Junior Teach Yourself Books

EDITED BY LEONARD CUTTS

RADIO
FOR BOYS
Junior Teach Yourself Books

MODELMAKING FOR BOYS

RIDING FOR BOYS AND GIRLS
COOKERY FOR GIRLS
BRITISH RAILWAYS FOR BOYS
STAMP COLLECTING FOR BOYS AND GIRLS
NEEDLEWORK FOR GIRLS
DOGS AS PETS FOR BOYS AND GIRLS
PHOTOGRAPHY FOR BOYS AND GIRLS
WOODWORK FOR BOYS
RADIO FOR BOYS
SOCCER FOR BOYS
KNITTING FOR GIRLS
CAMPING FOR BOYS AND GIRLS
SAILING AND SMALL BOATS FOR BOYS AND GIRLS
BALLET FOR BOYS AND GIRLS
MODEL RAILWAYS FOR BOYS
A Junior Teach Yourself Book

RADIO
FOR BOYS
BY

EDWIN N. BRADLEY
A.I.P.R.E.

ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES PRESS LIMITED

ST. PAUL'S HOUSE, WARWICK SQUARE, LONDON, E.C.4
 First Printed . 1951

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

PRINTED IN ENGLAND
FOR THE ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES PRESS LTD.
BY ELLIOTT BROS. AND YEOMAN LTD., LIVERPOOL
AND BOUND BY C. TINLING AND CO., LTD., LIVERPOOL, LONDON AND PRESCOT
 Contents
Page

WHY RADIO? 7
WHERE Do WE Go FROM HERE: Magazines; Radio Clubs;
Electricity; Resistors; The Resistor Colour Code; Induction;
Frequencies; Capacitance; Tuning; Valves; Tools and
Soldering

CHAPTER I 26
A CRYSTAL SET: Things to Try; How the Crystal Set Works

CHAPTER II 34
A ONE -VALVE BATTERY RECEIVER: Reaction; Building the
Receiver; Fitting the Fuse; Finishing and Testing the Set
CHAPTER III 47
A TWO -VALVE BATTERY RECEIVER: Constructing the Two -
Valve Receiver

CHAPTER IV 53
A THREE -VALVE BATTERY RECEIVER: Constructing the Three -
Valve Receiver

CHAPTER V 6o
A FOUR -VALVE BATTERY RECEIVER: Constructing the Four -
Valve Receiver

CHAPTER VI 65
FOUR -VALVE BATTERY SUPERHET: Constructing the Superhet;
Aligning the Superhet

CHAPTER VII 76
AN A.C. MAINS SUPERHET: Constructing the A.C. Mains
Superhet

CHAPTER VIII 90
CABINETS
I
 Why Radio?
66 T was about half -past twelve when I heard three little clicks in the ear-
phones. Several times they sounded, but I hardly dared believe. Can you
hear anything, Mr. Kemp? I asked, handing the receivers to my assistant.
Of course (he told me) ; the letter S in Morse. And then I knew that I was
right. Electric waves were being sent out from Poldhu and were spreading over
the Atlantic, serenely ignoring the curvature of the earth, which so many
doubters had told me would be a fatal obstacle. And in those moments I knew
that the day was not far off when I would be able to send full messages, with-
out wires, across continents and oceans."
That experiment of Marconi's, described in his own words, was not the first
wireless transmission but on that day, December i 2th, 1901, when he heard in
Newfoundland the signals which were being transmitted from Cornwall, a
new chapter of history commenced.
Today even the beginner in radio knows more than Marconi knew at that
time-he knows, for example, that wireless waves travel round the earth's
curvature by bouncing or reflecting from an electrified layer of air high up in
the atmosphere and the surface of the earth itself, whilst on any ordinary radio
receiver with short wave tuning, signals from America and even further afield
can be heard at almost any time of the day or night. The beginner is used to the
idea of television and knows that television in natural colours is somewhere on
the way, and he knows something, too, of radar and of radio navigation which
can guide ships and aircraft through fog and cloud.
But those of us who have chosen radio for a hobby know something even more
important than all these remarkable inventions-we know that there is still a
good deal to learn, and still more remarkable inventions to be made, and to
judge from the past it might well be the amateur and the home constructor
who helps to make them.
Just as you have to get wet before you can learn to swim so, in radio, you have
to learn one or two things before you can start building sets, and that is why this
Introduction is written in three parts. This, the first part, is very short; its
chief job is to tell you that if you are thinking of making radio your hobby you
have had a very good idea indeed. In fact wireless is more than a hobby for
after a while it turns into a sort of lifelong friend, and might easily become your
job, as it has for thousands of us.
The second tells you just a little about electricity and the parts you will be
using in your receivers. If you want to, you can forget Part II for a while and
after reading Part III you can start building the Crystal Set shown in Chapter I
straight away; as soon as you want to know what is happening in the capacitors
and coils and wires you can come back to Part II to find out.
7
8 Radio .for Boys
Part III gives a list of tools required and some hints on construction. Chapters,
I to VII show you how to make a selection of sets and take you, step by step,
through the whole business of construction.

