Faculty: S.

Singaravadivelu, Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, Lecture-1, 10/7/2010 Page - 1

ULTRASONICS

INTRODUCTION

Sound waves are mechanical waves (pressure waves)and can be

described in terms of the following basic wave phenomena.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUND

The sound waves may be classified based on their frequecy as follows.

Name of Frequency
sound waves
Infrasonic Frequency less than 20 Hertz.
Sonic/Audible Frequency in the range between 20Hz & 20 KHz
Ultrasonic Frequency greater than 20 KHz
Infrasonic

Infrasound results naturally from ocean waves, avalanches,

earthquakes, volcanoes, and meteors. Infrasound can also be generated
by man-made processes such as explosions, both chemical and nuclear.

Whales, elephants, hippopotamuses, rhinoceros, giraffes and

alligators are known to use infrasound to communicate over varying
distances of up to many miles.
 Faculty: S.Singaravadivelu, Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, Lecture-1, 10/7/2010 Page - 2

Ultrasonic
• Bats use a variety of ultrasonic ranging (echolocation) techniques
to detect their prey.
• The dog whistle is used to call a dog. It emits ultrasound at a
frequency in the range of 16 kHz to 22 kHz which dogs can hear.
• It is well known that some whales can hear ultrasound and have
their own natural sonar system. Some whales use the ultrasound as
a hunting tool (for both detection of prey and as an attack).
• Several types of fish can detect ultrasound.
• There is evidence that ultrasound in the range emitted by bats
causes flying moths to make evasive manoeuvres, because bats eat
moths. Ultrasonic frequencies trigger a reflex action in the noctuid
moth that causes it to drop a few inches in its flight to evade attack.

PRODUCTION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

Magnetostriction electronic oscillator is used to produce ultrasonic

waves.
Magnetostriction effect
When a magnetic field is applied parallel to the length of a
ferromagnetic rod made of material such as iron or nickel, a small
elongation or contraction occurs in its length. This is known as
magnetostriction. The change in length depends on the intensity of the
applied magnetic field and nature of the ferromagnetic material. The
change in length is independent of the direction of the field. The effect
was first identified in 1842 by James Joule when observing a sample of
nickel
Explanation for Magnetostriction effect

Internally, ferromagnetic materials have a structure that is divided

into domains, each of which is a region of uniform magnetization. When
a magnetic field is applied, at first the domains that are aligned parallel
to the field grow in size because of the shift of boundary walls between
the domains and secondly the domains rotate. Both of these effects cause
 Faculty: S.Singaravadivelu, Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, Lecture-1, 10/7/2010 Page - 3

a change in the material's dimensions. For a nickel rod, the length

decreases while for a perm alloy rod, the length increases in the presence
of magnetic field.
Let ‘l’ be the length of ferromagnetic iron rod in the absence of magnetic
field as shown in the figure-1.
Ferromagnetic rod

Domain

‘l’

Figure-1 (In absence of magnetic field)

l+dl

Figure-1 (In presence of magnetic field)

Principle of the experiment

When the rod is placed inside a magnetic coil carrying alternating

current, the rod suffers a change in length for each half cycle of
alternating current. That is, the rod vibrates with a frequency twice that
of the frequency of AC. The amplitude of vibration is usually small, but
if the frequency of the AC. coincides with the natural frequency of the
rod, the amplitude of vibration increases due to resonance. By suitably
magnetizing the ferromagnetic rod prior to use it is possible to make it
vibrate with the frequency equal to that of AC.
 Faculty: S.Singaravadivelu, Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, Lecture-1, 10/7/2010 Page - 4

TANK CIRCUIT OR OSCILLATORY CIRCUIT

A tank circuit contains an inductor ‘L’ and a capacitor ‘C’ as

shown in the figure. Initially the capacitor ‘C’ is charged with a battery.
When the switch ‘S’is closed the capacitor discharges through the
inductor ‘L’. An emf is induced across the two ends of the coil and this
opposes the discharging current. Therefore the current and a magnetic
field are growing slowly. When the capacitor is fully discharged the
magnetic field around the coil will be maximal and there would not be
any further growth of the magnetic field. Now electrostatic energy stored
in the capacitor is completely converted into magnetic energy. There is
no means to hold the magnetic field around the coil. So the magnetic
field starts collapsing. This induces a counter emf in the coil and this
charges the capacitor in reverse direction. When the magnetic field is
completely collapsed, the capacitor will be fully charged. Thus the
magnetic energy around the coil is converted into electrostatic energy.
This process is repeated and an oscillatory current is produced. But
oscillations are damped because of resistive and radiation loss of the coil
and dielectric loss of the capacitor.

Damped oscillations of tank circuit

L
i

C
t
TANK CIRCUIT

_________________________
 Faculty: S.Singaravadivelu, Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, Lecture-1, 10/7/2010 Page - 5

With the appropriate feed back of energy to compensate the loss in

the tank circuit, sustained oscillations are produced. This is achieved
with the help of a transistor.

Details and working of the circuit of the circuit

FERROMAGNETIC ROD

L2 L1

C1
C

mA
B E

The tank circuit (containing an inductor L1 and a capacitor C1) is

connected to collector of an NPN transistor. The emitter-base of the
transistor is forward biased and the collector is reverse biased with the
help of a battery. The capacitor is charged due to the supply of voltage
from the battery. A constant current due to the battery and an oscillatory
current due to charging and discharging of the capacitor flow through
the inductor L1. The varying magnetic field around the coil L1 induces
mutually an emf across the secondary coil L2. There is a rate of loss of
energy during transfer of electrical energy to magnetic energy and vice
versa in the tank circuit. The fraction of the emf across the inductance
coil L2, which can compensate exactly the rate of loss of energy in the
tank circuit is fed back between base and emitter of the transistor.
During mutual induction 180-degree phase reversal takes place and the
 Faculty: S.Singaravadivelu, Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, Lecture-1, 10/7/2010 Page - 6

transistor introduces 180-degree phase reversal. Therefore the oscillatory

current in the tank circuit and the feedback current are in the same
phase. Thus the transistor ensures positive feedback. The oscillations are
sustained. The ferromagnetic rod is subjected to alternating magnetic
field continuously. The emitter must be grounded to ensure that the
emitter must be always forward biased. The frequency of oscillation
produced by the electrical circuit is given by
1
fel =
2π L1C1

The natural frequency of the ferromagnetic rod is given by

1 E
n=
2l ρ
When natural frequency of the ferromagnetic rod is equal to the
frequency of oscillation produced by the electrical circuit, resonance
occurs and therefore the amplitude of the vibration is maximal. By
choosing appropriately the values of L1 and C1 resonance condition is
realized.
Merits

1. Magnetostrictive materials are easily available and inexpensive.

2. Oscillatory circuit is simple to construct.
3. Large output power can be generated.

Demerits

1. It can produce frequencies up to 300 KHz only.

2. It is not possible to get a constant single frequency, because the elastic
constant of the material of the rod depends on temperature and the
degree of magnetization.
3. When a single rod of ferromagnetic material is used eddy current
losses appear.
Faculty: S.Singaravadivelu, Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, Lecture-1, 10/7/2010 Page - 7

Salute to Prof. James Prescott Joule , an English physicist, who discovered

the magnetostriction effect

24 December 1818 – 11 October 1889