Arithmetic

Arithmetic (from the Greek ἀριθμός arithmos, 'number' and τική

[τέχνη], tiké [téchne], 'art') is a branch of mathematics that consists
of the study of numbers, especially the properties of the traditional
operations on them—addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
exponentiation and extraction of roots.[1][2][3] Arithmetic is an
elementary part of number theory, and number theory is considered
to be one of the top-level divisions of modern mathematics, along
with algebra, geometry, and analysis. The terms arithmetic and
higher arithmetic were used until the beginning of the 20th century
as synonyms for number theory, and are sometimes still used to
refer to a wider part of number theory.[4]

Contents
History
Arithmetic operations
Addition Arithmetic tables for children,
Subtraction Lausanne, 1835
Multiplication
Division
Fundamental theorem of arithmetic
Decimal arithmetic
Compound unit arithmetic
Basic arithmetic operations
Principles of compound unit arithmetic
Operations in practice
Number theory
Arithmetic in education
See also
Related topics
Notes
References
External links

History
The prehistory of arithmetic is limited to a small number of artifacts, which may indicate the conception
of addition and subtraction, the best-known being the Ishango bone from central Africa, dating from
somewhere between 20,000 and 18,000 BC, although its interpretation is disputed.[5]

The earliest written records indicate the Egyptians and Babylonians used all the elementary arithmetic
operations as early as 2000 BC. These artifacts do not always reveal the specific process used for solving
problems, but the characteristics of the particular numeral system strongly influence the complexity of
the methods. The hieroglyphic system for Egyptian numerals, like the later Roman numerals, descended
from tally marks used for counting. In both cases, this origin resulted in values that used a decimal base,
but did not include positional notation. Complex calculations with Roman numerals required the
assistance of a counting board (or the Roman abacus) to obtain the results.

Early number systems that included positional notation were not decimal, including the sexagesimal
(base 60) system for Babylonian numerals, and the vigesimal (base 20) system that defined Maya
numerals. Because of this place-value concept, the ability to reuse the same digits for different values
contributed to simpler and more efficient methods of calculation.

The continuous historical development of modern arithmetic starts with the Hellenistic civilization of
ancient Greece, although it originated much later than the Babylonian and Egyptian examples. Prior to
the works of Euclid around 300 BC, Greek studies in mathematics overlapped with philosophical and
mystical beliefs. For example, Nicomachus summarized the viewpoint of the earlier Pythagorean
approach to numbers, and their relationships to each other, in his Introduction to Arithmetic.

Greek numerals were used by Archimedes, Diophantus and others in a positional notation not very
different from the modern notation. The ancient Greeks lacked a symbol for zero until the Hellenistic
period, and they used three separate sets of symbols as digits: one set for the units place, one for the tens
place, and one for the hundreds. For the thousands place, they would reuse the symbols for the units
place, and so on. Their addition algorithm was identical to the modern method, and their multiplication
algorithm was only slightly different. Their long division algorithm was the same, and the digit-by-digit
square root algorithm, popularly used as recently as the 20th century, was known to Archimedes (who
may have invented it). He preferred it to Hero's method of successive approximation because, once
computed, a digit does not change, and the square roots of perfect squares, such as 7485696, terminate
immediately as 2736. For numbers with a fractional part, such as 546.934, they used negative powers of
60—instead of negative powers of 10 for the fractional part 0.934.[6]

The ancient Chinese had advanced arithmetic studies dating from the Shang Dynasty and continuing
through the Tang Dynasty, from basic numbers to advanced algebra. The ancient Chinese used a
positional notation similar to that of the Greeks. Since they also lacked a symbol for zero, they had one
set of symbols for the units place, and a second set for the tens place. For the hundreds place, they then
reused the symbols for the units place, and so on. Their symbols were based on the ancient counting
rods. The exact time where the Chinese started calculating with positional representation is unknown,
though it is known that the adoption started before 400 BC.[7] The ancient Chinese were the first to
meaningfully discover, understand, and apply negative numbers. This is explained in the Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art (Jiuzhang Suanshu), which was written by Liu Hui dated back to 2nd century
BC.