WHERE Do WE GO FROM HERE?

After getting wet and learning to swim, the wise man starts to specialise. He
develops one stroke, he learns to dive and probably develops one particular
dive, too; perhaps he goes on to make life-saving his chief interest, and so on.
Nevertheless, the person who is satisfied when he can plop in off the second
board and do a length without too much splashing has a lot of fun too, and
it is much the same in radio. The receivers described are of the "broadcast"
type-they receive the medium and long wave bands and, in the last two
circuits, the general short wave band too, and many home constructors are
very happy to go on building this sort of receiver, learning more and more
about them, and finding their own pet circuits. Others begin to specialise.
Some work for their "ham" transmitting licences (you cannot transmit with-
out passing a written exam. on transmitter and receiver theory and a practical
test in Morse transmission and reception), and others, like myself; spread our
interests far and wide over the whole great range of radio, until we find pleasure
in any apparatus that uses a valve or what is called an "electronic" circuit.
Others again concentrate on the fascinating study of television, not only build-
ing, but designing, their own receivers and, in some cases, their own transmitters
as well, even running little television shows with their friends as actors and artistes.
And-this is the point-practically every one of them started where you are
starting as you read this; with the construction of simple broadcast receivers.
There is always something new in radio, always another step to take and another
valuable fact to learn, and that, for most of us, is its real and deepest charm. I
have never yet found a "radioman" who has grown old and stale.
Before you start specialising after you have successfully built some or perhaps
all of the receivers shown in this book, there is something else to learn, with
yourself as the teacher. This next step is to work and construct from circuit
diagrams only, without guidance from chassis drilling diagrams and under -
chassis views. At first this may seem difficult but, like other things, it is a knack
which comes with practice; in this case a "feeling" or sense of layout. You will
notice in the receivers you build that the signal is carried from the aerial to the
loudspeaker or headphones in a series of stages, step by step, and that these steps
are actually built one after the other on the chassis. In each stage the parts or
components are kept neatly together, the wiring as short as possible, and the
signal is taken both to and from the stage by the most direct routes. If you
become interested in short wave working and eventually build very short wave
receivers, or television sets, you will find that layout and arrangement of the
components is then one of the most important points in the whole receiver.
A stray inch of wire, or a misplaced component, can cause serious trouble
 Why Radio? 9
in a televisor which is, as a result, a most interesting challenge to its designer.
Wireless receivers work properly only when they are built properly, and there
is no room in them for carelessness. I remember a visit I once paid to the work-
shop of a well-known designer who showed me a little broadcast receiver built
by one of his readers. Despite the fact that the set had been constructed from
carefully prepared blueprints it looked nothing at all like the designer's own
original set which stood next to it-capacitors and wires were draped about it
everywhere, even round the frame of the loudspeaker, and quite naturally all
it produced were howlings and screechings. It was, as we say, full of "feedback,"
because the signals, instead of being taken directly from stage to stage were
being lead about anyhow. The person who built it was highly indignant, of
course, and blamed the poor designer, quite ignoring the fact that the designer's
correctly built original worked beautifully.
Always follow the design when it is supplied, for that is the first step towards
learning to make your own layouts.
Remember, too, that you are dealing with delicate gear and handle your
parts with care. Bare wires badly placed, or impatiently made connections to
batteries can cause serious damage to valves, but there is no need to feel worried
about this, or to think that there is anything really difficult in building a good
receiver. It is simply a case of realising that carelessness brings its own rewards-
unpleasant ones-and so working carefully and unhurriedly.
When you can make your own layouts, take the next step and design your
own receiver. A simple one, at first, with, perhaps, only one or two valves.
Choose your own valves, your own component values, and make up your own
circuit. You will realise, of course, that you will not reach this stage without
studying your subject, but here again radio can be far more interesting and,
indeed, exciting, than many other hobbies. Not only are there dozens of good
books to dip into but as soon as you have managed to collect a spare valve or
two, and some odd components, you can experiment and prove what you have
read. As an example there are a tremendous number of experiments to carry out
on the subject of oscillators alone (we shall be describing an oscillator later on)
with no more gear than a valve, one or two capacitors and resistors, and a coil
or two which you could wind yourself, with perhaps a cheap voltmeter or
milliameter as an indicator.
So far as meters and many components are concerned you could not be
starting in radio at a better time, for there is still a great amount of "war surplus"
material on the market. You will not use any of this when building the receivers
in Part III but when you commence experimenting on your own account you
will soon find some very useful bargains.

