What is biogeography?

Biogeography, study of the geographic distribution of plants and animals. It is

concerned not only with habitation patterns but also with the factors responsible
for variations in distribution.
Strictly speaking, biogeography is a branch of biology, but physical geographers
have made important contributions, particularly in the study of flora. The
classification of vegetation and the preparation of maps of vegetation have been
notably advanced by F. Shreve, H.L. Shantz, H.M. Raup, and others.
The geographical distribution of species - bio geography - first suggested
evolution to Darwin.
Biogeography is broken into two subcategories:
 Phytogeography, the study of how plants are distributed on the earth
 Zoogeography, the study of how animals are distributed on the earth
(including bacteria)
Biogeography is very important in understanding how animals and plants have
changed the landscape over time. This field utilizes knowledge from the study of
rocks or geology, the study of ecosystems or ecology, and the study of the
physical planet or physical geography to answer questions about how organisms
react to changes in their environment.
Biotic factors refer to the living organisms, both macro- and micro-organisms,
including the various ways in which they affect plant growth and development.
These organisms are the living components of the environment which influence
the manifestation of the genetic factor on phenotypic expression.
Macroorganisms refer to the animals such as humans and other mammals, birds,
insects, arachnids, molluscs, and plants while microorganisms include fungi,
bacteria, virus and nematodes.
The effects of these living factors on plant expression may be advantageous or
disadvantageous, depending on how they interact with the plant. These
interactions include mutualism, herbivory, parasitism, and allelopathy.
Mutualism
mutualism is a species-to-species interaction in which both the biotic factor and
the plant are benefited by the relationship. Examples of beneficial influence on
plant growth and development through mutualism are:
(1) The symbiotic relationship of the Rhizobium bacteria and leguminous plants.
The rhizobia live in the roots of the legume and obtain their supply of energy from
the host plant. In exchange, the rhizobia fix atmospheric nitrogen and supplies it
to the plant in absorbable form. Nitrogen is an essential macronutrient for plant
growth and development. It is a component of enzymes, DNA, and the chlorophyll
molecule.
Grasses and legumes also develop a mutual association.
(2) Forest and fruit trees and other plants including annual crops associate
with micorrhizal fungi which aid in the absorption of water and nutrients, such as
phosphorus and zinc, from the soil.
(3) Birds, insects and bats serve as vectors of pollination, the transfer of pollen
from an anther to a stigma, which is a precondition for the development of fruits
and seeds from flowers in the angiosperms. As a reward, the pollinators feed on
the nectar that the flower secretes or obtain some other benefit from the plant.
Herbivory
In herbivory, plant-eating organisms called herbivore, such as ruminant animals,
rodents, insects, and molluscs feed on plant parts. Herbivores with significant
deleterious effects on crop growth and yield are called pest. Damage caused by
these biotic factors are varied such as death of the entire plant or organs, reduced
root, stem, leaf or inflorescence mass, total defoliation, bores and holes on plant
parts, and other marks of feeding.
It has been observed that continuous grazing by ruminant animals results to
miniaturization of leaves and dwarf stature of molave (Vitex parviflora) and other
trees growing in pasture lands. Some insects are associated with plant diseases
that may reduce crop yield or kill the entire plant. The aphids, mealy bugs, and
scale insects are associated with the sooty mold.
To prevent damage from herbivores, plants have evolved anti-herbivory defenses
including chemical and physical strategies. Various plants produce toxic
compounds such as nicotine, morphine, caffeine, cyanogenic substances like
atropine; mustard oils, terpenoids and phenylpropanes. Some plants produce
high amounts of tannins and resins in leaves that prevent the digestion of food
(Stiling 1999). Others have spines, as in cacti, and stinging hairs.
Parasitism

Parasitism is an interaction between two organisms in which one organism,

called parasite, is benefited but causes harm to another, called host. The parasite
steals its food from the host. Microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria and virus
injure crops by causing diseases and are called pathogens.
Examples of parasitic plants are the dodder, mistletoe, Rafflesia, and some
orchids.