The gradual development of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system independently devised the place-value
concept and positional notation, which combined the simpler methods for computations with a decimal
base, and the use of a digit representing 0. This allowed the system to consistently represent both large
and small integers—an approach which eventually replaced all other systems. In the early
6th century AD, the Indian mathematician Aryabhata incorporated an existing version of this system in
his work, and experimented with different notations. In the 7th century, Brahmagupta established the
use of 0 as a separate number, and determined the results for multiplication, division, addition and
subtraction of zero and all other numbers—except for the result of division by zero. His contemporary,
the Syriac bishop Severus Sebokht (650 AD) said, "Indians possess a method of calculation that no word
can praise enough. Their rational system of mathematics, or of their method of calculation. I mean the
system using nine symbols."[8] The Arabs also learned this new method and called it hesab.

Although the Codex Vigilanus described an early form of Arabic

numerals (omitting 0) by 976 AD, Leonardo of Pisa (Fibonacci) was
primarily responsible for spreading their use throughout Europe after
the publication of his book Liber Abaci in 1202. He wrote, "The method
of the Indians (Latin Modus Indorum) surpasses any known method to
compute. It's a marvelous method. They do their computations using
nine figures and symbol zero".[9]

In the Middle Ages, arithmetic was one of the seven liberal arts taught Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner was
the first calculator that could
in universities.
perform all four arithmetic
The flourishing of algebra in the medieval Islamic world, and also in operations.
Renaissance Europe, was an outgrowth of the enormous simplification
of computation through decimal notation.

Various types of tools have been invented and widely used to assist in numeric calculations. Before
Renaissance, they were various types of abaci. More recent examples include slide rules, nomograms and
mechanical calculators, such as Pascal's calculator. At present, they have been supplanted by electronic
calculators and computers.

Arithmetic operations
The basic arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, although this
subject also includes more advanced operations, such as manipulations of percentages,[3] square roots,
exponentiation, logarithmic functions, and even trigonometric functions, in the same vein as logarithms
(prosthaphaeresis). Arithmetic expressions must be evaluated according to the intended sequence of
operations. There are several methods to specify this, either—most common, together with infix notation
—explicitly using parentheses and relying on precedence rules, or using a prefix or postfix notation,
which uniquely fix the order of execution by themselves. Any set of objects upon which all four
arithmetic operations (except division by zero) can be performed, and where these four operations obey
the usual laws (including distributivity), is called a field.[10]

Addition

Addition, denoted by the symbol , is the most basic operation of arithmetic. In its simple form,
addition combines two numbers, the addends or terms, into a single number, the sum of the numbers
(such as 2 + 2 = 4 or 3 + 5 = 8).

Adding finitely many numbers can be viewed as repeated simple addition; this procedure is known as
summation, a term also used to denote the definition for "adding infinitely many numbers" in an infinite
series. Repeated addition of the number 1 is the most basic form of counting; the result of adding 1 is
usually called the successor of the original number.
Addition is commutative and associative, so the order in which finitely many terms are added does not
matter. The identity element for a binary operation is the number that, when combined with any
number, yields the same number as the result. According to the rules of addition, adding 0 to any
number yields that same number, so 0 is the additive identity.[1] The inverse of a number with respect to
a binary operation is the number that, when combined with any number, yields the identity with respect
to this operation. So the inverse of a number with respect to addition (its additive inverse, or the
opposite number) is the number that yields the additive identity, 0, when added to the original number;
it is immediately obvious that for all numbers , this is the negative of (denoted ).[1] For example,
the additive inverse of 7 is −7, since 7 + (−7) = 0.

Addition can also be interpreted geometrically, as in the following example:

If we have two sticks of lengths 2 and 5, then, if we place the sticks one after the other, the length
of the stick becomes 7, since 2 + 5 = 7.

Subtraction

Subtraction, denoted by the symbol , is the inverse operation to addition. Subtraction finds the
difference between two numbers, the minuend minus the subtrahend: D = M − S. Resorting to the
previously established addition, this is to say that the difference is the number that, when added to the
subtrahend, results in the minuend: D + S = M.[2]

For positive arguments M and S holds:

If the minuend is larger than the subtrahend, the difference D is positive.

