`

Class notes
CIVL 5076 Coastal Engineering

By

Ahmad Sana, Ph.D., P.E.

Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering

Sultan Qaboos University
Sultanate of Oman

Email: [email protected]

January 30, 2017

1
 1 Introduction

During the World War II the field of coastal engineering evolved as a result of
information required about the wave properties on certain coastal fronts.
Nowadays, the knowledge gained through this field applies to the following civil
engineering activities:
 Ports, harbors, breakwaters, seawalls, revetments
 Navigation channels
 Coastal intakes and out-falls
 Ocean pipelines, cables, piles
 Sediment control: groins, sand bypassing, dredging, beach nourishment
 Power generation by waves and tides

In order to determine the wave properties and corresponding hydrodynamic processes,

the following approaches are used:
 Hydrodynamics: Wave theories
 Empirical formulae based on experimental results
 Physical Modeling
 Numerical Modeling
In the following chapters, one of the wave theories, i.e. small amplitude wave theory is
discussed in more detail because it is one of the most popular and applicable theories for
field applications.

2
 2 Small Amplitude Wave Theory

This wave theory was developed by Airy and due to that reason it is called as Airy wave
theory as well.

2.1 Assumptions
The basic assumptions for this wave theory are as follows:
1. Water is homogeneous and incompressible, wave lengths are greater than 3m so
that capillary effects may be ignored
2. Flow is irrotational, i.e. no shear stress present anywhere. Thus the velocity
potential  must satisfy the Laplace equation:
 2  2
 0 (2.1)
x 2 z 2
3. The bottom is not moving and is impermeable and horizontal, i.e. no energy
transfer through the bed
4. The pressure along the air-sea interface is constant, i.e. no effect of weather
related pressure differences
5. The wave amplitude is small compared to the wave length and water depth.

The definition sketch shown in Fig.2.1 depicts the various wave properties of practical
relevance.

5 L
SWL
0  H
 w
-5
u
d 
-10

-15

z=- d
-20

Figure 2.1. Definition sketch for wave parameters

3
Here, H is wave height, L; wave length, d; depth of water, u; horizontal velocity, w;
vertical velocity, , ; water particle displacement with respect to the mean position, in x-
and z- directions, respectively. The time period of the wave is denoted by T.

2.2 Basic Equations

The water surface profile is given as:   H / 2coskx  t 
Where, k is wave number (  2 / L ) and  is angular frequency (  2 / T )

Since the velocity potential should be cyclic with horizontal position and time, and it
should vary with depth, we can assume that:
  f ( z) sin kx  t  (2.2)
Substituting Eq.(2.2) into (2.1), one can get:
2 f
k2 f  0
z 2
The general solution to this partial differential equation is:
f ( z )  A exp( kz)  B exp( kz)
Where A an B are arbitrary constants. Putting this value of the function f(z) in Eq.(2.2),
we get:
  A exp(kz)  B exp(kz)sin kx  t  (2.3)
Two boundary conditions are required to find A and B.

(a) The vertical velocity w at the bottom must be zero (Assumption 3):

w 0
z z  d
From Eq. (2.3)

 k A exp( kz)  B exp(  kz)sin kx  t 
z
At z=-d

 k A exp( kd)  B exp( kd)sin kx  t   0
z z  d
Since k and sin( kx  t ) cannot be equal to zero (if they are zero, there is no wave!), we
shall have always:
A exp( kd)  B exp( kd)  0
exp( kd)
Or AB
exp( kd)
Substituting this value of A in Eq.(2.3) we get:
  B exp(kd)expk (d  z) exp k (d  z)sin( kx  t )
Since, expk (d  z) exp k (d  z)  2 cosh k (d  z) , we get:
  2 B exp( kd) cosh k (d  z ) sin( kx  t ) (2.4)
(b) Second boundary condition (on the surface) may be derived from Bernoulli’s
equation for time-varying flow in two dimensions, i.e.

4
 
t
p 1

 gz   u 2  w 2  0
 2

On the surface atmospheric pressure is there, i.e. p /   0 . Assuming particle velocities
to be small, u 2  w 2  0 . At the surface, z   .
Hence,  / t  g  0 , at the surface.
1 
Or 
g t z 

Considering  to be very small, we can say:

1 

g t z 0

At t=0, x=0 and z=0, =H/2

gH 
Or 
2 t z 0

From Eq.(2.4)

 2B exp( kd) cosh k (d  z ) z 0 cos( kx  t )
t z 0

At t=0, x=0 (crest of the wave), cos( kx  t )  1

So,
Hg
2 B exp( kd) 
2 cosh kd

Eq.(2.4) becomes:
H g cosh k (d  z )
 sin( kx  t ) (2.5)
2  cosh kd

The velocity potential given by Eq.(2.5) can be used to find the velocities in x and z
directions as will be shown later.
Another useful relationship may be derived by considering the vertical component of
velocity of a particle on the water surface, w, which is given as:
 1 
w but at the water surface,    so,
t g t z 0
1  2
w
g t 2 z 0

5
 
Also, w  , we can write:
z
 2 
g 0
t 2
z
Inserting  from Eq.(2.5) and solving, we get the so-called dispersion relation:
 2  gk tanh( kd) (2.6)
Since, the wave celerity C, is defined as: C=L/T=/k
From Eq.(2.6) we get:
gL  2d 
C tanh   (2.7)
2  L 
Or
gT  2d 
C tanh   (2.8)
2  L 
And
gT 2  2d 
L tanh   (2.9)
2  L 
Eq.(2.9) is an implicit relationship by virtue of the wave length L and therefore, it can be
solved by trials only. Fenton (1990) has given an approximate explicit relationship from
which the wave length can be directly calculated from the available knowledge of wave
period and depth of water as follows:
2/3
gT 2    2 d  
3/ 4

L tanh    (2.10)
2   g  

2.3 Wave Classification by Relative Depth

When the relative depth, d/L, is greater that 0.5, tanh( 2d / L)  1 and Eq.(2.7), (2.8) and
(2.9) transform to the following, respectively:
gL0
C0  (2.11)
2
gT
C0  (2.12)
2
And
gT 2
L0  (2.13)
2

This condition is called deep water condition and denoted by the subscript zero. In this
condition it may be noted that the wave celerity is independent of the water depth.
Another extreme condition may be found when the relative depth is less than 0.05. In this
condition, tanh( 2d / L)  2d / L , so from Eq.(2.7) or (2.8): C  gd . And from
 
Eq.(2.9), L  gd T . This condition is denoted as shallow water condition. It is obvious
that in this situation the wave celerity depends only on the water depth.

6
Some interesting features of both the extreme conditions by virtue of relative depth can
be observed from the graphical representation of the above relationships after some
rearrangement.
For example, dividing Eq.(2.8) by Eq.(2.12), we get:
C  2d 
 tanh   (2.14)
C0  L 
Or

L  2d 
 tanh   (2.15)
L0  L 
Multiplying both sides by d and rearranging, we get:
d d  2d 
 tanh   (2.16)
L0 L  L 
Figure 2.2 shows Eq. (2.14) or (2.15) and (2.16) along-with some other relationships
(which will be derived later).

0.01 0.1 1
10 10

2d/L
H/H0

1 1

n
L/L0

0.1 d/L0 0.1

shallow Intermediate
deep
0.01 0.01
0.01 0.1 1
d/L

Figure 2.2. Various wave parameters against relative depth as per small amplitude wave
theory.

7
Example 2.1
A wave tank is 193m long, 4.57m wide and 6.1m deep. The tank is filled to a depth of 5m
with fresh water and a 1-m high, 4-sec period wave is generated. (a) Calculate the wave
celerity and length using small amplitude wave theory. (b) Calculate the corresponding
deep water wave length and celerity.

Solution:
Given: H = 1m T = 4 sec d = 5m

(a) Using Eq.(2.9)

gT 2  2d  9.81  4  2  5 
2
L tanh   tanh  
2  L  2  L 
By trials we get, L = 22.2m

L 22 .2
C   5.55 m/sec
T 4
(b)
gT 2 9.81  4 2 L 25
L0    25 .0 m, and C0  0   6.25 m/sec
2 2 T 4

For part (a) it may be noted that the explicit relationship for the wave length (Eq.2.10)
may also be used. Using that we get:
2/3 2/3
gT    2 d   9.81  4 2   4 2  5  
2 3/ 4 3/ 4

L tanh     tanh  2    22 .06 m

2   g   2    4  9.81  

A value that differs by only 0.6% from the result obtained from Eq. (2.9).

2.4 Wave Kinematics and Pressure

The horizontal and vertical components of water particle velocity u and w may be
determined as u   / x and w   / z , respectively.
Thus,
   H g cosh k d  z   H 2 g cosh k d  z 
u   sin kx  t   cos kx  t 
x x  2  cosh kd  2 L  cosh kd
Using Eq. (2.9) we get:
 H  cosh k d  z 
u  cos kx  t  (2.17)
 T  sinh kd
Similarly, we can derive for the vertical component of water particle velocity as:
 H  sinh k d  z 
w  sin kx  t  (2.18)
 T  sinh kd

8
The horizontal component of acceleration of a particle is given by:
u u u
ax  u w 

x  z  t
convective local

From the assumptions made in small amplitude wave theory, the convective acceleration
is very small. Thus,
u 2 2 H cosh k d  z 
ax   sin kx  t  (2.19)
t T2 sinh kd
Similarly
w 2 2 H sinh k d  z 
az   cos kx  t  (2.20)
t T2 sinh kd

It may be observed that particle accelerations have same depth decay terms as their
corresponding velocities and the accelerations are 90o out of phase with the
corresponding particle velocities.
As water particles orbit around a mean position, the horizontal and vertical ordinates of
the particle displacement ( and ) are related to the components of particle velocity by:
 
u and w  , respectively.
t t
Thus,
H cosh k d  z 
   udt   sin kx  t  (2.21)
2 sinh kd
and
H sinh k d  z 
   wdt  cos kx  t  (2.22)
2 sinh kd

cosh k d  z  sinh k d  z 
For deep water:   exp( kz)
sinh kd sinh kd
Therefore, we may derive for deep water (from Eq. 2.17, 2.18, 2.21 and 2.22):
 H 
u  exp kz cos kx  t  (2.23)
 T 
 H 
w  exp kzsin kx  t  (2.24)
 T 
   exp kzsin kx  t 
H
(2.25)
2
and
  exp kz cos kx  t 
H
(2.26)
2

cosh k d  z  1 sinh k d  z  d  z
For shallow water:  and 
sinh kd kd sinh kd d

9
Therefore, we may derive for shallow water (from Eq. 2.17, 2.18, 2.21 and 2.22):
 H  g 
u    cos kx  t  (2.27)
 2  d 
 H  z
w 1   sin kx  t  (2.28)
 T  d 
 H  1 
     sin kx  t  (2.29)
 2  kd 
and
 H  z
   1   cos kx  t  (2.30)
 2  d 
It may be proved mathematically from Eq.(2.25) and Eq. (2.26) that the particle paths in
case of deep water condition are circular, whereas, in any other condition the water
particle paths are elliptical as shown in Fig.2.3.

