B.Sc.

P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

Unit 1
MECHANICS-I

Unit vector, displacement, area element, volume element, velocity and acceleration in Cartesian,
spherical polar and cylindrical coordinates.
Inertial and non-inertial frames of reference, uniformly rotating frame; Coriolis force and
centrifugal force. Effect of centrifugal force due to rotation of earth and coriolis force acting on
a freely falling body. Geographical effects of coriolis force (quantitative).

MECHANICS

In simple words, Mechanics is the branch of physics which deals with the study of motion of
particle group of particles (bodies) in space. To be more precise, Mechanics deals with particles or
system of particles in the state of motion or at rest, When they are under the influence of internal or
external forces.
Now, if the study of motion of particles having speed much less than speed of light , it is called
Classical non-relativistic mechanics or Newtonian Mechanics ,but if the speed of particles is very
near to speed of light it is called Classical Relativistic or simply Relativistic mechanics.

Coordinate systems:
In order to characterise any physical phenomenon taking place at a particular point in space with
respect to other points around it, we use some reference system. In order to locate the exact position of
the particle, we choose a fixed point ‘O’ arbitrarily and then draw straight lines through this point. The
point so chosen is called the origin or reference point and the lines drawn through it are called
coordinate axes.
If the lines are mutually perpendicular to each other, then the system is called orthogonal system,
otherwise it is called oblique system. We require the set of real nos. (triplet in 3-D) to specify the
position of a particle in space w.r.t. the coordinate axes which are called the coordinate of that point.
The three different types of coordinate systems are commonly used in mechanics. The choice of
coordinate system depends upon the symmetry of the system under study. These are:
1) Rectangular Cartesian coordinate system
2) Spherical Polar coordinate system
3) Cylindrical polar coordinate system

 Rectangular Cartesian coordinate system:

This is the simplest type of coordinate system. In this system the position of the particle in space is
located by choosing a fixed point in space arbitrarily and then drawing three mutually perpendicular
lines OX, OY and OZ through it. This set of mutually perpendicular lines is called Rectangular
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

Cartesian coordinate system and the lines OX, OY & OZ are called as X-axis, Y-axis & Z-axis resp.
and the common point O where all the three axis meet is called origin of the coordinate system.
Z

z
O Y
x
y B
X
Fig. 1
In this system, a point ‘P’ is represented by three coordinates x, y, z which represent the distance
of particle P from the origin along x-axis, y-axis & z-axis resp.
Depending upon the relative orientations of the three axes in space, the Cartesian coordinate system is
of two types:
1) Right-handed Cartesian coordinate system
2) Left-handed Cartesian coordinate system

Right-handed Cartesian coordinate system: In right handed Cartesian coordinate system, x, y, and z
axes are so oriented that if we rotate X-axis anticlockwise through 90 o to take the position of Y-axis,
then Z-axis will be along the direction in which a right handed screw with such rotation would move.
If î, ĵ and k̂ are unit vectors along x-axis, y -axis and z-axis respectively, then for a right handed
system,
^i× ^j= k^ ^ ^i
{ ^j×k= { k^ ¿×^i= ^j ¿

Left-handed Cartesian coordinate system: Here the three axes are oriented so that if we rotate x-
axis clock-wise through 900 to take the position of y-axis, then z-axis axis will be along the direction
in which a left-handed screw with such rotation would move.
If î, ĵ and k̂ are unit vectors along x-axis, y -axis and z-axis respectively, then for a left-handed
system,
^i× ^j=−k^ ^ ^i
{ ^j× k=− ^ ^i=− ^j¿
{ k¿×
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

We can obtain left handed system from right handed system by simply changing the direction of one
of its axis (here z-axis) as shown in fig.2b.

 Position vector , Displacement ,Velocity and Acceleration in Rectangular

Cartesian Coordinate System:

Consider a particle moving in space. Let at any time‘t’, the particle is at point P. If î, ĵ and k̂ be the unit
vector along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively, then from P draw a perpendicular PB on xy- plane.
Draw a line AB parallel to y-axis from B. Then, the distances OA=x, AB=y and BP=z are the
Cartesian Coordinates of P.

Position vector: As î, ĵ & k̂ are unit vectors along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively, then

→ → → →→ → →→ → →→→
^OA=x{i, AB=y{^j, BP=z{k^¿ Alsofrmfig, {⃗r= OP=OB + BP But,OB=OA+AB¿ {⃗r¿= OA+ B+ P¿ ⇒ {⃗r¿=x{^i¿ +y{^j¿+z{k^¿ whic sthePosit nvector¿
& the magnitude of the position vector is given by, 2
OP =r = |⃗r| = √ x + y 2+z2

(b) Displacement: Let in a small time Δt, the particle move from point P(x, y, z) to a new position P′
(x′ ,y′, z′). Then final position vector is rʹ =xʹ î + yʹ ĵ +zʹ k̂ and
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

→ '
' ' ' ^ ^ ' ' '^
Displacement P = Δ⃗r = (x i+ {y j +{z k) - (x {i+y {j¿+z {k¿)¿ Δ⃗r = (x -x)^i + (y -y)^j + (z -z)k ¿
^ ^ ^ ^ = Δx {^i¿ + Δy {^j¿ + Δz {k^¿ ¿
If the displacement is very small, then

^
d ⃗r = dx { ^i + dy { ^j¿ + dz { k¿¿

Velocity: The velocity of a particle at any time‘t’ represents the time rate of change of position vector,
i.e.

d⃗r d ^ ^ ^ d ^ d ^ d ^ ^ dx ^ dy ^ dz ^ ^ ^
= (xi+ y{j¿+zk) = (xi) + (y {j) + (z {k)¿or {⃗v = {i¿ + {j¿ + {k¿ ¿ {⃗v = {i¿ẋ + { j¿ ẏ +k ż¿ ¿
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
Here ẋ , ẏ, ż are the magnitude of components of instantaneous velocity of the particle along x, y
& z axes.