If the minuend is smaller than the subtrahend, the difference D is negative.

In any case, if minuend and subtrahend are equal, the difference D = 0.

Subtraction is neither commutative nor associative. For that reason, the construction of this inverse
operation in modern algebra is often discarded in favor of introducing the concept of inverse elements
(as sketched under § Addition), where subtraction is regarded as adding the additive inverse of the
subtrahend to the minuend, that is, a − b = a + (−b). The immediate price of discarding the binary
operation of subtraction is the introduction of the (trivial) unary operation, delivering the additive
inverse for any given number, and losing the immediate access to the notion of difference, which is
potentially misleading when negative arguments are involved.

For any representation of numbers, there are methods for calculating results, some of which are
particularly advantageous in exploiting procedures, existing for one operation, by small alterations also
for others. For example, digital computers can reuse existing adding-circuitry and save additional
circuits for implementing a subtraction, by employing the method of two's complement for representing
the additive inverses, which is extremely easy to implement in hardware (negation). The trade-off is the
halving of the number range for a fixed word length.

A formerly wide spread method to achieve a correct change amount, knowing the due and given
amounts, is the counting up method, which does not explicitly generate the value of the difference.
Suppose an amount P is given in order to pay the required amount Q, with P greater than Q. Rather than
explicitly performing the subtraction P − Q = C and counting out that amount C in change, money is
counted out starting with the successor of Q, and continuing in the steps of the currency, until P is
reached. Although the amount counted out must equal the result of the subtraction P − Q, the
subtraction was never really done and the value of P − Q is not supplied by this method.
Multiplication

Multiplication, denoted by the symbols or ,[1] is the second basic operation of arithmetic.
Multiplication also combines two numbers into a single number, the product. The two original numbers
are called the multiplier and the multiplicand, mostly both are simply called factors.

Multiplication may be viewed as a scaling operation. If the numbers are imagined as lying in a line,
multiplication by a number greater than 1, say x, is the same as stretching everything away from 0
uniformly, in such a way that the number 1 itself is stretched to where x was. Similarly, multiplying by a
number less than 1 can be imagined as squeezing towards 0, in such a way that 1 goes to the
multiplicand.

Another view on multiplication of integer numbers (extendable to rationals but not very accessible for
real numbers) is by considering it as repeated addition. For example. 3 × 4 corresponds to either adding
3 times a 4, or 4 times a 3, giving the same result. There are different opinions on the advantageousness
of these paradigmata in math education.

Multiplication is commutative and associative; further, it is distributive over addition and subtraction.
The multiplicative identity is 1,[1] since multiplying any number by 1 yields that same number. The
multiplicative inverse for any number except 0 is the reciprocal of this number, because multiplying the
reciprocal of any number by the number itself yields the multiplicative identity 1. 0 is the only number
without a multiplicative inverse, and the result of multiplying any number and 0 is again 0. One says that
0 is not contained in the multiplicative group of the numbers.
The product of a and b is written as a × b or a·b. When a or b are expressions not written simply with
digits, it is also written by simple juxtaposition: ab.[1] In computer programming languages and software
packages (in which one can only use characters normally found on a keyboard), it is often written with
an asterisk: a * b.

Algorithms implementing the operation of multiplication for various representations of numbers are by
far more costly and laborious than those for addition. Those accessible for manual computation either
rely on breaking down the factors to single place values and applying repeated addition, or on employing
tables or slide rules, thereby mapping multiplication to addition and vice versa. These methods are
outdated and are gradually replaced by mobile devices. Computers utilize diverse sophisticated and
highly optimized algorithms, to implement multiplication and division for the various number formats
supported in their system.

Division

Division, denoted by the symbols or ,[1] is essentially the inverse operation to multiplication. Division
finds the quotient of two numbers, the dividend divided by the divisor. Any dividend divided by zero is
undefined. For distinct positive numbers, if the dividend is larger than the divisor, the quotient is greater
than 1, otherwise it is less than 1 (a similar rule applies for negative numbers). The quotient multiplied
by the divisor always yields the dividend.