MAGAZINES
In radio the amateur can be as far advanced in technical knowledge and skill
as the professional, and so there are several magazines which cater for radiomen
 o Radio for Boys
of all types. A complete list of them here would not be very helpful for the
majority would be much too advanced for you. You would do well to start,
though, by reading Practical Wireless which month by month gives many
circuits of all kinds, some of which you could build and others of which might
give you ideas for experiments. There are many articles, too, to help on your
knowledge of component operation, testing and repairing, measuring instru-
ments and several other subjects which cannot even be mentioned in this book.
If you feel interested in television Practical Television will start you off on
TV. circuits with, once again, articles which explain how the television signal is
built up, how pictures are received and so on.
You could also try a little magazine called The Radio Constructor which is
published each month.
You will not understand everything you read in these magazines all at once,
but if you keep on patiently reading and fitting your bits of knowledge together
you will be surprised at how fast you learn, and the number of ideas which come
to you. I started by reading Practical Wireless myself; understanding about
one word in five at first, but when I was fourteen I made two quite interesting
inventions both connected with impressing sound on wireless waves. Two or
three days later, after more reading, I discovered that both my inventions had
been made long before and, worse still, that neither system was much use and
so had gone out of fashion, but at least I had been using my mind!
American magazines also deserve some mention, though at present you will
not find them easy to come by, and they are rather expensive. They are ex-
tremely practical, however, and much bigger than our own. The best known are
Radio -Electronics and Radio and Television News with Q.S.T. for those who are
aiming at a transmitting license.

RADIO CLUBS
Another grand way of learning more and sharing your experience with others
is to join a radio club. Perhaps you have one at School-if not, why not start
one? It could be quite small at first, but if it was well run and did good work
you might be able to obtain permission to meet at the School-in the laboratory,
for example-and you might find a master or two who would be interested and
give talks and demonstrations.
To run such a club properly you should have an inaugural meeting to elect
officers-at first a Chairman or President would be sufficient but later on a
Secretary and a Committee could also be elected. Once you were established
you could begin to branch out and to arrange visits to manufacturers and,
possibly, radio stations, though you will generally need a "sponsor"-a grown-
up-to make these arrangements.
Those of you who are Scouts might ask your Scouters about Scout Troop
transmitting licences, which permit a Troop to have a system of "walky-talky"
transmitter -receivers. There are, of course, many requirements to fill, as for any
 Why Radio? II