Acceleration: The Acceleration of a particle at any time ‘t’ represents the time rate of change of
velocity, i.e.
d {v̄ d d ẋ d ẏ d ż
{⃗a = = ( ẋ ^i+ { ẏ ^j +ż k)^ =^i + { ^j ¿ + { k¿^ ¿¿ a = { ^i ẍ + { ^j¿ ÿ + k^ z̈¿ ¿¿
dt dt dt dt dt
& Magnitude of acc., a = [(ẍ)2 + (ÿ)2 + (z̈)2 ]½

Example: The coordinates of particle which moves in xy-plane are given by x = ( u t – t 2/2) & y = ( 3
+ 6 t – t3/6) where ‘x’& ‘y’ are in metres and ‘t’ is in seconds. Det. the velocity & acceleration
at t=3sec.
Sol.: Given, x = 4t – t2/2 y = 3 + 6t –t3/6
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

ẋ = 4 – t ẏ = dy/dt = 6 –t2/2
ẍ = -1 ÿ = dy/dt = (t)
Therefore, (ẋ)t=3 = 4 3=1 (ẏ)t=3 = 6  9/2 = 3/2=1.5
(ẍ)t=3 = 1 (ÿ)t=3 = 3
Vel. at t= 3sec = [ẋ2+ẏ2]½ = (1+ 9/4)½ = (13/4)½ = 1.80 m s 1
Acc. at t = 3sec = [ẍ2 +ÿ2]½ = [(-1)2 +(-3)2]½ = (10)½ = 3.16 ms-2

 Area and Volume in Three dimensional Cartesian Coordinate system:-

a) Area element:
Any area bounded by vectors a and b is given by A =⃗a ×b
⃗ ⃗
Let us consider a pt. P in space having Cartesian Coordinates (x,y,z). The position vector of pt. is
given by

{⃗r = x {^i +y {^j + z {k^¿ ¿ ⇒ d {⃗r = dx {^i¿ +dy {^j¿ + dz {k^¿ ¿

where dx , dy , dz are the increments on point P along x , y and z axis respectively. Now, if we
consider an area element bounded by dx î and dy ĵ, then area element,

d A⃗ = dx { ^i× dy { ^j¿=dx dy ( ^i× ^j)¿

(dA) = dx dy k̂ [as î ×ĵ= k̂]
Similarly, (dA)x = dy dz î and (dA)y = dz dx ĵ

The mag. of area elements are

(dA)x = dydz, (dA)y = dzdx, (dA)z = dxdy

(b)Volume element:

The volume bounded by vectors a, b, c is given by

V =(⃗a ×⃗b)
If we consider a // piped bounded by dx î, dy ĵ & dz k̂, then
dV = (dx { ^i× dy { ^j¿). dz { k^ ¿ =dx dy dz ( ^i× ^j). k^ ¿
= dx dy dz

 Spherical polar co-ordinate system :

Let us consider a point P in space. Then in spherical polar co-ordinate system, this point P is
represented by three co-ordinates r,  & ϕ
where,
r is radial distance of point P from the origin ;
 is angle which the radius vector ⃗r makes with positive Z-axis and is called polar or zenith
angle ; &
 is the angle which the projection (OQ) of radius vector r on XY- plane makes with the positive X-
axis and it is called azimuthal angle.
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

 Relationship between spherical polar and Cartesian co-ordinate:

Let us consider a point P in space having Cartesian co-ordinates (x, y, z ) and spherical co-ordinates
(r, &  ) as shown in figure. From P, draw PQ perpendicular on XY plane meeting xy plane at Q.
From Q draw QR parallel to Y- axis cutting x- axis at R.

From fig. 5a, OR = x , RQ = y , PQ = z

Also, ∠OQP = 90o
Let OP makes an angle  with z- axis and OQ makes an
angle  with x- axis. In rt. angled ΔOQP, we have

OQ/OP = sin  Also, PQ/OP = cos 

 OQ = OP sin  PQ = OP cos
 OQ = r sin  z = r cos 

Also, in rt. angled ΔORQ,

OR/OQ = cos and, RQ/OQ = sin 
 OR = OQ cos   RQ = OQ sin 
 x = r sin θ cos   y = r sin  sin 

Thus, we have x = r sinθcos (a)

y = r sinθsin (b)
z = r cosθ (c)

& Position vector of P in spherical polar coordinates is

→
OP = {⃗r = x {^i +y {^j +z {k^¿ ¿ = (rsinθ cos φ)^i+ (rsinθ sin φ)^j + (rcosθ )k^ ¿ =r(sinθ cos φ^i+ sinθ sin φ^j + cosθ {k^¿) (d) ¿
 Unit vectors in spherical polar coordinates ( êr , ê , ê) :

