. Nickel metal hydride parameter

Rated capacity 6.5 Ah

Nominal Voltage 1.18 V
Maximum Capacity 7 Ah
Nominal Discharge Current 1.3 A
Exponential Voltage 1.28 V
Internal Resistance 2 mȍ
Rated Capacity 6.5 Ah
Fully Charged voltage 1.39 V
Capacity Nominal Voltage 6.25 Ah
Exponential Capacity 1.3 Ah
Exponentiel Voltage 1.28 V

4. Sliding mode control strategy based space vector modulation (SVM-SMC)

The SVM technique has become one of the most important PWM methods for Voltage Source Inverter
(VSI) since it gives a large linear control range, less harmonic distortion, fast transient response, and
simple digital implementation [7].
The induction motor stator flux can be estimated by
134 Brahim Mebarki et al. / Energy Procedia 36 (2013) 130 – 141

S1 T *  T̂ (4) and S2   
C \ r  \ˆ r  \ r  \ˆ r  (5)

uD k 1 signq1   k 2 q1 (6) and uȕ  k1 signq 2   k 2 q 2 (7)

­  1, q ! 0
where signq  ® ; and k 1 , k 2 are positive constants.
¯ 1 , q  0
The SVM principle is based on the switching between two adjacent active vectors and two zero vectors
during one switching period. It uses the space vector concept to compute the duty cycle of the switches.
Fig. 5 shows a scheme of a three-phase two-level inverter with a star-connection load.
From Fig.6, the output voltages of the inverter can be composed by eight states u 0 , u 1 ....u 7 ,
corresponding to the switch states S 0 (000), S1 (100), S 7 (111) , respectively. These vectors can be plotted
on the complex plane (Įȕ ) as shown in Fig.4, and are given by [3].
2
V dc e j ( k  1 )( S /3)
for k 1,2 ,... 6 (8)
uk 3
0 for k 0 ,7
The rotating voltage vector within the six sectors can be approximated by sampling the vector and
switching between different inverter states during the sampling period. The vector u s is commonly split
into two nearest adjacent voltage vectors and zero u0 and u7 in an arbitrary sector. For example, during
one sampling interval, vector u s in sector I can be expressed as

T0 T T T
us( t ) u 0  1 u 1  2 u 2  7 u7 (9)
Ts Ts Ts Ts

Where T0 , T1 , T2 , T7 are the turn-on time of the vectors u 0 , u 1 , u 2 , u 7 and Ts S is the sampling time.
Ts  T1  T2 T0  T7 t 0, T0 t 0, T7 t 0.

S2 110
S3 010 ȕ
a U3 U2 a
b
b c
c
S4 011 S1 100
Sector II Sector I
1 a us
a
VDC S w1 S w2 S w3 b
c
b
c
2 Sector III ʌ
ș
3
N a c U4 2ʌ
U1
b ș 3

1 Į
VDC S w4 S w5 S w6 S7 111
U7 U0
S0 000
2 Sector IV Sector VI
a a
b Sector V b
u P1 uP2 uP3 c c
P1 P2 P3
S6 101
ua ub uc S5 001
U5 U6 a
u0 a
b b
c c
0

Fig. 5. Three phase two levels PWM inverter. Fig. 6. Space vectors.

The block diagram of the SVM-SVM control scheme for voltage source inverter-fed IM is shown in Fig.
7. In this method two PI controllers are used for torque and flux regulation. The outputs of the PI flux and
torque controllers generate the reference stator voltage components u qs , u ds . expressed in the stator flux
 Brahim Mebarki et al. / Energy Procedia 36 (2013) 130 – 141 135

oriented coordinates (d  q ). these components are dc voltage commands and then transformed into
stationary coordinates (Į  ȕ ). the commanded values usĮ, usȕ are delivered to space vector modulator
(SVM), which generates switching signals S a , S b , S c . for power transistors.
we can calculate u *ds and u *qs . by the flowing equation respectively:

