What is CSS?

Cascading Style Sheets, fondly referred to as CSS, is a simple design language

intended to simplify the process of making web pages presentable.

CSS handles the look and feel part of a web page. Using CSS, you can control the
color of the text, the style of fonts, the spacing between paragraphs, how columns
are sized and laid out, what background images or colors are used, layout designs,
and variations in display for different devices and screen sizes as well as a variety
of other effects.

CSS is easy to learn and understand but it provides powerful control over the
presentation of an HTML document. Most commonly, CSS is combined with the
mark-up languages HTML or XHTML.

Advantages of CSS
·        CSS saves time − you can write CSS once and then reuse same sheet in
multiple HTML pages. You can define a style for each HTML element and
apply it to as many Web pages as you want.

·        Pages load faster − If you are using CSS, you do not need to write HTML
tag attributes every time. Just write one CSS rule of a tag and apply it to all
the occurrences of that tag. So less code means faster download times.

·        Easy maintenance − To make a global change, simply change the style,

and all elements in all the web pages will be updated automatically.

·        Superior styles to HTML − CSS has a much wider array of attributes than
HTML, so you can give a far better look to your HTML page in comparison
to HTML attributes.

·        Multiple Device Compatibility − Style sheets allow content to be

optimized for more than one type of device. By using the same HTML
document, different versions of a website can be presented for handheld
devices such as PDAs and cell phones or for printing.

·        Global web standards − Now HTML attributes are being deprecated and it
is being recommended to use CSS. So its a good idea to start using CSS in
all the HTML pages to make them compatible to future browsers.
 ·        Offline Browsing − CSS can store web applications locally with the help of
an offline catche.Using of this, we can view offline websites.The cache also
ensures faster loading and better overall performance of the website.

·        Platform Independence − The Script offer consistent platform

independence and can support latest browsers as well.

Who Creates and Maintains CSS?

CSS was invited by Håkon Wium Lie on October 10, 1994 and maintained
through a group of people within the W3C called the CSS Working Group. The
CSS Working Group creates documents called specifications. When a
specification has been discussed and officially ratified by W3C members, it
becomes a recommendation.

These ratified specifications are called recommendations because the W3C has no
control over the actual implementation of the language. Independent companies
and organizations create that software.

NOTE − The World Wide Web Consortium, or W3C is a group that makes
recommendations about how the Internet works and how it should evolve.

CSS Versions
Cascading Style Sheets, level 1 (CSS1) was came out of W3C as a recommendation
in December 1996. This version describes the CSS language as well as a simple
visual formatting model for all the HTML tags.

CSS2 was became a W3C recommendation in May 1998 and builds on CSS1. This
version adds support for media-specific style sheets e.g. printers and aural
devices, downloadable fonts, element positioning and tables.

CSS3 was became a W3C recommendation in June 1999 and builds on older
versions CSS. it has divided into documentations is called as Modules and here
each module having new extension features defined in CSS2.

CSS3 Modules
CSS3 Modules are having old CSS specifications as well as extension features.

 Selectors
 Box Model
 Backgrounds and Borders
  Image Values and Replaced Content
 Text Effects
 2D/3D Transformations
 Animations
 Multiple Column Layout
 User Interface
 

CSS Tutorial
CSS is used to control the style of a web document in a simple and easy way.

CSS is the acronym for "Cascading Style Sheet". This tutorial covers both the
versions CSS1,CSS2 and CSS3, and gives a complete understanding of CSS,
starting from its basics to advanced concepts.

You should be familiar with:

 Basic word processing using any text editor.

 How to create directories and files.
 How to navigate through different directories.
 Internet browsing using popular browsers like Internet Explorer or Firefox.
 Developing simple Web Pages using HTML or XHTML.
If you are new to HTML and XHTML, then we would suggest you to go through our
HTML Tutorial or XHTML Tutorial first.

CSS Syntax
A CSS comprises of style rules that are interpreted by the browser and then
applied to the corresponding elements in your document. A style rule is made of
three parts −

·        Selector − A selector is an HTML tag at which a style will be applied. This

could be any tag like <h1> or <table> etc.

·        Property - A property is a type of attribute of HTML tag. Put simply, all the
HTML attributes are converted into CSS properties. They could
becolor, border etc.
 ·        Value - Values are assigned to properties. For example, color property can
have value either red or #F1F1F1 etc.

You can put CSS Style Rule Syntax as follows −

selector { property: value }

Example: You can define a table border as follows −

table{ border :1px solid #C00; }

Here table is a selector and border is a property and given value 1px solid #C00is
the value of that property.

You can define selectors in various simple ways based on your comfort. Let me put
these selectors one by one.

The Type Selectors

This is the same selector we have seen above. Again, one more example to give a
color to all level 1 headings:

h1 {
   color: #36CFFF;
}

The Universal Selectors

Rather than selecting elements of a specific type, the universal selector quite
simply matches the name of any element type −

* {
   color: #000000;
}

This rule renders the content of every element in our document in black.
The Descendant Selectors
Suppose you want to apply a style rule to a particular element only when it lies
inside a particular element. As given in the following example, style rule will apply
to <em> element only when it lies inside <ul> tag.

ul em {
   color: #000000;
}

The Class Selectors

You can define style rules based on the class attribute of the elements. All the
elements having that class will be formatted according to the defined rule.

.black {
   color: #000000;
}

This rule renders the content in black for every element with class attribute set
to black in our document. You can make it a bit more particular. For example:

h1.black {
   color: #000000;
}

This rule renders the content in black for only <h1> elements with class attribute
set to black.

You can apply more than one class selectors to given element. Consider the
following example:

<p class="center bold">
   This para will be styled by the classes center and bold.
</p>

The ID Selectors
You can define style rules based on the id attribute of the elements. All the
elements having that id will be formatted according to the defined rule.

#black {
   color: #000000;
}
This rule renders the content in black for every element with id attribute set
toblack in our document. You can make it a bit more particular. For example −

h1#black {
   color: #000000;
}

This rule renders the content in black for only <h1> elements with id attribute set
to black.

The true power of id selectors is when they are used as the foundation for
descendant selectors, For example:

#black h2 {
   color: #000000;
}

In this example all level 2 headings will be displayed in black color when those
headings will lie with in tags having id attribute set to black.

The Child Selectors

You have seen the descendant selectors. There is one more type of selector, which
is very similar to descendants but have different functionality. Consider the
following example −

body > p {
   color: #000000;
}

This rule will render all the paragraphs in black if they are direct child of <body>
element. Other paragraphs put inside other elements like <div> or <td> would not
have any effect of this rule.

The Attribute Selectors

You can also apply styles to HTML elements with particular attributes. The style
rule below will match all the input elements having a type attribute with a value
of text −

input[type = "text"]{
   color: #000000;
}
The advantage to this method is that the <input type = "submit" /> element is
unaffected, and the color applied only to the desired text fields.

There are following rules applied to attribute selector.

·        p[lang] - Selects all paragraph elements with a lang attribute.

·        p[lang="fr"] - Selects all paragraph elements whose lang attribute has a

value of exactly "fr".

·        p[lang~="fr"] - Selects all paragraph elements whose lang attribute contains

the word "fr".

·        p[lang|="en"] - Selects all paragraph elements whose lang attribute

contains values that are exactly "en", or begin with "en-".

Multiple Style Rules

You may need to define multiple style rules for a single element. You can define
these rules to combine multiple properties and corresponding values into a single
block as defined in the following example −

h1 {
   color: #36C;
   font-weight: normal;
   letter-spacing: .4em;
   margin-bottom: 1em;
   text-transform: lowercase;
}

Here all the property and value pairs are separated by a semi colon (;). You can
keep them in a single line or multiple lines. For better readability we keep them
into separate lines.

For a while, don't bother about the properties mentioned in the above block. These
properties will be explained in the coming chapters and you can find complete
detail about properties in CSS References.

Grouping Selectors
You can apply a style to many selectors if you like. Just separate the selectors
with a comma, as given in the following example −

h1, h2, h3 {
   color: #36C;
   font-weight: normal;
   letter-spacing: .4em;
   margin-bottom: 1em;
   text-transform: lowercase;
}

This define style rule will be applicable to h1, h2 and h3 element as well. The
order of the list is irrelevant. All the elements in the selector will have the
corresponding declarations applied to them.

You can combine the various class selectors together as shown below −

#content, #footer, #supplement {

   position: absolute;
   left: 510px;
   width: 200px;
}
 

CSS Inclusion
There are four ways to associate styles with your HTML document. Most
commonly used methods are inline CSS and External CSS.

Embedded CSS - The <style> Element

You can put your CSS rules into an HTML document using the <style> element.
This tag is placed inside <head>...</head> tags. Rules defined using this syntax
will be applied to all the elements available in the document. Here is the generic
syntax −

Following is the example of embed CSS based on the above syntax −

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
   <head>
  
      <style type = "text/css" media = "all">
         body {
            background-color: linen;
         }
         h1 {
            color: maroon;
            margin-left: 40px;
         }
      </style>
     
   </head>  
   <body>
      <h1>This is a heading</h1>
      <p>This is a paragraph.</p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Attributes
Attributes associated with <style> elements are −

Attribut Value Description

e

type text/css Specifies the style sheet language as a content-type

(MIME type). This is required attribute.

media screen Specifies the device the document will be displayed on.
Default value is all. This is an optional attribute.
tty

tv

projection

handheld

print

braille
 aural

all

Inline CSS - The style Attribute

You can use style attribute of any HTML element to define style rules. These rules
will be applied to that element only. Here is the generic syntax −

<element style = "...style rules....">

Attributes

Attribut Value Description

e

style style rules The value of style attribute is a combination of style

declarations separated by semicolon (;).

Example
Following is the example of inline CSS based on the above syntax −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <h1 style = "color:#36C;"> This is inline CSS </h1>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

External CSS - The <link> Element

The <link> element can be used to include an external stylesheet file in your HTML
document.

An external style sheet is a separate text file with .css extension. You define all the
Style rules within this text file and then you can include this file in any HTML
document using <link> element.

Here is the generic syntax of including external CSS file −

<head>

   <link type = "text/css" href = "..." media = "..." />

</head>

Attributes
Attributes associated with <style> elements are −

Attribut Value Description

e

type text/css Specifies the style sheet language as a content-type

(MIME type). This attribute is required.

href URL Specifies the style sheet file having Style rules. This
attribute is a required.

media screen

tty

tv

projection

Specifies the device the document will be displayed on.

handheld
Default value is all. This is optional attribute.

print

braille

aural

all

Example
Consider a simple style sheet file with a name mystyle.css having the following
rules −

h1, h2, h3 {
   color: #36C;
   font-weight: normal;
   letter-spacing: .4em;
   margin-bottom: 1em;
   text-transform: lowercase;
}

Now you can include this file mystyle.css in any HTML document as follows −

<head>
   <link type = "text/css" href = "mystyle.css" media = " all" />
</head>

Imported CSS - @import Rule

@import is used to import an external stylesheet in a manner similar to the <link>
element. Here is the generic syntax of @import rule.

<head>
   <@import "URL";
</head>

Here URL is the URL of the style sheet file having style rules. You can use another
syntax as well −

<head>
   <@import url("URL");
</head>

Example
Following is the example showing you how to import a style sheet file into HTML
document −

<head>

   @import "mystyle.css";

</head>

CSS Rules Overriding

We have discussed four ways to include style sheet rules in a an HTML document.
Here is the rule to override any Style Sheet Rule.

·        Any inline style sheet takes highest priority. So, it will override any rule
defined in <style>...</style> tags or rules defined in any external style sheet
file.
 ·        Any rule defined in <style>...</style> tags will override rules defined in any
external style sheet file.

·        Any rule defined in external style sheet file takes lowest priority, and rules
defined in this file will be applied only when above two rules are not
applicable.

Handling old Browsers

There are still many old browsers who do not support CSS. So, we should take
care while writing our Embedded CSS in an HTML document. The following
snippet shows how you can use comment tags to hide CSS from older browsers −

<style type="text/css">
   <!--
      body, td {
         color: blue;
      }
   -->
</style>

CSS Comments
Many times, you may need to put additional comments in your style sheet blocks.
So, it is very easy to comment any part in style sheet. You can simple put your
comments inside /*.....this is a comment in style sheet.....*/.

You can use /* ....*/ to comment multi-line blocks in similar way you do in C and
C++ programming languages.

Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
   <head>
      <style>
         p {
            color: red;
            /* This is a single-line comment */
            text-align: center;
         }
         /* This is a multi-line comment */
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p>Hello World!</p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Hello World

CSS Inclusion
There are four ways to associate styles with your HTML document. Most
commonly used methods are inline CSS and External CSS.

Embedded CSS - The <style> Element

You can put your CSS rules into an HTML document using the <style> element.
This tag is placed inside <head>...</head> tags. Rules defined using this syntax
will be applied to all the elements available in the document. Here is the generic
syntax −

Following is the example of embed CSS based on the above syntax −

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
   <head>
  
      <style type = "text/css" media = "all">
         body {
            background-color: linen;
         }
         h1 {
            color: maroon;
            margin-left: 40px;
         }
      </style>
     
   </head>  
   <body>
      <h1>This is a heading</h1>
      <p>This is a paragraph.</p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Attributes
Attributes associated with <style> elements are −

Attribut Value Description

e

type text/css Specifies the style sheet language as a content-type

(MIME type). This is required attribute.

media screen

tty

tv

projection

Specifies the device the document will be displayed on.

handheld
Default value is all. This is an optional attribute.

print

braille

aural

all

Inline CSS - The style Attribute

You can use style attribute of any HTML element to define style rules. These rules
will be applied to that element only. Here is the generic syntax −

<element style = "...style rules....">

Attributes
 Attribut Value Description
e

style style rules The value of style attribute is a combination of style

declarations separated by semicolon (;).

Example
Following is the example of inline CSS based on the above syntax −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <h1 style = "color:#36C;"> This is inline CSS </h1>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

External CSS - The <link> Element

The <link> element can be used to include an external stylesheet file in your HTML
document.

An external style sheet is a separate text file with .css extension. You define all the
Style rules within this text file and then you can include this file in any HTML
document using <link> element.

Here is the generic syntax of including external CSS file −

<head>

   <link type = "text/css" href = "..." media = "..." />

</head>

Attributes
Attributes associated with <style> elements are −

Attribut Value Description

e
 type text/css Specifies the style sheet language as a content-type
(MIME type). This attribute is required.

href URL Specifies the style sheet file having Style rules. This
attribute is a required.

media screen

tty

tv

projection

Specifies the device the document will be displayed on.

handheld
Default value is all. This is optional attribute.

print

braille

aural

all

Example
Consider a simple style sheet file with a name mystyle.css having the following
rules −

h1, h2, h3 {
   color: #36C;
   font-weight: normal;
   letter-spacing: .4em;
   margin-bottom: 1em;
   text-transform: lowercase;
}

Now you can include this file mystyle.css in any HTML document as follows −

<head>
   <link type = "text/css" href = "mystyle.css" media = " all" />
</head>
Imported CSS - @import Rule
@import is used to import an external stylesheet in a manner similar to the <link>
element. Here is the generic syntax of @import rule.

<head>
   <@import "URL";
</head>

Here URL is the URL of the style sheet file having style rules. You can use another
syntax as well −

<head>
   <@import url("URL");
</head>

Example
Following is the example showing you how to import a style sheet file into HTML
document −

<head>

   @import "mystyle.css";

</head>

CSS Rules Overriding

We have discussed four ways to include style sheet rules in a an HTML document.
Here is the rule to override any Style Sheet Rule.