other transmitting licence, but if you are interested these should be no more
than a spur to encourage you on.
We started with Marconi and have reached Scouting so perhaps we might
finish with a mixture of the two. My own Troop (unofficially we call ourselves
the "First and Last" since the Land's End is only two miles from our H.Q. and
we are the Troop nearest to it), has a little week -end camp site perched steeply
over a wooded valley on the Cornish coast where Marconi often visited and
walked, and we swim in the bay where his yacht "Elettra" often anchored.
There's no getting away from radio!
PART II
ELECTRICITY
ALTHOUGH we still have a great deal to learn about electricity we are
now fairly certain that an electric current is made up of electrons-tiny
negative particles. All atoms contain electrons rotating like planets
round a core, and when a voltage is set up across the ends of a conductor, such
as silver or copper wire, electrons leave their own atoms and jostle along to
other atoms, their places being taken by other electrons in turn. This movement
of electrons is an electric current, and the greater the voltage the more electrons
move along at the same time.
Some materials such as porcelain, cotton, paper and many others do not
allow their electrons to move even though a very high voltage is connected
across them, and these are called insulators. Other materials, like iron and
carbon, only pass a current poorly, and these are said to show resistance. All
conductors show some resistance, but the resistance of good conductors is very low.
The electrical units, volts, are named after the Italian Count Volta whilst the
unit of current, the Ampere, is named after a French scientist. In radio the
ampere, or amp. is too large for most applications and so we deal chiefly with
milliamperes or mAs., for short, which are thousandths of an ampere.
Volts are a measure of the "Electro-Motive-Force" or E.M.F. across a cell or
battery or other supply, or of the "Potential Difference" or P.D. across points
in an electrical circuit.
A voltage can be obtained and a current set flowing in two different ways-
chemically and inductively. A cell or battery sets up a volt-
age chemically-two different materials, generally zinc and
carbon, are surrounded by an "electrolyte" which is a chemi-
cal solution and chemical action sets up a voltage across the
two materials or "electrodes" of the cell. A battery is a col-
lection of cells, joined positive to negative to step up the volt-
1- i Ts
age, and the technical signs for a cell and a battery are shown F I G. 1

in Fig. I. Most cells these days are "dry cells"-the electro-

lyte is made in the form of a paste so that there is no loose liquid in the cell.
 12 Radio for Boys
In ordinary batteries the zinc case is the negative electrode and so when
this is joined by a wire to the carbon or positive electrode electrons flow from the
zinc, round the circuit, and back to the carbon. Electrons are like magnet poles,
and repel each other; you will know that two north poles of magnets try to
push each other apart, but that a north pole is attracted strongly by a south
pole? In a similar way electrons will flow from a negative battery pole and be
attracted towards a positive pole-electron flow is thus from negative to
positive.
This may bother some of you who are learning electricity in school for you
may have been told that current flow is from positive to negative, the exact
opposite. Unfortunately very little was known about electricity when it was
first used, and this old idea of current flow was no more than a guess, and a
wrong one at that. Nevertheless the idea of current flowing from positive to
negative has remained and is still used by many electrical engineers.
Before going on to see how electrical currents are generated by induction it
is necessary to understand the difference between Direct Current and Alter-
nating Current. These are not two different types of electric current, but simply
currents acting in different ways. A direct current-known as D.C.-is current
flowing as it would from a battery, steadily and in one direction. Alternating
Current or A.C. flows first in one direction, then reverses (that is, alternates),
and flows in the other direction. This means, of course, that the voltage signs
at the ends of the circuit change too, the current always flowing from negative
to positive.
The graph of an alternating current is shown in Fig. 2-the same curve also
serves to show an alternating voltage. Note that the current changes are not
abrupt; the current starts at zero, rises to a maximum, falls back to zero then
reverses its direction and again rises to a maximum and so on. A complete
round of operations from zero current to reversal at zero back to zero current
is called a "cycle" and the alternating mains have a "frequency" of 5o cycles
per second or 5o c.p.s.
You will see that two different values for the wave are shown in the diagram,
"Peak" and "R.M.S." values. Since the peak value is only reached for a tiny
fraction of a second in each half -cycle this cannot be taken as the actual voltage
or current and it is found that the "Root Mean Square" value gives a true
indication of the voltage or current as compared with D.C. As you might guess
the term R.M.S. refers to a mathematical method of discovering the voltage and
current values along the wave, but the method is not nearly so important as
one or two simple facts about A.C.-
i. The R.M.S. value of alternating current has the same heating effect in a
conductor as an equal direct current.
2. The R.M.S. value of a wave is always taken for granted unless the peak
value is specially mentioned. When we say 230 volts A.C. mains we mean
23o volts R.M.S.
 Why Radio? 13