Division is neither commutative nor associative. So as explained in § Subtraction, the construction of the
division in modern algebra is discarded in favor of constructing the inverse elements with respect to
multiplication, as introduced in § Multiplication. Hence division is the multiplication of the dividend
1
with the reciprocal of the divisor as factors, that is, a ÷ b = a × b .
Within the natural numbers, there is also a different but related notion called Euclidean division, which
outputs two numbers after "dividing" a natural N (numerator) by a natural D (denominator): first a
natural Q (quotient), and second a natural R (remainder) such that N = D×Q + R and 0 ≤ R < Q.

Fundamental theorem of arithmetic

The fundamental theorem of arithmetic states that any integer greater than 1 has a unique prime
factorization (a representation of a number as the product of prime factors), excluding the order of the
factors. For example, 252 only has one prime factorization:

252 = 22 × 32 × 71

Euclid's Elements first introduced this theorem, and gave a partial proof (which is called Euclid's
lemma). The fundamental theorem of arithmetic was first proven by Carl Friedrich Gauss.

The fundamental theorem of arithmetic is one of the reasons why 1 is not considered a prime number.
Other reasons include the sieve of Eratosthenes, and the definition of a prime number itself (a natural
number greater than 1 that cannot be formed by multiplying two smaller natural numbers.).

Decimal arithmetic
Decimal representation refers exclusively, in common use, to the written numeral system employing
arabic numerals as the digits for a radix 10 ("decimal") positional notation; however, any numeral
system based on powers of 10, e.g., Greek, Cyrillic, Roman, or Chinese numerals may conceptually be
described as "decimal notation" or "decimal representation".

Modern methods for four fundamental operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division)
were first devised by Brahmagupta of India. This was known during medieval Europe as "Modus
Indoram" or Method of the Indians. Positional notation (also known as "place-value notation") refers to
the representation or encoding of numbers using the same symbol for the different orders of magnitude
(e.g., the "ones place", "tens place", "hundreds place") and, with a radix point, using those same symbols
to represent fractions (e.g., the "tenths place", "hundredths place"). For example, 507.36 denotes
5 hundreds (102), plus 0 tens (101), plus 7 units (100), plus 3 tenths (10−1) plus 6 hundredths (10−2).

The concept of 0 as a number comparable to the other basic digits is essential to this notation, as is the
concept of 0's use as a placeholder, and as is the definition of multiplication and addition with 0. The use
of 0 as a placeholder and, therefore, the use of a positional notation is first attested to in the Jain text
from India entitled the Lokavibhâga, dated 458 AD and it was only in the early 13th century that these
concepts, transmitted via the scholarship of the Arabic world, were introduced into Europe by
Fibonacci[11] using the Hindu–Arabic numeral system.

Algorism comprises all of the rules for performing arithmetic computations using this type of written
numeral. For example, addition produces the sum of two arbitrary numbers. The result is calculated by
the repeated addition of single digits from each number that occupies the same position, proceeding
from right to left. An addition table with ten rows and ten columns displays all possible values for each
sum. If an individual sum exceeds the value 9, the result is represented with two digits. The rightmost
digit is the value for the current position, and the result for the subsequent addition of the digits to the
left increases by the value of the second (leftmost) digit, which is always one (if not zero). This
adjustment is termed a carry of the value 1.
The process for multiplying two arbitrary numbers is similar to the process for addition. A multiplication
table with ten rows and ten columns lists the results for each pair of digits. If an individual product of a
pair of digits exceeds 9, the carry adjustment increases the result of any subsequent multiplication from
digits to the left by a value equal to the second (leftmost) digit, which is any value from 1 to 8
(9 × 9 = 81). Additional steps define the final result.

Similar techniques exist for subtraction and division.

The creation of a correct process for multiplication relies on the relationship between values of adjacent
digits. The value for any single digit in a numeral depends on its position. Also, each position to the left
represents a value ten times larger than the position to the right. In mathematical terms, the exponent
for the radix (base) of 10 increases by 1 (to the left) or decreases by 1 (to the right). Therefore, the value
for any arbitrary digit is multiplied by a value of the form 10n with integer n. The list of values
corresponding to all possible positions for a single digit is written as {..., 102, 10, 1, 10−1, 10−2, ...}.