Figure 2.3. Water particle displacements from mean position for shallow-water and
deepwater waves (CEM, 2008)

In order to derive a relationship for pressure we can use Bernoulli’s equation as follows:

p   gz  
t
Putting the value of  from Eq.(2.5), we get:
gH cosh k d  z 
p   gz  cos kx  t  (2.31)

hydrostatic 2 cosh
 kd

dynamicpressure

10
Figure 2.4 shows the variation of static and dynamic pressure with respect to the depth in
a deep water condition.
An underwater pressure sensor device located at a depth of less than a half wave length
would detect the dynamic pressure fluctuation and allow computation of the wave height
and period. This is one of the more common techniques used to measure waves in coastal
regions.

kx- t= 0  2
SWL

dynamic
hydrostatic

z=-L/2

Figure 2.4. Pressure distribution with respect to vertical direction.

2.5 Wave Energy and Power

The total energy in a wave comprises of kinetic and potential energy, i.e. E  E k  E p ,
where, Ek and E p represent kinetic and potential energy, respectively.
Considering an element of water having thickness dx, depth dz and width perpendicular
to the plane of the paper as unity (Fig.2.5) the kinetic energy of the element can be
 
expressed as dEk  1 / 2m u 2  w 2 . The total kinetic energy over the whole depth of
water and wave length can be expressed as:

E k    dxdzu 2  w 2 
L 0
1
0 d
2
Putting the values of u and w from Eq.(17) and (18) and solving, we get:
gH 2 L
Ek  (2.32)
16
Now, the potential energy solely due to wave motion is equal to the total potential energy
minus the potential energy due to still water. Again using Fig.2.5 and the definition of
potential energy ( E p  mgz ), we can write:
 d   d 
L
E p   g d    dx  gLd  
 
2 2

0
total P . E . P . E . still water

Using the expression for  with t=0, we get:

gH 2 L
Ep  (2.33)
16

11
Therefore, total energy can be computed by summing up Eq.(2.32) and (2.33) as follows:
gH 2 L gH 2 L gH 2 L
E  Ek  E p    (2.34)
16 16 8
The average energy per unit surface area of water is:
E gH 2
E  (2.35)
L 1 8
E is sometimes called as energy density or specific energy.

SWL 

w
d
dz u

dx

Figure 2.5. Schematic diagram for wave energy calculation

Wave power is defined as the wave energy per unit time propagated in the direction of
wave travel, which is equal to the force acting on a vertical plane normal to wave
propagation multiplied by particle flow velocity across this plane. Mathematically, we
can write:
T 0
P     p  gz udzdt
1
(2.36)
T 0 d
But
gH cosh k d  z 
p  gz  cos kx  t 
2 cosh
 kd

dynamicpressure

Hence, solving Eq.(2.36), we get:

gH 2 L  2kd 
P 1  
16T  sinh 2kd 
Or
E 1  2kd 
P  1  
T  2  sinh 2kd 
Letting
1  2kd 
n   1  
 2  sinh 2kd 

12
We get:
nE
P (2.37)
T
The variation of n with the relative depth may be observed from Fig.2.2, where n
increases from 0.5 in deep water to 1.0 in shallow water.
For a wave train, considering the reflected or dissipated energy to be negligible, the
conservation of energy per unit time requires that
 nE   nE 
P        Constant
 T 1  T  2
If we draw lines orthogonal to the wave crests, and the spacing of the orthogonals is B,
we can write the energy between two orthogonals as BE and therefore:
 BnE   BnE 
     Constant
 T 1  T  2
Inserting the value of E from Eq.(2.34) and rearranging we get:
H1 n 2 L2 B 2
 (2.38)
H2 n1 L1 B1
Here,
n 2 L2
Ks  : Shoaling coefficient
n1 L1
B2
Kr  : Refraction coefficient
B1
The variation of wave height from deep water to shallow water with Kr=1 is shown in
Fig.2.2 where H 0' represents deep water wave height with no refraction and H represents
an arbitrary wave height.
Experiments in wave tanks have shown that:
1. For most typical beach profiles the equations for C and L (Eq.2.7, 2.8 and 2.9) are
satisfactory up to wave breaker zone
2. For increasing beach slopes and steeper waves, the actual wave height would be
higher than the one predicted by Eq.(2.38)
3. In shallow water the wave surface profile is much different from sinusoidal wave.
4. For waves on a flat slope and having a relative depth greater than about 0.1, the
small amplitude wave theory is satisfactory for predicting horizontal water
particle velocities.

There are a number of more sophisticated wave theories used in the coastal engineering
profession, the ranges of applicability of some of these theories is shown in Figure 2.6.
In this figure the following relationships are used to draw various lines (Komar, 1999):

Line of limiting wave steepness:

H L  2d 
 0.142 tanh   (2.39)
d d  L 

13
Transition between small amplitude and Stokes wave theories:
H L  2d 
 0.0625 tanh   (2.40)
d d  L 

Transition between small amplitude and cnoidal wave theories:

H 32 2  d 
2

   (2.41)
d 3 L
0
10

5
Line of limiting
ave wave steepn ess

St
l w

ok
H/d

-1

es
10
id a

w
cno

av
small amplitude wave

e
5
d/L=0 .5
d/L=0.0 5

sh allo w
water deep water
-2
10 -2 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10
d/L

Figure 2.6. Ranges of applicability of various wave theories

Example 2.2
Calculate the wave energy (total, kinetic and potential) and power for the wave in
Example 2.1.

Solution:
H = 1m T = 4 sec d=5m L = 22.2 m   1000 kg/m3
gH 2 L 1000  9.81  12  22 .2
Ek  E p    13 .61 kJ
16 16

E  E k  E p  2  13 .61  27 .22 kJ
1 2kd  1  2  2  5 / 22 .2 
n  1    1    0.667
2  sinh 2kd  2  sinh( 2  2  5 / 22 .2) 
nE 0.667  27 .22
P   4.54 kW
T 4

14
Example 2.3
For the wave in Example 2.1,
(a) Calculate the water particle velocity and the pressure at a point 4m ahead of the
wave crest and 2m below the still water level
(b) Calculate the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the water particle orbit at this
point
(c) Calculate the equivalent deep water wave height and power

Solution:
H = 1m T = 4 sec d=5m L = 22.2 m   1000 kg/m3
x = 4m t=0 z = -2 m

(a) From Eq.(2.17) and (2.18) we can calculate u and v, respectively:

  2
 cosh  5  2 
 H  cosh k d  z     1   22 .2   cos 2  4  0 
u  cos kx  t       
 T  sinh kd  4  sinh  2  5    22 .2 
 

  22 .2   
1.383
u   0.425  0.238 m/s
4 1.937
 H  sinh k d  z   0.955
w  sin kx  t     0.905  0.35 m/s
 T  sinh kd 4 1.937

From Eq.(2.31) we can calculate the pressure at the given point:

gH cosh k d  z 
p   gz  cos kx  t 
 2 cosh kd
hydrostatic 
dynamicpressure

1000  9.81  1 1.383

 1000  9.81   2     0.425  20 .94 kPa
2 2.18

(b) From Eq. (2.21) and (2.22) we can calculate the water particle displacements in x and
z directions:
H cosh k d  z 
sin kx  t    
1 1.383
   0.905  0.323 m
2 sinh kd 2 1.937
H sinh k d  z 
cos kx  t   
1 0.955
  0.425  0.105 m
2 sinh kd 2 1.937

(c) From Fig.2.2, n0  1 / 2 (deep water condition)

For the given condition:
1 2kd  1  2  2  5 / 22 .2 
n  1    1    0.667
2  sinh 2kd  2  sinh( 2  2  5 / 22 .2) 
Assuming refraction coefficient, Kr  1 , we have (Eq., 2.38)

15
H n0 L0 1 0.5  25
  '   H 0'  1.088 m
H 0' nL H0 0.667  22 .2
n0 E0 1 g ( H 0' ) 2 L0 1 1000  9.81  1.088 2  25 .0
P0       4.53 kW
T 2 8 T 64

2.6 Wave Group Celerity

Considering two harmonic waves with common height and wave lengths and celerities
nearly equal, superimposed on each other, the resulting wave profile is
  cos k1  x  C1t   cos k 2  x  C 2 t 
H H
2 2
 k  k  k C  k C   k  k  k C  k C 
  H cos  1 2  x  1 1 2 2 t   cos  1 2  x  1 1 2 2 t 
2  k k  2  k k 
 12 12
W ave A W ave B

For Wave A, since k1  k 2 and C1  C2 , group wave number k and group celerity C are
the same as the individual wave.
For Wave B, group celerity:
k C  k 2 C2 d kC dC dC
Cg  1 1  Ck CL
k1  k 2 dk dk dL
gL  2d 
Using Eq. (2.7) : C  tanh   and simplifying we get:
2  L 
1 2kd 
Cg  1  C  nC (2.42)
2  sinh 2kd 
Figure 2.7 shows the group celerity and wave envelope. It may be noted that the wave
height of the envelope is two times the wave height of an individual wave.

Figure 2.7. Characteristics of a wave group formed by the addition of sinusoids with
different periods (CEM, 2008)

16
2.7 Mass Transport and Wave Set-up
According to the small amplitude wave theory the water particle paths are closed and the
particles oscillate about a mean position. In reality, the viscosity is present and therefore
the water particles do not follow exactly the path depicted by the small amplitude wave
theory. More practical approaches like Stokes wave theory shows that the particle paths
are not closed and with the passage of each wave the particles experience a small amount
of translation. This fact is shown schematically in Fig. 2.8.
The results of computation by Longuet-Higgins and Stewart(1963) show that the mean
sea level falls below the still water level from offshore to the breaking point; a condition
called as wave set-down. In the surfzone (from breaking point to shoreline) the mean sea
level rises above the still water level; a condition named as wave set-up (Fig. 2.9).

z End of
z particle
Start of path
particle
path

x x

Small amplitude Real situation

wave theory
Figure 2.8. Water particle paths

Figure 2.9 Schematic for wave set-up and set-down

2.8 Wave Reflection

Changes in bottom depth, convergence of wave tank walls (or expansion) or presence of
an obstacle cause the reflection of waves. If the wave is fully reflected, i.e. Incident wave
amplitude, ai = Reflected wave amplitude, ar, the water surface shows a standing wave

17
called as Clapotis. In a clapotis nodes are the points on the water surface that remain
stationary whereas, the points called antinodes oscillate in vertical direction.
If the wave is partially reflected the resulting standing wave is called as partial clapotis.
For a general case:
amax  ai  ar amin  ai  ar

Solving the above equations:

a  a min a  amin
ai  max , ar  max
2 2
Reflection coefficient can be given as:
a a  amin
Cr  r  max (2.43)
ai amax  amin

Figure 2.10 Standing wave particle motion and surface profile envelope. (a) Cr = 1.0,
(b) Cr < 1.0.