·        Any inline style sheet takes highest priority. So, it will override any rule
defined in <style>...</style> tags or rules defined in any external style sheet
file.

·        Any rule defined in <style>...</style> tags will override rules defined in any
external style sheet file.

·        Any rule defined in external style sheet file takes lowest priority, and rules
defined in this file will be applied only when above two rules are not
applicable.

Handling old Browsers

There are still many old browsers who do not support CSS. So, we should take
care while writing our Embedded CSS in an HTML document. The following
snippet shows how you can use comment tags to hide CSS from older browsers −

<style type="text/css">
   <!--
      body, td {
         color: blue;
      }
   -->
</style>

CSS Comments
Many times, you may need to put additional comments in your style sheet blocks.
So, it is very easy to comment any part in style sheet. You can simple put your
comments inside /*.....this is a comment in style sheet.....*/.

You can use /* ....*/ to comment multi-line blocks in similar way you do in C and
C++ programming languages.

Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
   <head>
      <style>
         p {
            color: red;
            /* This is a single-line comment */
            text-align: center;
         }
         /* This is a multi-line comment */
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p>Hello World!</p>
   </body>
</html>
It will produce the following result −

Hello World

CSS Measurement Units

Before we start actual exercise, we would like to give a brief idea about the CSS
Measurement Units.

CSS supports a number of measurements including absolute units such as

inches, centimeters, points, and so on, as well as relative measures such as
percentages and em units. You need these values while specifying various
measurements in your Style rules e.g border = "1px solid red".

We have listed out all the CSS Measurement Units along with proper Examples −

Unit Description Example

% Defines a measurement as a percentage relative to p {font-size:

another value, typically an enclosing element. 16pt; line-
height: 125%;}

cm Defines a measurement in centimeters. div {margin-

bottom: 2cm;}

em A relative measurement for the height of a font in em p {letter-

spaces. Because an em unit is equivalent to the size of a spacing: 7em;}
given font, if you assign a font to 12pt, each "em" unit
would be 12pt; thus, 2em would be 24pt.

ex This value defines a measurement relative to a font's x- p {font-size:

height. The x-height is determined by the height of the 24pt; line-
font's lowercase letter x. height: 3ex;}

in Defines a measurement in inches. p {word-

spacing: .15in;}

mm Defines a measurement in millimeters. p {word-

spacing:
15mm;}
 pc Defines a measurement in picas. A pica is equivalent to p {font-size:
12 points; thus, there are 6 picas per inch. 20pc;}

pt Defines a measurement in points. A point is defined as body {font-size:

1/72nd of an inch. 18pt;}

px Defines a measurement in screen pixels. p {padding:

25px;}

vh 1% of viewport height. h2 { font-size:

3.0vh; }

vw 1% of viewport width h1 { font-size:

5.9vw; }

vmi 1vw or 1vh, whichever is smaller p { font-size:

n 2vmin;}

CSS Colors
CSS uses color values to specify a color. Typically, these are used to set a color
either for the foreground of an element (i.e., its text) or else for the background of
the element. They can also be used to affect the color of borders and other
decorative effects.

You can specify your color values in various formats. Following table lists all the
possible formats −

Format Syntax Example

Hex Code #RRGGBB p{color:#FF0000;}

Short Hex Code #RGB p{color:#6A7;}

RGB % rgb(rrr%,ggg%,bbb%) p{color:rgb(50%,50%,50%);}

 RGB Absolute rgb(rrr,ggg,bbb) p{color:rgb(0,0,255);}

keyword aqua, black, etc. p{color:teal;}

These formats are explained in more detail in the following sections −

CSS Colors - Hex Codes

A hexadecimal is a 6 digit representation of a color. The first two digits(RR)
represent a red value, the next two are a green value(GG), and the last are the blue
value(BB).

A hexadecimal value can be taken from any graphics software like Adobe
Photoshop, Jasc Paintshop Pro, or even using Advanced Paint Brush.

Each hexadecimal code will be preceded by a pound or hash sign '#'. Following are
the examples to use Hexadecimal notation.

Color Color HEX

  #000000

  #FF0000

  #00FF00

  #0000FF

  #FFFF00

  #00FFFF

  #FF00FF

  #C0C0C0

  #FFFFFF
CSS Colors - Short Hex Codes
This is a shorter form of the six-digit notation. In this format, each digit is
replicated to arrive at an equivalent six-digit value. For example: #6A7 becomes
#66AA77.

A hexadecimal value can be taken from any graphics software like Adobe
Photoshop, Jasc Paintshop Pro, or even using Advanced Paint Brush.

Each hexadecimal code will be preceded by a pound or hash sign '#'. Following are
the examples to use Hexadecimal notation.

Color Color HEX

  #000

  #F00

  #0F0

  #0FF

  #FF0

  #0FF

  #F0F

  #FFF

CSS Colors - RGB Values

This color value is specified using the rgb( ) property. This property takes three
values, one each for red, green, and blue. The value can be an integer between 0
and 255 or a percentage.
NOTE: All the browsers does not support rgb() property of color so it is
recommended not to use it.

Following is the example to show few colors using RGB values.

Color Color RGB

  rgb(0,0,0)

  rgb(255,0,0)

  rgb(0,255,0)

  rgb(0,0,255)

  rgb(255,255,0)

  rgb(0,255,255)

  rgb(255,0,255)

  rgb(192,192,192)

  rgb(255,255,255)

Building Color Codes

You can build millions of color codes using our Color Code Builder. To use this
tool you would need a Java Enabled Browser.

Browser Safe Colors

Here is the list of 216 colors which are supposed to be most safe and computer
independent colors. These colors vary from hexa code 000000 to FFFFFF. These
colors are safe to use because they ensure that all computers would display the
colors correctly when running a 256 color palette −

000000 000033 000066 000099 0000CC 0000FF

003300 003333 003366 003399 0033CC 0033FF

006600 006633 006666 006699 0066CC 0066FF

009900 009933 009966 009999 0099CC 0099FF

00CC00 00CC33 00CC66 00CC99 00CCCC 00CCFF

00FF00 00FF33 00FF66 00FF99 00FFCC 00FFFF

330000 330033 330066 330099 3300CC 3300FF

333300 333333 333366 333399 3333CC 3333FF

336600 336633 336666 336699 3366CC 3366FF

339900 339933 339966 339999 3399CC 3399FF

33CC00 33CC33 33CC66 33CC99 33CCCC 33CCFF

33FF00 33FF33 33FF66 33FF99 33FFCC 33FFFF

660000 660033 660066 660099 6600CC 6600FF

663300 663333 663366 663399 6633CC 6633FF

666600 666633 666666 666699 6666CC 6666FF

669900 669933 669966 669999 6699CC 6699FF

66CC00 66CC33 66CC66 66CC99 66CCCC 66CCFF

66FF00 66FF33 66FF66 66FF99 66FFCC 66FFFF

990000 990033 990066 990099 9900CC 9900FF

993300 993333 993366 993399 9933CC 9933FF

996600 996633 996666 996699 9966CC 9966FF

999900 999933 999966 999999 9999CC 9999FF

99CC00 99CC33 99CC66 99CC99 99CCCC 99CCFF

99FF00 99FF33 99FF66 99FF99 99FFCC 99FFFF

CC0000 CC0033 CC0066 CC0099 CC00CC CC00FF

CC3300 CC3333 CC3366 CC3399 CC33CC CC33FF

CC6600 CC6633 CC6666 CC6699 CC66CC CC66FF

CC9900 CC9933 CC9966 CC9999 CC99CC CC99FF

CCCC00 CCCC33 CCCC66 CCCC99 CCCCCC CCCCFF

CCFF00 CCFF33 CCFF66 CCFF99 CCFFCC CCFFFF

FF0000 FF0033 FF0066 FF0099 FF00CC FF00FF

FF3300 FF3333 FF3366 FF3399 FF33CC FF33FF

FF6600 FF6633 FF6666 FF6699 FF66CC FF66FF

FF9900 FF9933 FF9966 FF9999 FF99CC FF99FF

 FFCC00 FFCC33 FFCC66 FFCC99 FFCCCC FFCCFF

FFFF00 FFFF33 FFFF66 FFFF99 FFFFCC FFFFFF

CSS Background
This chapter teaches you how to set backgrounds of various HTML elements. You
can set the following background properties of an element −

·        The background-color property is used to set the background color of an

element.

·        The background-image property is used to set the background image of

an element.

·        The background-repeat property is used to control the repetition of an

image in the background.

·        The background-position property is used to control the position of an

image in the background.

·        The background-attachment property is used to control the scrolling of

an image in the background.

·        The background property is used as a shorthand to specify a number of

other background properties.

Set the Background Color

Following is the example which demonstrates how to set the background color for
an element.

<html>
   <head>
   <body>
      <p style = "background-color:yellow;">
      This text has a yellow background color.</p>
   </body>
   </head>
<html>
It will produce the following result −

This text has a yellow background color.

Set the Background Image

We can set the background image by calling local stored images as
shown below
<html>
   <head>
      <style>
         body  {
            background-image: url("/css/images/css.jpg");
            background-color: #cccccc;
         }
      </style>
      <body>
         <h1>Hello World!</h1>
      </body>
   </head>
<html>

It will produce the following result −

Hello World!
Repeat the Background Image
The following example demonstrates how to repeat the background
image if an image is small. You can use no-repeat value
for background-repeat property if you don't want to repeat an
image, in this case image will display only once.

By default background-repeat property will have repeat value.

<html>
   <head>
      <style>
         body {
            background-image: url("/css/images/css.jpg");
            background-repeat: repeat;
         }
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p>Tutorials point</p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

 The following example which demonstrates how to repeat the background image
vertically.
<html>
   <head>
      <style>
         body {
            background-image: url("/css/images/css.jpg");
            background-repeat: repeat-y;
         }
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p>Tutorials point</>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

repeat-y will repeat a background image only vertical.
 

The following example demonstrates how to repeat the background image

horizontally.

<html>
   <head>
      <style>
         body {
            background-image: url("/css/images/css.jpg");
            background-repeat: repeat-x;
         }
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p>Tutorials point</>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

repeat-x will repeat a background image only horizontally.

Set the Background Image Position

The following example demonstrates how to set the background
image position 100 pixels away from the left side.
<html>
   <head>
      <style>
         body {
            background-image: url("/css/images/css.jpg");
            background-position:100px;
         }
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p>Tutorials point</>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Background image is placed certain position.

The following example demonstrates how to set the background image position
100 pixels away from the left side and 200 pixels down from the top.

<html>
   <head>
      <style>
         body {
            background-image: url("/css/images/css.jpg");
            background-position:100px 200px;
         }
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p>Tutorials point</>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Background position is placed at 100px and 200px scale.

Set the Background Attachment

Background attachment determines whether a background image
is fixed or scrolls with the rest of the page.

The following example demonstrates how to set the fixed

background image.
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
   <head>
  
      <style>
         body  {
            background-image: url('/css/images/css.jpg');
            background-repeat: no-repeat;
            background-attachment: fixed;
         }
      </style>
     
   </head>
   <body>
  
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
     
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
If you do not see any scrollbars, try to resize the browser window.

The following example demonstrates how to set the scrolling background image.

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
   <head>
  
      <style>
         body  {
            background-image: url('/css/images/css.jpg');
            background-repeat: no-repeat;
            background-attachment: fixed;
            background-attachment:scroll;
         }.
      </style>
     
   </head>
   <body>
  
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
      <p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
     
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.
If you do not see any scrollbars, try to resize the browser window

Shorthand Property
You can use the background property to set all the background
properties at once. For example −

<p style="background:url(/https/www.scribd.com/images/pattern1.gif) repeat fixed;">

   This parapgraph has fixed repeated background image.
</p>
 

CSS Fonts
This chapter teaches you how to set fonts of a content, available in an HTML
element. You can set following font properties of an element −

·        The font-family property is used to change the face of a font.

·        The font-style property is used to make a font italic or oblique.

·        The font-variant property is used to create a small-caps effect.

 ·        The font-weight property is used to increase or decrease how bold or light
a font appears.

·        The font-size property is used to increase or decrease the size of a font.

·        The font property is used as shorthand to specify a number of other font

properties.

Set the Font Family

Following is the example, which demonstrates how to set the font family of an
element. Possible value could be any font family name.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="font-family:georgia,garamond,serif;">
      This text is rendered in either georgia, garamond, or the default serif font
      depending on which font  you have at your system.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This text is rendered in either georgia, garamond, or the default serif font
depending on which font you have at your system.

Set the Font Style

Following is the example, which demonstrates how to set the font style of an
element. Possible values are normal, italic and oblique.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="font-style:italic;">
      This text will be rendered in italic style
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This text will be rendered in italic style

Set the Font Variant

The following example demonstrates how to set the font variant of an element.
Possible values are normal and small-caps.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="font-variant:small-caps;">
      This text will be rendered as small caps
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

THIS TEXT WILL BE RENDERED AS SMALL CAPS

The following example demonstrates how to set the font weight of an element. The
font-weight property provides the functionality to specify how bold a font is.
Possible values could be normal, bold, bolder, lighter, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600,
700, 800, 900.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="font-weight:bold;">This font is bold.</p>
      <p style="font-weight:bolder;">This font is bolder.</p>
      <p style="font-weight:500;">This font is 500 weight.</p>
   </body>
</html>
It will produce the following result –

This font is bold.

This font is bolder.
This font is 500 weight.

Set the Font Size

The following example demonstrates how to set the font size of an element. The
font-size property is used to control the size of fonts. Possible values could be xx-
small, x-small, small, medium, large, x-large, xx-large, smaller, larger, size in pixels
or in %.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="font-size:20px;">This font size is 20 pixels</p>
      <p style="font-size:small;">This font size is small</p>
      <p style="font-size:large;">This font size is large</p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

This font size is 20 pixels

This font size is small
This font size is large

The following example demonstrates how to set the font size adjust of an element.
This property enables you to adjust the x-height to make fonts more legible.
Possible value could be any number.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="font-size-adjust:0.61;">
         This text is using a font-size-adjust value.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This text is using a font-size-adjust value.

Set the Font Stretch

The following example demonstrates how to set the font stretch of an element. This
property relies on the user's computer to have an expanded or condensed version
of the font being used.

Possible values could be normal, wider, narrower, ultra-condensed, extra-

condensed, condensed, semi-condensed, semi-expanded, expanded, extra-
expanded, ultra-expanded.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="font-stretch:ultra-expanded;">
         If this doesn't appear to work, it is likely that your computer doesn't have a 
         condensed or expanded version of the font being used.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

If this doesn't appear to work, it is likely that your computer doesn't have a
condensed or expanded version of the font being used.

Shorthand Property
You can use the font property to set all the font properties at once. For example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="font:italic small-caps bold 15px georgia;">
      Applying all the properties on the text at once.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

APPLYING ALL THE PROPERTIES ON THE TEXT AT ONCE.

CSS - Text
This chapter teaches you how to manipulate text using CSS properties. You can
set following text properties of an element −

·        The color property is used to set the color of a text.

·        The direction property is used to set the text direction.

·        The letter-spacing property is used to add or subtract space between the

letters that make up a word.

·        The word-spacing property is used to add or subtract space between the

words of a sentence.

·        The text-indent property is used to indent the text of a paragraph.

·        The text-align property is used to align the text of a document.

·        The text-decoration property is used to underline, overline, and

strikethrough text.