K iij
u *ds ( K pij  )( ij  ij* ) (10)
s
K iT em
u *qs ( K pT em  *
)( Tem *
 Tem ) (11)
s

5. Buck Boost DC-DC Converter for Electric Vehicle

DC-DC Buck boosts converters find applications in places where battery charging, regenerative braking,
and backup power are required. The power flow in a bidirectional converter is usually from a low voltage
end such as battery or a super capacitor to a high voltage side and is referred to as boost operation [6, 5].
Figure 7 show the electric vehicle propulsion chain using a DC-DC Buck boosts converters.
NiMH Buck Boost DC - DC converter Propulsion
battery Cswitch D system

Vinput L C Voutput

Switching Control

Fig. 7. The buck boost DC-DC converter control strategy scheme.

6. Simulation Results

In order to characterize the driving wheel system behaviour. The following results were simulated in
MATLAB and its divided in two phases .the first one deal with the test of the EV performances controlled
with SMC-SVM strategy under several speed variation in the other hand we show the impact of this
controller on vehicle performance power electronics. Only the right motor simulations are shown. The
assumption that the initialized Nickel metal hydride battery SOC is equal to 60%.

6.1. Sliding mode control scheme with space vector modulation.

The topology studied in this present work consists of three phases: the first one represent the acceleration
phase’s beginning with 60 Km/h in straight road, the second phase represent the deceleration one when
the speed became 30 Km/h, and finally the EV is moving up the slopped road of 10% under 80 Km/h, the
specified road topology is shown in Fig. 8, when the speed road constraints are described in the Table 2.
136 Brahim Mebarki et al. / Energy Procedia 36 (2013) 130 – 141

60Km / h 30Km / h 80Km / h STOP

ȕ 10%
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 2
Strat Finish
Fig. 8. Specified driving route topology.

Table 2. Specified driving route topology

Phases Event information Vehicle Speed[km/h]

Phase 1 Acceleration 60
Phase 2 Bridge, Break 30
Phase 3 Acceleration and climbing a slope 10% 80

Refereed to Figure 9 at time of 2 s the vehicle driver move on straight road with linear speed of 60 km/h,
the assumption’s that the two motors are not disturbed and the Initial state of charge of 70 % is respected:

90
400
Refrence speed Distance traveled
80
80
Linear vehicle speed [Km/h]

Linear vehicle speed Vehicle speed

Linear speed of the right wheel 300

Distance traveled [m]

70
Linear speed of the left wheel
Vehicle speed [Km/h]

60 60
200
50
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 40
40
100
30

20 20 0
10 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

0 0 -100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time [s]
Time [s]

Fig.9. Variation of vehicle speeds. Fig.10. Variation of phase current of the right
in different scenarios motor in different phases

Fig. 11, reflect the relationship between vehicle speed’s variation and distance traveled in different
phases. The distance travelled of 310 m in three electronic differential references acts 60 then break of 30
and acceleration until 80 km/h.
1000
Motor right Motor right
300
800
Phase current[A]

Driving forces [N]

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

200
600
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
100
400

0 200

-100 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time [s] Time [s]

Fig.11. Variation of phase current of the right Fig.12. Variation of driving force of the right
motor in different phases. motor in different phases.
 Brahim Mebarki et al. / Energy Procedia 36 (2013) 130 – 141 137

Figs 11 and 12 explains the variation of phase current and driving force respectively. In the first step and
to reach 60 km/h The EV demand a current of 50.70 A for each motor which explained with driving force
of 329.30N. In second phase the current and driving forces demand decrees by means that the vehicle is
in recharging phase’s which explained with the decreasing of current demand and developed driving
forces shown in Figs 11 and 12 respectively . The last phases explain the effect of acceleration under the
slope on the straight road EV moving. The driving wheels forces increase and the current demand
undergo double of the current braking phases the battery use 80 % of his power to satisfy the motorization
demand under the slopped road condition which can interpreted physically the augmentation of the
globally vehicle resistive torque illustrate in Table 4. In the other hand the linear speeds of the two
induction motors stay the same and the road drop does not influence the torque control of each wheels.
The results are listed in Table 3.