Biotic Factors: Plant Interaction and Allelopathy
According to Papadakis (1978), there is a universal observation that when two
plants grow in proximity to one another, both are injured, either one dies, or both
grow stunted. He cited experiments started in the early 1930s showing that
between very wide limits, plant density per unit area may be increased many fold
without any appreciable difference on total yield although yield per plant is lower
at high density.
Went (1973) likewise observed that in established vegetation the germination and
growth of plants (with a few exception) is inhibited; plant growth is suppressed
with increased plant density but the suppression equally applies to all plants. In
parts of tropical rain forest where light is limiting and little photosynthesis is
possible, only a few herbs grow and most tree seedlings have few leaves. He
noted that the growth and development of these seedlings were suppressed by
shade and not by plant competition.
He concluded that plant competition exists, but not in the same way as in the
animal kingdom where active competition leads to the elimination of
competitors. In the following cases, he explained that the term competition may
apply: (1) strife against another plant which may lead to its ouster through the
excretion or exudation of allelopathic substances; and (2) scramble for a limited
commodity like water, light and nutrients which causes mutual inhibition;
Through a comprehensive review including his own experiments which confirmed
the Pickering root toxin theory of 1903 and 1917 the results of which were
published in 1940, Papadakis (1978) concluded that plants exude toxic substances
from their roots; these substances are exuded by all plant species and are noxious
to all plants including the root that exuded them; but their exudation and extent
of sensitivity to them may vary from plant to plant. He argues that this plant
interaction, now called allelopathy, is responsible for the injurious or inhibitory
effects of one plant against another.
Plants that cause deleterious effects to another plant that is intentionally grown,
or crop, are called weeds. Tolerance to this biotic factor (weed) varies from crop
to crop. Plants with large canopies produce shade which suppress the growth of
certain plants and yet the same shade favors many sciophytes. Likewise, the
resistance of plants to the other biotic factors, herbivores and pathogens, are
varied.
Abiotic Factors
The abiotic factors that affect plant growth and development include topography,
soil, and climatic factors. They are the nonliving components of the environment
which, along with the biotic or living factors, determine the extent in which the
genetic factor is expressed in the plant.
Topography as Abiotic Factor
Topography is a nonliving factor that refers to the “lay of the land.” It includes the
physical features of the earth such as the land elevation, slope, terrain (flat,
rolling, hilly, etc.), mountain ranges and bodies of water.
The slope or inclination of a land is the percentage change in its elevation over a
certain distance. It is measured by dividing the vertical distance from the foot to
the top of the land by the horizontal distance between those points, multiplied by
100. A 45-degree angle of elevation is equivalent to 100% slope.
The steepness of a slope affects plant growth through differential incidence of
solar radiation, wind velocity and soil type. A steep slope is susceptible of rapid
surface runoff and soil erosion which cause soil degradation.
The altitude or elevation of the land with respect to the level of the sea surface
influences plant growth and development primarily through temperature effect.
The relationship of this abiotic factor to temperature is like that of distance from
the equator to the arctic poles. According to Stiling (1999), temperature
decreases by 1 C for every 100 m increase in altitude in dry air.
This abiotic factor is an important consideration in crop or site selection for more
productive crop farming. Coconut prefers an elevation not exceeding 600 meters
above sea level (masl) (PCARRD 1982); for better quality, tea is best grown above
1000 masl while rubber requires not more than 500 masl because at higher
elevation latex flow is restricted (Abellanosa and Pava 1987); the seasonality of
ripening of various fruit crops, e.g. durian , is modified when they are planted in
different elevations.
The effect of land elevation on plant growth and development is apparent when
exploring a high-rise mountain. Dominance of certain plant types varies with
elevation. With change in height from sea level to 16,000 feet (4,876.8 meters)
from the foot to the top of a mountain in the Peruvian Andes or New Guinea,
temperatures change from tropical to subtropical, temperate, and subarctic to
arctic.
Likewise, the influence of this abiotic factor on plant growth and distribution is
noticeable. There is a change from tropical vegetation at the coastal base to the
oak forest, then conifers, and finally a tundra-like scene with hardy grasses,
mosses and dwarf shrubs. At the arctic top, only occasional lichens are found on
exposed rocks.