·        The text-transform property is used to capitalize text or convert text to

uppercase or lowercase letters.

·        The white-space property is used to control the flow and formatting of text.

·        The text-shadow property is used to set the text shadow around a text.

Set the Text Color

The following example demonstrates how to set the text color. Possible value could
be any color name in any valid format.
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="color:red;">
      This text will be written in red.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This text will be written in red.

Set the Text Direction

The following example demonstrates how to set the direction of a text. Possible
values are ltr or rtl.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="direction:rtl;">
      This text will be renedered from right to left
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This text will be renedered from right to left

Set the Space between Characters

The following example demonstrates how to set the space between characters.
Possible values are normal or a number specifying space..

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="letter-spacing:5px;">
      This text is having space between letters.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This text is having space between letters.

Set the Space between Words

The following example demonstrates how to set the space between words. Possible
values are normal or a number specifying space.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="word-spacing:5px;">
      This text is having space between words.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This text is having space between letters.

Set the Text Indent

The following example demonstrates how to indent the first line of a paragraph.
Possible values are % or a number specifying indent space.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="text-indent:1cm;">
      This text will have first line indented by 1cm and this line will remain at
      its actual position this is done by CSS text-indent property.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This text will have first line indented by 1cm and this line will remain at its
actual position this is done by CSS text-indent property.

Set the Text Alignment

The following example demonstrates how to align a text. Possible values areleft,
right, center, justify.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="text-align:right;">
      This will be right aligned.
      </p>
     
      <p style="text-align:center;">
      This will be center aligned.
      </p>
     
      <p style="text-align:left;">
      This will be left aligned.
      </p>
     
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This will be right aligned.

This will be center aligned.
This will be left aligned.
 

Decorating the Text

The following example demonstrates how to decorate a text. Possible values
are none, underline, overline, line-through, blink.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="text-decoration:underline;">
      This will be underlined
      </p>
      
      <p style="text-decoration:line-through;">
      This will be striked through.
      </p>
     
      <p style="text-decoration:overline;">
      This will have a over line.
      </p>
     
      <p style="text-decoration:blink;">
      This text will have blinking effect
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result &minnus;

This will be underlined

This will be striked through.
This will have a over line.
This text will have blinking effect

Set the Text Cases

The following example demonstrates how to set the cases for a text. Possible
values are none, capitalize, uppercase, lowercase.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="text-transform:capitalize;">
      This will be capitalized
      </p>
     
      <p style="text-transform:uppercase;">
      This will be in uppercase
      </p>
     
      <p style="text-transform:lowercase;">
      This will be in lowercase
      </p>
      </body>
 
</html>

It will produce the following result:

This Will Be Capitalized

THIS WILL BE IN UPPERCASE
this will be in lowercase

Set the White Space between Text

The following example demonstrates how white space inside an element is
handled. Possible values are normal, pre, nowrap.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="white-space:pre;">
      This text has a line break and the white-space pre setting tells the browser to
honor
      it just like the HTML pre tag.</p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

 This text has a line break and the white-space pre setting tells the browser to
honor

   it just like the HTML pre tag.

Set the Text Shadow

The following example demonstrates how to set the shadow around a text. This
may not be supported by all the browsers.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="text-shadow:4px 4px 8px blue;">
      If your browser supports the CSS text-shadow property, this text will have a
blue shadow.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

If your browser supports the CSS text-shadow property, this text will have a blue
shadow.

CSS Using Images

Images play an important role in any webpage. Though it is not recommended to
include a lot of images, but it is still important to use good images wherever
required.

CSS plays a good role to control image display. You can set the following image
properties using CSS.

·        The border property is used to set the width of an image border.

 ·        The height property is used to set the height of an image.

·        The width property is used to set the width of an image.

·        The -moz-opacity property is used to set the opacity of an image.

The Image Border Property

The border property of an image is used to set the width of an image border. This
property can have a value in length or in %.

A width of zero pixels means no border.

Here is the example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <img style="border:0px;" src="/css/images/logo.png" />
      <br />
      <img style="border:3px dashed red;" src="/css/images/logo.png" />
   </body>
</html>

 
The Image Height Property
The height property of an image is used to set the height of an image. This
property can have a value in length or in %. While giving value in %, it applies it in
respect of the box in which an image is available.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <img style="border:1px solid
red; height:100px;" src="/css/images/logo.png" />
      <br />
      <img style="border:1px solid red; height:50%;" src="/css/images/logo.png" />
   </body>
</html>

 
The Image Width Property
The width property of an image is used to set the width of an image. This property
can have a value in length or in %. While giving value in %, it applies it in respect
of the box in which an image is available.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <img style="border:1px solid red; width:150px;" src="/css/images/logo.png" />
      <br />
      <img style="border:1px solid red; width:100%;" src="/css/images/logo.png" />
   </body>
</html>

The -moz-opacity Property

The -moz-opacity property of an image is used to set the opacity of an image. This
property is used to create a transparent image in Mozilla. IE
usesfilter:alpha(opacity=x) to create transparent images.

In Mozilla (-moz-opacity:x) x can be a value from 0.0 - 1.0. A lower value makes
the element more transparent (The same things goes for the CSS3-valid syntax
opacity:x).

In IE (filter:alpha(opacity=x)) x can be a value from 0 - 100. A lower value makes

the element more transparent.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <img style="border:1px solid red;-moz-
opacity:0.4;filter:alpha(opacity=40);" src="/css/images/logo.png" />
   </body>
</html>
 

CSS Links
This chapter teaches you how to set different properties of a hyper link using CSS.
You can set following properties of a hyper link −

We will revisit the same properties when we will discuss Pseudo-Classes of CSS.

·        The :link signifies unvisited hyperlinks.

·        The :visited signifies visited hyperlinks.

·        The :hover signifies an element that currently has the user's mouse pointer

hovering over it.

·        The :active signifies an element on which the user is currently clicking.

Usually, all these properties are kept in the header part of the HTML document.

Remember a:hover MUST come after a:link and a:visited in the CSS definition in
order to be effective. Also, a:active MUST come after a:hover in the CSS definition
as follows −

<style type="text/css">

   a:link {color: #000000}

   a:visited {color: #006600}

   a:hover {color: #FFCC00}

   a:active {color: #FF00CC}

</style>

Now, we will see how to use these properties to give different effects to hyperlinks.

Set the Color of Links

The following example demonstrates how to set the link color. Possible values
could be any color name in any valid format.

<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         a:link {color:#000000}
     </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <a href="">Link</a>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following black link:

Set the Color of Visited Links

The following example demonstrates how to set the color of visited links. Possible
values could be any color name in any valid format.

<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         a:visited {color: #006600}
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <a href=""> link</a>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following link. Once you will click this link, it will change its
color to green.

Change the Color of Links when Mouse is Over

The following example demonstrates how to change the color of links when we
bring a mouse pointer over that link. Possible values could be any color name in
any valid format.

<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         a:hover {color: #FFCC00}
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <a href="">Link</a>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following link. Now, you bring your mouse over this link and
you will see that it changes its color to yellow.

Change the Color of Active Links

The following example demonstrates how to change the color of active links.
Possible values could be any color name in any valid format.

<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         a:active {color: #FF00CC}
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <a href="">Link</a>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following link. It will change its color to pink when the user
clicks it.

CSS Tables
This tutorial will teach you how to set different properties of an HTML table using
CSS. You can set following properties of a table −

·        The border-collapse specifies whether the browser should control the

appearance of the adjacent borders that touch each other or whether each
cell should maintain its style.

·        The border-spacing specifies the width that should appear between table

cells.
 ·        The caption-side captions are presented in the <caption> element. By
default, these are rendered above the table in the document. You use
the caption-side property to control the placement of the table caption.

·        The empty-cells specifies whether the border should be shown if a cell is

empty.

·        The table-layout allows browsers to speed up layout of a table by using the

first width properties it comes across for the rest of a column rather than
having to load the whole table before rendering it.

Now, we will see how to use these properties with examples.

The border-collapse Property:

This property can have two values collapse and separate. The following example
uses both the values:

<html>
   <head>
  
      <style type="text/css">
         table.one {border-collapse:collapse;}
         table.two {border-collapse:separate;}
         td.a {
            border-style:dotted;
            border-width:3px;
            border-color:#000000;
            padding: 10px;
         }
         td.b {
            border-style:solid;
            border-width:3px;
            border-color:#333333;
            padding:10px;
         }
      </style>
     
   </head>
   <body>
  
      <table class="one">
         <caption>Collapse Border Example</caption>
         <tr><td class="a"> Cell A Collapse Example</td></tr>
         <tr><td class="b"> Cell B Collapse Example</td></tr>
      </table>
      <br />
     
      <table class="two">
         <caption>Separate Border Example</caption>
         <tr><td class="a"> Cell A Separate Example</td></tr>
         <tr><td class="b"> Cell B Separate Example</td></tr>
      </table>
     
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

Collapse Border Example

Cell A Collapse Example

Cell B Collapse Example

Separate Border Example

Cell A Separate Example

Cell B Separate Example

The border-spacing Property

The border-spacing property specifies the distance that separates adjacent cells'.
borders. It can take either one or two values; these should be units of length.

If you provide one value, it will applies to both vertical and horizontal borders. Or
you can specify two values, in which case, the first refers to the horizontal spacing
and the second to the vertical spacing −

NOTE − Unfortunately, this property does not work in Netscape 7 or IE 6.

<style type="text/css">

   /* If you provide one value */

   table.example {border-spacing:10px;}

   /* This is how you can provide two values */

   table.example {border-spacing:10px; 15px;}

</style>

Now let's modify the previous example and see the effect −

<html>
   <head>
  
      <style type="text/css">
         table.one {
            border-collapse:separate;
            width:400px;
            border-spacing:10px;
         }
         table.two {
            border-collapse:separate;
            width:400px;
            border-spacing:10px 50px;
         }
      </style>
     
   </head>
   <body>
  
      <table class="one" border="1">
         <caption>Separate Border Example with border-spacing</caption>
         <tr><td> Cell A Collapse Example</td></tr>
         <tr><td> Cell B Collapse Example</td></tr>
      </table>
      <br />
     
      <table class="two" border="1">
         <caption>Separate Border Example with border-spacing</caption>
         <tr><td> Cell A Separate Example</td></tr>
         <tr><td> Cell B Separate Example</td></tr>
      </table>
     
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

Separate Border Example with border-spacing

Cell A Collapse Example

Cell B Collapse Example

Separate Border Example with border-spacing

Cell A Separate Example

Cell B Separate Example

The caption-side Property

The caption-side property allows you to specify where the content of a <caption>
element should be placed in relationship to the table. The table that follows lists
the possible values.

This property can have one of the four values top, bottom, left or right. The
following example uses each value.
NOTE: These properties may not work with your IE Browser.

<html>
   <head>
  
      <style type="text/css">
         caption.top {caption-side:top}
         caption.bottom {caption-side:bottom}
         caption.left {caption-side:left}
         caption.right {caption-side:right}
      </style>
     
   </head>
   <body>
  
      <table style="width:400px; border:1px solid black;">
         <caption class="top">
         This caption will appear at the top
         </caption>
         <tr><td > Cell A</td></tr>
         <tr><td > Cell B</td></tr>
      </table>
      <br />
     
      <table style="width:400px; border:1px solid black;">
         <caption class="bottom">
         This caption will appear at the bottom
         </caption>
         <tr><td > Cell A</td></tr>
         <tr><td > Cell B</td></tr>
      </table>
      <br />
     
      <table style="width:400px; border:1px solid black;">
         <caption class="left">
         This caption will appear at the left
         </caption>
         <tr><td > Cell A</td></tr>
         <tr><td > Cell B</td></tr>
      </table>
      <br />
     
      <table style="width:400px; border:1px solid black;">
         <caption class="right">
         This caption will appear at the right
         </caption>
         <tr><td > Cell A</td></tr>
         <tr><td > Cell B</td></tr>
      </table>
     
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This caption will appear at the top

Cell A

Cell B
 

This caption will appear at the bottom

Cell A

Cell B
 

This caption will appear at the left

Cell A

Cell B
 

This caption will appear at the right

Cell A
Cell B

The empty-cells Property

The empty-cells property indicates whether a cell without any content should have
a border displayed.

This property can have one of the three values - show, hide or inherit.

Here is the empty-cells property used to hide borders of empty cells in the <table>
element.

<html>
   <head>
  
      <style type="text/css">
         table.empty{
            width:350px;
            border-collapse:separate;
            empty-cells:hide;
         }
         td.empty{
            padding:5px;
            border-style:solid;
            border-width:1px;
            border-color:#999999;
         }
      </style>
     
   </head>
   <body>
  
      <table class="empty">
      <tr>
         <th></th>
         <th>Title one</th>
         <th>Title two</th>
      </tr>
     
      <tr>
         <th>Row Title</th>
         <td class="empty">value</td>
         <td class="empty">value</td>
      </tr>
     
      <tr>
         <th>Row Title</th>
         <td class="empty">value</td>
         <td class="empty"></td>
      </tr>
      </table>
     
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

Title one Title two

Row Title value value

Row Title value

The table-layout Property

The table-layout property is supposed to help you control how a browser should
render or lay out a table.

This property can have one of the three values: fixed, auto or inherit.

The following example shows the difference between these properties.

NOTE − This property is not supported by many browsers so do not rely on this
property.
<html>
   <head>
  
      <style type="text/css">
         table.auto {
            table-layout: auto
         }
         table.fixed{
            table-layout: fixed
         }
      </style>
     
   </head>
   <body>
  
      <table class="auto" border="1" width="100%">
      <tr>
         <td width="20%">1000000000000000000000000000</td>
         <td width="40%">10000000</td>
         <td width="40%">100</td>
      </tr>
      </table>
      <br />
     
      <table class="fixed" border="1" width="100%">
      <tr>
         <td width="20%">1000000000000000000000000000</td>
         <td width="40%">10000000</td>
         <td width="40%">100</td>
      </tr>
      </table>
     
   </body>
</html>
It will produce the following result −

10000000000000000 10000000 100

100000000000 10000000 100

CSS Borders
 

The border properties allow you to specify how the border of the box representing
an element should look. There are three properties of a border you can change:

·        The border-color specifies the color of a border.

·        The border-style specifies whether a border should be solid, dashed line,

double line, or one of the other possible values.

·        The border-width specifies the width of a border.

Now, we will see how to use these properties with examples.

The border-color Property

The border-color property allows you to change the color of the border
surrounding an element. You can individually change the color of the bottom, left,
top and right sides of an element's border using the properties −

·        border-bottom-color changes the color of bottom border.

·        border-top-color changes the color of top border.

·        border-left-color changes the color of left border.

·        border-right-color changes the color of right border.

The following example shows the effect of all these properties −

<html>
   <head>
  
      <style type="text/css">
         p.example1{
            border:1px solid;
            border-bottom-color:#009900; /* Green */
            border-top-color:#FF0000;    /* Red */
            border-left-color:#330000;   /* Black */
            border-right-color:#0000CC;  /* Blue */
         }
         p.example2{
            border:1px solid;
            border-color:#009900;        /* Green */
         }
      </style>
     
   </head>
   <body>
  
      <p class="example1">
      This example is showing all borders in different colors.
      </p>
     
      <p class="example2">
      This example is showing all borders in green color only.
      </p>
     
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This example is showing all borders in different colors.

This example is showing all borders in green color only.

The border-style Property

The border-style property allows you to select one of the following styles of border
−
 ·        none: No border. (Equivalent of border-width:0;)

·        solid: Border is a single solid line.