Repeated multiplication of any value in this list by 10 produces another value in the list. In mathematical
terminology, this characteristic is defined as closure, and the previous list is described as closed under
multiplication. It is the basis for correctly finding the results of multiplication using the previous
technique. This outcome is one example of the uses of number theory.

Compound unit arithmetic

Compound[12] unit arithmetic is the application of arithmetic operations to mixed radix quantities such
as feet and inches; gallons and pints; pounds, shillings and pence; and so on. Before decimal-based
systems of money and units of measure, compound unit arithmetic was widely used in commerce and
industry.

Basic arithmetic operations

The techniques used in compound unit arithmetic were developed over many centuries and are well
documented in many textbooks in many different languages.[13][14][15][16] In addition to the basic
arithmetic functions encountered in decimal arithmetic, compound unit arithmetic employs three more
functions:

Reduction, in which a compound quantity is reduced to a single quantity—for example, conversion

of a distance expressed in yards, feet and inches to one expressed in inches.[17]
Expansion, the inverse function to reduction, is the conversion of a quantity that is expressed as a
single unit of measure to a compound unit, such as expanding 24 oz to 1 lb 8 oz.
Normalization is the conversion of a set of compound units to a standard form—for example,
rewriting "1 ft 13 in" as "2 ft 1 in".

Knowledge of the relationship between the various units of measure, their multiples and their
submultiples forms an essential part of compound unit arithmetic.

Principles of compound unit arithmetic

There are two basic approaches to compound unit arithmetic:

 Reduction–expansion method where all the compound unit variables are reduced to single unit
variables, the calculation performed and the result expanded back to compound units. This approach
is suited for automated calculations. A typical example is the handling of time by Microsoft Excel
where all time intervals are processed internally as days and decimal fractions of a day.
On-going normalization method in which each unit is treated separately and the problem is
continuously normalized as the solution develops. This approach, which is widely described in
classical texts, is best suited for manual calculations. An example of the ongoing normalization
method as applied to addition is shown below.

The addition operation is UK pre-decimal currency

carried out from right to left; in 4 farthings (f) = 1 penny
this case, pence are processed
first, then shillings followed by 12 pennies (d) = 1 shilling
pounds. The numbers below the 20 shillings (s) = 1 pound (£)
"answer line" are intermediate
results.

The total in the pence column is 25. Since there are 12 pennies in a
shilling, 25 is divided by 12 to give 2 with a remainder of 1. The
value "1" is then written to the answer row and the value "2" carried
forward to the shillings column. This operation is repeated using the
values in the shillings column, with the additional step of adding the value that was carried forward from
the pennies column. The intermediate total is divided by 20 as there are 20 shillings in a pound. The
pound column is then processed, but as pounds are the largest unit that is being considered, no values
are carried forward from the pounds column.

For the sake of simplicity, the example chosen did not have farthings.

Operations in practice

During the 19th and 20th centuries various aids were developed to
aid the manipulation of compound units, particularly in commercial
applications. The most common aids were mechanical tills which
were adapted in countries such as the United Kingdom to
accommodate pounds, shillings, pennies and farthings and "Ready
Reckoners"—books aimed at traders that catalogued the results of
various routine calculations such as the percentages or multiples of
various sums of money. One typical booklet[18] that ran to 150 pages
tabulated multiples "from one to ten thousand at the various prices
from one farthing to one pound".

The cumbersome nature of compound unit arithmetic has been

recognized for many years—in 1586, the Flemish mathematician
Simon Stevin published a small pamphlet called De Thiende ("the
tenth")[19] in which he declared the universal introduction of
decimal coinage, measures, and weights to be merely a question of
time. In the modern era, many conversion programs, such as that
included in the Microsoft Windows 7 operating system calculator, A scale calibrated in imperial units
display compound units in a reduced decimal format rather than with an associated cost display.
using an expanded format (e.g. "2.5 ft" is displayed rather than
"2 ft 6 in").
Number theory
Until the 19th century, number theory was a synonym of "arithmetic". The addressed problems were
directly related to the basic operations and concerned primality, divisibility, and the solution of
equations in integers, such as Fermat's last theorem. It appeared that most of these problems, although
very elementary to state, are very difficult and may not be solved without very deep mathematics
involving concepts and methods from many other branches of mathematics. This led to new branches of
number theory such as analytic number theory, algebraic number theory, Diophantine geometry and
arithmetic algebraic geometry. Wiles' proof of Fermat's Last Theorem is a typical example of the
necessity of sophisticated methods, which go far beyond the classical methods of arithmetic, for solving
problems that can be stated in elementary arithmetic.