The velocity potential for a standing wave can be obtained by adding the velocity
potentials for the two component waves that move in opposite directions. This yields:
gH cosh k (d  z )
 cos( kx) sin( t ) (2.44)
 cosh kd

18
With the velocity potential given by Eq. (2.44), we can derive the various standing wave
characteristics in the same way as for a progressive wave. This yields a surface profile
given by

  H cos kx sin t (2.45)

H cosh k (d  z )
u sin( kx) sin( t ) (2.46)
T sinh kd
H sinh k (d  z )
w cos( kx) sin( t ) (2.47)
T sinh kd
 cosh k (d  z ) 
p   gz  gH   cos( kx) cos(t ) (2.48)
 cosh kd 
cosh k (d  z )
  H sin( kx) cos(t ) (2.49)
sinh kd
sinh k (d  z )
 H cos( kx) cos(t ) (2.50)
sinh kd
gH 2 L
Ep  cos 2 t (2.51)
4
gH 2 L 2
Ek  sin t (2.52)
4
From the Eq.(2.45) it is obvious that when the component progressive wave heights are
H, the standing wave height is 2H.
Equations (2.51) and (2.52) demonstrate that at t = 0, T/2, . . . E= Ep and at T= T/4, 3T/4,
. . . E= Ek. Therefore, total energy in a standing wave per unit crest width and for one
wave length is
gH 2 L
E (2.53)
4

2.9 Wave Breaking

Miche(1944) has given the limiting condition for wave breaking in any water depth as:
H 1  2d 
   tanh   (2.54)
 L  max 7  L 
Here H/L= wave steepness.
In deep water, tanh 2d / L  1, therefore:
 H0  1
   (2.55)
 L 0  max 7
In shallow water, tanh 2d / L  2d / L , so
H 1  2d  H
     or    0.9 (2.56)
 L  max 7  L   d  max
Eq. (2.56) shows that the wave height in shallow water is limited by the depth of water.

19
2.9.1 Types of breaking waves
Breaker type refers to the form of wave at breaking. Wave breaking may be classified in
four types; spilling, plunging, collapsing and surging. The typical shapes of these
breakers are shown in Figure 2.10.
Spilling breaker: the wave crest becomes unstable, and cascades down the shoreward face
of the wave, producing a foamy water surface (Fig. 2.10 a).
Plunging breaker: The crest curls over the shoreward face of the wave and falls into the
base of the wave, resulting in a high splash (Fig. 2.10 b).
Collapsing breaker: The crest remains unbroken while the lower part of the shoreward
face steepens and the falls, producing an irregular turbulent water surface (Fig. 2.10 c).
Surging breaker: The crest remains unbroken and the front face of the wave advances up
the beach with minor breaking (Fig. 2.10 d).
Breaker type may be correlated to the surf similarity parameter,  0 , defined as:
0.5
H 
 0  tan   0  (2.57)
 L0 
On a uniformly sloping beach, breaker type is estimated by
Surging/collapsing:  0  3.3
Plunging: 0.5   0  3.3 ,
Spilling:  0  0.5

Under mild beach slope and small wave steepness the spilling breaker occurs. For a
relatively steeper beach slope and higher wave steepness, plunging breaker can be
observed. Under extremely steep slopes of the beach the surging breaker is observed. The
detail of these types is given by Sorensen(1997) and CEM(2003).

From laboratory data on monochromatic waves breaking on smooth, plane slopes, the
following expression was found by Weggel (1972) for tan   0.1 and H 0 / L0  0.06 :

Hb H
 b  a b2 (2.58)
db gT
Where,
1.56
a  43 .8(1  e 19 tan  ) and b 
(1  e 19 tan  )
Komar and Gaughan (1973) derived a semi-empirical relationship as follows:
0.2
Hb  H 0 

 0.56 
 (2.59)
H0  L0 

20
Figure 2.10 Breaker types (CEM, 2003)

21
 Figure 2.11. Dimensionless breaker height versus deep water wave steepness

Figure 2.12. Dimensionless breaker depth versus breaker steepness for various beach
slopes
Although Eq.(46), gives an idea about the wave height at breaking, for design purposes it
is not enough to use this relationship. A number of laboratory and field investigations
have been carried out to study the wave breaking phenomenon at various slopes. Some of
this information is provided in Figs. 2.11 and 2.12.

22
Example 2.4
What is the wave height and water depth at breaking for 1-m high 4-sec period wave
shoaling on a 1:10 slope in a wave tank with water depth of 5m before the slope? What
type of breaker would you expect?
gT 2 1 4πd/L 
L  22 .2 m L0   25 m n  1    0.667
2π 2  sinh ( 4πd/L) 
2nL H 0' 1 / 10 H
H 0'  H  1.089   0.044 m  b'  1.22  H b  1.33m
L0 L0 H0

1.22

0.044
Hb d
2
 0.0085  b  0.95  d b  1.26 m (Using Fig. 2.12)
gT Hb

0.95

0.0085

23
Use Eq. (2.58) and (2.59) to calculate the breaker height and depth and compare with the
solution based on the figures 2.11 and 2.12.

2.10 Wave Runup

After the wave breaking, the remaining energy causes the water to run up the face of the
beach or sloping surface of a structure. The definition of the wave runup is shown
schematically in Fig. 2.13.

Figure 2.13. Schematic for wave runup (Sorensen, 1997)

Figure 2.14 shows the experimental data for smooth, planar and impermeable slopes with
monochromatic waves and with d s / H 0' between 1 and 3. The effect of surface
conditions of the slope may be introduced using the data given in Table 2.1. In this table,
Runup on the given surface
r (2.60)
Runup on a smooth, impermeabl e surface
Therefore, the wave runup on a given surface can be found by first determining R from
Fig.2.14 and then multiplying it with r from Table 2.1 for the given surface.

24
 Figure 2.14. Relative runup versus cotangent of slope

Table 2.1 (From Battjes, 1970)

Slope facing r

Concrete slabs 0.9

Placed basalt blocks 0.85-0.9
Grass 0.85-0.9
One layer of riprap on an impermeable base 0.8
Placed stones 0.75-0.8
Round stones 0.6-0.65
Dumped stones 0.5-0.6
Two or more layers of riprap 0.5
Tetrapods etc. 0.5

25
 3 Wave Refraction, Diffraction and Reflection
3.1 Refraction
The refraction occurs in transitional and shallow water. As the wave celerity decreases
with the water depth (Why?), the waves in shallow portion travel slower than those in
deeper region. As a result the bending of wave crests occurs so that they approach the
orientation of bottom contours.

Fig. 3.1 Wave refraction

With the convergence of orthogonals to wave crests, the energy per unit crest length
increases. The change in wave height can be expressed as (From Eq. 2.38):
H n0 L0 B0 H B0
  ' (3.1)
H0 nL B H0 B
Since wave celerity depends on wave period, waves with different period refract
differently. Longer period waves start refracting in deeper water and consequently
undergo greater refraction by the time they reach shoreline.
For engineering purposes, refraction diagrams must be drawn for a number of wave
periods to cover the range of wave periods in the area of interest. Also a series of
diagrams must be constructed to cover the range of deep water directions from which
each period wave may arrive. From all these diagrams, we may construct a plot similar to
one in Fig. 3.2, which gives the refraction coefficient; K R  B0 / B at the site of
interest.
Given deep water wave heights, one can determine the most critical wave heights to be
expected at the site by using Fig. 3.2 and the equation given above.

26
 Figure 3.2 Wave refraction analysis for shoreline site

3.2 Construction of wave refraction diagrams

A popular method is based on Snell’s law, generally called as the Orthogonal Method.
Snell’s law can be derived considering Fig. 3.3.

Figure 3.3. Definition sketch for Snell’s law

27
A train of waves travels over a step (neglect the wave reflection by the step) where the
depth instantaneously decreases from d1 to d2 causing the wave celerity and length to
decrease from C1 and L1 to C2 and L2, respectively. From Fig. 3.3 we can observe that:
L CT L CT
sin 1  1  1 and sin  2  2  2
x x x x
Dividing;
sin 1 C1 L1
  (3.2)
sin  2 C 2 L2
Eq. (3.2) expresses Snell’s law.
When waves shoal over near-shore contours that are essentially straight and parallel as
shown in Fig. 3.4, it may be written that:
sin  0 sin 1
 x
L0 L1

Figure 3.4. Wave refraction over straight parallel contours

If we choose B0 and B1 so that the orthogonal lengths equal L0 and L1 as shown, then:
B0 B1
x or
cos  0 cos 1
B0 cos  0
Kr   (3.3)
B1 cos  1
Where
 C1 
 1  sin 1 sin  0  (3.4)
 C0 
Equations (3.3) and (3.4) allow us to estimate the effects of wave refraction at a shoreline
with uniform near-shore bathymetry.

28
Example 3.1
A wave train is observed approaching a coast that has straight parallel near-shore
contours in the north-south direction. Where the depth is 5m, the wave length is 85m and
the wave crest forms an angle of 9 degrees with the shore (waves from south-west). What
is the incident wave direction in deep water?

Solution:

Given: d1 = 5m L1 = 85 m
sin 1 C1 L1
 
sin  2 C 2 L2

Wave crests
1

0
W E

S
Bottom contours

C1 = ? T=? C0 = ? 0 = ?
gL  2d 
C tanh  
2  L 
9.81  85  2  5 
C1  tanh    6.85 m/s
2  85 
L1 gT 9.81  12 .4
T  12.4 s C0    19 .36 m/s
C1 2 2
 C0   19 .36 
 0  sin 1  sin  1   sin 1   sin 9    26 .23 
 C1   6.85 

29
3.3 Wave diffraction
When a train of waves passes an impermeable structure, there will be a transfer of energy
(wave) along the wave crest into the lee of the structure a shown in Fig. 3.5. As a result,
the wave height in the region inside the dashed line will be affected.
Diffracted wave height
Diffractio n Coefficien t, K D 
Incident w ave height
It is found that the diffraction coefficient is a function of the following parameters as
defined in Fig. 3.5:
K D  f  ,  , r / L

Figure 3.5. Wave diffraction behind an obstruction

Water wave diffraction is analogous to the diffraction of light. Wiegel (1962) used the
exact solution presented by Penney and Price (1952) to calculate diffraction coefficient as
a function of selected values of  ,  and r / L . The results are shown in Table 3.1.

Example 3.2
A train of 6-sec waves approaching an impermeable, non-reflecting breakwater at an
angle   60  . If the water depth is constant at 10 m, what would be the wave height at
  30  and r = 96.6 m from the breakwater tip, when the incident wave height is 1m.