·        dotted: Border is a series of dots.

·        dashed: Border is a series of short lines.

·        double: Border is two solid lines.

·        groove: Border looks as though it is carved into the page.

·        ridge: Border looks the opposite of groove.

·        inset: Border makes the box look like it is embedded in the page.

·        outset: Border makes the box look like it is coming out of the canvas.

·        hidden: Same as none, except in terms of border-conflict resolution for

table elements.

You can individually change the style of the bottom, left, top, and right borders of
an element using the following properties −

·        border-bottom-style changes the style of bottom border.

·        border-top-style changes the style of top border.

·        border-left-style changes the style of left border.

·        border-right-style changes the style of right border.

The following example shows all these border styles −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>.
      <p style="border-width:4px; border-style:none;">
      This is a border with none width.
      </p>
     
      <p style="border-width:4px; border-style:solid;">
      This is a solid border.
      </p>
     
      <p style="border-width:4px; border-style:dashed;">
      This is a dahsed border.
      </p>
     
      <p style="border-width:4px; border-style:double;">
      This is a double border.
      </p>
     
      <p style="border-width:4px; border-style:groove;">
      This is a groove border.
      </p>
     
      <p style="border-width:4px; border-style:ridge">
      This is aridge  border.
      </p>
      
      <p style="border-width:4px; border-style:inset;">
      This is a inset border.
      </p>
     
      <p style="border-width:4px; border-style:outset;">
      This is a outset border.
      </p>
     
      <p style="border-width:4px; border-style:hidden;">
      This is a hidden border.
      </p>
     
      <p style="border-width:4px;border-top-style:solid;
      border-bottom-style:dashed; border-left-style:groove; border-right-
style:double;">
      This is a a border with four different styles.
      </p>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This is a border with none width.

This is a solid border.

This is a dahsed border.

This is a double border.

This is a groove border.

This is aridge border.

This is a inset border.

This is a outset border.

This is a hidden border.

This is a a border with four different styles.

The border-width Property −

The border-width property allows you to set the width of an element borders. The
value of this property could be either a length in px, pt or cm or it should be set
to thin, medium or thick.

You can individually change the width of the bottom, top, left, and right borders of
an element using the following properties −

·        border-bottom-width changes the width of bottom border.

·        border-top-width changes the width of top border.

·        border-left-width changes the width of left border.

 ·        border-right-width changes the width of right border.

The following example shows all these border width −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="border-width:4px; border-style:solid;">
      This is a solid border whose width is 4px.
      </p>
     
      <p style="border-width:4pt; border-style:solid;">
      This is a solid border whose width is 4pt.
      </p>
     
      <p style="border-width:thin; border-style:solid;">
      This is a solid border whose width is thin.
      </p>
     
      <p style="border-width:medium; border-style:solid;">
      This is a solid border whose width is medium;
      </p>
     
      <p style="border-width:thick; border-style:solid;">
      This is a solid border whose width is thick.
      </p>
     
      <p style="border-bottom-width:4px;border-top-width:10px;
      border-left-width: 2px;border-right-width:15px;border-style:solid;">
      This is a a border with four different width.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This is a solid border whose width is 4px.
This is a solid border whose width is 4pt.
This is a solid border whose width is thin.
This is a solid border whose width is medium;
This is a solid border whose width is thick.
This is a a border with four different width.

Border Properties Using Shorthand

The border property allows you to specify color, style, and width of lines in one
property −

The following example shows how to use all the three properties into a single
property. This is the most frequently used property to set border around any
element.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="border:4px solid red;">
      This example is showing shorthand property for border.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

This example is showing shorthand property for border(this text red color border).

CSS Margins
 

The margin property defines the space around an HTML element. It is possible to

use negative values to overlap content.

The values of the margin property are not inherited by the child elements.
Remember that the adjacent vertical margins (top and bottom margins) will
collapse into each other so that the distance between the blocks is not the sum of
the margins, but only the greater of the two margins or the same size as one
margin if both are equal.
We have the following properties to set an element margin.

·        The margin specifies a shorthand property for setting the margin properties

in one declaration.

·        The margin-bottom specifies the bottom margin of an element.

·        The margin-top specifies the top margin of an element.

·        The margin-left specifies the left margin of an element.

·        The margin-right specifies the right margin of an element.

Now, we will see how to use these properties with examples.

The Margin Property

The margin property allows you set all of the properties for the four margins in one
declaration. Here is the syntax to set margin around a paragraph −

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p style="margin: 15px; border:1px solid black;">
      all four margins will be 15px
      </p>
     
      <p style="margin:10px 2%; border:1px solid black;">
      top and bottom margin will be 10px, left and right margin will be 2% of the
total width of the document.
      </p>
     
      <p style="margin: 10px 2% -10px; border:1px solid black;">
      top margin will be 10px, left and right margin will be 2% of the total width of
the document, bottom margin will be -10px
      </p>
     
      <p style="margin: 10px 2% -10px auto; border:1px solid black;">
      top margin will be 10px, right margin will be 2% of the total width of the
document, bottom margin will be -10px, left margin will be set by the browser
      </p>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result –

all four margins will be 15px

top and bottom margin will be 10px, left and right margin will be 2% of the
total width of the document.
top margin will be 10px, left and right margin will be 2% of the total width of
the document, bottom margin will be -10px
top margin will be 10px, right margin will be 2% of the total width of the
document, bottom margin will be -10px, left margin will be set by the
browser
 

The margin-bottom Property

The margin-bottom property allows you set bottom margin of an element. It can
have a value in length, % or auto.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="margin-bottom: 15px; border:1px solid black;">
      This is a paragraph with a specified bottom margin.
      </p>
  
      <p style="margin-bottom: 5%; border:1px solid black;">
      This is another paragraph with a specified bottom margin in percent
      </p>
   </body>
</html>
It will produce the following result –

This is a paragraph with a specified bottom margin

This is another paragraph with a specified bottom margin in percent

The margin-top Property

The margin-top property allows you set top margin of an element. It can have a
value in length, % or auto.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="margin-top: 15px; border:1px solid black;">
      This is a paragraph with a specified top margin
      </p>
     
      <p style="margin-top: 5%; border:1px solid black;">
      This is another paragraph with a specified top margin in percent
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result:

This is a paragraph with a specified top margin

This is another paragraph with a specified top margin in percent

The margin-left Property

The margin-left property allows you set left margin of an element. It can have a
value in length, % or auto.

Here is an example:
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="margin-left: 15px; border:1px solid black;">
      This is a paragraph with a specified left margin
      </p>
  
      <p style="margin-left: 5%; border:1px solid black;">
      This is another paragraph with a specified top margin in percent
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This is a paragraph with a specified left margin

This is another paragraph with a specified top margin in percent

The margin-right Property

The margin-right property allows you set right margin of an element. It can have a
value in length, % or auto.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="margin-right: 15px; border:1px solid black;">
      This is a paragraph with a specified right margin
      </p>
     
      <p style="margin-right: 5%; border:1px solid black;">
      This is another paragraph with a specified right margin in percent
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

This is a paragraph with a specified right margin

This is another paragraph with a specified right margin in percent
 

CSS Lists
Lists are very helpful in conveying a set of either numbered or bullet points. This
chapter teaches you how to control list type, position, style, etc., using CSS.

We have the following five CSS properties, which can be used to control lists:

·        The list-style-type allows you to control the shape or appearance of the

marker.

·        The list-style-position specifies whether a long point that wraps to a

second line should align with the first line or start underneath the start of
the marker.

·        The list-style-image specifies an image for the marker rather than a bullet

point or number.

·        The list-style serves as shorthand for the preceding properties.

·        The marker-offset specifies the distance between a marker and the text in

the list.

Now, we will see how to use these properties with examples.

The list-style-type Property

The list-style-type property allows you to control the shape or style of bullet point
(also known as a marker) in the case of unordered lists and the style of numbering
characters in ordered lists.

Here are the values which can be used for an unordered list −

Value Description

none NA
disc (default) A filled-in circle

circle An empty circle

square A filled-in square

Here are the values, which can be used for an ordered list −

Value Description Example

decimal Number 1,2,3,4,5

decimal-leading- 0 before the number 01, 02, 03,

zero 04, 05

lower-alpha Lowercase alphanumeric characters a, b, c, d,

e

upper-alpha Uppercase alphanumeric characters A, B, C, D,

E

lower-roman Lowercase Roman numerals i, ii, iii, iv,

v

upper-roman Uppercase Roman numerals I, II, III, IV,

V

lower-greek The marker is lower-greek alpha,

beta,
gamma

lower-latin The marker is lower-latin a, b, c, d,

e
 upper-latin The marker is upper-latin A, B, C, D,
E

hebrew The marker is traditional Hebrew numbering  

armenian The marker is traditional Armenian  

numbering

georgian The marker is traditional Georgian numbering  

cjk-ideographic The marker is plain ideographic numbers  

hiragana The marker is hiragana a, i, u, e,

o, ka, ki

katakana The marker is katakana A, I, U, E,

O, KA, KI

hiragana-iroha The marker is hiragana-iroha i, ro, ha,

ni, ho, he,
to

katakana-iroha The marker is katakana-iroha I, RO, HA,

NI, HO,
HE, TO

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <ul style="list-style-type:circle;">
         <li>Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ul>
     
      <ul style="list-style-type:square;">
         <li>Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ul>
     
      <ol style="list-style-type:decimal;">
         <li>Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ol>
     
      <ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha;">
         <li>Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ol>
     
      <ol style="list-style-type:lower-roman;">
         <li>Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ol>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

The list-style-position Property

The list-style-position property indicates whether the marker should appear inside
or outside of the box containing the bullet points. It can have one the two values −

Value Description
 none NA

inside If the text goes onto a second line, the text will wrap underneath the
marker. It will also appear indented to where the text would have
started if the list had a value of outside.

outsid If the text goes onto a second line, the text will be aligned with the start
e of the first line (to the right of the bullet).

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <ul style="list-style-type:circle; list-style-position:outside;">
         <li>Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ul>
     
      <ul style="list-style-type:square;list-style-position:inside;">
         <li>Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ul>
     
      <ol style="list-style-type:decimal;list-style-position:outside;">
         <li>Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ol>
     
      <ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha;list-style-position:inside;">
         <li>Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ol>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result –

o Maths
o Social Science
o Physics
 Maths
 Social Science
 Physics
1. Maths
2. Social Science
3. Physics
a. Maths
b. Social Science
c. Physics

The list-style-image Property

The list-style-image allows you to specify an image so that you can use your own
bullet style. The syntax is similar to the background-image property with the
letters url starting the value of the property followed by the URL in brackets. If it
does not find the given image then default bullets are used.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <ul>
         <li style="list-style-image: url(/images/bullet.gif);">Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ul>
     
      <ol>
         <li style="list-style-image: url(/images/bullet.gif);">Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ol>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result –

 Maths
 Social Science
 Physics
1. Maths
2. Social Science
3. Physics

The list-style Property

The list-style allows you to specify all the list properties into a single expression.
These properties can appear in any order.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <ul style="list-style: inside square;">
         <li>Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ul>
     
      <ol style="list-style: outside upper-alpha;">
         <li>Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ol>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result –

 Maths
 Social Science
 Physics
A. Maths
B. Social Science
C. Physics

The marker-offset Property

The marker-offset property allows you to specify the distance between the marker
and the text relating to that marker. Its value should be a length as shown in the
following example −

Unfortunately, this property is not supported in IE 6 or Netscape 7.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <ul style="list-style: inside square; marker-offset:2em;">
         <li>Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ul>
     
      <ol style="list-style: outside upper-alpha; marker-offset:2cm;">
         <li>Maths</li>
         <li>Social Science</li>
         <li>Physics</li>
      </ol>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

 Maths
 Social Science
 Physics
A. Maths
B. Social Science
C. Physics
 

CSS Paddings
The padding property allows you to specify how much space should appear
between the content of an element and its border −

The value of this attribute should be either a length, a percentage, or the

wordinherit. If the value is inherit, it will have the same padding as its parent
element. If a percentage is used, the percentage is of the containing box.

The following CSS properties can be used to control lists. You can also set
different values for the padding on each side of the box using the following
properties −
 ·        The padding-bottom specifies the bottom padding of an element.

·        The padding-top specifies the top padding of an element.

·        The padding-left specifies the left padding of an element.

·        The padding-right specifies the right padding of an element.

·        The padding serves as shorthand for the preceding properties.

Now, we will see how to use these properties with examples.

The padding-bottom Property

The padding-bottom property sets the bottom padding (space) of an element. This
can take a value in terms of length of %.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p style="padding-bottom: 15px; border:1px solid black;">
      This is a paragraph with a specified bottom padding
      </p>
     
      <p style="padding-bottom: 5%; border:1px solid black;">
      This is another paragraph with a specified bottom padding in percent
      </p>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result:

This is a paragraph with a specified bottom padding

This is another paragraph with a specified bottom padding in percent

 
The padding-top Property
The padding-top property sets the top padding (space) of an element. This can take
a value in terms of length of %.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p style="padding-top: 15px; border:1px solid black;">
      This is a paragraph with a specified top padding
      </p>
     
      <p style="padding-top: 5%; border:1px solid black;">
      This is another paragraph with a specified top padding in percent
      </p>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This is a paragraph with a specified top padding

This is another paragraph with a specified top padding in percent

The padding-left Property

The padding-left property sets the left padding (space) of an element. This can take
a value in terms of length of %.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p style="padding-left: 15px; border:1px solid black;">
      This is a paragraph with a specified left padding
      </p>
     
      <p style="padding-left: 15%; border:1px solid black;">
      This is another paragraph with a specified left padding in percent
      </p>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This is a paragraph with a specified left padding

This is another paragraph with a specified left padding in percent

The padding-right Property

The padding-right property sets the right padding (space) of an element. This can
take a value in terms of length of %.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p style="padding-right: 15px; border:1px solid black;">
      This is a paragraph with a specified right padding
      </p>
     
      <p style="padding-right: 5%; border:1px solid black;">
      This is another paragraph with a specified right padding in percent
      </p>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This is a paragraph with a specified right padding

This is another paragraph with a specified right padding in percent

The Padding Property

The padding property sets the left, right, top and bottom padding (space) of an
element. This can take a value in terms of length of %.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p style="padding: 15px; border:1px solid black;">
      all four padding will be 15px
      </p>
     
      <p style="padding:10px 2%; border:1px solid black;">
      top and bottom padding will be 10px, left and right
      padding will be 2% of the total width of the document.
      </p>
     
      <p style="padding: 10px 2% 10px; border:1px solid black;">
      top padding will be 10px, left and right padding will
      be 2% of the total width of the document, bottom padding will be 10px
      </p>
     
      <p style="padding: 10px 2% 10px 10px; border:1px solid black;">
      top padding will be 10px, right padding will be 2% of
      the total width of the document, bottom padding and top padding will be 10px
      </p>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

all four padding will be 15px

top and bottom padding will be 10px, left and right padding will be 2% of the total
width of the document.
top padding will be 10px, left and right padding will be 2% of the total width of the
document, bottom padding will be 10px
top padding will be 10px, right padding will be 2% of the total width of the
document, bottom padding and top padding will be 10px
 

CSS Cursors
The cursor property of CSS allows you to specify the type of cursor that should be
displayed to the user.

One good usage of this property is in using images for submit buttons on forms.
By default, when a cursor hovers over a link, the cursor changes from a pointer to
a hand. However, it does not change form for a submit button on a form.
Therefore, whenever someone hovers over an image that is a submit button, it
provides a visual clue that the image is clickable.