Table 3. Values of phase current driving force of the right motor in different phases.
Phases Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Current of the right motor [A] 50.71 44.21 70.78
Driving force of the right motor [N] 329.30 228.50 563.00
476.00 Nm

Re sistive vehicle torque in phase 1

168.00 Nm
Re sistive vehicle torque in phase 2 168.00 Nm
Re sistive vehicle torque in phase 3 68.53 Nm
Globaly nominalmotor torque

Fig.13. Evaluation of the globally vehicle torque compared to nominal motor torque in different phases.

According to the formulas (1), and Table. 4, the variation of resistive vehicle torques in different cases as
depicted in Table 4. , the vehicle resistive torque was 95.31 N.m in the first case (acceleration phase)
when the power propulsion system resistive one is only 68.53 Nm in the breaking phases (phases 2) , the
back driving wheels develop more and more efforts to satisfy the traction chain demand which impose an
resistive torque equal to 168.00 N.m .The result prove that the traction chain under acceleration demand
develop the double effort comparing with the breaking phase case’s by means that the vehicle needs the
half of its energy in the deceleration phase's compared with the acceleration one as it specified in table 4.

Table 4. Variation of vehicle torque in different Phases.

Phases 1 2 3
the Vehicle resistive torque [N.m] 95.31 68.53 168.00
the globally vehicle resistive torque Percent compared with 20.02
14.39 % 35.29 %
nominal motor torque of 476 Nm %

6.2. Power electronics.

The Nickel metal hydride battery must be able to supply sufficient power to the EV in accelerating and
decelerating phase , which means that the peak power of the batteries supply must be greater than or at
least equal to the peak power of the both electric motors. The battery must store sufficient energy to
maintain their SOC at a reasonable level during driving, the Fig. 16 (a) and Fig. 16 (c) describes the
changes in the battery storage power and current, voltage respectively in different speed references.
138 Brahim Mebarki et al. / Energy Procedia 36 (2013) 130 – 141

40 80
Vehicle speed
NiMH battery power
30 60

(a)
Power [Kw]

20 40
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
20
10 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
0
600
0
Globaly motor torque
-10 400

(b)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time [s] 200

0
Fig.14. Variation of NiMH battery power 400

in different phases Battery current [A]

200
31.00Kw

(c)
25.60Kw
0
Consumed power in phase 1 60
Consumed power in phase 2
10.07Kw 59

(d)
Consumed power in phase 3 State-Of-Charge [%]
4.12Kw
Globalybattery power 58

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time [s]

Fig.15. Variation of the maximum power battery Fig.16. Variation of parameters during
power in different phases consideration scenario (a) vehicle speed,
(b) globally motor power (c) battery current,
and (c) SOC.
Table 5. Values of NiMH battery power in different phases.

Phase Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Battery power [Kw] 10.07 4.12 25.60
Percentage of the battery power
32.48 13.29 82.58
compared with globally motor power [%]

It is interesting to describe the power distribution in the electrical traction under several speed references.
The battery provides about 11.07 Kw in the first phase in order to reach the electronic differential
reference speed of 60 Km/h. In the second phase (phase 2: deceleration phase's) the demanded power
battery decreased about 6.95 Kw that present 71.91% of the globally nominal power battery (31 Kw). In
third phase the battery produced power is equal to 25.60 Kw under slopped road state. The used battery
produced power depend only on the electronic differential consign by means the acceleration/deceleration
driver state which can be explained by the battery SOC of Fig. 17.
60 60
State-Of-Charge [%]
State of charge
59.5
State-Of-Charge[%]

59.5
SOC [%]

59 59

Phase 1 Phase 3 Phase 3

58.5 58.5

58 58
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
57.5 57.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Ti me [s]
Distance traveled [m]
Fig.17. Battery efficiency versus state-of-charge. Fig.18. Variations of the SOC during
traveled distance in versus vehicle speed.
 Brahim Mebarki et al. / Energy Procedia 36 (2013) 130 – 141 139

Table 6. Evaluation of SOC [%] in the different phases.