Solution:
Given:   60    30  r  96.6m
gT 2  2d  9.81  6  2  10 
2
L tanh   tanh   By trials: L  48.4m
2  L  2  L 
r / L  96.6 / 48.4  2.0 From Table 3.1, for   60  ,   30  and r / L  2.0
K D  0.28
Diffracted wave height  K D  Incident w ave height  0.281  0.28m

30
The theory for diffraction of water waves approaching in a direction normal to a long
straight structure and passing through a single gap in that structure was also developed by
Penney and Price (1952). A typical variation of K D in the form of contours is shown in
Fig. 3.6 plotted by Johnson (1952).

Figure 3.6 Diffraction coefficient at barrier gap; gap width = 2L

Johnson showed that these diagrams could be used if the angle of wave incidence is other
than 90 degrees by using a projected imaging gap width as shown in Fig. 3.7. If the gap

31
width is greater that 5L , the diffraction on each side of the gap is independent from the
other. Then the diffraction can be determined at each side by considering it a single
barrier (From Table 3.1).

Figure 3.7. Oblique wave incident to a barrier gap

In most of the field situations when waves are diffracting, the bottom bathymetry is such
as to cause simultaneous wave refraction. US Army Corps of Engineers has suggested an
approach to plot K D diagrams for refracting waves.

3.4 Wave reflection

A graphical method to determine the reflected crest pattern is shown in Figure 3.8. The
incident wave crest is extended past the reflecting barrier. The mirror image of the
imaginary incident wave crest extension is the reflected wave crest. The reflection
coefficient Cr is given as the ratio of the wave height of reflected wave to the wave
height of the incident wave, i.e. Cr  H r / H i

Figure 3.8. Wave reflection analysis

To calculate the wave height that has been transformed by diffraction as well as
reflection, consider Figure 3.9, where a straight crested wave passes a barrier, diffracts
into the lee of that barrier, and then reflects off a second barrier. The water depth is
constant so the wave only undergoes diffraction and reflection. The imaginary diffracted

32
wave crest pattern is carried to point A’ where the imaginary wave height can be
determined from the incident height and direction along with the values of r and  as
previously discussed. The reflected wave height at point A would equal the imaginary
diffracted height at point A’ times the reflection coefficient.

Figure 3.9. Combined wave diffraction and reflection

33
 4 Tides, Tsunamis and Storm Surges

These are longer period waves as compared to the waves discussed in the previous
chapters. Primary periods of tides are 12.4 hours and 24 hours, whereas tsunamis have
wave periods ranging from 5 to 60 minutes. Storm surge is a rise and fall of sea level
caused primarily by wind stress and atmospheric pressure variations with typical duration
from several hours to a few days.
Figure 4.1 shows a schematic description of a common type of gauge to measure the
water level fluctuations with longer periods. The orifice area is very small as compared to
the area of cross-section of the stilling well. Therefore, the small period waves are
eliminated from the record.

Figure 4.1. Float-stilling well tide gauge

4.1 Astronomical tide

The primary generation forces are:
1. Gravitational attraction by the moon
2. Gravitational attraction by the sun
3. Centrifugal forces (equal and opposite to the above)
Because of its long period, tide propagates as a shallow water wave even over the deepest
parts of the ocean (How?).

As the tide propagates onto the continental shelf and into bays and estuaries, it is affected
by:
1. Near-shore hydrography
2. Friction
3. Coriolis acceleration
4. Resonance effects

How the above factors affect the tides is described below:

34
 1. Convergence of shoreline causes the increase in tidal amplitude, divergence of
shorelines cause the decrease in it. Decreasing water depths near the shoreline
cause shoaling
2. Friction causes the amplitude to decrease.
3. The Coriolis acceleration causes the water flow to the right in northern
hemisphere and to the left in southern hemisphere.
4. Due to very low steepness, tide has relatively high reflectivity.

4.2 Principal lunar and solar tides

In order to understand how tides are generated, we can idealize the earth-moon system as
shown in Fig. 4.2. In this figure, Fg is gravitational force and Fc is centrifugal force. At
the center of earth and moon system, both these forces are equal, i.e. Fg = Fc
An element of water located on the side of the earth farthest from the moon would have
Fc> Fg and a resulting outward force. On the half of the earth closest to the moon Fg > Fc,
which also causes an outward force.

Figure 4.2. Tide generation-idealized earth moon system

While the earth rotates once, the moon makes 1/29.5 of a revolution so the principal lunar
period, M 2  12  1  1/ 29.5  12.41 hr . The principal solar period, S 2  12 hr . Figure
4.3 shows the approximate orientation of the sun, moon and earth at the quarter points of
the moon’s revolution about the earth and with reference to the sun.
At the position (1) (new moon) and (3) (full moon), the solar and lunar forces reinforce
and the highest or Spring tide occurs.
At position (2) and (40 the lowest or Neap tide tides occur.
Each quarter is 29.5/4 = 7.4 days long, spring and neap tides are 14.8 days (about two
weeks) apart.

There are over 390 active tidal components having periods ranging from 8 hours to 18.6
years. Period of each component has been determined from astronomical analysis. The

35
phase angle and amplitude depend on local conditions and therefore generally determined
empirically.

Figure 4.3. Earth-moon-sun, lunar month

Eight of the major tidal components are listed in Table 4.1.

36
Common types of tides are expressed by a quantity called Form number, N f , which is
defined as:
K  O1
Nf  1 (4.1)
M 2  S2
N f  0.25 : Semidiurnal tide
N f  0.25  3.0 : Mixed
N f  3.0 : Diurnal
The above common types of tides are shown in Fig. 4.4

Figure 4.4. Examples of common types of tides

37
Some of the important quantities used in case of tidal analysis are given as follows using
Fig. 4.5.
Extreme
HAT tide
Higher high
Average
MHW tide
MSL
0 6 12 18 24
DR
MLW
Lower low

Figure 4.5. Nomenclature used in tides

MEAN HIGH WATER (MHW). The average height of the high waters over a 19-year
period. For shorter periods of observations, corrections are applied to eliminate known
variations and reduce the results to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value. All high water
heights are included in the average where the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed.
Only the higher high water heights are included in the average where the type of tide is
diurnal. So determined, mean high water in the latter case is the same as mean higher
high water (MHHW).
MEAN HIGH WATER SPRINGS (MHWS). The average height of the high waters
occurring at the time of spring tide. Frequently abbreviated to HIGH WATER SPRINGS
(HWS).
MEAN HIGHER HIGH WATER (MHHW). The average height of the higher high
waters over a 19-year period. For shorter periods of observation, corrections are applied
to eliminate known variations and reduce the result to the equivalent of a mean 19-year
value.
MEAN LOW WATER (MLW). The average height of the low waters over a 19-year
period. For shorter periods of observations, corrections are applied to eliminate known
variations and reduce the results to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value. All low water
heights are included in the average where the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed.
Only lower low water heights are included in the average where the type of tide is
diurnal. .So determined, mean low water in the latter case is the same as mean lower low
water (MLLW).
MEAN LOW WATER SPRINGS (MLWS). The average height of low waters
occurring at the time of the spring tides. It is usually derived by taking a plane depressed
below the half-tide level by an amount equal to one-half the spring range of tide,
necessary corrections being applied to reduce the result to a mean value. This plane is
used to a considerable extent for hydrographic work outside of the United States and is

38
the plane of reference for the Pacific approaches to the Panama Canal. Frequently
abbreviated to LOW WATER SPRINGS (LWS).
MEAN LOWER LOW WATER (MLLW). The average height of the lower low waters
over a 19-year period. For shorter periods of observations, corrections are applied to
eliminate known variations and reduce the results to the equivalent of a mea 19-year
value. Frequently abbreviated to LOWER LOW WATER (LLW).
MEAN SEA LEVEL (MSL). The average height of the surface of the sea for all stages
of the tide over a 19-year period, usually determined from hourly height readings. Not
necessarily equal to MEAN TIDE LEVEL.
MEAN TIDE LEVEL. A plane midway between MEAN HIGH WATER and MEAN
LOW WATER. Not necessarily equal to MEAN SEA LEVEL. Also HALF-TIDE
LEVEL.
HIGHEST ASTRONOMICAL TIDE (HAT). The HHW for the extreme spring tide is
termed as HAT.
TIDAL RANGE. The difference of elevation between high and low waters is termd as
tidal range. It is equal to MHW minus MLW or MHHW minus MLLW.

Tidal elevation data and hydrographic charts are usually referenced to MLW or MLLW.
Land elevations are usually referenced to MSL. Some of the important tidal terminology
is schematically shown in Fig. 4.6.

Figure 4.6. Tide levels terminology

(Reference: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/hydrology/hec25c2.cfm)

39
Tidal ranges for some of the places are given in Table 4.2

Table 4.2. Selected Coastal Tide Ranges

Location Tide Range(m) Type of Tide
Boston, Massachusetts 3.1 Semidiurnal
Muscat, Oman 1.7 Mixed
Karachi, Pakistan 2.3 Mixed
Galveston, Texas 0.5 Diurnal

4.3 Tide prediction

A long record of tide on a continuous or at least hourly basis is needed to analyze and
then predict the tide at a particular location. Ideally, the record should be 19 year long,
but records as short as 370 days can be used.
The instantaneous tidal elevation  above the tidal datum can be given as:
N
 2t 
  A   Ai cos   i  (4.2)
i 1  Ti 
Where,
A  Vertical distance between the tidal datum and the gauge datum
Ai  Amplitude of a particular tidal component
Ti  Period of the tidal component
 i  Phase angle of the tidal component
t  time
N  Number of tidal components used in the prediction

The tide record is analyzed to evaluate Ai and  i for each component of known Ti .
Once Ai and  i are known for each component, Eq.(4.2) is used to predict future tidal
elevations at the location where the analyzed record was measured.

40
4.4 Tsunamis
A tsunami (pronounced soo-nah-mee or tsoo-nah-mee is a natural phenomenon
consisting of a series of waves generated when water in a lake or the sea is rapidly
displaced on a massive scale. Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions and large
meteorite impacts all have the potential to generate a tsunami. The effects of a tsunami
can range from unnoticeable to devastating.
The term tsunami comes from the Japanese language meaning harbour ("tsu"), and wave
("nami"). Although in Japanese tsunami is used for both the singular and plural, in
English tsunamis is well-established as the plural. The term was created by fishermen
who returned to port to find the area surrounding the harbour devastated, although they
had not been aware of any wave in the open water. A tsunami is not a sub-surface event
in the deep ocean; it simply has a much smaller amplitude (wave heights) offshore, and a
very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometres long), which is why they generally
pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a passing "hump" in the ocean.