3. The peak value of the wave is 1.414 times the R.M.S. value, so that the
peak value of a 23o volts supply is actually 325.22 volts. All the more reason to
avoid electric shocks!

PEAK VALUE

R.M.S. VALUE

ZERO -

R.M.S.VALUE

PEAK VALUE

ONE CYCLE -)1

FIG.2

4. For mathematical and mechanical reasons the shape of the wave in Fig. 2
is called a "sine wave", and these facts refer only to sine waves. There are other
wave shapes of various kinds, but in radio work we are concerned chiefly with
smooth, regular sine waves or very irregular waves such as are produced by a
microphone. These irregular waves are called "speech" or "sound waves," or
"low frequencies," and their shapes are really electrical copies of sound waves
in air.
RESISTORS

Before we reach the method of generating electricity by induction we must

understand the behaviour of D.C. and A.C. in a resistance. A body which
exhibits the property of resistance is called a "resistor" and practically all radio
receivers use a good many resistors of different values. These resistors are made
by depositing a thin film of carbon on an insulating rod, or by mixing a little
carbon with an insulating compound.
Resistance is measured in "ohms" after the Bavarian scientist Ohm who
discovered Ohm's Law. This law states that voltage, current and resistance are
coupled by the simple formulae
V= IxR or I= R
V
or P -
V

where V is the voltage across the resistance R, and I is the current in amperes
flowing through R. Therefore if a steady current is made to flow through a
resistance it causes a voltage to be set up across the ends of the resistor, the
voltage depending on the current and the resistance in ohms. The resistor is
using up power, too, and so tends to get warm.
 4 Radio for Boys
The values of radio resistors vary from a few hundreds to some millions of
ohms. A one million ohms resistance is called a Megohm, and sometimes a one
thousand ohms resistance is called a Kilohm. The symbols for a fixed resistor
and a variable resistor or potentiometer are shown in Fig. 3 and you will often
see similar symbols in circuit diagrams with the numbers and letters showing
the resistance values; for example the symbol with r oK beside it indicates a
o,000 ohms resistance.

FIG. 3.

FIG.4 FIG.5

Variable resistors-the symbol with an arrow touching the zig-zag track-

are used for many purposes and especially as volume controls. They are circular
and have a rotating spindle which moves a contact arm over a carbon track to
make contact at any point required between the ends of the resistor. Suppose,
for example, that a resistor of this type had a D.C. voltage of 10 volts set up
across it. Voltage drops steadily across a resistor, and so by moving the contact
arm we could tap off any voltage or potontial we required between o and 10
volts. This type of resistor is therefore known as a potentiometer.
Resistances in series are added together to discover the final value. Resistances
in parallel follow a rather complicated law which you can find for yourself,
with many other interesting facts, from any good electrical text book-your
local library will probably have several which you could borrow. Resistors in
series and parallel are shown in Figs. 4 and 5.
Radio resistors, besides being rated in their values in ohms, are also rated by
their "wattage"-that is the power which can be used up or "dissipated" in them.
Most of the resistors you will employ will be of the half -watt type. A watt is a
measure of electrical power and wattage is discovered by multiplying the volts
across a circuit by the amperes flowing. If too much current is forced through a
resistor it will overheat and break down, and so a radio designer must choose the
correct power rating of a resistor, as well as the correct resistance.
Resistors, in radio sets, have two chief tasks-to provide correct currents and
voltages for valves, and to pass on signals from one valve to another, or one
stage to another. Tiny varying currents due to radio signals are made to flow
through resistors, so setting up voltages across them, and these varying voltages
 Why Radio ? 75
are then passed on to further sets of valves, resistors, coils and so forth for more
amplification. Remember that if quite a tiny current can be made to flow
through a high resistance it will set up a surprisingly high voltage.