In spherical polar coordinates, we have three unit vectors ( êr , ê ,ê) which can be defined as
êr - it is the unit vector in the direction of increasing r & is called radial unit vector.
ê - it is the unit vector in the direction of increasing  & is called Zenith unit vector.
& it is perpendicular to êr .
ê - it is the unit vector in the direction of increasing  & is called Azimuthal unit
vector. It is perpendicular to both êr & ê .
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

 Unit vector in spherical polar coordinates & relation with Cartesian Coordinates:-

Let us consider a point P in the spherical polar coordinate system having Cartesian coordinates
(x,y,z) & spherical polar coordinates (r,,). Then,

⃗r
(i) êr (unit vector along r ) = |⃗r|
As, r = r sincos î + r sinsin ĵ + r cos k̂ and
|⃗r |=r
∴ êr= sincos î + sinsin ĵ + cos k̂

(ii) ê = (unit vector along the increasing direction of )

Since, ê is at rt. angle to ê r , so changing  to (+π/2 ) and writing ê for ê r in =n (i), we get
ê = sin(+π/2) cos î + sin( +π/2 ) sin ĵ + cos( +π/2 ) k̂
= (cos cos) î + (cos sin) ĵ – (sin) k̂

(iii) êϕ (unit vector along the increasing direction of ϕ)

From rt. ∠ed ΔOPQ (in fig.), we get that
OQ/OP = sin
 OQ = OP sin or OQ = r sin.
Let OQ= r sin = ρ. Therefore, the unit vector of êϕ will be perpendicular to unit vector of ρ and is in
xy-plane.

Vectorialy, {⃗ρ = ρcos {^i + ρsin {^j = ρ(cos {^i¿ +sin {^j¿) ¿ as {⃗ρ = |⃗ρ {^ρ¿ ¿ {ρ^ =cos {^i¿ +sin {^j¿ ¿
As ê  ρ̂
∴ êϕ = cos (ϕ + /2) î +sin (ϕ +/2) ĵ
= sin ϕ î + cos ϕ ĵ

Note: These coordinates have the following limits:

0≤ r ≤ ∞
0≤ ≤
0 ≤  ≤ 2

Note:
If we multiply êr by sin and ê by cos, we have
sin êr = sin2 cos î + sin2 sin ĵ + sin cos k̂
and cos ê = cos2 cos î + cos2 sin ĵ – sin cos k̂
Adding these two equations, we get
sin êr + cos ê = (sin2 + cos2) cos î + (sin2 + cos2) sin ĵ + 0
or sin êr + cos ê = cos î + sin ĵ [as sin2 + cos2 =1]
= ρ̂
or ρ̂ = sin êr + cos ê
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

Ex. Prove that the spherical polar unit vectors are orthogonal.
Sol. êr . ê = (sincos î + sinsin ĵ + cos k̂ ) .
( (cos cos) î + (cos sin) ĵ – (sin)k̂ )
= sin cos cos2 + sin cos sin2 – sin cos
= sin cos (cos2+ sin2) – sin cos
= sin cos – sin cos
=0
 êr  ê
//ly, we can prove
ê  ê & ê  êr

Ex. Prove that (i) dêr = ê (ii) dêr = sinê

d d

(iii) dê = êr (iv) dê = cos ê

d d

(v) dê = 0 (vi) dê = ρ̂

d d

 Displacement, velocity and acceleration of a particle in sph. Polar coordinates :

Consider a particle in space. Let at any time ‘t’, the particle be at any point P. The position vector of
→

P=
OP= {r = r {^e ¿r ¿

where êr = sincos î + sincos ĵ + cos k̂

a) Displacement:

As r = r êr
Diff. b/s,we have
dr = dr êr + r dêr ----------(1)
since, êr = êr (, )
∂ e^ r ∂ e^
d e^ r = dθ+ r dφ
∂θ ∂φ
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

∂^e r ∂^e r
But =e^ θ & =sinθ e^ φ
∂θ ∂φ dθ+sinθ e^ φ dφ ¿
therefore,
d e^ r = { ^e θ
such that =n (1) becomes
dr = dr êr + r d ê + r sin dϕ êϕ -------(2)
& mag. dr= [(dr)2 + (r d)2 + (r sin dϕ)2 ]½
This is also called line element in sp. Polar coordinate system

b) Velocity: Now,

dd⃗r dr e^r de^r d^er ∂rdθ∂e^rdφ ∂e^r ∂e^r de^r dθ dφ

⃗v= (r.e^r)= {e^ +r ¿ = {e^¿rṙ+r - (∗)¿As = + and =e^θ & =sinθe^φ ¿therfo,¿ ={e^¿θ +sinθe^φ = {e^¿θθ̇+sinθe^φφ̇¿so,=n(∗)cabewritnas¿ {⃗v¿= ṙe^r+r{θ̇¿e^θ+rsinθ{φ̇¿ ^eφ - (3)¿or, {⃗v¿=r+vθ⃗φ¿
dt rdt dt
where
dt ∂θdt ∂φdt ∂θ ∂φ dt dt dt
⃗vr= {ṙe^r isradialcompone tofvelocity ¿⃗vθ= r {θ̇¿e^θ isthezenithcompone tofvelocity ¿⃗vφ= rsinθ{φ̇¿e^φ istheazimuthalcompone tofvelocity¿
c) Acceleration:
we know that

d⃗v d d d d de^r d {ṙ dr dθ̇ de^θ dr dsinθ dφ̇ de^φ de^r de^θ de^φ
⃗a= = (ṙe^r+r{θ̇e^θ+rsinθ{φ̇e^φ)¿ = (ṙe^r)+ (rθ̇e^θ)+ (rsinθ{φ̇¿e^φ)¿ =ṙ +e^r ¿ + θ̇e^θ+r e^θ+rθ̇ + sinθ{φ̇¿e^φ+r φ̇e^φ+rsinθ e^φ+rsinθ{φ̇¿ ¿ =ṙ +^err̈+ṙθ̇e^θ+rθ̈e^θ+rθ̇ +ṙsinθ{φ̇¿^eφ+rcosθθ̇φ̇e^φ +rsinθ{φ̈¿e^φ+rsinθ{φ̇¿ - (4)¿
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

de^r∂dθφ ∂^er de^θ∂dθφ ∂^eθ r de^φ∂dθφ ∂e^φ d^eφ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