4.5 Causes of tsunami

A tsunami can be generated by any disturbance that rapidly displaces a large mass of
water, such as an earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide or meteorite impact. However,
the most common cause is an undersea earthquake. An earthquake which is too small to
create a tsunami by itself may trigger an undersea landslide quite capable of generating a
tsunami.

Tsunamis can be generated when the sea floor

abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the
overlying water. Such large vertical movements
of the earth's crust can occur at plate
boundaries. Subduction earthquakes are
particularly effective in generating tsunamis,
and occur where denser oceanic plates slip
under continental plates in a process known as
subduction.
Sub-marine landslides; which are sometimes
triggered by large earthquakes; as well as
collapses of volcanic edifices, may also disturb
the overlying water column as sediment and
rocks slide down-slope and are redistributed
across the sea floor. Similarly, a violent
submarine volcanic eruption can uplift the water
column and form a tsunami.
Waves are formed as the displaced water mass
moves under the influence of gravity to regain
its equilibrium and radiates across the ocean
like ripples on a pond.
In the 1950s it was discovered that larger Figure 4.7 Generation of tsunami

41
tsunamis than previously believed possible could be caused by landslides, explosive
volcanic action and impact events. These phenomena rapidly displace large volumes of
water, as energy from falling debris or expansion is transferred to the water into which
the debris falls. Tsunamis caused by these mechanisms, unlike the ocean-wide tsunamis
caused by some earthquakes, generally dissipate quickly and rarely affect coastlines
distant from the source due to the small area of sea affected.
Characteristics
There is a common misconception that tsunamis behave like wind-driven waves or swells
(with air behind them, as in this celebrated 19th century woodcut by Hokusai). In fact, a
tsunami is better understood as a new and suddenly higher sea level, which manifests as a
shelf or shelves of water. The leading edge of a tsunami superficially resembles a
breaking wave but behaves differently: the rapid rise in sea level, combined with the
weight and pressure of the ocean behind it, has far greater force.
Although often referred to as "tidal waves", a tsunami does not look like the popular
impression of "a normal wave only much bigger". Instead it looks rather like an endlessly
onrushing tide which forces its way around and through any obstacle. Most of the
damage is caused by the huge mass of water behind the initial wave front, as the height of
the sea keeps rising fast and floods powerfully into the coastal area. The sheer weight of
water is enough to pulverize objects in its path, often reducing buildings to their
foundations and scouring exposed ground to the bedrock. Large objects such as ships and
boulders can be carried several miles inland before the tsunami subsides.
Tsunamis act very differently from typical surf swells; they are phenomena which move
the entire depth of the ocean (often several kilometres deep) rather than just the surface,
so they contain immense energy, propagate at high speeds and can travel great
transoceanic distances with little overall energy loss.
The actual height of a tsunami wave in open water is often less than one meter. This is
often practically unnoticeable to people on ships. The energy of a tsunami passes through
the entire water column to the sea bed, unlike surface waves, which typically reach only
down to a depth of 10 m or so.
The wave travels across the ocean at speeds from 500 to 1,000 km/h (How?). As the
wave approaches land, the sea shallows and the wave no longer travels as quickly, so it
begins to 'pile-up'; the wave-front becomes steeper and taller, and there is less distance
between crests. While a person at the surface of deep water would probably not even
notice the tsunami, the wave can increase to a height of 30 m or more as it approaches the
coastline and compresses. A wave becomes a 'shallow-water wave' when the ratio
between the water depth and its wavelength gets very small, and since a tsunami has an
extremely large wavelength (hundreds of kilometers), tsunamis act as a shallow-water
wave even in deep oceanic water. Shallow-water waves move at a speed that is equal to
the square root of the product of the acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s2) and the water
depth. For example, in the Pacific Ocean, where the typical water depth is about 4000 m,
a tsunami travels at about 200 m/s (720 km/h or 450 mi/h) with little energy loss, even
over long distances. At a water depth of 40 m, the speed would be 20 m/s (about 72 km/h
or 45 mi/h), which is much slower than the speed in the open ocean but the wave would
still be difficult to outrun.
Tsunamis propagate outward from their source, so coasts in the "shadow" of affected land
masses are usually fairly safe. However, tsunami waves can diffract around land masses

42
(what happened in this Indian Ocean tsunami in December 2004 as the waves reached
southern Sri Lanka and India). They also need not be symmetrical; tsunami waves may
be much stronger in one direction than another, depending on the nature of the source and
the surrounding geography.
Local geographic peculiarities can lead to seiche or standing waves forming, which can
amplify the onshore damage. For instance, the tsunami that hit Hawaii on April 1, 1946
had a fifteen-minute interval between wave fronts. The natural resonant period of Hilo
Bay is about thirty minutes. That meant that every second wave was in phase with the
motion of Hilo Bay, creating a seiche in the bay. As a result, Hilo suffered worse damage
than any other place in Hawaii, with the tsunami/seiche reaching a height of 14 m and
killing 159 inhabitants.
(Reference: www.wikipedia.org)

4.6 Tsunami travel time

Once the tsunami is generated, in order to be prepared at the locations possibly under
threat, we need to estimate the arrival time of tsunami at those locations. This can be
done by using refraction diagrams.
The travel time tT from the source of a tsunami to another site can be estimated by
adding the travel times along successive intervals along the wave orthogonal that
connects two points as follows:
S
tT   (4.3)
gd s
Where, d s is the average water depth over the interval having a length, S . The charts
may be developed for any area for travel times of tsunami from all the possible sources.

Example 5.4-1 (Basic Coastal Engineering by Sorensen)

One of the waves in a tsunami has a period of 20 min and a height of 0.6 m at a point in
the ocean where the depth is 3800 m (this is the mean depth of the earth’s seas).
Determine the celerity and length of this wave. Determine its celerity, length, and height
in a nearshore depth of 10 m assuming no refraction, diffraction, or reflection effects.

Solution:
Assume that the wave is a shallow water wave so

Thus, the wave is a shallow water wave at a depth of 3800 m (and would be a shallow
water wave in the deepest parts of the ocean). Note the large speed and length of the
wave, and its very small steepness.

43
Equating wave power at the two water depths [Eq. (2.40)] leads to

Or, since

So, at a depth of 10 m

Shoaling has increased the wave height by a factor of 2.65/0:6= 4.4 times and refraction
could cause a much greater increase.

4.7 Simplified analysis of storm surge

A storm over shallow nearshore coastal waters or shallow inland water bodies can
generate large water level fluctuations if the storm is sufficiently strong and the water
body is shallow over a large enough area. This is commonly known as storm surge or the
meteorological tide. Storm activity can cause both a rise (setup) and fall (setdown) of the
water level at different locations and times—with the setup commonly predominating in
vertical magnitude, lateral extent, and duration.
Specific causes of the water level change include:
 Surface wind stress and the related bottom stress caused by currents generated by
the surface wind stress
 Response to Coriolis acceleration as wind-induced currents develop
 Atmospheric horizontal pressure gradients
 Wind wave setup
 Long wave generation caused by the moving pressure disturbance, and
 Precipitation and surface runoff.

Occasionally in engineering practice it is not necessary, owing to time and cost

limitations and because of lesser required accuracy, to apply the more sophisticated
numerical analysis procedures to estimate storm surge at a given site. A simplified
approach to storm surge analysis would involve calculating the wind/bottom stress-

44
induced surge, the pressure-induced surge, and possibly the Coriolis-induced surge
separately. Each is calculated from a simple hydrostatic balance. Thus, the convective
and local acceleration terms as well as continuity requirements are neglected. This
basically assumes a static storm that is in position for a sufficient length of time for the
water level response to come to equilibrium with sufficient water being available to
achieve that equilibrium.
Thus, in most cases a conservative setup estimate would be produced. The effects of
astronomical tide level variations and wave-induced setup nearshore can also be
separately evaluated if necessary.
Each of these components—wind/bottom stress setup, atmospheric pressure gradient
setup, and Coriolis setup—is briefly presented below.
The surface stress due to wind on water surface is given as:
 s  K s W 2 (4.4)
where Ks is the wind stress drag coefficient and W is the wind speed at the standard 10 m
elevation and  is water density. The relationship given by Van Dorn is
2
 5.6 
K s  1.21  10 6  2.25  10 6 1   (4.5)
 W 
where the wind speed is in meters per second. This is based on a field study that was
conducted at a yacht basin along the California coast. The bottom shear stress is
expressed as  b . If no better data is available to determine the bottom shear stress, it is
assumed to be equal to 10% of the surface stress give by Eq. (4.4). Generally, both
surface and bottom stresses are expressed in combination.
Figure 4.8 shows a section of a nearshore water segment of length x in the direction in
which setup is being calculated, unit width, and depths d and d + Sw: Sw is the setup
owing to wind and bottom stresses acting over the distance x. The hydrostatic forces on
each end are shown and the bottom stress is drawn in the same direction as the surface
wind stress because it is assumed that the wind-generated current causes a reverse flow
on the bottom. If the wind is blowing at an angle  to the x direction, then the component
of the wind velocity in the x direction Wx is used. The effective stress then becomes
 s   b  K sb W 2 cos   K sb WW x (4.6)
Since the water surface slope Sw=x is extremely flat a static balance yields:
 s x   b x  gd 2  g d  S w 2  0
1 1
(4.7)
2 2
Inserting the wind/bottom stress relationship, eliminating higher order terms, and solving
yields
 2 K sbWW x x 
S w  d  1   1 (4.8)
 gd 2 
Where Ksb = 1.1Ks may be used if no better information is available.

45
 Figure 4.8 Definition sketch for wind/bottom stress and Coriolis setup derivations

From hydrostatics, the water level variation or setup Sp owing to a horizontal atmospheric
pressure differential p between two points on a continuous body of water is
p
Sp  (4.9)
g

Example 5.10-1
The bottom profile normal to the shoreline in the area between Galveston and Port
Arthur, TX is tabulated below (depths were read in fathoms and converted to meters; 1
fathom = 6 feet= 1.83 m, 1 nautical mile = 1852m).
Seaward of the 91.43 m depth the depth increases relatively rapidly and is sufficiently
deep so that little additional setup would occur. For a 60 knot (30.86 m/s) wind blowing
landward along this profile calculate the setup on the shore. If the pressure gradient along
this profile is 0.003 inches of mercury per nautical mile what pressure setup would
occur?

46
Solution:

47
48
 5 Wind-generated Waves

The most important and most apparent waves in the spectrum of sea waves are wind
waves. The wind waves are generated due to the wind action at the water surface. Figure
5.1 and Fig. 5.2 show two different theoretical explanations for the wave generation due
to wind.
Wind

Figure 5-1 Philip's theory of wind wave generation

Figure 5-2 Miles theory for wind wave generation

As the wind speed (W) or fetch (the distance over which the wind blows denoted as F)
and/or duration ( t d ) of the wind increase, the average height and period of the wind-
generated waves will increase (within limits). For a given wind speed and unlimited fetch
and duration, there is a fixed limit to which the average height, period and spectral energy
will grow. At this limiting condition, the rate of energy input from the wind to the waves
is balanced by the rate of wave energy dissipation due to wave breaking and turbulence.
This condition is known as fully developed sea.