Arithmetic in education
Primary education in mathematics often places a strong focus on algorithms for the arithmetic of natural
numbers, integers, fractions, and decimals (using the decimal place-value system). This study is
sometimes known as algorism.

The difficulty and unmotivated appearance of these algorithms has long led educators to question this
curriculum, advocating the early teaching of more central and intuitive mathematical ideas. One notable
movement in this direction was the New Math of the 1960s and 1970s, which attempted to teach
arithmetic in the spirit of axiomatic development from set theory, an echo of the prevailing trend in
higher mathematics.[20]

Also, arithmetic was used by Islamic Scholars in order to teach application of the rulings related to Zakat
and Irth. This was done in a book entitled The Best of Arithmetic by Abd-al-Fattah-al-Dumyati.[21]

The book begins with the foundations of mathematics and proceeds to its application in the later
chapters.

See also
Arithmetic portal
Lists of mathematics topics
Outline of arithmetic
Slide rule

Related topics
Addition of natural numbers
Additive inverse
Arithmetic coding
Arithmetic mean
Arithmetic number
Arithmetic progression
Arithmetic properties
Associativity
Commutativity
 Distributivity
Elementary arithmetic
Finite field arithmetic
Geometric progression
Integer
List of important publications in mathematics
Mental calculation
Number line