Phase Speed [Km/h] Begin Phase [s] End Phase[s] SOC begin SOC end SOC diff
1 60 0 2 60.00 59.51 0.49
2 30 2 4 59.51 59.34 0.17
3 80 4 6 59.34 57.81 1.53

Fig. 18 explains how SOC (SOC) in the Nickel metal hydride battery changes during the driving cycle; it
seems that the SOC decreases rapidly at acceleration, by means that the SOC range’s between 57.81% to
60% during all cycle’s phases from beginning at the end cycles. At t = 6 s, the battery SOC becomes
lower than 57.82 % (it was initialized to 60 % at the beginning of the simulation). Table. 6 reflect the
variation of SOC in different simulations phases. Figure 17 and 18 investigate the variation of sate of
charge en function of vehicle speed and the traveled distance respectively. The relationship between SOC
and left time in three phases are defined by the flowing linear fitting formula:

SOC [%] 0.0010147 t 6 - 0.014954t 5  0.072173t 4

- 0.12693t 3  0.058746 2 t  -0.1674t  59.978 (10)

Moreover the simulation results specified by Figure 17, we can define the relationship between the
sate of charge and the traveled distance in each cases, the first one (acceleration) is defined by the linear
fitting formula:

SOC [%] 0.006 d traveled  60 (11)

The second (deceleration) is obtained and represented by:

SOC [%] 0.0020 d traveled  59.67 (12)

Finally the third phase’s formula ( acceleration under slope) is given by:

SOC [%] 0.01d traveled  60.98 (13)

Table 7. Evaluation of distance traveled and SOC

Phases Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Distance traveled [m] 81.57 82.63 145.80
SOC Difference [%] 0.49 0.17 1.53
Total distance traveled 310.00 m
Initial SOC [%] 60
Final SOC [%] 57.81
140 Brahim Mebarki et al. / Energy Procedia 36 (2013) 130 – 141

Table 8. The relationship between the traction chain

470
power electronics characteristics and the distance Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
traveled in different phases 460

V o lta g e [V ]
60 Km / h 30Km / h 80 Km / h 450

440

DC busVoltage
430
Reference voltage
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
1 2 3 4 5 6
D traveled [ m ] 81.57 82.63 145.80 Time [s]
SOC diff [%] 0.49 0.17 1.53
Fig.19. Robustness test of Buck Boost
Pconsumed [Kw ] 10.07 4.12 25.60 DC-DC converter under several speed.

This power is controlled by the Buck Boost DC-DC converter current and distribute accurately for three
phases. From Fig. 19 we test the buck boost DC-DC converter robustness under several speed cycles.
When the speed pass from 30 Km/h to80 Km/h, the demanded voltage is 450 V. the buck boost converter
is not only a robust converter which ensure the power voltage transmission but also a good battery
recharger in deceleration state that help to perfect the vehicle autonomous with no voltage ripple ,the
Table. 10 give voltage ripple in different cases in electrical traction system when the ripple rate changes
are affected with the phase’s states.

Table 9. Evaluation of voltage ripple

Phases 1 2 3
The voltage ripple [V] 0.93 % 0.55% 1.03%

7. Conclusion

The power propulsion system studied in this paper has demonstrated that the Nickel metal hydride battery
behavior controlled by buck boost DC-DC converter for utility EV which utilize tow rear deriving wheel
for motion can be improved using sliding mode control strategy based on space vector modulation when
the battery developed power depend on the speed reference of the driver. The several speed variations do
not affect the performances of the Nickel metal hydride battery and the control strategy gives good
dynamic characteristics of the EV propulsion system. This paper proposes novel fitting formulas which
give the relationship between the SOC and distance traveled and others formulas that give more
efficiency to different propulsion systems paths.

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