() () ()
Now,=+ {^eθ̇sinθφφ̇ ∵=^eθ&sinθφ¿Alo,=+ −e^rθ̇cosθφφ̇∵=−^er&cosθφ¿and =+ −{^ρ¿φ̇ ∵=0& −{^ρ¿or=(sinθer+c{^¿θ)φ̇ (∵ρ=sinθ{^e¿r+coθ)Substingheval=(4),w¿⃗ṙ(^eθθ̇+sinθφφ̇)rr̈θrθ̈−e^rθ̇+cosθφφ̇ṙin{¿rθ̇e^φ +rsinθ{φ̈¿^eφφ̇−( r+cosθ{e^¿θ)φ̇ =r˙θ̇θ+ṙinθe^φr̈rθ̈θ−r{θ̇¿r+cosθφ̇^eφṙinrθ̇φ¿ +rsinθ{φ̈¿e^φ−φ̇rcosθθ=(r̈−r{θ̇¿2inφ̇)^er+2ṙθ̈−rsθcoθ({¿inφ̇+2sθθ̇rφ̈)e^φ¿o{⃗a=r+θφ¿wher,r(r̈−{θ̇¿2sinθφ̇)^er thradilcompne,¿{⃗θ=(2ṙθ̇+rθ̈−sinθcoφ̇)e^θ thznicompead¿{⃗φ¿=(2ṙsinθφ̇+rcoθ̇{φ̈¿)^eφisthazmulcopnefrti¿
dt∂θφ θ ∂θ φ dt∂θφ ∂θ φ dt∂θφ ∂θ φ dt
Ex. Show that êr × ê= êϕ ;

 Area and volume element in sp. Polar coordinates:

ê× êϕ= êr & êϕ× êr = ê

Consider a //piped ABCDEFGH.

we have displacement vector,
dr = dr êr + r d ê + r sin dϕ êϕ
∴ increment vector along êr = dr êr
increment vector along ê = r d ê
increment vector along êϕ = r sin dϕ êϕ
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

r sin dϕ

The value of the area element depends on the side of the volume element considered. We have three
cases:
i) when r is constant but  and ϕ are variables, then we have surface element ABCD,

Area(ABCD) = AB × AD
dA= (r d ê )× (r sin dϕ êϕ)
(dA)r = r2 sin d dϕ êr
∴ Area (dA)r has mag. = r2 sin d dϕ and its dir. is along r.

ii) when  is constant but r and ϕ are variables, then we have surface
element ADEH,
& then (dA) = r sin dr dϕ ê
iii) when ϕ is const.,
Area (ABGH) = (dA)ϕ= r dr d êϕ
Volume element:

dV =(AH × AB). AD
= r2 sin dr d dϕ

 Cylindrical Polar Coordinate System :

In this system, a point ‘P’ is represented by coordinates

( ρ , ϕ, z ) where

(i) ρ is length of projection of radius on XY-plane.

(ii) ϕ is angle between the projection of OP and the X-
axis.
(iii) z is perpendicular distance of ‘P’ from xy-plane.

The cylindrical coordinates represent the

coordinate of a point on the surface of a cylinder. Both ρ
& z can vary between 0 to 2.
 Relationship between cylindrical coordinates and
Cartesian co-ordinates :
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

Consider a point P in space having Cartesian Coordinates (x,y,z) & cylindrical polar coordinates (ρ,ϕ,
z). From P draw perpendicular on xy-plane.
Then PQ = z & OQ = ρ
Draw a line QR parallel to y-axis meeting x-axis in
B. Then ORQ = 900
Then from rt. ed ∆ ORQ,
OR/OQ = cos ϕ OR = OQ cos ϕ
 x = ρ cos ϕ
Also, RQ/OQ = sinϕ  RQ = OQ sin ϕ
 y = ρ sin ϕ
and z = PQ = z
Therefore, position vector of P is
OP = r = xî + yĵ + zk̂
= ρ cos ϕ î + ρ sin ϕ ĵ + z k̂

 Unit vectors :

In cylindrical polar coordinate, we have three unit vectors êρ , êϕ , êz where,
êρ is the unit vector in the direction of increasing ρ.
êϕ is the unit vector in the direction of increasing ϕ & is perpendicular to êρ , êz ,
êz is the unit vector along +ve Z axis & is perpendicular to êρ and êϕ

Unit vector of êρ :

Now, acc. to Δ law of vectors addition
OQ = OR + RQ = ρcosϕ î + ρsinϕ ĵ
=> ρ = ρ cosϕ î + ρ sinϕ ĵ but ρ = ρêρ

therefore, êρ = ρ / ρ = cosϕ î +sin ϕ ĵ (i)