The following table shows the possible values for the cursor property −

Value Description

auto Shape of the cursor depends on the context area it is over. For
example, an 'I' over text, a 'hand' over a link, and so on.

crosshair A crosshair or plus sign

default An arrow

pointer A pointing hand (in IE 4 this value is hand).

move The 'I' bar

e-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved right

(east).

ne-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved up and

right (north/east).

nw-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved up and

left (north/west).

n-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved up

(north).

se-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved down

and right (south/east).

sw-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved down

and left (south/west).

s-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved down

(south).

w-resize The cursor indicates that an edge of a box is to be moved left

(west).

text The I bar.

wait An hour glass.

help A question mark or balloon, ideal for use over help buttons.

<url> The source of a cursor image file.

NOTE: You should try to use only these values to add helpful information for
users, and in places, they would expect to see that cursor. For example, using the
crosshair when someone hovers over a link can confuse visitors.
Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p>Move the mouse over the words to see the cursor change:</p>
     
      <div style="cursor:auto">Auto</div>
      <div style="cursor:crosshair">Crosshair</div>
      <div style="cursor:default">Default</div>
      <div style="cursor:pointer">Pointer</div>
      <div style="cursor:move">Move</div>
      <div style="cursor:e-resize">e-resize</div>
      <div style="cursor:ne-resize">ne-resize</div>
      <div style="cursor:nw-resize">nw-resize</div>
      <div style="cursor:n-resize">n-resize</div>
      <div style="cursor:se-resize">se-resize</div>
      <div style="cursor:sw-resize">sw-resize</div>
      <div style="cursor:s-resize">s-resize</div>
      <div style="cursor:w-resize">w-resize</div>
      <div style="cursor:text">text</div>
      <div style="cursor:wait">wait</div>
      <div style="cursor:help">help</div>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Move the mouse over the words to see the cursor change:
Auto
Crosshair
Default
Pointer
Move
e-resize
ne-resize
nw-resize
n-resize
se-resize
sw-resize
s-resize
w-resize
text
wait
help
 

CSS Outlines
Outlines are very similar to borders, but there are few major differences as well −

·        An outline does not take up space.

·        Outlines do not have to be rectangular.

·        Outline is always the same on all sides; you cannot specify different values for different
sides of an element.

NOTE − The outline properties are not supported by IE 6 or Netscape 7.

You can set the following outline properties using CSS.

·        The outline-width property is used to set the width of the outline.

·        The outline-style property is used to set the line style for the outline.

·        The outline-color property is used to set the color of the outline.

·        The outline property is used to set all the above three properties in a single statement.

The outline-width Property

The outline-width property specifies the width of the outline to be added to the box. Its value
should be a length or one of the values thin, medium, or thick,just like the border-width attribute.
A width of zero pixels means no outline.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p style="outline-width:thin; outline-style:solid;">
      This text is having thin outline.
      </p>
      <br />
     
      <p style="outline-width:thick; outline-style:solid;">
      This text is having thick outline.
      </p>
      <br />
     
      <p style="outline-width:5px; outline-style:solid;">
      This text is having 5x outline.
      </p>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This text is having thin outline.

This text is having thick outline.

This text is having 5x outline.

The outline-style Property

The outline-style property specifies the style for the line (solid, dotted, or dashed) that goes around
an element. It can take one of the following values −

·        none: No border. (Equivalent of outline-width:0;)

 ·        solid: Outline is a single solid line.

·        dotted: Outline is a series of dots.

·        dashed: Outline is a series of short lines.

·        double: Outline is two solid lines.

·        groove: Outline looks as though it is carved into the page.

·        ridge: Outline looks the opposite of groove.

·        inset: Outline makes the box look like it is embedded in the page.

·        outset: Outline makes the box look like it is coming out of the canvas.

·        hidden: Same as none.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p style="outline-width:thin; outline-style:solid;">
      This text is having thin solid  outline.
      </p>
      <br />
     
      <p style="outline-width:thick; outline-style:dashed;">
      This text is having thick dashed outline.
      </p>
      <br />
     
      <p style="outline-width:5px;outline-style:dotted;">
      This text is having 5x dotted outline.
      </p>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This text is having thin solid outline.

This text is having thick dashed outline.

This text is having 5x dotted outline.

The outline-color Property

The outline-color property allows you to specify the color of the outline. Its value should either be a
color name, a hex color, or an RGB value, as with the color and border-color properties.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p style="outline-width:thin; outline-style:solid;outline-color:red">
      This text is having thin solid red  outline.
      </p>
      <br />
     
      <p style="outline-width:thick; outline-style:dashed;outline-color:#009900">
      This text is having thick dashed green outline.
      </p>
      <br />
     
      <p style="outline-width:5px;outline-style:dotted;outline-color:rgb(13,33,232)">
      This text is having 5x dotted blue outline.
      </p>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This text is having thin solid red outline.

This text is having thick dashed green outline.

This text is having 5x dotted blue outline.

The outline Property

The outline property is a shorthand property that allows you to specify values for any of the three
properties discussed previously in any order but in a single statement.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p style="outline:thin solid red;">
      This text is having thin solid red outline.
      </p>
      <br />
      
      <p style="outline:thick dashed #009900;">
      This text is having thick dashed green outline.
      </p>
      <br />
     
      <p style="outline:5px dotted rgb(13,33,232);">
      This text is having 5x dotted blue outline.
      </p>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

This text is having thin solid red outline.

This text is having thick dashed green outline.

This text is having 5x dotted blue outline.

CSS Dimension
You have seen the border that surrounds every box ie. element, the padding that
can appear inside each box and the margin that can go around them. In this
tutorial we will how we can change the dimensions of boxes.

We have the following properties that allow you to control the dimensions of a box.

·        The height property is used to set the height of a box.

·        The width property is used to set the width of a box.

·        The line-height property is used to set the height of a line of text.

·        The max-height property is used to set a maximum height that a box can

be.

·        The min-height property is used to set the minimum height that a box can

be.

·        The max-width property is used to set the maximum width that a box can

be.

·        The min-width property is used to set the minimum width that a box can

be.

The Height and Width Properties

The height and width properties allow you to set the height and width for boxes.
They can take values of a length, a percentage, or the keyword auto.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="width:400px; height:100px; border:1px solid
red; padding:5px; margin:10px;">
      This paragraph is 400pixels wide and 100 pixels high
   </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This paragraph is 400pixels wide and 100 pixels high

The line-height Property

The line-height property allows you to increase the space between lines of text. The
value of the line-height property can be a number, a length, or a percentage.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="width:400px; height:100px; border:1px solid
red; padding:5px; margin:10px; line-height:30px;">
      This paragraph is 400pixels wide and 100 pixels high and here line height is
30pixels.
      This paragraph is 400 pixels wide and 100 pixels high and here line height is
30pixels.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This paragraph is 400pixels wide and 100 pixels high and here line height is
30pixels.This paragraph is 400 pixels wide and 100 pixels high and here line
height is 30pixels.

The max-height Property

The max-height property allows you to specify maximum height of a box. The value
of the max-height property can be a number, a length, or a percentage.

NOTE − This property does not work in either Netscape 7 or IE 6.

Here is an example −
<html>
   <head>
   </head> 
   <body>
      <p style="width:400px; max-height:10px; border:1px solid
red; padding:5px; margin:10px;">
      This paragraph is 400px wide and max height is 10px
      This paragraph is 400px wide and max height is 10px
      This paragraph is 400px wide and max height is 10px
      This paragraph is 400px wide and max height is 10px
      </p>
      <br>
      <br>
      <br>
      <img alt="logo" src="/css/images/logo.png" width="195" height="84" />
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

his paragraph is 400px wide and max height is 10px This paragraph is 400px wide
and max height is 10px This paragraph is 400px wide and max height is 10px This
paragraph is 400px wide and max height is 10px

Image here

The min-height Property

The min-height property allows you to specify minimum height of a box. The value
of the min-height property can be a number, a length, or a percentage.

NOTE − This property does not work in either Netscape 7 or IE 6.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="width:400px; min-height:200px; border:1px solid red; padding:5px; 
margin:10px;">
      This paragraph is 400px wide and min height is 200px
      This paragraph is 400px wide and min height is 200px
      This paragraph is 400px wide and min height is 200px
      This paragraph is 400px wide and min height is 200px
      </p>
      <img alt="logo" src="/css/images/logo.png" width="95" height="84" />
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This paragraph is 400px wide and min height is 200px This paragraph is 400px
wide and min height is 200px This paragraph is 400px wide and min height is
200px This paragraph is 400px wide and min height is 200px

Image here

The max-width Property

The max-width property allows you to specify maximum width of a box. The value
of the max-width property can be a number, a length, or a percentage.

NOTE − This property does not work in either Netscape 7 or IE 6.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="max-width:100px; height:200px; border:1px solid red; padding:5px; 
margin:10px;">
      This paragraph is 200px high and max width is 100px
      This paragraph is 200px high and max width is 100px
      </p>
      <img alt="logo" src="/css/images/logo.png" width="95" height="84" />
   </body>
</html>
It will produce the following result –

This paragraph is 200px high and max width is 100px This paragraph is 200px
high and max width is 100px

Image here

The min-width Property

The min-width property allows you to specify minimum width of a box. The value
of the min-width property can be a number, a length, or a percentage.

NOTE − This property does not work in either Netscape 7 or IE 6.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p style="min-width:400px; height:100px; border:1px solid red; padding:5px; 
margin:10px;">
      This paragraph is 100px high and min width is 400px
      This paragraph is 100px high and min width is 400px
      <img alt="logo" src="/css/images/css.gif" width="95" height="84" />
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

This paragraph is 100px high and min width is 400px This paragraph is 100px
high and min width is 400px
Image here

CSS Scrollbars
There may be a case when an element's content might be larger than the amount
of space allocated to it. For example, given width and height properties do not
allow enough room to accommodate the content of the element.

CSS provides a property called overflow which tells the browser what to do if the

box's contents is larger than the box itself. This property can take one of the
following values −
 Value Description

visible Allows the content to overflow the borders of its containing element.

hidde The content of the nested element is simply cut off at the border of the
n containing element and no scrollbars is visible.

scroll The size of the containing element does not change, but the scrollbars
are added to allow the user to scroll to see the content.

auto The purpose is the same as scroll, but the scrollbar will be shown only if
the content does overflow.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
      <style type="text/css">
         .scroll{
            display:block;
            border: 1px solid red;
            padding:5px;
            margin-top:5px;
            width:300px;
            height:50px;
            overflow:scroll;
         }
         .auto{
            display:block;
            border: 1px solid red;
            padding:5px;
            margin-top:5px;
            width:300px;
            height:50px;
            overflow:auto;
         }
      </style>
     
   <body>
  
      <p>Example of scroll value:</p>
      <div class="scroll">
      I am going to keep lot of content here just to show you how scrollbars works if
there is an overflow in an
      element box. This provides your horizontal as well as vertical scrollbars.
      </div>
      <br />
     
      <p>Example of auto value:</p>
     
      <div class="auto">
      I am going to keep lot of content here just to show you how scrollbars works if
there is an overflow in an element box.
      This provides your horizontal as well as vertical scrollbars.
      </div>
     
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Example of scroll value:

I am going to keep lot of content here just to show you how scrollbars works if there
is an overflow in an element box. This provides your horizontal as wellas vertical
scrollbars.

Example of auto value:

I am going to keep lot of content here just to show you how scrollbars works if there
is an overflow in an element box. This 
 
CSS Visibility
A property called visibility allows you to hide an element from view. You can use
this property along with JavaScript to create very complex menu and very complex
webpage layouts.

You may choose to use the visibility property to hide error messages that are only
displayed if the user needs to see them, or to hide answers to a quiz until the user
selects an option.

NOTE − Remember that the source code will still contain whatever is in the
invisible paragraph, so you should not use this to hide sensitive information such
as credit card details or passwords.

The visibility property can take the values listed in the table that follows −

Value Description

visible The box and its contents are shown to the user.

hidden The box and its content are made invisible, although they still affect
the layout of the page.

collaps This is for use only with dynamic table columns and row effects.
e

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p>
      This paragraph should be visible in normal way.
      </p>
  
      <p style="visibility:hidden;">
      This paragraph should not be visible.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

This paragraph should be visible in normal way.

CSS Visibility
A property called visibility allows you to hide an element from view. You can use
this property along with JavaScript to create very complex menu and very complex
webpage layouts.

You may choose to use the visibility property to hide error messages that are only
displayed if the user needs to see them, or to hide answers to a quiz until the user
selects an option.

NOTE − Remember that the source code will still contain whatever is in the
invisible paragraph, so you should not use this to hide sensitive information such
as credit card details or passwords.

The visibility property can take the values listed in the table that follows −

Value Description

visible The box and its contents are shown to the user.

hidden The box and its content are made invisible, although they still affect
the layout of the page.

collaps This is for use only with dynamic table columns and row effects.
e

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p>
      This paragraph should be visible in normal way.
      </p>
  
      <p style="visibility:hidden;">
      This paragraph should not be visible.
      </p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result −

This paragraph should be visible in normal way.

CSS Positioning
CSS helps you to position your HTML element. You can put any HTML element at
whatever location you like. You can specify whether you want the element
positioned relative to its natural position in the page or absolute based on its
parent element.

Now, we will see all the CSS positioning related properties with examples −

Relative Positioning
Relative positioning changes the position of the HTML element relative to where it
normally appears. So "left:20" adds 20 pixels to the element's LEFT position.

You can use two values top and left along with the position property to move an

HTML element anywhere in the HTML document.

 Move Left - Use a negative value for left.

 Move Right - Use a positive value for left.
 Move Up - Use a negative value for top.
 Move Down - Use a positive value for top.
NOTE − You can use bottom or right values as well in the same way as top andleft.

Here is the example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <div style="position:relative;left:80px;top:2px;background-color:yellow;">
      This div has relative positioning.
      </div>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

This div has relative positioning.

Absolute Positioning
An element with position: absolute is positioned at the specified coordinates
relative to your screen top-left corner.

You can use two values top and left along with the position property to move an

HTML element anywhere in the HTML document.

 Move Left - Use a negative value for left.

 Move Right - Use a positive value for left.
 Move Up - Use a negative value for top.
 Move Down - Use a positive value for top.
NOTE − You can use bottom or right values as well in the same way as top and
left.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <div style="position:absolute; left:80px; top:20px; background-
color:yellow;">
      This div has absolute positioning.
      </div>
   </body>
</html>

This div has absolute positioning.

 
Fixed Positioning
Fixed positioning allows you to fix the position of an element to a particular spot
on the page, regardless of scrolling. Specified coordinates will be relative to the
browser window.

You can use two values top and left along with the position property to move an

HTML element anywhere in the HTML document.

 Move Left - Use a negative value for left.

 Move Right - Use a positive value for left.
 Move Up - Use a negative value for top.
 Move Down - Use a positive value for top.
NOTE − You can use bottom or right values as well in the same way as top andleft.

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <div style="position:fixed; left:80px; top:20px; background-color:yellow;">
      This div has fixed positioning.
      </div>
   </body>
</html>
This div has fixed positioning.

CSS Layers
CSS gives you opportunity to create layers of various divisions. The CSS layers
refer to applying the z-index property to elements that overlap with each other.

The z-index property is used along with the position property to create an effect of

layers. You can specify which element should come on top and which element
should come at bottom.

