CEB2083 PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL

MAY 2020 SEMESTER

Chapter 5:
Dynamic Behavior of First-order and Second-
order Processes
BY
Assoc. Prof. Dr Marappagounder Ramasamy / Dr Serene Lock /
Dr Mohd Hilmi Noh / Dr Nurul Aini Amran

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS (UTP)

Chapter Objectives

End of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Determine dynamic behavior of chemical processes which are
classified as First-order and Second-order processes
2. Explain various test inputs used for dynamic analysis of systems
3. Derive expressions for transient responses for different inputs
Course learning outcomes

CLO1
Develop dynamic models of chemical processes

CLO2
Design feedback control systems using modern IT tools

CLO3
Select appropriate instruments for control systems
Introduction

Investigate how processes respond to

typical changes in their environment. 1
Transfer function representation
makes it easy to compare the effects
of different inputs.
2
The dynamic behavior of a given
process can be generalized easily 3
Introduction

1 For a general first-order transfer function with output Y(s)

and input U(s), K
Y ( s) = U ( s)
s + 1

2 A general time-domain solution can be found once

the nature of the input change is specified

3 The solution applies to any other process with a

first-order transfer function

4 We will consider several standard process

inputs that are used to characterize the
behavior of many actual processes
Standard Process Inputs

➢ The word input refers to

any variable that
influences the process
output.
➢ Step input (Sudden and
sustained input change)

0 t  0
U S (t ) = 
M t  0

M
U S ( s) =
s
Standard Process Inputs

➢ Ramp input (gradual upward or

downward change)

0 t  0
 a
U R (t ) =  U R ( s) =
at t  0
s2


➢ Rectangular step
pulse (a
change limited to certain period
of time)
0 t  0

U RP (t ) = h 0  t  tw h
0 U RP (s) = (1 − e −tws )
 t  tw s
Standard Process Inputs

Sinusoidal input

0 t  0 A
U sin (t ) =  U sin ( s) = 2
 A sin t t  0 s +2
Standard Process Inputs

➢ Impulse input,  (t ) - Dirac delta function

L (t ) = 1

➢ Random inputs – changes in a complex manner –

Characterization will be in terms of statistical terms
such as mean and standard deviation
Response of first-order processes

➢ We use the general first-order transfer function

K
Y ( s) = U ( s) (5.1)
s + 1

➢ where K is the process gain and τ is the time constant

Step response
For a step input of magnitude M, U ( s) = M / s , and
Eq.(5.1) becomes
KM
Y ( s) = (5.2)
s (s + 1)
Step Response of 1st order systems

The time-domain response is given by

y (t ) = KM (1 − e −t /  ) (5.3)

t y(t)
0 0
1 0.6321
2 0.8647
3 0.9502
4 0.9817
5 0.9933
Ramp Response of 1st order systems

a Ka
U R ( s) = 2 Y (s) = (5.4)
s s 2 (s + 1)

Expanding into partial fractions, we get

𝐾𝑎 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑌(𝑠) = 2 = + +
𝑠 (𝜏𝑠 + 1) 𝜏𝑠 + 1 𝑠 𝑠 2
(5.5)

The Heaviside expansion gives

Ka 2 Ka Ka (5.6)
Y ( s) = − + 2
s + 1 s s
Ramp Response of 1st order systems

Taking the inverse Laplace transform of eq. (5.6) we get

y(t ) = Ka (e −t /  − 1) + Kat (5.7)

Sinusoidal response of 1st order systems

usin (t ) = A sin t U ( s) =
s2 +  2

For a first-order process,

𝐾𝐴 𝜔 𝛼0 𝛼1 𝑠 𝛼2
𝑌(𝑠) = ⋅ 2 = + +
𝜏𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 𝜔 2 𝜏𝑠 + 1 𝑠 2 + 𝜔 2 𝑠 2 + 𝜔 2

By partial fraction decomposition

KA 2 − KA KA

0 = 2 2 1 = 2 =
  +1  2 2 + 1  2 2 + 1

Inverting, we get

KA
y(t ) = (e −t 
−  cost + sin t )
  +1
2 2
➢ Using the trigonometric identity

p cos A + q sin A = r sin( A +  )

p
where r= p +q
2 2
and tan  =
q

KA −t  KA
We have y (t ) = 2 2 e + sin(t +  )
  +1   +1
2 2

where  = − tan −1 ( )

Note:  is not a function of t but of τ and .

For large t, y(t) is also sinusoidal, output sine is attenuated by

K
 2 2 + 1
Example: Electrically heated stirred-tank
Consider a stirred-tank heating system with constant holdup.