Unit vector of êϕ :

since êϕ  êρ , hence changing ϕ to ( ϕ + /2)
and writing êϕ for êρ , in eqn. (i), we get
êϕ= cos (ϕ + /2 ) î + sin (ϕ + /2 ) ĵ
= -sin ϕ î + cos ϕĵ

Unit vector of êz :

since unit vector êz is drawn in the direction of increasing z i.e. parallel to z axis.
êz = k̂

 Displacement, velocity & acceleration in cylindrical coordinates :

Displacement :
Since position vector in cylindrical coordinates is given by
r = (ρ cosϕ) î + (ρ sinϕ) ĵ + zk̂
= ρ (cosϕ î + sinϕ ĵ) + zk̂
= ρ êρ + z êz … (i)
dr = dρ êρ + ρd êρ + dz êz + z dêz
êρ = cosϕ î + sinϕ ĵ
dêρ = -sinϕ dϕ î + cosϕ dϕ ĵ and dêz = d k̂ = 0
= dϕ ( -sinϕ î + cosϕ ĵ )
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

= dϕ êϕ
Therefore, dr = dρ êρ + ρdϕ êϕ + dz êz …(ii)
And magnitude of displacement is ---
ІdrІ = [(dρ)2 + (ρd ϕ)2 + (dz)2]½

Velocity:

d⃗r d ρd ^ ^dφ ^ zdk d e

^ d e
^
⃗v= (ρe^ρ+z{) from(i)¿ ={ρ̇e^ρ+ρ()ż¿zze^Now,=(csφi+nj)¿ =-sinφ+coj¿ =(-sinφφ̇+coj)¿ ={e^φφ̇ …(a)¿Also,= 0¿ Therfo,{⃗v¿=ρ̇^ρ+ρeφφ̇{ż¿z .(i)¿ ={⃗v¿ρ+φ z …(iv)¿wher,{⃗ρ=ρ̇^ radilcompnet.¿ {⃗vφ=ρφ̇e^tangil/rsvecompnt.¿&{⃗vz=że^ axilcompnt.¿
dt z dt dt dt dt
Acceleration:

d⃗v d d d ρ d ^ ^dφ ^ φ d ^ ^dφ ^ zdk 2 d e

^ d e
^ d e
^
⃗a= (ρ̇e^ρ+ρφ̇φ {że^z) from(i)¿ ={ρ̈¿^eρ+ρ̇ (^ρ)+{ρ̇¿φ̇eφρφ̈^+φ̇eφ{z̈¿^z+ż ez¿Now, =(cosφi+nj)=-siθ +cosj =(-inφφ̇+cosj)={e^¿φφ̇Also, =(-sinφ+coj)=-sφi nj =(-cosφiφ̇ nj)=-{e^¿ρφ̇ and = 0¿Therfo,{⃗a¿=ρ̈e^ρ+{ρ̇¿ φφ̇+{ρ̇¿e^φρφ̈−φ̇^eρ+{z̈¿z or .⃗a=(ρ̈-ρφ̇)e^ρ+(2{ρ̇¿φ̇ρφ̈)e^φ+{z̈¿z .(v)¿ ={⃗a¿ρ+ φ{⃗a¿z …(vi)¿
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

2
wher , {⃗aρ = (ρ̈- ρφ̇ )e^ρ =radialcompone t.¿ {⃗a¿φ= (2 {ρ̇¿φ̇+ρφ̈)^eφ =tangential/transversecompone t.¿ & {⃗a¿z = {z̈¿e^z =axialcompone t.¿
 Area & volume element:
(a) Area:
Since displacement dr = dρ ê ρ + ρdϕ êϕ + dz êz on the surface of cylinder ρ is constant, therefore,
dρ = 0
Therefore, dr = ρdϕ êϕ + dz êz
The components ρdϕ êϕ & dz êz are mutually  to each other. Thus the area of cylindrical surface is
dA = ρdϕ êϕ × dz êz
= ρdϕ dz(êϕ × êz)
= ρdϕ dz êρ

(b) Volume element:

Since displacement
dr = d ρêρ + ρdϕ êϕ+ dz êz, thus the vector defining the volume element are
dρêρ , ρdϕ êϕ & dz êz.
Therefore, volume element in Cylindrical Polar Coordinate system is
dV = (dρêρ × ρdϕ êϕ) . dz êz.
= ρ dρ dϕ dz(êρ × êϕ). êz
= ρ dρ dϕ dz

Ex. Show that cylindrical polar unit vectors are orthogonal.

Ex. Prove that êϕ × êz = êρ
êz × êρ = êϕ
êρ × êϕ = êz

Frames of Reference:
A system (coordinate system) relative to which the position or motion of any object in space is
described is called a frame of reference. As the motion of the objects on the surface of the earth is
described relative to some point on it, earth itself is a frame of reference. A rectangular Cartesian
coordinate system may serve as an ideal example of frame of reference.
A frame of reference can measure the position as well as time coordinates of a point in space (x, y, z )
whereas a coordinate system measure only position coordinate (x, y, z).Thus, a coordinate system
together with a clock (time measuring device) fixed in it is called a frame of reference. We have two
types of frame of reference:-
1) Inertial Frame
2) Non Inertial Frame.
 Inertial Frame of reference:- A frame of reference is said to be inertial if it is either at rest or
moving with uniform velocity. In practice, an inertial frame of reference is that in which the law of
inertia holds. In such a frame, an object at rest remains at rest & an object in motion continue to move
at constant velocity if no force acts on it, i.e. Newton’s first law is strictly valid in this frame.
Thus, a coordinate system in which Newton’s laws of motion are valid is called an inertial frame of
reference and any other reference frame either at rest or moving along a linear path with uniform
velocity relative to the inertial frame is itself inertial.
An inertial frame is an unaccelerated frame and is also known as Newtonian or Galilean
reference frame.
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