Notes
1. "List of Arithmetic and Common Math Symbols" (https://mathvault.ca/hub/higher-math/math-symbols/
common-math-symbols/). Math Vault. 2020-03-17. Retrieved 2020-08-25.
2. "Arithmetic" (https://www.britannica.com/science/arithmetic). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved
2020-08-25.
3. "Definition of Arithmetic" (https://www.mathsisfun.com/definitions/arithmetic.html).
www.mathsisfun.com. Retrieved 2020-08-25.
4. Davenport, Harold, The Higher Arithmetic: An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers (7th ed.),
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, ISBN 0-521-63446-6.
5. Rudman, Peter Strom (2007). How Mathematics Happened: The First 50,000 Years (https://archive.o
rg/details/howmathematicsha0000rudm/page/64). Prometheus Books. p. 64 (https://archive.org/detai
ls/howmathematicsha0000rudm/page/64). ISBN 978-1-59102-477-4.
6. The Works of Archimedes, Chapter IV, Arithmetic in Archimedes, edited by T.L. Heath, Dover
Publications Inc, New York, 2002.
7. Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, Vol. 3, p. 9, Cambridge University Press, 1959.
8. Reference: Revue de l'Orient Chretien by François Nau pp. 327–338. (1929)
9. Reference: Sigler, L., "Fibonacci's Liber Abaci", Springer, 2003.
10. Tapson, Frank (1996). The Oxford Mathematics Study Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-
19-914551-2.
11. Leonardo Pisano – p. 3: "Contributions to number theory" (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-4153/
Leonardo-Pisano) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080617154015/http://www.britannica.co
m/eb/article-4153/Leonardo-Pisano) 2008-06-17 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online, 2006. Retrieved 18 September 2006.
12. Walkingame, Francis (1860). "The Tutor's Companion; or, Complete Practical Arithmetic" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20150504004020/http://www.lloffion.org.uk/docs/walkingames_arithmetic/walkinga
mes_arithmetic.pdf) (PDF). Webb, Millington & Co. pp. 24–39. Archived from the original (http://www.
lloffion.org.uk/docs/walkingames_arithmetic/walkingames_arithmetic.pdf) (PDF) on 2015-05-04.
13. Palaiseau, JFG (October 1816). Métrologie universelle, ancienne et moderne: ou rapport des poids
et mesures des empires, royaumes, duchés et principautés des quatre parties du monde (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=ahjPAAAAMAAJ) [Universal, ancient and modern metrology: or report of
weights and measurements of empires, kingdoms, duchies and principalities of all parts of the world]
(in French). Bordeaux. Retrieved October 30, 2011.
14. Jacob de Gelder (1824). Allereerste Gronden der Cijferkunst (https://books.google.com/books?id=X
YVbAAAAQAAJ) [Introduction to Numeracy] (in Dutch). 's-Gravenhage and Amsterdam: de
Gebroeders van Cleef. pp. 163–176. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20151005101320/https://
books.google.com/books?id=XYVbAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false) from
the original on October 5, 2015. Retrieved March 2, 2011.
15. Malaisé, Ferdinand (1842). Theoretisch-Praktischer Unterricht im Rechnen für die niederen Classen
der Regimentsschulen der Königl. Bayer. Infantrie und Cavalerie (http://www.spasslernen.de/geschic
hte/buch/index.htm) [Theoretical and practical instruction in arithmetic for the lower classes of the
Royal Bavarian Infantry and Cavalry School] (in German). Munich. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20120925071204/http://www.spasslernen.de/geschichte/buch/index.htm) from the original on 25
September 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
16. Encyclopædia Britannica, I, Edinburgh, 1772, Arithmetick
17. Walkingame, Francis (1860). "The Tutor's Companion; or, Complete Practical Arithmetic" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20150504004020/http://www.lloffion.org.uk/docs/walkingames_arithmetic/walkinga
mes_arithmetic.pdf) (PDF). Webb, Millington & Co. pp. 43–50. Archived from the original (http://www.
lloffion.org.uk/docs/walkingames_arithmetic/walkingames_arithmetic.pdf) (PDF) on 2015-05-04.
18. Thomson, J (1824). The Ready Reckoner in miniature containing accurate table from one to the
thousand at the various prices from one farthing to one pound (https://archive.org/stream/cihm_9470
6#page/n5/mode/2up). Montreal. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130728224751/http://archi
ve.org/stream/cihm_94706#page/n5/mode/2up) from the original on 28 July 2013. Retrieved
25 March 2012.
19. O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. (January 2004), "Arithmetic" (http://www-history.mcs.st-an
drews.ac.uk/Biographies/Stevin.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St
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wdl.org/en/item/3945/). World Digital Library (in Arabic). Retrieved 30 June 2013.

References
Cunnington, Susan, The Story of Arithmetic: A Fine, Henry Burchard (1858–1928), The
Short History of Its Origin and Development, Number System of Algebra Treated
Swan Sonnenschein, London, 1904 Theoretically and Historically, Leach, Shewell &
Dickson, Leonard Eugene, History of the Sanborn, Boston, 1891
Theory of Numbers (3 volumes), reprints: Karpinski, Louis Charles (1878–1956), The
Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington, History of Arithmetic, Rand McNally, Chicago,
1932; Chelsea, New York, 1952, 1966 1925; reprint: Russell & Russell, New York,
Euler, Leonhard, Elements of Algebra (https://w 1965
eb.archive.org/web/20110413234352/http://we Ore, Øystein, Number Theory and Its History,
b.mat.bham.ac.uk/C.J.Sangwin/euler/), Tarquin McGraw–Hill, New York, 1948
Press, 2007 Weil, André, Number Theory: An Approach
through History, Birkhauser, Boston, 1984;
reviewed: Mathematical Reviews 85c:01004

External links
MathWorld article about arithmetic (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Arithmetic.html)
The New Student's Reference Work/Arithmetic (historical)
The Great Calculation According to the Indians, of Maximus Planudes (http://mathdl.maa.org/conver
gence/1/?pa=content&sa=viewDocument&nodeId=1293&bodyId=1422) – an early Western work on
arithmetic at Convergence (https://web.archive.org/web/20070713083148/http://mathdl.maa.org/conv
ergence/1/)
Weyde, P. H. Vander (1879). "Arithmetic" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_American_Cyclop%C
3%A6dia_(1879)/Arithmetic). The American Cyclopædia.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arithmetic&oldid=995460349"

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