5.1 Wave growth

If the wind duration exceeds the time required for waves to travel the entire fetch length,
i.e. t d  F / C g , the waves will grow to OAB as shown in Fig. 5.3, and their
characteristics at the end of the fetch will depend on F (for given W). This is the fetch
limited condition.
If the duration is less ( t d  F / C g ), wave growth stops at OAC ( x  Fmin ) and wave
generation is duration limited.
If both the fetch and duration are sufficiently large, the curve OAB becomes essentially
horizontal at the downwind end and a fully developed sea (FDS) has been generated for
that particular wind speed.

49
 Figure 5-3 Wave growth due to fetch and wind duration

5.2 Analysis of wave record

A typical wave record is shown in Fig. 5.3. A mean water surface elevation is drawn on
the record and each point, where the water surface crosses the mean water level in the
upward direction is marked (circles in Fig. 5.3).

Figure 5-4 Water surface time-history record

The time elapsed between consecutive points is a wave period and the maximum vertical
distance between crest and trough is the wave height.
As may be observed, the wave record comprises of a spectrum of waves. It is often
desirable to select a single wave height and period to represent a spectrum of waves for
use in wave prediction, wave climate analysis and design of coastal structures. If the
wave heights from a representative record are ordered by size, one can define a height
H n that is the average of the upper n percent of the wave heights. The most commonly

50
used representative wave is H 1 / 3 or H 33 which represents the average height of the
upper one-third (33%) of the waves (Fig. 5.4). This is called as the significant wave
height; H s . In the same manner significant wave period; T s is defined, i.e. Ts  T1 / 3

H
Hmax
Average of upper 1/3 of wave heights
= H1/3 or Significant wave height

Hmin
Order
1/3 1/3 1/3
Figure 5-5 Definition sketch for significant wave height

5.3 Applications and data requirements for waves

1. Fixed rigid structured, for example offshore drilling tower: Design wave height
and period or preferably a design wave spectrum are needed. A design wave
might have the most probable maximum height having a selected return period
(say 100 years).
2. Flexible structures, for example rubble mound breakwater: As the failure is
gradual and structures are repairable, it is common to design for the significant
rather than maximum wave height and for a lower return period than for rigid
structures.
3. Beach processes, for example prediction of longshore sediment transport: The
knowledge of the annual percent exceedence of daily mean wave heights, periods
and nearshore directions is required.
4. Seawalls: The nearshore wave spectrum for the design return period is needed.
Runup of the spectrum of waves on the seawall establishes the crest elevation.
5. Coastal construction planning: The percent exceedence of a particular significant
or other height on an annual, seasonal or monthly basis is needed for an economic
analysis and planning of work schedules.

5.4 Common types of wave gauges

1. Pressure gauge: The underwater dynamic pressure fluctuations are measured and
then wave heights and periods are determined.
2. Step-resistance gauge: A vertical staff with electrodes spaced at a discrete interval
of 2cm to 6 cm pierces the water surfaces. As the surface rises and falls making
contact with successive electrodes and completing successive electrical circuits,
the water surface time history is recorded.

51
 3. Continuous wire gauge: A vertical wire or pair of wires pierce the water surface.
As the surface rises and falls the variation is resistance, capacitance or inductance
in the wire(s) is measured to indicate the water-surface time history.
4. Accelerometer buoy: A buoy floats on the water surface and records its vertical
component of acceleration. A double integration of the vertical acceleration time-
history yields the water surface time history.

5.5 Wave height distribution

For engineering purposes it is desirable to have a model for the distribution of wave
heights generated by a storm. It is widely accepted that the distribution of wind wave
heights is best defined by a Rayleigh probability distribution (Figure 5-6). This
distribution can be written as:
2H  H / H rms 2
p( H )  e (5.1)
H rms 2
Where the root-mean-square height; H rms is given by
N
H i2
H rms  
i 1 N
(5.2)

Figure 5-6 Typical wave height–frequency distribution

In Eq. (5.2), H i are the individual wave heights in a record containing N waves.

52
 Hˆ
P( H  Hˆ )   p( H )dH  1  e H / H rms 
2
ˆ
(5.3)
0


P( H  Hˆ )   2
 p( H )dH  e
 Hˆ / H rms
(5.4)
Hˆ

n
P ( H  Hˆ )  (5.5)
N
Where n is the number of waves out of the total number N which have a height greater
than or equal to a certain height Ĥ.

e H / H rms  
ˆn 2

(5.6)
N
Taking natural logarithms of both sides, we get the height of waves Ĥ which is exceeded
by n waves in a group of N waves as:
N
Hˆ  H rms ln   (5.7)
n
The height that is exceeded by pN of the waves is therefore

1
Hˆ  H rms ln   (5.8)
 p
The most frequent wave height is the one under the peak of the curve shown in Figure
5-6. So, maximum value of p(H) can be obtained by differentiating Eq.(5.1) with respect
to H and equating to zero yields Hˆ / H rms  1 / 2 .
The average wave height H 100 (average of all the wave heights, i.e. 100% in the record)
can be obtained by taking the moment of the total area under the probability distribution
curve with respect to vertical axis and dividing it by the total area under the same curve.
It can be written as

2H   H / H 2
0 H 2 e rms H dH 
H 100   rms  H rms  0.886 H rms (5.9)
2H   H / H rms 2 2
0 H 2 e dH
rms
The average height of highest pN waves can be expressed as
 
2H  H / H rms 2
  e dx
2  x2
e H dH x
Hˆ p H rms 
2
Hˆ p / H rms
Hp    H rms 
(5.10)
2H  H / H rms 2
  H 2 e  xe dx
 x2
dH
ˆ
Hp rms ˆ
H p / H rms

53
Where, x  H / H rms . Integrating by parts we get

Hˆ 


 Hˆ p / H rms 2
 e dx
x

2

p / H rms e
1   
Hp
  ln    erfc ln  1  
Hˆ p / H rms
(5.11)
 Hˆ / H   p  2p
2
  p
H rms e p rms      
Where erfc(x) is the complementary error function and can be expressed as 1-erf(x). The
error function can be approximated as
 2 4 /   ax 2 
erf ( x)  sign( x) 1  exp  x  where a  0.147 (5.12)
 1  ax 2

This approximate formula yields an error of less than 0.00012.

Using Rayleigh distribution leads to the following useful relationships:

Table 5-1 Average wave heights of upper p fraction of waves by Rayleigh distribution

H100  0.886 H rms

H 33  H s  1.416 H rms
H 10  1.800 H rms
H 5  1.986 H rms
H 2  2.206 H rms
H 1  2.360 H rms

The cumulative probability distribution P (H ) , i.e. the percentage of waves having a

height that is equal to or less than H, is
H
  H / H rms 2
P( H )   p( H )dH  1  e
0
(5.13)

For our purposes, we are more interested in the percentage of waves that have a height
greater than a given height, i.e.
1  P ( H )  e   H / H rms 
2
(5.14)
Since, H s  1.416 H rms ,
1  P ( H )  e  1.416  0.135
2

(5.15)
So, 13.5% of the waves in a storm wave record can have heights that are greater than the
significant height.
There is no upper limit to the wave heights defined by Rayleigh distribution. However, it
is shown that for a storm with relatively large number of waves N, the expected value of
the highest wave would be:
H max  0.707 H s ln N (5.16)

54
Figure 5-7 is useful when applying the Rayleigh distribution. Line a in the Figure gives
the probability that any wave height will exceed the height ( H / H rms ) and line b gives
the average height of the n highest fraction of the waves.

Figure 5-7 Raleigh distribution for wave heights (Sorensen, 2001)

55
5.6 Wave prediction
The most widely used method for wave height and period prediction from the wind data
is probably the one described in the Coastal Engineering Manual (CEM) by US Army
Corps of Engineers. This method utilizes Joint North Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP)
wave spectrum. A DOS based computer program named as Automated Coastal
Engineering System (ACES) is used. The detailed procedure is given in CEM, Part 2
(2003). According to this procedure the wind speed has to be specified on the sea at 10m
above the water level. The measured wind speed at any other level should be adjusted
using one-seventh-root law given as:
1/ 7
 10 
W10  W z   (5.17)
 z 
Where, W10 = wind speed at sea 10m above the water level (m/s)
z = elevation at which the wind speed was measured (m)
Wz = sea wind speed at z (m/s)
The significant wave height based on spectral energy ( H m0 ) and peak wave period ( T p )
in deep water can be calculated from the following equations:
1/ 2
gH m 0  gF 
2
 0.0413  2  (5.18)
u*  u* 
1/ 3
gT p  gF 
 0.751 2  (5.19)
u*  u* 
u*2  C DW102 (5.20)
C D  0.001(1.1  0.035W10 ) (5.21)
Where, u * is shear velocity and C D is coefficient of drag.
Fully developed wave conditions in these equations are given by:
gH m0
 211 .5 (5.22)
u*2
gT p
 239 .8 (5.23)
u*
The above equations are for fetch-limited condition. The limiting wind duration ( t d ) can
be calculated from the following equation:
3/ 2
gF  gt 
2
 0.00523  d  (5.24)
u*  u* 

The fetch estimated from Eq. (5.24) can then be substituted into fetch growth equations
(Eq. 5.18 and 5.19) to obtain duration-limited estimates of wave height and period.

For shallow water the above equations can be used but the peak wave period cannot
exceed the value given by the following relationship:

56
 1/ 2
d 
T p  9.78  (5.25)
g
Where d is the depth of water. If wave height exceeds 0.6 times the depth, wave height should
be limited to 0.6 times the depth in shallow water.

Example 5.1
The wind speed, measured 10m above the sea surface, is 30m/s. The duration of the wind
is recorded as 2 hours. The fetch in the direction of the wind is 20km. Using JONSWAP
procedure estimate the significant wave height and peak wave period? Describe whether
it is fetch limited or duration limited wave.