 Non Inertial Frame:- A frame of reference which is accelerated is called a non – inertial frame of
reference. All the accelerated frames and rotating frames of reference are non inertial frames. In such
frames of reference, the Newton’s first law of motion (law of inertia) does not hold good.
Example: When a vehicle suddenly comes into motion, the passengers in it get push backwards &
when moving vehicle is stopped, passengers pushed forward even though no force is applied on them.

Q. Is earth an inertial frame?

Ans. Our earth is a non inertial frame as the earth rotates about its own axis and also around the sun
and hence posses acceleration. Any frame of reference attached to the surface of the earth is
accelerated frame and therefore cannot be an inertial frame. However, the acceleration of the earth due
to its rotation is very small (6 × 10 -3 m/s2) as compared to the acceleration due to gravity (9.8m s -2).
Hence, for all practical purpose, we may consider the (earth) laboratory frame of reference as an
inertial frame.

 Fictitious Forces in Non inertial Frames:

As non inertial frames are accelerated, bodies lying at rest in a non inertial frame experiences some
sort of force which is not a real force but is a fictitious force. A force which appears in the non inertial
frame but is zero when in inertial frame is called fictitious force.
Thus, a force which appears to act on a particle due to the acceleration of frame of reference is called
a Fictitious force or Apparent force or Pseudo force. The direction of the fictitious force is always
opposite to that of the real force.
As acceleration can be linear or angular, therefore, the fictitious force appears both in translational
and rotational non inertial frames.

(a) Fictitious force in non inertial frame with translatory motion:

Consider a non inertial frame of reference ‘Sʹ’ having origin ‘O’ moving with acc. a w.r.t. a fixed
frame ‘S’ with origin O. Let at time t = 0, the origin of both S and S ’ coincide. Let us consider frame Sʹ
starts from origin, then the displacement OOʹ = ½ a t2.
Consider a particle P moving in space. Let r & r ʹ be the position vectors of the particle at time t in
frames S & Sʹ resp. as shown in fig. a

In ΔOOʹP , we have OP = OOʹ + OʹP

r = ½ a t2 + rʹ
Differentiate both side with respect to time t, we get
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

Again differentiate,

If m is the mass of particle, then

As frame S is inertial and particle P is isolated, then no real force act on it, Fs = 0
Therefore, Fsʹ = -F (Fictitious force)
In a frame Sʹ, the particle P will appear to experience a force -F though no force is acting on it in frame
S.

Example: The force which appears to act on a body which is situated in an accelerating or
decelerating train is an example of translatory fictitious force.

(b) Fictitious force in non inertial Frame with rotatory motion:-

Consider two frames S(x,y,z) and R(xʹ,yʹ,zʹ) where frame S is fixed and R is rotating w.r.t. S with a
constant angular velocity ω. Let the origins O of both the frames coincide. Let at any instant t, the
particle P having position coordinates (x,y,z) & (xʹ, yʹ,zʹ) in the frames ‘S’ & ‘R’ resp. Then position
vectors of P in frame S is
OP = r = x î + y ĵ + z k̂ ..... ( 1.a)
And in frame R is
r = xʹ î ʹ + yʹ ĵ ʹ + zʹ k̂ʹ ..... (1.b)
where î , ĵ & k̂ are fixed unit vectors but as the frame R is rotating unit vectors î ʹ, ĵ ʹ & k̂ʹ continuously
changing

' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
dr d ^ ^ ^ dx ^ dy ^ dz ^ d^i d^j dk^ dx ^ dy ^ dz ^ d⃗r
() ( ) ( )
dt S dt
'' ' '

'
' '
= (x i + { y j + { z k ) ¿ = { i ¿ ' + { j¿ ' + k + x + { y¿ ' + { z¿ ' ¿
dt dt dt dt dt dt
' '
' ' '
()
¿now, {i¿ + {j¿ + k = repres nt hevel. oftheparticlePw.r t. movingframeR.¿
dt dt dt dt R
d ^i d ^j d k^
(
{⃗vs = {⃗v ¿ R + x '
dt
+ { y¿¿' + {z¿¿' ¿
dt dt ) ..... (2)

Also, we know that

B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

d⃗r
{⃗v = {⃗ω×⃗r ¿⇒ =⃗ω×⃗r (3)¿¿
dt
so, we get
d ^i ' ' d ^j' '
=⃗ω ×^i ⃗ × ^j
=ω
dt , dt ,
d k^ '
=⃗ω ×k^ '
dt
Therefore, from (2) we have
vs = vR + [ xʹ ( ω × îʹ ) + yʹ ( ω × ĵ ) + zʹ ( ω × k̂ʹ )]
= vR + ω × ( x ʹîʹ + yʹ ĵʹ + z ʹk̂ʹ )
= vR + ( ω × r ) (4)
d ⃗r d ⃗r
⇒ ( ) ( )
dt S
=
dt R
+( ω
⃗ ×⃗r ) (5)