A z-index property can help you to create more complex webpage layouts.
Following is the example which shows how to create layers in CSS.

<html>
   <head>
   </head>
   <body>
      <div style="background-color:red; width:300px; height:100px; position:relative; 
top:10px; left:80px; z-index:2">
      </div>
     
      <div style="background-color:yellow; width:300px; height:100px; positio
n:relative; top:-60px; left:35px; z-index:1;">
      </div>
     
      <div style="background-color:green; width:300px; height:100px; positio
n:relative; top:-220px; left:120px; z-index:3;">
      </div>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

Image here

CSS Pseudo Classes

CSS pseudo-classes are used to add special effects to some selectors. You do not
need to use JavaScript or any other script to use those effects. A simple syntax of
pseudo-classes is as follows −

selector:pseudo-class {property: value}

CSS classes can also be used with pseudo-classes −

selector.class:pseudo-class {property: value}

The most commonly used pseudo-classes are as follows −

Value Description

:link Use this class to add special style to an unvisited link.

:visited Use this class to add special style to a visited link.

 :hover Use this class to add special style to an element when you mouse over
it.

:active Use this class to add special style to an active element.

:focus Use this class to add special style to an element while the element
has focus.

:first- Use this class to add special style to an element that is the first child
child of some other element.

:lang Use this class to specify a language to use in a specified element.

While defining pseudo-classes in a <style>...</style> block, following points

should be noted −

·        a:hover MUST come after a:link and a:visited in the CSS definition in order
to be effective.

·        a:active MUST come after a:hover in the CSS definition in order to be

effective.

·        Pseudo-class names are not case-sensitive.

·        Pseudo-class are different from CSS classes but they can be combined.

The :link pseudo-class
The following example demonstrates how to use the :link class to set the link color.
Possible values could be any color name in any valid format.

<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         a:link {color:#000000}
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <a href="">Black Link</a>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following black link –

Black Link

The :visited pseudo-class
The following is the example which demonstrates how to use the :visited class to
set the color of visited links. Possible values could be any color name in any valid
format.

<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         a:visited {color: #006600}
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <a href="">Click this link</a>
   </body>
</html>

This will produce following link. Once you will click this link, it will change its
color to green.

Click this Link

The :hover pseudo-class
The following example demonstrates how to use the :hover class to change the
color of links when we bring a mouse pointer over that link. Possible values could
be any color name in any valid format.

<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         a:hover {color: #FFCC00}
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <a href="">Bring Mouse Here</a>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following link. Now you bring your mouse over this link and you
will see that it changes its color to yellow.

Bring Mouse Here

The :active pseudo-class
The following example demonstrates how to use the :active class to change the
color of active links. Possible values could be any color name in any valid format.

<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         a:active {color: #FF00CC}
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <a href="">Click This Link</a>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following link. When a user clicks it, the color changes to pink.

Click this Link

The :focus pseudo-class
The following example demonstrates how to use the :focus class to change the
color of focused links. Possible values could be any color name in any valid format.

<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         a:focus {color: #0000FF}
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <a href="">Click this Link</a>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following link. When this link gets focused, its color changes to
orange. The color changes back when it loses focus.

Click this Link

The :first-child pseudo-class

The :first-child pseudo-class matches a specified element that is the first child of
another element and adds special style to that element that is the first child of
some other element.

To make :first-child work in IE <!DOCTYPE> must be declared at the top of

document.

For example, to indent the first paragraph of all <div> elements, you could use this
definition −

<html>
   <head>
  
      <style type="text/css">
         div > p:first-child
         {
            text-indent: 25px;
         }
      </style>
     
   </head>
   <body>
  
      <div>
         <p>First paragraph in div. This paragraph will be indented</p>
         <p>Second paragraph in div. This paragraph will not be indented</p>
      </div>
      <p>But it will not match the paragraph in this HTML:</p>
     
      <div>
         <h3>Heading</h3>
         <p>The first paragraph inside the div. This paragraph will not be
effected.</p>
      </div>
     
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

First paragraph in div. This paragraph will be indented

Second paragraph in div. This paragraph will not be indented

But it will not match the paragraph in this HTML:

Heading

The first paragraph inside the div. This paragraph will not be
effected.

The :lang pseudo-class
The language pseudo-class :lang, allows constructing selectors based on the
language setting for specific tags.

This class is useful in documents that must appeal to multiple languages that
have different conventions for certain language constructs. For example, the
French language typically uses angle brackets (< and >) for quoting purposes,
while the English language uses quote marks (' and ').

In a document that needs to address this difference, you can

use the :lang pseudo-class to change the quote marks appropriately. The following
code changes the <blockquote> tag appropriately for the language being used −

<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         /* Two levels of quotes for two languages*/
         :lang(en) { quotes: '"' '"'  "'"  "'"; }
         :lang(fr) { quotes: "<<" ">>" "<" ">"; }
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p>...<q lang="fr">A quote in a paragraph</q>...</p>
   </body>
</html>

The :lang selectors will apply to all the elements in the document. However, not all
elements make use of the quotes property, so the effect will be transparent for
most elements.

It will produce the following result −

...<<A quote in a paragraph>>...

CSS Pseudo Elements

 

CSS pseudo-elements are used to add special effects to some selectors. You do not
need to use JavaScript or any other script to use those effects. A simple syntax of
pseudo-element is as follows −

selector:pseudo-element {property: value}

CSS classes can also be used with pseudo-elements −

selector.class:pseudo-element {property: value}

The most commonly used pseudo-elements are as follows −

Value Description

:first-line Use this element to add special styles to the first line of the text in a
selector.
 :first-letter Use this element to add special style to the first letter of the text in a
selector.

:before Use this element to insert some content before an element.

:after Use this element to insert some content after an element.

The :first-line pseudo-element

The following example demonstrates how to use the :first-line element to add
special effects to the first line of elements in the document.

<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         p:first-line { text-decoration: underline; }
         p.noline:first-line { text-decoration: none; }
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p class="noline"> This line would not have any underline because this belongs
to  nline class.</p>
     
      <p>The first line of this paragraph will be underlined as defined in the CSS rule
above. Rest of the lines in this paragraph will remain normal. This example shows
how to use :first-line pseduo element to give effect to the first line of any HTML
element.</p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following link –

This line would not have any underline because this belongs to
nline class.

The first line of this paragraph will be underlined as defined in the

CSS rule above. Rest of the lines in this paragraph will remain
normal. This example shows how to use :first-line pseduo element
to give effect to the first line of any HTML element.
 

The :first-letter pseudo-element

The following example demonstrates how to use the :first-letter element to add
special effects to the first letter of elements in the document.

<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         p:first-letter { font-size: 5em; }
         p.normal:first-letter { font-size: 10px; }
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p class="normal"> First character of this paragraph will be normal and will
have font size 10 px;</p>
      
      <p>The first character of this paragraph will be 5em big  as  defined in the CSS
rule above. Rest of the characters in this paragraph will remain normal. This
example shows how to use :first-letter pseduo element to give effect to the first
characters  of any HTML element.</p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following black link –

First character of this paragraph will be normal and will have font
size 10 px;

The first character of this paragraph will be 5em big and in red
color as defined in the CSS rule above. Rest of the characters in this
paragraph will remain normal. This example shows how to use
:first-letter pseduo element to give effect to the first characters of
any HTML element.

The :before pseudo-element

The following example demonstrates how to use the :before element to add some
content before any element.
<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         p:before
         {
            content: url(/images/bullet.gif)
         }
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p> This line will be preceded by a bullet.</p>
      <p> This line will be preceded by a bullet.</p>
      <p> This line will be preceded by a bullet.</p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following black link –

 This line will be preceded by a bullet.

 This line will be preceded by a bullet.

 This line will be preceded by a bullet.

The :after pseudo-element

The following example demonstrates how to use the :after element to add some
content after any element.

<html>
   <head>
      <style type="text/css">
         p:after
         {
            content: url(/images/bullet.gif)
         }
      </style>
   </head>
   <body>
      <p> This line will be succeeded by a bullet.</p>
      <p> This line will be succeeded by a bullet.</p>
      <p> This line will be succeeded by a bullet.</p>
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following black link −

This line will be succeeded by a bullet.

This line will be succeeded by a bullet.

This line will be succeeded by a bullet.

CSS @ Rules
This chapter will cover the following important @ rules −

·        The @import: rule imports another style sheet into the current style sheet.

·        The @charset rule indicates the character set the style sheet uses.

·        The @font-face rule is used to exhaustively describe a font face for use in a

document.

·        The !important rule indicates that a user-defined rule should take

precedence over the author's style sheets.

NOTE − There are other @ rules which we will cover in subsequent chapters.

The @import rule

The @import rule allows you to import styles from another style sheet. It should
appear right at the start of the style sheet before any of the rules, and its value is a
URL.

It can be written in one of the two following ways −

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   @import "mystyle.css";
   or
   @import url("mystyle.css");
   .......other CSS rules .....
   -->
</style>

The significance of the @import rule is that it allows you to develop your style
sheets with a modular approach. You can create various style sheets and then
include them wherever you need them.

The @charset Rule

If you are writing your document using a character set other than ASCII or ISO-
8859-1 you might want to set the @charset rule at the top of your style sheet to
indicate what character set the style sheet is written in.

The @charset rule must be written right at the beginning of the style sheet without
even a space before it. The value is held in quotes and should be one of the
standard character-sets. For example −

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   @charset "iso-8859-1"
   .......other CSS rules .....
   -->
</style>

The @font-face Rule

The @font-face rule is used to exhaustively describe a font face for use in a
document. @font-face may also be used to define the location of a font for
download, although this may run into implementation-specific limits.

In general, @font-face is extremely complicated, and its use is not recommended

for any except those who are expert in font metrics.

Here is an example −

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   @font-face {
      font-family: "Scarborough Light";
      src: url("http://www.font.site/s/scarbo-lt");
   }
   @font-face {
      font-family: Santiago;
      src: local ("Santiago"),
      url("http://www.font.site/s/santiago.tt")
      format("truetype");
      unicode-range: U+??,U+100-220;
      font-size: all;
      font-family: sans-serif;
   }
   -->
</style>

The !important Rule

Cascading Style Sheets cascade. It means that the styles are applied in the same
order as they are read by the browser. The first style is applied and then the
second and so on.

The !important rule provides a way to make your CSS cascade. It also includes the
rules that are to be applied always. A rule having a !important property will always
be applied, no matter where that rule appears in the CSS document.

For example, in the following style sheet, the paragraph text will be black, even
though the first style property applied is red:

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   p { color: #ff0000; }
   p { color: #000000; }
   -->
</style>

So, if you wanted to make sure that a property always applied, you would add
the !important property to the tag. So, to make the paragraph text always red, you
should write it as follows −

<html>
   <head>
  
      <style tyle="text/css">
         p { color: #ff0000 !important; }
         p { color: #000000; }
      </style>
     
   </head>
   <body>
      <p>example.com</>
   </body>
</html>

Here you have made p { color: #ff0000 !important; } mandatory, now this rule will
always apply even you have defined another rule p { color: #000000; }

It will produce the following result –

example.com

CSS Filters Text and Image Effects

You can use CSS filters to add special effects to text, images and other aspects of a
webpage without using images or other graphics. Filters only work on Internet
Explorer 4.0+,. If you are developing your site for multi browsers, then it may not
be a good idea to use CSS filters because there is a possibility that it would not
give any advantage.

In this chapter, we will see the details of each CSS filter. These filters may not
work in your browser.

Alpha Channel
The Alpha Channel filter alters the opacity of the object, which makes it blend into
the background. The following parameters can be used in this filter −

Parameter Description

opacity Level of the opacity. 0 is fully transparent, 100 is fully opaque.

 finishopacity Level of the opacity at the other end of the object.

style The shape of the opacity gradient.

0 = uniform

1 = linear

2 = radial

3 = rectangular

startX X coordinate for opacity gradient to begin.

startY Y coordinate for opacity gradient to begin.

finishX X coordinate for opacity gradient to end.

finishY Y coordinate for opacity gradient to end.

Example
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p>Image Example:</p>
     
      <img src="/css/images/logo.png" alt="CSS Logo"
         style="Filter: Alpha(Opacity=100,
         FinishOpacity=0,
         Style=2,
         StartX=20,
         StartY=40,
         FinishX=0,
         FinishY=0)" />
      <p>Text Example:</p>
     
      <div style="width: 357;
         height: 50;
         font-size: 30pt;
         font-family: Arial Black;
         color: blue;
         Filter: Alpha(Opacity=100, FinishOpacity=0, Style=1, StartX=0, StartY=0, Fin
ishX=580, FinishY=0)">CSS Tutorials</div>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Motion Blur
Motion Blur is used to create blurred pictures or text with the direction and
strength. The following parameters can be used in this filter −

Parameter Description

add True or false. If true, the image is added to the blurred image; and if
false, the image is not added to the blurred image.

direction The direction of the blur, going clockwise, rounded to 45-degree

increments. The default value is 270 (left).

0 = Top

45 = Top right

90 = Right

135 = Bottom right

180 = Bottom

225 = Bottom left

270 = Left
 315 = Top left

strength The number of pixels the blur will extend. The default is 5 pixels.

Example
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p>Image Example:</p>
     
      <img src="/css/images/logo.png" alt="CSS Logo"
         style="Filter: Blur(Add = 0, Direction = 225, Strength = 10)">
     
      <p>Text Example:</p>
     
      <div style="width: 357;
         height: 50;
         font-size: 30pt;
         font-family: Arial Black;
         color: blue;
         Filter: Blur(Add = 1, Direction = 225, Strength = 10)">CSS Tutorials</div>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Chroma Filter
Chroma Filter is used to make any particular color transparent and usually it is
used with images. You can use it with scrollbars also. The following parameter can
be used in this filter −

Parameter Description
 color The color that you'd like to be transparent.

Example
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p>Image Example:</p>
     
      <img src="/images/css.gif"
         alt="CSS Logo" style="Filter: Chroma(Color = #FFFFFF)">
     
      <p>Text Example:</p>
     
      <div style="width: 580;
         height: 50;
         font-size: 30pt;
         font-family: Arial Black;
         color: #3300FF;
         Filter: Chroma(Color = #3300FF)">CSS Tutorials</div>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Drop Shadow Effect

Drop Shadow is used to create a shadow of your object at the specified X
(horizontal) and Y (vertical) offset and color.

The following parameters can be used in this filter −

Parameter Description

color The color, in #RRGGBB format, of the dropshadow.

 offX Number of pixels the drop shadow is offset from the visual object,
along the x-axis. Positive integers move the drop shadow to the
right, negative integers move the drop shadow to the left.

offY Number of pixels the drop shadow is offset from the visual object,
along the y-axis. Positive integers move the drop shadow down,
negative integers move the drop shadow up.

positive If true, all opaque pixels of the object have a dropshadow. If false, all
transparent pixels have a dropshadow. The default is true.