THE RESISTOR COLOUR CODE

Most resistors have their resistance values marked in a code of colours, each
colour having a particular meaning, depending on its placing in the code. In
the diagrams the three most usual methods of marking the resistor are shown.
The resistance value is taken from thc, three colours A.B.C. in that order. D,
not present on all resistors, shows the "tolerance" of the component. Resistors
used in normal radio receivers do not need to be extremely accurate, so for
ordinary work resistors which have values within 20% of the marked value are
quite suitable. For more accurate work the type of resistor is generally specified
in the components list; the next degrees of accuracy are e/0 and 5%. For
measuring instruments and very accurate work I % resistors can be obtained.
In all the receivers to be described 20% resistors may be employed. ,

THE COLOUR CODE.

Colour. Meaning of Colour in Position: -
A B C
Black o o
Brown 1 - 1

Red 2 2 00
Orange 3 3 000
00 00
Yellow , 4 4 0000
Green ''.1 5 - 5 00000
Blue '-' 6 6 000000
Violet 7- 7 Rarely used
Grey 8 8 Rarely used
White 9 9 Rarely used
At position D a Gold band shows a 5% resistor, a Silver band a ro% resistor
and no extra colour at position D shows a normal zo% resistor.
B A D BA AD ABC D

- DIAGRAMS FOR RESISTOR COLOUR CODE -

EXAMPLES
First Diagram.
Brown body (I), Red tip (2), Yellow dot (0000) =120,000 ohms.
 Radio for Boys
Second Diagram.
Orange body (3), Orange carried on over tip (3), Brown centre band (o),
=33o ohms.
Third Diagram.
First band, Brown (I), Second band, Black (o), Third band, Green (00000),
= r,000,000 ohms or r megohm.
Tricky resistors which you will not come across at first are those with Black
as the first or A colour. For example in some war surplus gear there are resistors
coloured as follows (with bands as in the second diagram).
Black body (o), Green tip (5), Black centre band (Ignored), =05- ohms or
5 ohms. This is what this arrangement of colours should mean, but in some
cases these resistors when tested are found to have actual values of 5o ohms.
All being well, however, you should have no trouble at all in being able to
read off the values of the resistors which you will be using.