In the tropics, the timber line above which no more tree grows may be found
between 13,000 to 14,000 feet above sea level or 3,962-4,267 masl (Went and
The Editors of Life 1963).
Soil
Soil is the outermost layer of the surface of the earth in which plants grow. It is
composed of eroded rock, mineral nutrients, decaying plant and animal matter,
water and air. This abiotic factor is likewise important in crop farming and is
treated under the heading Soil and Climatic Adaptation or Requirement of crops.
Most plants are terrestrial in that they are anchored to the soil through their
roots, with which they absorb water and nutrients. But epiphytes and floating
hydrophytes do not need soil to live. Variation in the physical, chemical, and
biological properties of the soil have distinct effects on plant growth and
development, depending on natural adaptation.

There are two properties of the soil having pronounced direct effects on plant
growth and crop production: physical and chemical properties. There are also
biological factors or living organisms in the soil such as the earthworms, insects,
nematodes and microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae, and
protozoa. These organisms help in improving soil structure, tilth, aeration, water
permeability and soil nutrient availability.
The physical and chemical properties of the soil are referred to as edaphic factors
of the plant environment. The physical properties include the soil texture, soil
structure, and bulk density which affect the capacity of the soil to retain and
supply water while the chemical properties consist of the soil pH and cation
exchange capacity (CEC) which determine its capacity to supply nutrients.
It is now known that this abiotic factor (soil) is not essential to plant growth.
Rather, it is the nutrient elements that are present in the soil that make plants
grow and enable them to complete their life cycle.
The Climatic factors
The climatic factors include rainfall and water, light, temperature, relative
humidity, air, and wind. They are abiotic components, including topography and
soil, of the environmental factors that influence plant growth and development.
Rainfall and Water
Rainfall is the most common form of precipitation. It is the falling of water in
droplets on the surface of the Earth from clouds. Other forms of precipitation
are freezing rain, sleet or ice pellets, snowfall, and hail (Eagleman 1985; Miller
2001). The amount and regularity of rainfall vary with location and climate types
and affect the dominance of certain types of vegetation as well as crop growth
and yield. (Click here to read page devoted to water as a climatic factor).
Light
Light is a climatic factor that is essential in the production of chlorophyll and
in photosynthesis, the process by which plants manufacture food in the form
of sugar (carbohydrate). Other plant processes that are enhanced or inhibited by
this climatic factor include stomatal
movement, phototropism, photomorphogenesis, translocation, mineral
absorption, and abscission (Devlin 1975; Edmond et al. 1978; Poincelot 1980;
Manaker 1981; Abellanosa and Pava 1987).
Light is that visible portion of the solar radiation or electromagnetic spectrum. It
is a form of kinetic energy that comes from the sun in tiny particles
called quanta or photons, travelling in waves.
Three properties of this climatic factor that affect plant growth and development
are light quality, light intensity, and daylength or photoperiod. Light quality refers
to the specific wavelengths of light; light intensity is the degree of brightness that
a plant receives; and daylength is the duration of the day with respect to the
night period.
Temperature
The degree of hotness or coldness of a substance is called temperature (Eagleman
1985). It is commonly expressed in degree Celsius or centigrade (C) and degree
Fahrenheit (F) . This climatic factor influences all plant growth processes such as
photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, breaking of seed dormancy, seed
germination, protein synthesis, and translocation. At high temperatures the
translocation of photosynthate is faster so that plants tend to mature earlier.
In general, plants survive within a temperature range of 0 to 50 C (Poincelot
1980). The favorable or optimal day and night temperature range for plant
growth and maximum yields varies among crop species. 
Enzyme activity and the rate of most chemical reactions generally increase with
rise in temperature. Up to a certain point, there is doubling of enzymatic reaction
with every 10 C temperature increase (Mader 1993). But at excessively high
temperatures, denaturation of enzymes and other proteins occur.