Solution:
Given: W10  30 m / s t d  2 hr F  20 km

CD  0.001(1.1  0.035 30)  0.00215


u*  0.00215  30 2 1/ 2
 1.391 m / s
From the duration of the wind:
 9.81  2  3600 
3/ 2
gF
 0.00523    59843 (A)
 
2
u* 1.391
From actual fetch length:
gF  9.81  20000 
   101402 (B)
u*2  1.391 2 
Comparing (A) and (B), we observe that this is a duration limited wave.
Hence,
1/ 2
gH m 0  gF 
2
 0.0413  2   0.0413  59843 1 / 2  10 .10
u*  u* 
10 .1  1.391 2
H m0   2.0 m
9.81
1/ 3
gT p  gF 
 0.751 2   0.751  59843 1 / 3  29 .37
u*  u* 
29 .37  1.391
Tp   4 .2 s
9.81

57
 6 Coastal Structures
6.1 Introduction

Coastal structures are important components in any coastal protection scheme. Structures
may be designed to
1. Act directly to control wave and storm surge action
2. Stabilize a beach which, in turn, provides protection to the coast
3. Control the erosion and deposition
4. Establish safe and efficient navigation channels across the coastline to interior
harbor areas
5. Development of safe harbor areas
6. Pile supported piers that extend seaward from the shore for fishing, research and
coastal access
7. Pipelines that cross the shore and nearshore waters for waste disposal and the
transport of liquid materials
8. Piles and other structures that support navigation aids
9. Platforms for oil drilling and production
10. Structures to moor vessels onshore.

There are a variety of structure types that can be constructed to satisfy one or more of the
purposes discussed above. These include:
1. Long thin cylindrical structures including individual piles and framed structures
2. Pipelines and cables
3. Large single-unit submerged and partially submerged structures
4. Moored floating structures
5. Rubble mound structures, both massive structures and rubble mound veneers to
protect embankments
6. Vertical-faced rigid structures

6.2 Hydrodynamic forces in unsteady flows

For unsteady flow, the total instantaneous hydrodynamic force F on the body can be
written as
Cd du
F Au 2   px dA  kV (6.1)
2 A dt
u= flow velocity approaching the body
 = fluid density
A= cross-sectional area of the body projected in the direction of flow
Cd = drag coefficient that depends on the shape of the body, orientation to flow, surface
roughness and the Reynolds number.
px = pressure acting on the body in the flow direction
dA= differential area on which pressure acts
k= dimensionless coefficient equal to the ratio of a hypothetical fluid mass having an
acceleration du/dt to the actual mass of fluid set in motion (by the body) at its true
acceleration.

58
The second term in Eq. (6.1) can be expressed as
du
A
p x dA  V
dt
(6.2)

Cd du
F Au 2  (1  k ) V (6.3)
2 dt

The value of k for some shapes and flow orientations are:

Sphere: k= 0.50
Cube-flow normal to a side: k = 0.67
Circular cylinder-flow normal to axis: k = 1.00
Square cylinder-flow normal to axis: k = 1.20

The value of 1+k is called the coefficient of mass or inertia, Cm and the equation is
written as:
Cd du
F Au 2  C m V (6.4)
2 dt
Equation (6.4) is called Morison equation.
For a circular cylinder with its axis oriented in a horizontal y or vertical z direction and
wave propagation normal to the axis, the force Fs per elemental length ds of the cylinder
can be written as
F Cd  D 2  u
Fs   Du  C m  
2
 (6.5)
ds 2  4  t
The particle velocity is given by small amplitude wave theory and in place of total
acceleration, local acceleration is used.
The water particle acceleration lags the particle velocity by 90o so the drag Fd and inertia
Fi components of Fs at a given point along the cylinder will vary through the wave cycle
as shown in Figure 6-1. To construct this figure it was assumed that Cd and Cm remain
constant through the wave cycle and structure/wave conditions are such as to cause the
peak inertia and drag forces to be equal.

59
Figure 6-1 Surface elevation and drag, inertia, and total forces versus phase position for equal peak
drag and inertia components

Inserting the relationships for wave particle velocity and acceleration into, differentiating
F with respect to the phase (kx- t), and setting the result equal to zero yields
2C mV sinh kd
sin( kx) p  (6.6)
C d AH cosh k (d  z )

For cylindrical structures in waves it is common to introduce another independent

parameter X/D where X is the distance that a particle moves as it passes the cylinder, i.e.,
essentially the particle orbit diameter normal to the cylinder axis. This parameter
indicates how well the flow field develops around the structure in the wave-induced
reversing flow past the structure.
The particle flow velocity in a wave at the structure can be represented by
 2t 
u  u m sin   (6.7)
 T 
where um is the maximum horizontal particle velocity (i.e., u under the wave crest). Then
X equals the average flow velocity past the structure times the wave period or
u 
X   m T (6.8)
 2 

X 1  u mT 
   (6.9)
D 2  D 

60
 u mT 
   Keulegan  Carpenter Number
 D 
Generally, for KC>25: Drag forces are dominant and for KC<5 inertia forces dominate.

The total force on a vertical cylindrical pile can be calculated by integrating Eq(6.5) from
the mud line to water surface
  Cd  D 2  u 
F    Du  Cm  
2
 dz

d
 2  4  t 
where dz is a unit length of the pile. If we assume that Cd and Cm are constant, that the
water particle velocity and acceleration are given by the small-amplitude wave theory,
that the integration is carried out up to the mean water surface elevation, and that the pile
location is conveniently taken to be at x = 0, the integration yields
Cd  D 2 
F gDH n cos( t ) cos( t )  C m g 
2
 H tanh kd sin( t ) (6.10)
8  8 
This wave-induced force causes a moment on the pile around the mud line given by

 C  D 2  u 
M    d Du 2  Cm    (d  z )dz

d
 2  4  t 
Integration, with the same assumptions yields
Cd  1 1  1 1  cosh 2kd 
M gDH 2 n cos( t ) cos( t ) d     
8  2 2n  2 2kd sinh 2kd 
(6.11)
 D 2    1  cosh kd 
 C m g   Hd tanh kd sin( t ) 1   
 8    kd sinh kd 
Reynolds number is defined as um D / , The values of Cd and Cm are given as

61
62
63
64
6.3 Rubble Mound Structures

Usage: Breakwaters, jetties, groins and shoreline revetments

Advantage: Damage is gradual and partial. Repair can be done after the damage with low
cost

Design Considerations:

 Armor units must be of sufficient size to resist wave attack. However, unit sizes
are to be graded in layers with large units on the exterior and gradually decreasing
sizes to the core and the interface with the bed

 Prevention of scour at the seaward toe of the structure caused by the wave
agitation

 Structure load should be spread so that there is no foundation failure due to

excessive loads

 Providing sufficient crest elevation and width, so that wave run-up and
overtopping do not cause failure of the armor units on the leeward side of the
structure or excessive wave regeneration in the leeward side. The crest width is
dictated by the minimum roadway width needed for the construction vehicles that
have to traverse the structure.

Figure 6-2 shows a typical breakwater cross-section. Jetties and groins are usually
similar, but less complex.
There are many variations in cross-section designs depending on wave climate,
breakwater orientation, water depth, stone availability, foundation conditions and degree
of protection required of the structure.

The coastal roads are generally protected using shore revetments. Wherever it is possible
local quarry stones are used for construction. A filter cloth is laid underneath the riprap to
prevent fine material leaving the structure due to seepage.
A typical riprap shore revetment is shown in Figure 6-3.
In case of higher design wave heights and/or the roads of higher strategic importance, a
stronger protection is provided in the form of a seawall that resembles the breakwater
mentioned before. A seawall in Japan for coastal road protection is shown in Figure 6-4.
Various types of armor units are used for coastal protection in the field. Coastal
Engineering Manual provides detailed information regarding a number of armor shapes
as shows in Figure 6-5.

65
Figure 6-2 A typical breakwater cross-section

66
Figure 6-3 A typical riprap revetment section

Figure 6-4 A seawall cross-section in Japan

67
Figure 6-5 Typical armor units used for coastal protection

6.4 Breakwater Design using Hudson and related formulae

Weight of primary armor unit is calculated using the following equation called as Hudson
Formula:

 sH 3
W
K D S  1 cot 
3
(6.12)
W  weight of individual armor unit in the primary cover layer

 s  specific (unit) weight of armor unit material

H  design wave height

K D armor unit stability coefficient (Table A-1)

S  Specific gravity of armor material

  angle between seaward structure slope and horizontal

In Coastal Engineering Manual, the design formulae are listed in the form of tables as per
Table 6-1.

68
Table 6-1 Design Tables in Coastal Engineering Manual

The values of armor unit stability coefficient for some of the armor units has been
summarized in Table A-1 as follows:

69
Factors affecting K D value:
 Shape of armor units
 Number of units comprising the thickness of the armor layer
 Manner of placing the armor units
 Surface roughness and sharpness of edges of armor
 Type of wave attacking the structure (breaking or nonbreaking)
 Part of the structure being attacked (trunk or head)
 Angle of incident wave attack

70
Crest width can be determined using the following formula:
1/ 3
W 
B  nk   
s  (6.13)
n  number of armor units (ACES application sets n=3)
k  layer coefficient (Table VI-5-51)

Thickness of armor layer is computed as

1/ 3
W 
r  nk  
s  (6.14)
Armor unit placement density is calculated as

71
 p   s 
2/3

N r  Ank 1   
 100  W  (6.15)
A  surface area (assumed as 1000)
p  average porosity of cover layer (Table VI-5-51)

72
6.5 Toe protection design

Figure 6-6 Sketch for toe protection design

Minimum width of toe apron from geotechnical perspective:

B1  K p d e
(6.16)
K p  coefficient of passive earth pressure
d e  sheet-pile penetration depth (0 if no pile)

Minimum width of toe apron from hydraulic perspective:

B2  2 H i (6.17)

B3  0.4d s (6.18)
d s  water depth at structure as shown in Figure 6-6 (in absence of toe protection)
The design width of the apron, B  max( B1 , B2 , B3 )

73
Toe stone weight is calculated as
wr H i3
Wt  3
N s ( S r  1)3 (6.19)

Where,
  1.5 1 K  dl 
 2 

  1  K  dl   1 / 3  
N s  max 1.3 1/ 3    1.8e  K H 
i
; 1.8
  K  H i  
 
4d l / L
K sin 2B / L 
2

sinh 4d l / L 
dl  water depth (at top of toe protection)

6.6 Rigid vertical-faced structures

Examples: concrete and steel sheet pile bulkheads, quay walls and vertical breakwaters.
If d  1.3H , incident wave will reflect from the structure forming a standing wave
system.
If d  1.3H , the waves will break on the structure or they will break seaward of the
structure and send a turbulent mass of water forward to impinge on the structure.
The pressure in a standing wave can be derived as:

gH cosh k d  z 
p   gz  cos kxcos t (2.48)
cosh kd

where sum of the normally incident plus reflected wave heights is 2H. The first term on
right hand side of the above equation is static pressure and the second one is dynamic
pressure.
If the standing wave is formed by complete reflection from a vertical structure, for the
wave crest on the wall ( x  0 ), the dynamic pressure on the structure is:
gH cosh k d  z 
pd  cos t (6.20)
cosh kd
gH
Thus at the toe of the structure ( z  d ), pd varies between  as the standing
cosh kd
wave phase at the structure varies from crest to trough. The dynamic pressure distribution
is shown below. It should be noted that the pressure distributions are almost linear.