INDUCTION
When a direct current is passed through a coil of wire wound on an iron
cylinder or "core" the iron becomes magnetised. This effect was studied by
Faraday, from whose experiments finally grew the electric motor, the dynamo,
the telephone and, eventually, radio. Faraday's greatest discovery, after years
of work, was to prove that the reverse is also true-when a magnetic field is
set up in a coil of wire, a voltage appears across the ends of the coil and a current
flows through the coil if its ends are joined to complete an electrical circuit.
This "induced" voltage appears only when the magnetic field is varying in
strength-we say that the lines of magnetic force must "cut" the wires of the
coil. One obvious way of causing this to happen is to rotate a coil in and out
of a steady magnetic field, as in a dynamo.
Now imagine two coils of wire wound on the same core, one beside or on
top of the other. When a current is passed through one coil the core becomes
magnetised and the growth of this magnetic field causes a voltage to appear
across the ends of the second coil. If the first coil is fed with alternating current
the magnetic field will always be varying and so an alter-
nating voltage will appear across the ends of the second
coil. An alternating current will flow through a circuit
connected to the second coil. Two such coils make up a
"transformer," and transformers of different types are used
a great deal in radio receivers.
A voltage is also induced across a single coil of wire when
a current is passed through the coil for the wire is cut by
FIG. 6.
the magnetic field which it is itself producing. The induced
voltage always opposes the original potential across the coil, and so is called a
"Back E.M.F." When a coil is supplied from a source of direct current the
Back E.M.F. appears only when the current is switched on and off for only then
 Why Radio? 17
does the coil's magnetic field vary in strength, but in a coil fed with alternating
current the Back E.M.F. is always present and the coil then acts as a sort of
energy store-current flows in and out of the coil yet no power is used up apart
from the small amount of energy needed to overcome the resistance of the coil.
A coil used in this way can be said to act as a "choke" for it will pass D.C.
easily and yet oppose A.C. Choke -coils, or chokes, are used in several radio
circuits.
In Fig. 6 are the symbols for various types of coils or inductances. On the
left is an air -cored coil; this has the turns wound on an insulating former with a
hollow centre. The next symbol shows an iron -dust -cored coil; in this type the
core is of tiny particles of iron held in a plastic compound. On the right is an
iron cored coil, wound on a former which has inside it a core built up of sheets
of special iron, called laminations.
Inductance is measured in units called Henrys after an American professor
who lived at the time of Faraday and who carried out similar experiments. The
iron -cored coil is a type used in mains receivers as will be described; it would
have an inductance of perhaps i o or 20 Henrys. The air and iron -dust -cored
tuning coils have much smaller inductances, generally measured in micro -
henrys or millionths of a Henry.
Transformer symbols are shown in Fig. 7, that on the left being of a high
frequency transformer and that on the right being the symbol
of a low frequency transformer. As you will see, the only
difference in the symbols is in the core, although in actual
fact the windings themselves would be very dissimilar in the
actual components. Many tuning coils are actually high
frequency transformers, whilst low frequency transformers
are used for such purposes as supplying various voltages
and currents from the mains, and passing sound fre-
quencies from a valve to a loudspeaker.
FIG.7.
It is important to know that the size of the windings on a
transformer control the induced voltage and current. Suppose that the coil to
which energy is supplied --this is called the "primary" coil-has ten times the
number of turns on the coil in which current is to be induced-this is called the
"secondary" coil. If alternating current at, say, i o volts, is fed to the primary, only
volt will be drawn from the secondary, though the secondary current will be
ten times as great as the primary current. If the secondary coil has ten times the
number of turns on the primary, 50 volts across the primary would give too volts
across the secondary, though in this case the secondary current would only be
one -tenth of the primary current. It is easy to see, then, how valuable a trans-
former can be when a source of A.C. is available-the mains transformer
in an A.C. receiver can have a primary to suit the 23o volts mains and secon-
daries which will supply all the different voltages and currents required in
a receiver.
R B -B
r8 Radio for Boys
Remember that transformers do not work on D.C.-the current must be
varying or alternating so that the magnetic field round the primary is also
varying or alternating.
FREQUENCIES
The word "frequency" has already been used a good deal and it will occur
often throughout the rest of the book. We have seen that the A.G. mains have a
frequency of 5o c.p.s. because the current goes through two complete alternations
at that speed-we shall see in Part III that a radio wave induces alternating
currents in an aerial and that these currents have far higher frequencies. The
slowest alternating wave used in Great Britain for broadcasting has a frequency
of 200,000 c.p.s. whilst radar waves have frequencies of o,000,000,000 c.p.s. A
quick glance through the Radio Times will show you that radio stations are listed