Excessively low temperatures can also cause limiting effects on plant growth and
development. For example, water absorption is inhibited when the soil
temperature is low because water is more viscuous at low temperatures and less
mobile, and the protoplasm is less permeable. At temperatures below the
freezing point of water, there is change in the form of water from liquid to solid.
The expansion of water as it solidifies in living cells causes the rupture of the cell
walls (Devlin 1975).
Air
The air is a mixture of gases in the atmosphere. According to Miller (2001), about
75% of this air is found in the troposphere, the innermost layer of the atmosphere
which extends about 17 km above sea level at the equator and about 8 km over
the poles.
In addition, about 99% of the clean, dry air in the troposphere consists of 78%
nitrogen and 21% oxygen. The remainder consists of argon (slightly less than 1%),
carbon dioxide (0.036%), and traces of other gases.
The oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air are of particular importance to the
physiology of plants. Oxygen is essential in respiration for the production of
energy that is utilized in various growth and development processes. Carbon
dioxide is a raw material in photosynthesis.
The air also consists of suspended particles of dust and chemical air pollutants
such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), sulfur
trioxide (SO3), nitrogen oxides, methane (CH4), propane, chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), solid particles of dust, soot, asbestos and lead, ozone and many more.
However, the composition of this climatic factor is susceptible of variation.
Recently, there has been a hightenend alarm about the increase of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere.
Relative Humidity
The amount of water vapor that the air can hold depends on its temperature;
warm air has the capacity to hold more water vapor than cold air. According to
Eagleman (1985), there is almost one-half reduction in the amount of water vapor
that the air can hold for every 10 C drop in temperature.
Relative humidity (RH) is the amount of water vapor in the air, expressed as the
proportion (in percent) of the maximum amount of water vapor it can hold at
certain temperature. For example, an air having a relative humidity of 60% at 27 C
temperature means that every kilogram of the air contains 60% of the maximum
amount of water that it can hold at that temperature (Miller 2001).
The amount of water vapor in the air ranges from 0.01% by volume at the frigid
poles to 5% in the humid tropics. In relation to each other, high RH means that
the air is moist while air with minimal content of moisture is described as dry air.
Compared to dry air, moist air has a higher relative humidity with relatively large
amounts of water vapor per unit volume of air.
The relative humidity affects the opening and closing of the stomata which
regulates loss of water from the plant through transpiration as well as
photosynthesis. A substantial understanding of this climatic factor is likewise
important in plant propagation. Newly collected plant cuttings and bareroot
seedlings are protected against dessication by enclosing them in a sealed plastic
bag. The propagation chamber and plastic tent are also commonly used in
propagating stem and leaf cuttings to ensure a condition with high relative
humidity.
Wind as Climatic Factor
Air movement or wind is due to the existence of pressure gradient on a global or
local scale caused by differences in heating. On a global scale it consists of the jet
stream flow and movement of large air masses. On the local scale only a smaller
quantity of air moves. Surface winds are lower and less turbulent at night due to
the absence of solar heating (Eagleman 1985).
When air that is close to the ground cools, it contracts and the pressure rises;
when it warms, it expands and loses pressure. Where both cold and warm air
occur in proximity, as over a lake and its adjacent shore, the cold flows to the
direction of the warm air or from high to low pressure area to correct the
pressure imbalance. This also happens in tropical Asia but in a larger and more
complex way, as the monsoon winds (Ripley and The Editors of Time-Life Books
1974).
This climatic factor serves as a vector of pollen from one flower to another thus
aiding in the process of pollination. It is therefore essential in the development of
fruit and seed from wind-pollinated flowers as in many grasses (click here to read
more about pollination).
Moderate winds favor gas exchanges, but strong winds can cause excessive water
loss through transpiration as well as lodging or toppling of plants. When
transpiration rate exceeds that of water absorption, partial or complete closure of
the stomata may ensue which will restrict the diffusion of carbon dioxide into the
leaves. As a result, there will be a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis, growth
and yield (Edmond et al. 1978).
Each of the above discussed climatic factors has been shown to produce limiting
effects on various growth processes. However, the various climatic factors always
operate together and interact with each other under natural conditions.