Example
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p>Image Example:</p>
     
      <img src="/css/images/logo.png"
         alt="CSS Logo"
         style="Filter: Chroma(Color = #000000)
         DropShadow(Color=#FF0000,
         OffX=2,
         OffY=2, Positive=1)">
     
      <p>Text Example:</p>
     
      <div style="width: 357;
         height: 50;
         font-size: 30pt;
         font-family: Arial Black;
         color: red;
         Filter: DropShadow(Color=#000000, OffX=2, OffY=2, Positive=1)">CSS
Tutorials</div>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Flip Effect
Flip effect is used to create a mirror image of the object. The following parameters
can be used in this filter −

Parameter Description

FlipH Creates a horizontal mirror image

FlipV Creates a vertical mirror image

Example
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p>Image Example:</p>
     
      <img src="/css/images/logo.png"
         alt="CSS Logo"
         style="Filter: FlipH">
     
      <img src="/css/images/logo.png" alt="CSS Logo" style="Filter: FlipV">
     
      <p>Text Example:</p>
     
      <div style="width: 300;
         height: 50;
         font-size: 30pt;
         font-family: Arial Black;
         color: red;
         Filter: FlipV">CSS Tutorials</div>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Glow Effect
Glow effect is used to create a glow around the object. If it is a transparent image,
then glow is created around the opaque pixels of it. The following parameters can
be used in this filter −

Parameter Description

color The color you want the glow to be.

strength The intensity of the glow (from 1 to 255).

Example
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p>Image Example:</p>
     
      <img src="/css/images/logo.png"
         alt="CSS Logo"
         style="Filter: Chroma(Color = #000000) Glow(Color=#00FF00, Strength=20)">
     
      <p>Text Example:</p>
     
      <div style="width: 357;
         height: 50;
         font-size: 30pt;
         font-family: Arial Black;
         color: red;
         Filter: Glow(Color=#00FF00, Strength=20)">CSS Tutorials</div>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Grayscale Effect
Grayscale effect is used to convert the colors of the object to 256 shades of gray.
The following parameter is used in this filter −

Parameter Description

gray Converts the colors of the object to 256 shades of gray.

Example
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p>Image Example:</p>
     
      <img src="/css/images/logo.png"
         alt="CSS Logo"
         style="Filter: Gray">
     
      <p>Text Example:</p>
     
      <div style="width: 357;
         height: 50;
         font-size: 30pt;
         font-family: Arial Black;
         color: red;
         Filter: Gray">CSS Tutorials</div>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Invert Effect
Invert effect is used to map the colors of the object to their opposite values in the
color spectrum, i.e., to create a negative image. The following parameter is used in
this filter −

Parameter Description

Invert Maps the colors of the object to their opposite value in the color
spectrum.

Example
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p>Image Example:</p>
     
      <img src="/images/css.gif"
         alt="CSS Logo"
         style="Filter: invert">
     
      <p>Text Example:</p>
     
      <div style="width: 357;
         height: 50;
         font-size: 30pt;
         font-family: Arial Black;
         color: red;
         Filter: invert">CSS Tutorials</div>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Mask Effect
Mask effect is used to turn transparent pixels to a specified color and makes
opaque pixels transparent. The following parameter is used in this filter −

Parameter Description

color The color that the transparent areas will become.

Example
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p>Image Example:</p>
     
      <img src="/css/images/logo.png"
         alt="CSS Logo"
         style="FILTER: Chroma(Color = #000000) Mask(Color=#00FF00)">
     
      <p>Text Example:</p>
     
      <div style="width: 357;
         height: 50;
         font-size: 30pt;
         font-family: Arial Black;
         color: red;
         Filter: Mask(Color=#00FF00)">CSS Tutorials</div>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Shadow Filter
Shadow filter is used to create an attenuated shadow in the direction and color
specified. This is a filter that lies in between Dropshadow and Glow. The following
parameters can be used in this filter −

Parameter Description

color The color that you want the shadow to be.

direction The direction of the blur, going clockwise, rounded to 45-degree

increments. The default value is 270 (left).

0 = Top

45 = Top right

90 = Right

135 = Bottom right

180 = Bottom

225 = Bottom left

270 = Left

315 = Top left

Example
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p>Image Example:</p>
     
      <img src="/css/images/logo.png"
         alt="CSS Logo"
         style="FILTER: Chroma(Color = #000000) Shadow(Color=#00FF00,
Direction=225)">
     
      <p>Text Example:</p>
     
      <div style="width: 357;
         height: 50;
         font-size: 30pt;
         font-family:
         Arial Black;
         color: red;
         Filter: Shadow(Color=#0000FF, Direction=225)">CSS Tutorials</div>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

Wave Effect
Wave effect is used to give the object a sine wave distortion to make it look wavy.
The following parameters can be used in this filter −

Parameter Description

add A value of 1 adds the original image to the waved image, 0 does not.

freq The number of waves.

light The strength of the light on the wave (from 0 to 100).

phase At what degree the sine wave should start (from 0 to 100).
 strength The intensity of the wave effect.

Example
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p>Image Example:</p>
     
      <img src="/css/images/logo.png"
         alt="CSS Logo"
         style="FILTER: Chroma(Color = #000000)
         Wave(Add=0, Freq=1, LightStrength=10, Phase=220, Strength=10)">
     
      <p>Text Example:</p>
     
      <div style="width: 357;
         height: 50;
         font-size: 30pt;
         font-family: Arial Black;
         color: red;
         Filter: Wave(Add=0, Freq=1, LightStrength=10, Phase=20, Strength=20)">CS
S Tutorials</div>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

X-Ray Effect
X-Ray effect grayscales and flattens the color depth. The following parameter is
used in this filter:

Parameter Description
 xray Grayscales and flattens the color depth.

Example
<html>
   <head>
   </head>
  
   <body>
      <p>Image Example:</p>
     
      <img src="/css/images/logo.png"
         alt="CSS Logo"
         style="Filter: Xray"">
      
      <p>Text Example:</p>
     
      <div style="width: 357;
         height: 50;
         font-size: 30pt;
         font-family: Arial Black;
         color: red;
         style="Filter: Xray">CSS Tutorials</div>
   </body>
  
</html>

It will produce the following result −

**Note all result are not displaying because its effect on application.

CSS Media Types

One of the most important features of style sheets is that they specify how a
document is to be presented on different media: on the screen, on paper, with a
speech synthesizer, with a braille device, etc.

We have currently two ways to specify media dependencies for style sheets −
 ·        Specify the target medium from a style sheet with the @media or @import
at-rules.

·        Specify the target medium within the document language.

The @media rule

An @media rule specifies the target media types (separated by commas) of a set of
rules.

Given below is an example −

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   @media print {
      body { font-size: 10pt }
   }
           
   @media screen {
      body { font-size: 12pt }
   }
   @media screen, print {
      body { line-height: 1.2 }
   }
   -->
</style>

The Document Language

In HTML 4.0, the media attribute on the LINK element specifies the target media of
an external style sheet −

Following is an example −

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   <!doctype html public "-//w3c//dtd html 4.0//en">
           
   <html>
           
      <head>
         <title>link to a target medium</title>
         <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print, handheld" href="foo.css">
      </head>
                       
      <body>
         <p>the body...
      </body>
                       
   </html>
   -->
</style>

Recognized Media Types

The names chosen for CSS media types reflect target devices for which the
relevant properties make sense. They give a sense of what device the media type is
meant to refer to. Given below is a list of various media types −

Value Description

all Suitable for all devices.

aural Intended for speech synthesizers.

braille Intended for braille tactile feedback devices.

embossed Intended for paged braille printers.

handheld Intended for handheld devices (typically small screen, monochrome,

limited bandwidth).

print Intended for paged, opaque material and for documents viewed on
screen in print preview mode. Please consult the section on paged
media.

projection Intended for projected presentations, for example projectors or print

to transparencies. Please consult the section on paged media.
 screen Intended primarily for color computer screens.

tty Intended for media using a fixed-pitch character grid, such as

teletypes, terminals, or portable devices with limited display
capabilities.

tv Intended for television-type devices.

NOTE − Media type names are case-insensitive.

CSS Paged Media @page Rule

Paged media differ from continuous media in that the content of the document is
split into one or more discrete pages. Paged media includes paper, transparencies,
pages that are displayed on computer screens, etc.

The CSS2 standard introduces some basic pagination control features that let
authors help the browser figure out how to best print their documents.

The CSS2 page model specifies how a document is formatted within a rectangular
area -- the page box -- that has a finite width and height. These features fall into
two groups −

 CSS2 features that define a particular page layout.

 CSS2 features that control the pagination of a document.
Defining Pages : the @page rule
The CSS2 defines a "page box", a box of finite dimensions in which content is
rendered. The page box is a rectangular region that contains two areas −

·        The page area − The page area includes the boxes laid out on that page.
The edges of the page area act as the initial containing block for layout that
occurs between page breaks.

·        The margin area − It surrounds the page area.

You can specify the dimensions, orientation, margins, etc., of a page box within an
@page rule. The dimensions of the page box are set with the 'size' property. The
dimensions of the page area are the dimensions of the page box minus the margin
area.
For example, the following @page rule sets the page box size to 8.5 × 11 inches
and creates '2cm' margin on all sides between the page box edge and the page area
−

<style type="text/css">
   <!--
   @page { size:8.5in 11in; margin: 2cm }
   -->
</style>

You can use the margin, margin-top, margin-bottom, margin-left, and margin-

right properties within the @page rule to set margins for your page.

Finally, the marks property is used within the @page rule to create crop and
registration marks outside the page box on the target sheet. By default, no marks
are printed. You may use one or both of the crop and cross keywords to create
crop marks and registration marks, respectively, on the target print page.

Setting Page Size

The size property specifies the size and orientation of a page box. There are four
values which can be used for page size −

·        auto − The page box will be set to the size and orientation of the target
sheet.

·        landscape − Overrides the target's orientation. The page box is the same
size as the target, and the longer sides are horizontal.

·        portrait − Overrides the target's orientation. The page box is the same size
as the target, and the shorter sides are horizontal.

·        length − Length values for the 'size' property create an absolute page box. If
only one length value is specified, it sets both the width and height of the
page box. Percentage values are not allowed for the 'size' property.

In the following example, the outer edges of the page box will align with the target.
The percentage value on the 'margin' property is relative to the target size so if the
target sheet dimensions are 21.0cm × 29.7cm (i.e., A4), the margins are 2.10cm
and 2.97cm.

<style type="text/css">
   <!--
   @page {
      size: auto;   /* auto is the initial value */
      margin: 10%;
   }
   -->
</style>

The following example sets the width of the page box to be 8.5 inches and the
height to be 11 inches. The page box in this example requires a target sheet size of
8.5" × 11" or larger.

<style type="text/css">
   <!--
   @page {
      size: 8.5in 11in;  /* width height */
   }
   -->
</style>

Once you create a named page layout, you can use it in your document by adding
the page property to a style that is later applied to an element in your document.
For example, this style renders all the tables in your document on landscape
pages −

<style type="text/css">

   <!--

   @page { size : portrait }

   @page rotated { size : landscape }

   table { page : rotated }

   -->

</style>

Due to the above rule, while printing, if the browser encounters a <table> element
in your document and the current page layout is the default portrait layout, it
starts a new page and prints the table on a landscape page.

Left, Right, and First pages

When printing double-sided documents, the page boxes on left and right pages
should be different. It can be expressed through two CSS pseudo-classes as
follows −

<style type="text/css">
   <!--
   @page :left {
      margin-left: 4cm;
      margin-right: 3cm;
   }
 
   @page :right {
      margin-left: 3cm;
      margin-right: 4cm;
   }
   -->
</style>

You can specify the style for the first page of a document with the :first pseudo-
class −

<style type="text/css">
   <!--
   @page { margin: 2cm } /* All margins set to 2cm */
 
   @page :first {
      margin-top: 10cm    /* Top margin on first page 10cm */
   }
   -->
</style>

Controlling Pagination
Unless you specify otherwise, page breaks occur only when the page format
changes or when the content overflows the current page box. To otherwise force or
suppress page breaks, use the page-break-before, page-break-after, andpage-
break-inside properties.
Both the page-break-before and page-break-after accept the auto, always, avoid,
left, and right keywords.

The keyword auto is the default, it lets the browser generate page breaks as
needed. The keyword always forces a page break before or after the element,
while avoid suppresses a page break immediately before or after the element.
The left and right keywords force one or two page breaks, so that the element is
rendered on a left-hand or right-hand page.

Using pagination properties is quite straightforward. Suppose your document has

level-1 headers start new chapters with level-2 headers to denote sections. You'd
like each chapter to start on a new, right-hand page, but you don't want section
headers to be split across a page break from the subsequent content. You can
achieve this using following rule −

<style type="text/css">
   <!--
   h1 { page-break-before : right }
   h2 { page-break-after : avoid }
   -->
</style>

Use only the auto and avoid values with the page-break-inside property. If you

prefer that your tables not be broken across pages if possible, you would write the
rule −

<style type="text/css">
   <!--
   table { page-break-inside : avoid }
   -->
</style>

Controlling Widows and Orphans

In typographic lingo, orphans are those lines of a paragraph stranded at the
bottom of a page due to a page break, while widows are those lines remaining at
the top of a page following a page break. Generally, printed pages do not look
attractive with single lines of text stranded at the top or bottom. Most printers try
to leave at least two or more lines of text at the top or bottom of each page.
 ·        The orphans property specifies the minimum number of lines of a
paragraph that must be left at the bottom of a page.

·        The widows property specifies the minimum number of lines of a paragraph

that must be left at the top of a page.

Here is the example to create 4 lines at the bottom and 3 lines at the top of each
page −

<style type="text/css">
   <!--
   @page{orphans:4; widows:2;}
   -->
</style>
 

CSS Aural Media

A web document can be rendered by a speech synthesizer. CSS2 allows you to
attach specific sound style features to specific document elements.

Aural rendering of documents is mainly used by the visually impaired. Some of the
situations in which a document can be accessed by means of aural rendering
rather than visual rendering are the following.

 Learning to read
 Training
 Web access in vehicles
 Home entertainment
 Industrial documentation
 Medical documentation
When using aural properties, the canvas consists of a three-dimensional physical
space (sound surrounds) and a temporal space (one may specify sounds before,
during, and after other sounds).

The CSS properties also allow you to vary the quality of synthesized speech (voice
type, frequency, inflection, etc.)

Here is an example −

<html>
   <head>
  
      <style tyle="text/css">
         h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 {
            voice-family: paul;
            stress: 20;
            richness: 90;
            cue-before: url("../audio/pop.au");
         }
         p{
            azimuth:center-right;
         }
      </style>
     
   </head>
   <body>
  
      <h1>Example.com</h1>
      <h2>Example.com</h2>
      <h3>Example.com</h3>
      <h4>Example.com</h4>
      <h5>Example.com</h5>
      <h6>Example.com</h6>
      <p>Example.com</p>
     
   </body>
</html>

It will produce the following result –

Example.com
Example.com
Example.com
Example.com
Example.com
Example.com

Example.com

It will direct the speech synthesizer to speak headers in a voice (a kind of audio
font) called "paul", on a flat tone, but in a very rich voice. Before speaking the
headers, a sound sample will be played from the given URL.

Now, we will see various properties related to aural media.

·        The azimuth property sets, where the sound should come from

horizontally.

·        The elevation property sets, where the sound should come from vertically.

·        The cue-after specifies a sound to be played after speaking an element's

content to delimit it from other.

·        The cue-before specifies a sound to be played before speaking an element's

content to delimit it from other.

·        The cue is a shorthand for setting cue-before and cue-after.

·        The pause-after specifies a pause to be observed after speaking an

element's content.

·        The pause-before specifies a pause to be observed before speaking an

element's content.

·        The pause is a shorthand for setting pause-before and pause-after.

·        The pitch specifies the average pitch (a frequency) of the speaking voice.

·        The pitch-range specifies variation in average pitch.

·        The play-during specifies a sound to be played as a background while an

element's content is spoken.
 ·        The richness specifies the richness, or brightness, of the speaking voice.