Ti
wi
T, w

V
Q

Suppose that the metal heating element has a significant

thermal capacitance and that the electrical heating rate Q
directly affects the temperature of the element rather than the
liquid contents
➢ Also assume that the element has a uniform temperature, Te.
(interpreted as the average temperature for the heating element)
➢ The unsteady-state energy balance for the tank and the heating
element can be written as

dT
mC = wC(Ti − T ) + he Ae (Te − T ) (1)
dt

dTe
me C e = Q − he Ae (Te − T ) (2)
dt

➢ where m = V and me C e is the product of the mass of the metal

in the heating element and its specific heat
➢ Q is the thermal equivalent of the instantaneous electrical power
dissipation in the heating element
➢ The input variables are : w, Ti and Q
➢ Under steady-state conditions, we have

0 = wC(Ti − T ) + he Ae (Te − T ) (3)

0 = Q − he Ae (Te − T ) (4)

➢ Subtracting (3) from (1) and (4) from (2), we

have

= wC(Ti − T ) i − (T − T )+ he Ae (Te − Te ) − (T − T )

dT
mC (5)
dt

= (Q − Q ) − he Ae (Te − Te ) − (T − T )
dTe
me Ce (6)
dt
➢ Substitute deviation variables, multiply (5) by 1/wC and (6) by
1/heAe:
m dT  hA
= −(T  − Ti) + e e (Te − T ) (7)
w dt wC

me Ce dTe Q
= − (Te − T ) (8)
he Ae dt he Ae

➢ Laplace transform each equation, and after rearrangement,

m hA  hA
(9)
 s + 1 + e e T ( s) = Ti( s) + e e Te( s)
w wC  wC

 me C e  Q ( s ) (10)
 s + 1Te( s ) = + T ( s )
 he Ae  he Ae
➢ Eliminate Te(s ) from (9) by using (10).

➢ Multiply (9) by  me C e s +1 and substitute to obtain

 he Ae 

 m me Ce 2  me Ce me Ce m   m C  1 (11)
 s +  + + s + 1T (s) =  e e s + 1Ti(s) + Q(s)
w h A 
 e e  he Ae wC w    he Ae  wC

➢ The transfer function relating T  to Q is

T ( s) 1 / wC
= = G1 ( s) (Ti( s) = 0) (12)
Q( s) b2 s + b1 s + 1
2
➢ The transfer function relating T  to Ti is

 me C e 
 s + 1
T ( s)  he Ae  = G ( s)
= (Q(s) = 0) (13)
Ti( s) b2 s 2 + b1 s + 1
2

mC mC m m me C e
where b1 = e e + e e + and b2 =
he Ae wC w w he Ae

➢ By the principle of superposition

T ( s) = G1 ( s)Q( s) + G2 ( s)Ti( s) (14)

➢ Factoring the characteristic polynomial,

We have two time

b2 s 2 + b1s + 1 as ( 1s + 1)( 2 s + 1) constants
➢ A limiting behavior: as me C e → 0 , b2 = 0 and b1 = m / w
(14) simplifies to

1 / wC 1
T ( s) = Q( s) + Ti( s) (15)
m m
s +1 s +1
w w
Problem 1

The stirred-tank heating system is used to preheat a reactant

containing a suspended solid catalyst at a constant flow rate of 1000
kg/h. The volume in the tank is 2 m3, and the density and the specific
heat of the suspended mixture are, respectively, 900 kg/m3 and 1
cal/g∙oC. The process is initially operating with inlet and outlet
temperatures of 100 and 130oC.

The following questions concerning the process operation are posed:

Problem 1

01 What is the heater input at the initial steady state and the
values of K and τ ?

If the heater input is increased by 30%, how long will it take for
02
the tank temperature to achieve 99% of the final temperature
change?

Assume the tank is initially at its steady state. If the inlet

03
temperature is increased suddenly from 100 to 120 oC, how long
will it take before the outlet temperature changes from 130 to
135 oC?
 Problem 1: Solution

1. From the steady-state energy balance, we have

Q = w C (T − Ti ) = (106 )  (1)  (130 − 100) = 3x107 cal/h.

O
1 1 −6 C
K= = = 10
wC (10 )  (1)
6
cal/h

V (2)  (9x10 5 )
= = 6
= 1.8h
w 10
2. 99% of the response is obtained in 5 process time constants, i.e.
5 x 1.8 = 9 h.
The steady-state change in the temperature is

 10 −6 9  10 −6 
T (t → ) = lim s  = 9 o C.
s →0 1.8s + 1
 s 

The new steady-state outlet temp. is 130+9 = 139 oC.

3. The gain of the transfer function relating T  to Ti is one, a

change of 20oC will cause a change of 20oC in the outlet.
y(t ) 5
= 1 − e −t /  = 1 − e −t / 1.8 t = 0.52 h.
KM (1)(20)
Response of second-order processes

➢ A second-order transfer function can arise physically

whenever two first-order processes are connected in
series.