And this equation (5) holds good for all the vectors. So replacing r by vs in =n (5), we have
d ⃗v S d ⃗v S
( ) ( )
dt S dt R (
+ω⃗ ×⃗v S )
= (6 )

Putting the value of vs on R.H.S. from =n (4) we have,

d(⃗vR+ω×⃗r) d⃗vR d(ω⃗×r) d⃗r ω dω⃗

or
or,
( ) () [ ]
{⃗aS= +[ω⃗×(vR+ω×⃗r)] ¿ = + +[ω⃗×vR]+ω⃗×( ⃗r)¿ {⃗aS={⃗a¿R+ω× + ×⃗r+[ω×⃗vR]+ω×( ⃗r)¿ifthemoinswithunformangulrveocity,henagulracelrtion =0¿∴ {⃗a¿S={⃗a¿R+[ω×⃗vR]+ω×⃗vR+ω×( ⃗r)¿o {⃗a¿S={⃗a¿R+2[ω⃗×vR]+ω⃗×( ⃗r)¿o, {⃗a¿R={⃗a¿S−2[ω⃗×vR]−ω⃗×( ⃗r)¿
dt R dt R dt R dt dt dt
m {⃗a R= m {⃗a ¿S −2m [ ω
Fʹ = F + F0
⃗ ×⃗v R ]−m ω
⃗ ×( ω
⃗ ×⃗r )¿

where, Fʹ = m aR is the effective force in rotating frame i.e. force on ‘p’ as observed
by an observer in Sʹ.
F = m as is the true or real force independent of the angular velocity of the
rotating frame.
F0 = - 2m ( ω× vR) – m ω×( ω × r )
= Fcor + Fcent is the fictitious force.
Hence, the particle in rotating frame experience a fictitious force which consist of
Coriolis force, Fcor = - 2 m (ω x vR) which is due to ω & vR & appear only when the particle is in
motion in rotating frame ;
& Centrifugal force, Fcent = - m ω × (ω x r ) which arise due to angular velocity ω & appear only if
the system is rotating.
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

Coriolis & Centrifugal forces:

Coriolis force:
Coriolis force is the fictitious force which acts on a particle P in motion relative to a rotating frame of
reference & is given by
Fcor = - 2 m (ω x vR)
As seen from here that Fcor is proportional to ω & vR
If vR =0 or ω = 0 i.e. if the particle is at rest relative to rotating frame
Fcor = 0
Direction of Coriolis force is always  to ω & vR
& its magnitude is
Fcor = - 2 m ω vR sin 
where  is the angle between the dir. of ω & vR.
If  = 0,
 Fcor = 0
If  = /2
 Fcor = - 2 m ω vR = maximum.

Centrifugal force:
It is the fictitious force which acts on a particle P at rest relative to a rotating frame of reference & is
given by
Fcent = - m ω × ( ω × r )
Numerically, Fcent = - m ω2 r
which is equal to centripetal force but in opp. direction. The effect of centrifugal Force, due to rotation
of the earth, is to reduce the effect of g on its surface & also to slightly change its direction from the
truly vertical towards north and the south respectively in two hemispheres.

Centrifugal and Coriolis force due to rotation of earth :

We know that is rotating about its own axis from west to east. Therefore, a coordinate system fixed on
it is also rotating w.r.t. a fixed frame. Thus, a particle moving on earth will be acted upon by three
forces:
1. Real or Inertial force
2. Centrifugal force
3. Coriolis force

Effect of Centrifugal force due to the rotation of earth:

The earth rotates about its axis with angular velocity ω from west to east. Let us consider the earth is
rotating about Z- axis in anti-clockwise direction. A particle P of mass ‘m’ on the surface of the earth
will also rotate with angular velocity ω about Z- axis in a circle of radius PC= r Cos λ. The angular
velocity of the earth is given by
ω = ωk̂ …..(i)
and suppose the particle is in xy- plane then the position vector of the particle is given by
r= (r cos λ )ĵ + (r sin λ ) k̂ …..(ii)
and therefore the unit vector êr along r is given by

êr = r = r(cos λ ĵ + sin λ k̂)

r r

= cos λ ĵ + sin λ k̂ ....(iii)

B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

Now forces acting on the mass m at P are

o Force of gravitation (mg) along PO
o Centrifugal force due to the rotation of the earth along PD
As a result of rotation of the earth, centrifugal force acting on the
particle is ---
Fcent = - m ω × ( ω × r )

Or m acent = - m ω × (ω × r )

m acent = - m ω k̂ × [ω k̂ × (r cos λ ĵ + r sin λ k̂ )] Fig.c

{using (i) & (ii)}
= - m ω2 r k̂ × [ cos λ(k̂ × ĵ) + sin λ (k̂ × k̂ )]
= - mω2rk̂ × [ cos λ(-î ) +0]
= mω2r cos λ ĵ
so, Fcent = m acent = mω2r cos λ ĵ …..(iv)
This is pointing outward parallel to y-axis
Besides the centrifugal acc., acent = ω2r cos λ ĵ, the particle will experience acceleration due to gravity g
which is along the direction from P to O
The force of gravity at point P is given by
m g = mg (position vector along PO)
= mg (-êr)
= - mg (cos λ ĵ + sin λ k̂) …..(v)
so, The effective Force (or resultant weight of) on the particle of mass m at P is acting along POʹ as
shown in fig. d and is given as
mgeff = mg + Fcent
= - mg (cos λ ĵ + sin λ k̂) + mω2r cos λ ĵ {using (iv) & (v)}
geff = - (g cos λ - ω r cos λ) ĵ - g sin λ k̂
2