·        The speak specifies whether text will be rendered aurally and if so, in what

manner.

·        The speak-numeral controls how numerals are spoken.

·        The speak-punctuation specifies how punctuation is spoken.

·        The speech-rate specifies the speaking rate.

·        The stress specifies the height of "local peaks" in the intonation contour of

a voice.

·        The voice-family specifies the prioritized list of voice family names.

·        The volume refers to the median volume of the voice.

The azimuth Property

The azimuth property sets where the sound should come from horizontally. The
possible values are listed below −

·        angle − Position is described in terms of an angle within the range-

360deg to 360deg. The value 0deg means directly ahead in the center of the
sound stage. 90deg is to the right, 180deg behind, and 270deg(or,
equivalently and more conveniently, -90deg) to the left.

·        left-side − Same as '270deg'. With 'behind', '270deg'.

·        far-left − Same as '300deg'. With 'behind', '240deg'.

·        left − Same as '320deg'. With 'behind', '220deg'.

·        center-left − Same as '340deg'. With 'behind', '200deg'.

·        center − Same as '0deg'. With 'behind', '180deg'.

·        center-right − Same as '20deg'. With 'behind', '160deg'.

·        right − Same as '40deg'. With 'behind', '140deg'.

·        far-right − Same as '60deg'. With 'behind', '120deg'.

·        right-side − Same as '90deg'. With 'behind', '90deg'.

 ·        leftwards − Moves the sound to the left and relative to the current angle.
More precisely, subtracts 20 degrees.

·        rightwards − Moves the sound to the right, relative to the current angle.
More precisely, adds 20 degrees.

Here is an example −

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   h1   { azimuth: 30deg }
   td.a { azimuth: far-right }          /*  60deg */
   #12  { azimuth: behind far-right }   /* 120deg */
   p.comment { azimuth: behind }        /* 180deg */
   -->
</style>

The elevation Property

The elevation property sets where the sound should come from vertically. The
possible values are as follows −

·        angle − Specifies the elevation as an angle, between -

90deg and90deg. 0deg means on the forward horizon, which loosely means
level with the listener. 90deg means directly overhead and -90deg means
directly below.

·        below − Same as '-90deg'.

·        level − Same as '0deg'.

·        above − Same as '90deg'.

·        higher − Adds 10 degrees to the current elevation.

·        lower − Subtracts 10 degrees from the current elevation.

Here is an example −

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   h1   { elevation: above }
   tr.a { elevation: 60deg }
   tr.b { elevation: 30deg }
   tr.c { elevation: level }
   -->
</style>

The cue-after Property

The cue-after property specifies a sound to be played after speaking an element's
content to delimit it from other. The possible values include −

·        url − The URL of a sound file to be played.

·        none − Nothing has to be played.

Here is an example −

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   a {cue-after: url("dong.wav");}
   h1 {cue-after: url("pop.au"); }
   -->
</style>

The cue-before Property

This property specifies a sound to be played before speaking an element's content
to delimit it from other. The possible values are −

·        url − The URL of a sound file to be played.

·        none − Nothing has to be played.

Here is an example −

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   a {cue-before: url("bell.aiff");}
   h1 {cue-before: url("pop.au"); }
   -->
</style>

The cue Property

The cue property is a shorthand for setting cue-before and cue-after. If two values
are given, the first value is cue-before and the second is cue-after. If only one value
is given, it applies to both properties.

For example, the following two rules are equivalent −

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   h1 {cue-before: url("pop.au"); cue-after: url("pop.au") }
   h1 {cue: url("pop.au") }
   -->
</style>

The pause-after Property

This property specifies a pause to be observed after speaking an element's content.
The possible values are −

·        time − Expresses the pause in absolute time units (seconds and

milliseconds).

·        percentage − Refers to the inverse of the value of the speech-rateproperty.

For example, if the speech-rate is 120 words per minute (i.e. a word takes
half a second, or 500ms), then a pause-after of 100% means a pause of 500
ms and a pause-after of 20% means 100ms.

The pause-before Property

This property specifies a pause to be observed before speaking an element's
content. The possible values are −

·        time − Expresses the pause in absolute time units (seconds and

milliseconds).

·        percentage − Refers to the inverse of the value of the speech-rateproperty.

For example, if the speech-rate is 120 words per minute (i.e. a word takes
half a second, or 500ms), then a pause-before of 100% means a pause of
500 ms and a pause-before of 20% means 100ms.

The pause Property

This property is a shorthand for setting pause-before and pause-after. If two values
are given, the first value is pause-before and the second is pause-after.
Here is an example −

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   /* pause-before: 20ms; pause-after: 20ms */
   h1 { pause : 20ms } 
           
   /* pause-before: 30ms; pause-after: 40ms */
   h2{ pause : 30ms 40ms } 
           
   /* pause-before: ?; pause-after: 10ms */
   h3 { pause-after : 10ms }
   -->
</style>

The pitch Property

This property specifies the average pitch (a frequency) of the speaking voice. The
average pitch of a voice depends on the voice family. For example, the average
pitch for a standard male voice is around 120Hz, but for a female voice, it's
around 210Hz. The possible values are −

·        frequency - Specifies the average pitch of the speaking voice in hertz (Hz).

·        x-low, low, medium, high, x-high - These values do not map to absolute
frequencies since these values depend on the voice family.

The pitch-range Property

This property specifies variation in average pitch. The possible values are −

·        number − A value between '0' and '100'. A pitch range of '0' produces a flat,
monotonic voice. A pitch range of 50 produces normal inflection. Pitch
ranges greater than 50 produce animated voices.

The play-during Property

This property specifies a sound to be played as a background while an element's
content is spoken. Possible values could be any of the followings −

·        URI − The sound designated by this <uri> is played as a background while

the element's content is spoken.
 ·        mix − When present, this keyword means that the sound inherited from the
parent element's play-during property continues to play and the sound
designated by the uri is mixed with it. If mix is not specified, the element's
background sound replaces the parent's.

·        repeat − When present, this keyword means that the sound will repeat if it
is too short to fill the entire duration of the element. Otherwise, the sound
plays once and then stops.

·        auto − The sound of the parent element continues to play.

·        none − This keyword means that there is silence.

Here is an example −

<style tyle="text/css">

   <!--

   blockquote.sad { play-during: url("violins.aiff") }

   blockquote q   { play-during: url("harp.wav") mix }

   span.quiet     { play-during: none }

   -->

</style>

The richness Property

This property specifies the richness or brightness of the speaking voice. The
possible values are:

·        number − A value between '0' and '100'. The higher the value, the more the
voice will carry. A lower value will produce a soft, mellifluous voice.

The speak Property

This property specifies whether text will be rendered aurally and if so, in what
manner. The possible values are −

·        none − Suppresses aural rendering so that the element requires no time to

render.

·        normal − Uses language-dependent pronunciation rules for rendering an

element and its children.
 ·        spell-out − Spells the text one letter at a time.

Note the difference between an element whose 'volume' property has a value of
'silent' and an element whose 'speak' property has the value 'none'. The former
takes up the same time as if it had been spoken, including any pause before and
after the element, but no sound is generated. The latter requires no time and is
not rendered.

The speak-numeral Property

This property controls how numerals are spoken. The possible values are −

·        digits − Speak the numeral as individual digits. Thus, "237" is spoken "Two
Three Seven".

·        continuous − Speak the numeral as a full number. Thus, "237" is spoken

"Two hundred thirty seven". Word representations are language-dependent.

The speak-punctuation Property

This property specifies how punctuation is spoken. The possible values are −

·        code − Punctuation such as semicolons, braces, and so on are to be spoken

literally.

·        none − Punctuation is not to be spoken, but instead rendered naturally as

various pauses.

The speech-rate property

This property specifies the speaking rate. Note that both absolute and relative
keyword values are allowed. The possible values are −

·        number − Specifies the speaking rate in words per minute.

·        x-slow − Same as 80 words per minute.

·        slow − Same as 120 words per minute.

·        medium − Same as 180 - 200 words per minute.

·        fast − Same as 300 words per minute.

·        x-fast − Same as 500 words per minute.

·        faster − Adds 40 words per minute to the current speech rate.

 ·        slower − Subtracts 40 words per minutes from the current speech rate.

The stress Property

This property specifies the height of "local peaks" in the intonation contour of a
voice. English is a stressed language, and different parts of a sentence are
assigned primary, secondary, or tertiary stress. The possible values are −

·        number − A value between '0' and '100'. The meaning of values depends on
the language being spoken. For example, a level of '50' for a standard,
English-speaking male voice (average pitch = 122Hz), speaking with normal
intonation and emphasis would have a different meaning than '50' for an
Italian voice.

The voice-family Property

The value is a comma-separated, prioritized list of voice family names. It can have
following values:

·        generic-voice − Values are voice families. Possible values are 'male',

'female', and 'child'.

·        specific-voice − Values are specific instances (e.g., comedian, trinoids,

carlos, lani).

Here is an example −

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   h1 { voice-family: announcer, male }
   p.part.romeo  { voice-family: romeo, male }
   p.part.juliet { voice-family: juliet, female }
   -->
</style>

The volume Property

Volume refers to the median volume of the voice. It can have following values −

·        numbers − Any number between '0' and '100'. '0' represents the minimum
audible volume level and 100 corresponds to the maximum comfortable
level.
 ·        percentage − These values are calculated relative to the inherited value,
and are then clipped to the range '0' to '100'.

·        silent − No sound at all. The value '0' does not mean the same as 'silent'.

·        x-soft − Same as '0'.

·        soft − Same as '25'.

·        medium − Same as '50'.

·        loud − Same as '75'.

·        x-loud − Same as '100'.

Here is an example −

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   P.goat  { volume: x-soft }
   -->
</style>

Paragraphs with class goat will be very soft.

CSS Printing @media Rule

You can use CSS to change the appearance of your web page when it's printed on
a paper. You can specify one font for the screen version and another for the print
version.

You have seen @media rule in previous chapters. This rule allows you to specify
different style for different media. So, you can define different rules for screen and
a printer.

The example below specifies different font families for screen and print. The next
CSS uses the same font size for both screen as well as printer.

<style tyle="text/css">
   <!--
   @media screen
   {
      p.bodyText {font-family:verdana, arial, sans-serif;}
   }
 
   @media print

   {CSS Layouts
Hope you are very comfortable with HTML tables and you are efficient in designing
page layouts using HTML Tables. But you know CSS also provides plenty of
controls for positioning elements in a document. Since CSS is the wave of the
future, why not learn and use CSS instead of tables for page layout purposes?

The following list collects a few pros and cons of both the technologies −

·        Most browsers support tables, while CSS support is being slowly adopted.

·        Tables are more forgiving when the browser window size changes -
morphing their content and wrapping to accommodate the changes
accordingly. CSS positioning tends to be exact and fairly inflexible.

·        Tables are much easier to learn and manipulate than CSS rules.

But each of these arguments can be reversed −

·        CSS is pivotal to the future of Web documents and will be supported by

most browsers.

·        CSS is more exact than tables, allowing your document to be viewed as you
intended, regardless of the browser window.

·        Keeping track of nested tables can be a real pain. CSS rules tend to be well
organized, easily read, and easily changed.

Finally, we would suggest you to use whichever technology makes sense to you
and use what you know or what presents your documents in the best way.

CSS also provides table-layout property to make your tables load much faster.

Following is an example −

<table style="table-layout:fixed;width:600px;">
   <tr height="30">
      <td width="150">CSS table layout cell 1</td>
      <td width="200">CSS table layout cell 2</td>
      <td width="250">CSS table layout cell 3</td>
   </tr>
</table>

You will notice the benefits more on large tables. With traditional HTML, the
browser had to calculate every cell before finally rendering the table. When you set
the table-layout algorithm to fixed, however, it only needs to look at the first row
before rendering the whole table. It means your table will need to have fixed
column widths and row heights.

Sample Column Layout

Here are the steps to create a simple Column Layout using CSS −

Set the margin and padding of the complete document as follows −

<style style="text/css">
   <!--
   body {
      margin:9px 9px 0 9px;
      padding:0;
      background:#FFF;
   }
   -->
</style>

Now, we will define a column with yellow color and later, we will attach this rule to
a <div>:

<style style="text/css">
   <!--
   #level0 {
      background:#FC0;
   }
   -->
</style>

Upto this point, we will have a document with yellow body, so let us now define
another division inside level0 −

<style style="text/css">
   <!--

   #level1 {

      margin-left:143px;

      padding-left:9px;

      background:#FFF;

   }

   -->

</style>

Now, we will nest one more division inside level1, and we will change just
background color −

<style style="text/css">
   <!--
   #level2 {
      background:#FFF3AC;
   }
   -->
</style>

Finally, we will use the same technique, nest a level3 division inside level2 to get
the visual layout for the right column −

<style style="text/css">
   <!--
   #level3 {
      margin-right:143px;
      padding-right:9px;
      background:#FFF;
   }
   #main {
      background:#CCC;
   }
   -->
</style>

Complete the source code as follows −

<style style="text/css">
   body {
      margin:9px 9px 0 9px;
      padding:0;
      background:#FFF;
   }
           
   #level0 {background:#FC0;}
           
   #level1 {
      margin-left:143px;
      padding-left:9px;
      background:#FFF;
   }
           
   #level2 {background:#FFF3AC;}
           
   #level3 {
      margin-right:143px;
      padding-right:9px;
      background:#FFF;
   }
           
   #main {background:#CCC;}
</style>
<body>
   <div id="level0">
      <div id="level1">
         <div id="level2">
            <div id="level3">
               <div id="main">
                  Final Content goes here...
               </div>
            </div>
         </div>
      </div>
   </div>
</body>

Similarly, you can add a top navigation bar or an ad bar at the top of the page.

It will produce the following result −

Final Content goes here...

      p.bodyText {font-family:georgia, times, serif;}
   }
   @media screen, print
   {
      p.bodyText {font-size:10pt}
   }
   -->
</style>

If you are defining your style sheet in a separate file, then you can also use the
media attribute when linking to an external style sheet −

<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="mystyle.css">
 

CSS Validations
Validation is the process of checking something against a rule. When you are a
beginner, it is very common that you will commit many mistakes in writing your
CSS rules. How you will make sure whatever you have written is 100% accurate
and up to the W3 quality standards?

If you use CSS, your code needs to be correct. Improper code may cause
unexpected results in how your page looks or functions.

But if you want to validate your CSS style sheet embedded in an

(X)HTML document, you should first check that the (X)HTML you use is valid.

Tool to check the validity of (X)HTML document: Validate (X)HTML document.

You can use the following tools to check the validity of your CSS.
 1 W3C CSS Validator (World Wide Web Consortium), This validator checks
your css by either file upload, direct input, or using URI - one page at a time.
This validator helps you to locate all the errors in your CSS.

2 The WDG CSS check validator, lets you validate your css by direct input, file
upload, and using URI. Errors will be listed by line and column numbers if
you have any. Errors usually come with links to explain the reason of error.

A CSS validator checks your Cascading Style Sheets to make sure that they
comply with the CSS standards set by the W3 Consortium. There are a few
validators which will also tell you which CSS features are supported by which
browsers (since not all browsers are equal in their CSS implementation).

Why Validate Your HTML Code?

There are a number of reasons why you should validate your code. But major ones
are −

 It Helps Cross-Browser, Cross-Platform, and Future Compatibility.

 A good quality website increases search engine visibility.
 Professionalism: As a web developer, your code should not raise errors while
seen by the visitors.