74
Finite wave amplitude effects (wave setup) at the structure is given as (Miche, 1944)
H 2
z  coth kd (6.21)
L
If the reflection is not complete Cr  H r / H i  1.0

2H  H i  H r  1  Cr H i

H 
1  Cr H i
(6.22)
2

75
76
 7 Coastal zone processes

7.1 Sediment erosion, accretion and equilibrium

7.1.1 Dynamic equilibrium

Coastal developments can affect coastal zone processes in the following ways;

 Changing the rate and/or characteristics of sediment supplied to the coast, for
example; construction of a dam that traps sediment on a river or wadi discharging
on the coast, periodic placement of sand directly on a beach (beach nourishment).
 Adjusting the level of wave energy flux to the coast, for example construction of
an offshore breakwater that intercepts waves approaching a beach.
 Directly interfering with coastal sediment transport processes, for example,
construction of jetties across the surf-zone to directly interrupt wave-induced
long-shore currents and sediment transport.

7.2 Beach sediment properties

Physical properties of interest in the design of engineering works in the coastal zone are;
 Representative sediment particle size and distribution
 Particle shape
 Specific gravity
 Specific weight
 Permeability
 Particle settling velocity

7.2.1 Sediment particle size and distribution

The most commonly used classification for coastal sediments is the one proposed by
Wentworth(1922), shown in the Table A-4

77
Sediment particle diameters are defined by  units.

78
For a particle diameter d in mm;
   log 2 d (7.1)
( log 2 d  3.322 log 10 d )
Here the minus sign is used so the more common sediment sizes (d < 1 mm) will have a
positive  value.
The particle size distribution is best defined by standard statistical techniques.
The integral of the frequency histogram (cumulative size frequency distribution) which is
a plot of cumulative percent coarser or finer than a particular diameter versus particle
diameter is commonly used.

Important features of a sediment sample size-frequency distribution can be defined by

three parameters;
 The central tendency (mean, median or modal diameter)
 The dispersion or sorting (standard deviation)
 The asymmetry (skewness)

Inman (1952) proposed the system for sediment sample descriptive measures which is
commonly used in engineering practice. A portion of this system is given in Table 7-1.

Table 7-1 Important sediment properties

Measure Name Definition
Central tendency Phi median dia. M  d 50

1
Phi mean dia. M  (16  84 )
2
Sorting Phi deviation measure 1
   (84  16 )
2
Skewness Phi skewness measure M   M d
 

The descriptive measures mentioned above are demonstrated in an example below for a
typical sand sample size analysis plotted on log-normal distribution paper.
Experience shows that many beach sand samples have approximately a log-normal
distribution and thus should plot close to a straight line on log-normal paper.

7.2.2 Other sediment properties

Shape: may be evaluated by observing particles with a magnifying glass and comparing
their shape to a standard chart

79
Specific gravity: Most beach sands consist of quartz (s=2.65)
Bulk specific gravity: For sand it is usually 1.45 to 1.85 dry and 1.9 to 2.15 when
saturated with water.
Permeability: The permeability of the sea bed controls flow in and out of the bed as a
wave passes, and thus affects the rate of energy dissipation. An empirical formula is
given to calculate the permeability k in darcys;
k  760 d 50  e
2 1.31 
(7.2)
3
1 darcy is defined as a rate of flow of 1 cm /s percolating through a cross-sectional area
of 1 cm2 and a pressure gradient of 1 atmospheric/cm when the viscosity of the flowing
fluid is 1 centi-poise.
8
1 darcy  0.987  10 cm
2

Example: A sieve analysis of a sand sample showed the following:

Opening size Weight retained

(mm) (gm)
2.0 0
1.414 0
1.0 0.3
0.707 1.7
0.5 6.2
0.353 27.8
0.25 24.1
0.177 17.7
0.125 15.3
0.088 5.0
0.062 1.9
Plot the sample cumulative frequency distribution on log-normal graph paper and
determine the phi median diameter, phi mean diameter, phi deviation measure and phi
skewness measure. Estimate the sample permeability.

Solution:
First we need to determine the total weight of the sample.
Total weight=  weight retained on all the sieves and pan
 0.3  1.7  6.2  27.8  24.1  17.7  15.3  15.3  5.0  1.9  100 gm

Now we construct the following table for cumulative percent coarser.

80
 Table 7-2 Sediment size distribution
Sieve size(mm)
Wt. retained(gm) % coarser Cumulative
% coarser
1.414 -0.5 0 0 0
1.0 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.3
0.707 0.5 1.7 1.7 2.0
0.5 1.0 6.2 6.2 8.2
0.353 1.5 27.8 27.8 36.0
0.25 2.0 24.1 24.1 60.1
0.177 2.5 17.7 17.7 77.8
0.125 3.0 15.3 15.3 93.1
0.088 3.5 5.0 5.0 98.1
0.062 4.0 1.9 1.9 100

Now plot  versus Cumulative % coarser on a log-normal paper. Finding the following
values from the graph, we get:

16 = 1.2 50 = 1.75 84 = 2.65

M d  50  1.75  0.297 mm

M 
1
16  84   1.925  0.263
2

 
1
84  16   0.725
2
M  M d
    0.24

k  760 d 50  e
1.31 
 26 darcy
2

81
 2^-phi
2-6 2-5 2-4 2-3 2-2 2-1 20 21
99
98
95
90
Cumulative percent coarser

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5
2
1
0.5

0.1

0.01563 0.03125 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2

particle diameter(mm)

Figure 7-1 Sediment size distribution plot

7.3 Beach Profiles

Active Zone: The zone between the onshore dune or cliff and an offshore point where
there is little sediment movement due to wave action (usually at a depth of about 10m for
the open sea).
Profile data are important for planning and design of all the coastal projects and
structures.
Figure 7-2 shows typical beach profiles for two wave climate extremes;
Storm waves with high amplitude and steepness.
Calm condition waves with low amplitude and steepness.
At most coastal locations, storm waves predominate during winter months and calmer
waves occur during the summer.
The beach accretion or erosion can be estimated using fall time parameter given as:

H0
F0  (7.3)
Vf T
V f  Terminal settling velocity for the median diameter particle
F0  1 : Accretion or deposition
F0  1 : Erosion

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For a given wave climate, the coarser the median sand diameter on the beach profile, the
steeper the beach face will be. Typical beach face slopes vary between 1:5 and 1:100.

Figure 7-2 Typical beach profiles

7.4 Nearshore Circulation

Most common near-shore currents are generated by the waves breaking at an angle to the
shore. The longshore currents are responsible for most of the longshore sediment
transport in the near-shore zone.
Average longshore current velocity is given by Longuet-Higgins (1970) as:
Vl  2.7um sin b cos  b (7.4)
 b  wave breaker angle (see Figure 7-3)
1
um  gH b : maximum breaking wave orbital velocity
2
H b  Breaker height

7.5 Longshore sediment transport

In engineering applications, the longshore sediment transport rate is expressed as the

volume transport rate Ql having units such as cubic meters per day or cubic yards per
year. This is the total volume as would be measured by survey of an impoundment at a
jetty and includes about 40 percent void space between the particles as well as the 60-
percent solid grains.
Another representation of the longshore sediment transport
rate is an immersed weight transport rate Il related to the volume transport rate by
Il  ( s   ) g (1  n)Ql (7.5)
Where,

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 = mass density of water
 s = mass density of sediment grains
n = in place porosity of the sediment (  0.4 )

Wave power per unit length of beach in longshore direction can be derived as follows:
nE
Wave power per unit crest length is: P 
T
Wave power per unit length of beach: P cos b

Wave power per unit length of beach in longshore direction:

Pl  P cos b sin b
Putting the value of P we get:

Pl  ( EC g )b cos  b sin  b (7.6)

Figure 7-3 Wave generated longshore current (plan view)

Where,
gHb2
Eb 
8

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 1/ 2
 gH b 
Cgb  gdb   
  
I l  KPl
  Breaker index  Hb / db
K  A dimensionless number
For sand beaches USACE-CERC has given a formula based on several sources of field
data:
Qs  4.36  10 3 Pl (7.7)
Where, Pl is in N-m/s per meter length of the beach, and Qs is in cubic meter per year.

Example: A beach is composed of sand having a median diameter of 0.5 mm. The
estimated bottom velocity required to initiate noticeable motion of this sand is 0.25 m/s.
For a wave (T=6 sec, H0=1.5m) shoaling on this beach, at what depth does sand particle
motion commence?

Solution:
Given: ub  0.25 m/s, T  6 sec, H 0  1.5 m

The water particle velocity;

 H  cosh k d  z 
u  cos kx  t 
 T  sinh kd
The maximum velocity at y   d is
 H  1
um    (A)
 T  sinh kd
The sand particle will move when um  ub
Assuming no refraction ( K R  1)
L0
H  H0
2nL
Putting the value of H in Eq.(A), we get
    L0  1
um    H 0 
 T   2nL  sinh kd
(B)

Putting the given information in Eq. (B) we get

   11d 1  1
0.25   (1.5) 
 
6  2 n L d / L  
0  sinh kd

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Finding the R.H.S. of the above equation for various values of d / L , we get

d / L d / L0 n R.H.S.
0.1 0.055 0.9 1.18
0.3 0.29 0.59 0.23
0.25 0.22 0.65 0.32

Interpolating between d / L  0.3 and d / L  0.25 for R.H.S.=0.25, we get

d  0.25  0.3 
 0.25  0.23   0.3  0.29
L  0.32  0.23 
Corresponding d / L0  0.28
Hence, d  0.28  9.81 / 2   6  15.7m
2

Example; A wave train with an average period of 8sec and breaker height of 2m is
approaching the shore and breaking at an angle of 12 deg with the shoreline. What
average longshore current velocity is generated? If this wave train represents the average
conditions for the day, what volume of longshore sand transport is produced in 24hr?

Solution:
Given: H b  2 m, T  8 sec,  b  12 
1 1
um  gH b  9.81  2  2.215 m/s
2 2
Vl  2.7um sin  b cos  b  2.7  2.215  sin( 12  ) cos(12  )
 1.216 m / s
Now, for breaking condition
H 1  2d 
   tanh  
 L  max 7  L 
In the present case, the wave breaking is taking place in shallow water, therefore,
 2d  2d
tanh  
 L  L
 H b  1  2d b 
So,    
 L  7 L 
db  H b  7 / 2   2.23m
At breaking depth (shallow water): C  gdb  4.68m / s
n 1

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 1030  9.81 2
Pl   2  4.68  1 cos(12  ) sin( 12  )
8
 4808 .5 N  m / s  m
Qs  4.36  10 3 Pl  20965060 m3 / year
For 24 hours (1 day)
20965060
Qs   57 .44  10 3 m 3
365

References

Sorensen, R. M. (1997), Basic Coastal Engineering, Kluwer Academic Publishers, USA.

USACE (2002 to date), Coastal Engineering Manual, (can be downloaded from USACE
website)

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