& the magnitude of geff will be

geff = [(g cos λ - ω2r cos λ)2 + (g sin λ)2] ½

= g [cos2 λ + ω4r2 cos2 λ - 2ω2r cos2 λ + sin2 λ] ½

g2 g

Since ω2r << 1, so the term containing ω4 can be neglected and

g
as cos2 λ + sin2 λ= 1
so, geff = g 1- 2ω2r cos2 λ ½
g

Using Binomial theorem and neglecting the terms containing higher powers of ω2, we get

geff = g 1 – 1 2ω2r cos2 λ

2 g

or geff = g – r ω2 cos2 λ
B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I

(Thus value of g decreases with rotation of earth and this mgeff will be along PO′ as shown in fig. d)

Special cases
(i) At the equator, λ = 0
geff = g – r ω2
(ii) At poles, λ = 90o
geff = g
Thus, the acceleration due to gravity at the poles is greater than its value
at the equator.

Fig.c
Effect of Coriolis force on freely falling body:
Let us consider a body of mass m be allowed to fall vertically downwards from a point P which is at a
height h above the ground. Choose the axes as shown in fig. with origin O, x-axis towards east, y-axis
towards north & z-axis along the vertical. The angular velocity ω lies
in yz plane & is given by
ω = ω cos λ ĵ + ω sin λ k̂ …(i)

The body is falling vertically downwards i.e. along (- k̂) direction and
the coordinates of the freely falling body are

x = 0, y=0 & z = h-½ gt2 [as s= ut+ ½ at2]

 ẋ = 0, ẏ = 0 & ż = - gt
Since vR = ( xî + yĵ + zk̂ ) = 0 + 0 - gt k̂

= - gt k̂ …(ii)

Now, Fcor= -2m (ω × vR)

= -2m (ω cos λ ĵ + ω sin λ k̂) × (- gt k̂)
= 2m ω gt cosλ î …. (iii)
, acor = 2ω gt cosλ î …..(iv)
and it is acting along x-axis only
therefore, d2x = ẍ = 2 ω g t cosλ
dt2
Integrating this =n, we have
ẋ = ω gt2 cosλ + C1
Now when t = 0, u = ẋ = 0
 C1 = 0
and  ẋ = ω gt2 cosλ ….(v)
Again integrating this =n, we get
x = ω g t3 cosλ + C2
3
Since at t=0, so C2 =0
 x = ω g t3 cos λ ….(vi)
3
When the particle reaches the surface of the earth
z=0
h - ½ gt2 = 0
½ gt2 = h
 B.Sc. P- I Paper-A Mechanics- I
½
t = 2h
g

Substituting this in =n (vi)

x = 1 ωg (2h/g) 3/2 cos λ
3
x= 1 ω (8 h3/g)½ Cosλ ….(vii)
3
 x = h3/2 ….(viii)
This is also known as Ferel’s Law
and this =n (vii) shows that a body falling freely vertically uder the fffect of gravity is acted upon by
Coriolis Force and due to this force it gets deflected towards x-direction (i.e. towards east) by an
amount x.
Special cases:
(i) Suppose the body falls from the height ‘h’ at the equator, then λ = 0
 =n (vii) becomes x= 1 ω (8 h3/g)½
3
(ii) Suppose the body falls from the height ‘h’ at the pole, then λ = 900
 =n (vii) becomes x= 0
In this case, the body will fall exactly below the point of release.

Geographical Effect of Coriolis force:

The Coriolis force has deflecting effect on the motion of bodies such as point masses, fluids like water
and winds etc. Some of such phenomena are described in brief as below:

(i) Deflection of rivers: As the horizontal component of acc. due to the coriolis force deflects the
particle moving in the northern hemisphere always towards right the water of the rivers flowing from
north to south or south to north experiences a coriolis force towards right and as a result, the right
bank of the river is eroded more rapidly and is steeper than the left bank.

(ii) Warm Gulf Streams: The Coriolis force also has the deflecting effect on the streams flowing in the
ocean. Thus, the warm gulf streams flowing in the ocean are deflected by the coriolis forces towards
east which makes the climate of Europe warmer.

(iii) Formation of cyclones: Whenever a low pressure region is formed in the atmosphere at any place in
the northern hemisphere, the winds start rushing to this region from all directions. High speed wind
everywhere gets deflected towards right & as a result, a cyclone is set up rotating in the
anticlockwise direction. The deflection of wind in the Southern Hemisphere due to Coriolis force is
towards left and hence a cyclone is set up in the clockwise direction. Since at the equator, horizontal
component of Fcor= 0, no cyclones are set up at the equator

(iv) Direction of trade winds: Temperature at the equator is much higher than at the poles & so air
particle near the equator gets heated up and hence the hot air rises up. The cooler air from the north
or south rushes towards the equator. The winds start blowing from north to south in the northern
hemisphere trade winds and these get deflected towards west due to Coriolis force. This gives rise to
north-west trade winds. Similarly in the southern hemisphere, we have south-east trade winds.

(v) Long range Missiles: Since a long range missile has a quite large speed & possesses quite a long
flight so the Coriolis force produces a significant deviation in its path. Hence the effect of the
Coriolis force is taken into account in calculating the direction of the target.