K1 K 2 K
G(s) = = (16)
( 1 s + 1)( 2 s + 1)  1 2 s 2 + ( 1 +  2 )s + 1

 1 and  2, the first-order time constants, determine the

speed of response.
Second-order processes
➢ A second-order transfer function will arise upon transforming either
a second-order differential equation process model or two-coupled
first-order equations.
K
G(s) = 2 2 (17)
 s + 2s + 1

 (zeta) - damping coefficient – dimensionless – measure of

the amount of damping in the system.

Small  - little damping, large oscillations and vice versa.

 - natural period of oscillation = 1 /  n where  n is the

undamped natural frequency.
Classes of second-order systems

Damping Characterization of Roots of characteristic

coefficient response equation

 >1 Overdamped Real and unequal

 =1 Critically damped Real and equal

0<  < 1 Underdamped Complex conjugate

(  < 0 is omitted because they are unstable systems)

Second-order processes
➢ The overdamped and critically damped forms of the second-order
transfer function appear when two first-order systems occur in series
as shown:

➢ Transfer functions in (16) and (17) differ only in the form of the
denominators.

➢ Equating the denominators yields

 2 s 2 + 2s + 1 = ( 1s + 1)( 2 s + 1) (18)

where  =   and 1 +  2
1 2  =
2  1 2
Second-order processes

➢ Left side of (18) can be factored:

    
 s + 2 + 1 =
2 2  s +1 s + 1 (19)
  −  2 −1   +  2 − 1 
  

from which we have,

 
1 = and 2 = (20)
 −  2 −1  +  −1
2

➢ After inverting to time domain, the responses are

categorized into three classes:
Step response

➢ For the step input (U(s) = M/s) to a process described by

(17)
KM
Y ( s) =
( )
s  2 s 2 + 2s + 1
(21)
Step response of 2nd Order Processes

➢ Overdamped: (  1)

If the denominator of (21) can be factored using (20), then the

response can be written as
  1e − t /1 −  2 e −t / 2  (22)
y (t ) = KM 1 − 
 1 −  2 

➢ Critically damped: ( = 1)

  t 
y (t ) = KM 1 − 1 + e −t /   (23)
   
Step response of 2nd Order Processes

➢ Underdamped: (0    1)

   1− 2    1− 2  
 
y (t ) = KM 1 − e −t /  cos t + sin  t  
    
 1 −  2  

 
 
 

• Using the trigonometric identity:

p cos A + q sin A = r sin( A +  )

p
where, r= p 2 + q 2 and tan  =
q

 1  1−  2 

y (t ) = KM 1 − e −t / 
sin  t +  
 1−  2   
  
Plots of responses for different values of 
Step response of 2nd Order Processes

Remarks

Responses exhibit a higher degree of oscillation and overshoot

as  approaches zero.

Large values of  yield a sluggish (slow) response.

The fastest response without overshoot is obtained for  =1.

Characteristics of a step response of underdamped second-
order processes
Characteristics of a step response of underdamped second-
order processes
1. Rise time: tr , Time to first reach the new steady-state value.
2. Time to first peak: tp , Time to reach its first maximum value.
3. Settling time: ts , Time to reach and remain inside a band of
+5% of the total change.
4. Overshoot: OS=a/b
5. Decay ratio: DR = c/a
6. Period of oscillation: P is the time between two successive
peaks.
Analytical expressions for the characteristics:

Time to first peak: t p = (25)
1− 2

 
Overshoot: OS = exp −   (26)
 1− 2 
 

 2  (27)

Decay ratio: DR = exp − = (OS) 2
 1−  2 
 

2
Period: P= (28)
1− 2
Sinusoidal response

➢ The steady-state response to a sinusoidal input A sin t

is given by

sin (t +  )
KA
y (t ) =
1 − (  ) 
2 2
+ (2 )
2 (29)

 2   
where  = − tan −1
2 
(30)
1 − (  ) 
Sinusoidal response

➢ The output amplitude from (29) is

KA
Aˆ = (31)
1 − ( )  + (2 )
2 2 2

Output amplitude
➢ Amplitude ratio, AR = Input amplitude

Aˆ 1
➢ Normalized AR, ARN = KA = (32)
1 − (  ) 
2 2
+ (2 )
2
Sinusoidal response

The maximum value of ARN can be found by

differentiating (32) w.r.t.  and setting the derivative
to zero. Solving for  max gives

1 − 2 2
 max = for 0 <  < 0.707 (33)

For  > 0.707, there is no maximum.
1
AR N = for 0 <  < 0.707 (34)
2 1 −  2
max
Sinusoidal response
Conclusion

We have learnt:
✓The dynamic behavior of first order systems
✓The dynamic behavior of second order systems –
underdamped, overdamped and critically damped
✓Derivation of dynamic responses for different inputs