Deformation of Rocks: Big Ideas

• Earth scientists use the structure, sequence,

and properties of rocks, to reconstruct events
in Earth’s history
• Understanding geologic processes active in
the modern world is crucial to interpreting
Earth’s past
• Over Earth’s vast history, both gradual and
catastrophic processes have produced
enormous changes
– Super-continents formed and broke apart
– mountains formed and eroded away

Deformation of Rocks
• Folds and faults are geologic structures
caused by deformation.
• Structural geology is the study of the
deformation of rocks and its effects.

Fig. 7.1

1
 Orientation of Deformed Rocks
We need some way to describe the distribution
of geologic structures. So we use the terms
strike and dip.
Strike:
Strike compass direction of a rock layer as it
intersects with a horizontal surface.
Dip:
Dip acute angle between the rock layer and
the horizontal surface, measured
perpendicular to strike.

Strike and Dip on a Rooftop

Fig. 7.3

Strike and Dip in a Rock Structure

Fig. 7.3

2
 Strike and Dip in a Rock Structure

Fig. 7.2

Stress:
force per unit area

Fig. 7.7

Strength
• ability of an object to resist
deformation
• compressive or tensile

Fig. 7.5

3
 Strain
Any change in original shape or
size of an object in response to
stress acting on the object

Fig. 7.1

Elastic Deformation

Temporary change in shape or

size that is recovered when the
deforming force is removed

Ductile (Plastic) Deformation

• Permanent change in
shape or size that is not
recovered when the
stress is removed

• Occurs by the slippage of

atoms or small groups of
atoms past each other in
the deforming material

4
 Brittle Deformation (Rupture)
• Loss of cohesion
of a body under
the influence of
deforming stress

• Usually occurs
along sub-planar
surfaces that
separate zones of
coherent material

Fig. 7.6

5
Factors that Affect Deformation
• temperature

• pressure

• strain rate

• rock type

The variation of these factors determines

whether a rock will fault or fold.

Joints

Cracks in rocks
along which
there has been
no appreciable
displacement.

Fig. 7.13

Faults
Fractures in rocks created by
earthquakes.

• Dip-slip faults
normal
reverse
• Strike-slip faults
• Oblique-slip faults

6
Dip-slip Faults: Motion of the fault blocks
is parallel to the dip direction.

Hanging wall Footwall

Fig. 7.1

Fig. 7.7

Rift Valley

Fig. 7.16

7
 Fig. 7.7

Thrust Fault
Thrust faults are low-angle reverse faults.

hanging wall

footwall

cross section

Fig. 7.17

8
Strike-slip Faults: Motion of the fault blocks
is parallel to the strike direction

Fig. 7.7

Left-lateral Strike Slip Fault

aerial (map) view

9
Right-lateral Strike Slip Fault

aerial (map) view

San Andreas Fault

Fig. 7.6

Fig. 7.7

10
 Folding of Rocks
• Produced by horizontal or vertical forces
• Scale can be from cm to 100’s of km

Fig. 7.10

Fold Terminology
axial plane: the plane of mirror symmetry
dividing the fold into two limbs
axis: the line formed by the intersection of the
axial plane and a bedding plane

Fig. 7.10

Fold Terminology
horizontal fold: fold where the axis is
horizontal
plunging fold: fold where the axis is not
horizontal

Fig. 7.10

11
 More Fold Terminology
syncline: a sequence of folded rocks with the
youngest rocks on the inside of the fold
anticline: a sequence of folded rocks with the
oldest rocks on the inside of the fold

Fig. 7.10

Fig. 7.10

Fig. 7.10

12
Fig. 7.10

Fig. 7.11

Fig. 7.11

13
 And More Fold Terminology
dome: a sequence of folded rocks in which
all the beds dip away from a central point
basin: a sequence of folded rocks in which
all the beds dip towards a central point

Fig. 7.12

Fig. 7.12

14
 Mountain Belts
• narrow zones of folded, compressed rocks
with associated magmatism
• formed at convergent plate boundaries
• two major active belts: Cordilleran (Rockies-
Andes) and Alps-Himalaya
• older examples include Appalachians and
Urals

Fig. 10.4

Fig. 10.4

15
 North American Cordillera
Complex geologic history from multiple
episodes of deformation and
magmatism over the past 500 million
years.

Tectonic Provinces of the West

Fig. 10.5

Tectonic History of San Andres Fault

Fig. 10.6

16
Major Uplift Along Normal Faults
Sierra Nevada, California

Fig. 10.7

Tectonic Ages

Fig. 10.8b

How Continents Grow

• Magmatic differentiation: magma
transferred to continents at subduction
zones

• Continental accretion: buoyant

fragments of continents attached to
continents as the result of plate motions

17
 How
Continents
Grow:
Accretion of
Fragments

Fig. 10.12a

How
Continents
Grow:
Accretion of
Island Arcs

Fig. 10.12b

How
Continents
Grow:
Accretion Along
Transform Fault

Fig. 10.12c

18
 How
Continents
Grow:
Accretion by
Continental
Collision/Rifting

Fig. 10.12d

“Suspect Terranes”
Terranes” of
Western North America
Multiple accretions of
older island arcs,
oceanic plateaus,
oceanic crust, and
marine sedimentary
rocks.

Fig. 10.11

Orogeny
• mountain building
• particularly by folding and thrusting of
rock layers
• often accompanied by magmatic
activity

19
The Himalayan Orogeny: The Indian
Plate subducts under the Eurasian Plate.

Fig. 10.15

The Himalayan Orogeny: India

subcontinent collides with Tibet and breaks
along the Main Central Thrust fault.

Fig. 10.15

The Himalayan Orogeny:

A second thrust fault forms,
lifting the first fault.

Fig. 10.15

20
 Tectonic Features:
Collision of India and Eurasia

Fig. 10.16

The
Wilson
Cycle

Fig. 10.18

21