by both a frequency and a wavelength. The wavelength is actually the distance,
in space, between complete cycles or oscillations, of the radio wave, and it and
the frequency are connected by a simple formula:-
Wavelength x Frequency. 300,000,000 where wavelength is in metres and
frequency is in cycles per second. For convenience we deal in kilocycles (kcs.
for short), which are thousands of cycles, and megacycles (Mcs. for short), which
are millions of cycles.
The figure of 300,000,000, is actually the speed of light in metres per second
(and it is now slightly incorrect, for recent work has shown that light travels
even faster than we thought!) and from this we see that radio waves also travel
at the speed of light-at least in free space; they slow down when travelling
along wires or cables. Electrons themselves do not travel at these high speeds-
an ordinary electric current, it has been said, travels along a wire at no more
than walking speed, about three miles per hour.
CAPACITANCE
In most radio receivers there are as many condensers as resistors, and these
components play very important parts in the working of all radio gear. Con-
densers or-a better name, capacitors-exhibit capacitance
and consist in one way or another of sets of conductors near
one to the other but insulated. The symbols used for capacitors
are shown in Fig. 8.
Most capacitors have two sets of metal plates interleaved
and separated by waxed paper, mica, porcelain or similar in-
T sulators. Air can also be used as an insulator, and capacitor
F10.8 construction can most easily be seen by studying a variable or
tuning capacitor which you will find in any normal radio receiver.
Since the two sets of plates are insulated it is clear that if a capacitor is con-
nected across a battery a steady current cannot flow. Nevertheless there is a short,
rapid flow of current, fairly high at first but soon falling, then ceasing, as the capa-
 Why Radio? 19
citor "charges up." One set of plates becomes rich in electrons, the other set
becoming correspondingly poor, so that if a capacitor is charged up by being
connected across a battery for a few moments, it can be discharged by connecting
a wire between the two sets of plates. If the battery voltage was sufficiently
high and the capacitance sufficiently large, the discharge will take the form of
a vigorous spark.
If A.C. is fed to a capacitor it will commence to charge on one half -cycle but
will then find the voltage falling and will therefore discharge, endeavouring to
charge up once more on the next half -cycle, and so on. As a result a capacitor
appears to pass current when connected to a source of alternating current,
though in actual fact it is rather like the coil mentioned earlier-no power is
consumed. A capacitor can thus pass alternating and varying waves whilst
"blocking" direct current, and it is used for this purpose in many radio
circuits.
The unit of capacitance is the Farad, after Faraday, but for ordinary pur-
poses this is far too large and we employ millionths and million -millionths of
Farads in radio work. A millionth of a Farad is called a micro -farad (mfd.
for short) and a million -millionth of a Farad is called a pico-farad (pfd. for
short). The Greek symbol ,u is often used to express the "micro" in mfd.
thus, ,ufd.
The symbol mF. would properly mean a milli -farad or thousandth of a Farad,
but since this value of capacitance is hardly ever used it is becoming quite
common to employ the term mF. in component lists to stand for mfd. or iufd.
This symbol is used in the component lists later in this book, where, for example,
8 mF. is read as "eight micro -farads."
Small capacitors are sometimes stamped with their values in decimals of
mfd. two common values being o.opoi and 0.0005 mfd. If you remember that
these are the same as r oo and 500 pfd. you will not go wrong.
All capacitors have a working voltage which must not be exceeded, otherwise
the insulator between the plates might break down and the component become
worthless, besides damaging other parts or valves. New capacitors of good
make should always be used.
Tubular capacitors-the name describes their shape for they are enclosed
within a cardboard tube-have a black ring at one end; this end is generally
connected to the negative side of the circuit. Electrolytic capacitors must always
be connected up with great care, for these have their plates separated by a
chemical solution and thin layers of gas set up by chemical action. If the
capacitor is connected up incorrectly the gas layer is destroyed and the capacitor
passes a heavy current. Since these capacitors are generally employed in circuits
where there are fairly high voltages and currents this might well cause serious
damage. All electrolytic capacitors have their polarity clearly marked, and in
circuit diagrams the positive plate is shown by a hollow bar, the negative plate
by a solid bar, as in the right hand symbol of Fig. 8. Electrolytic capacitors
20 Radio for Boys
must never be used in purely A.C. circuits-there must always be some D.C.
across them to maintain the correct polarity.

TUNING
A radio set is tuned to the frequency of the desired signal by a capacitance
and an inductance. A coil presents a "reactance" to alternating current-
because a Back E.M.F. is set up-and this reactance, which is measured in ohms,
since is it rather like a resistance, increases as the frequency of the A.C. rises. A
capacitor also has a reactance but the reactance of a capacitor to A.C. falls as
the frequency rises. If a coil and a capacitor are connected in parallel, there-
fore, there will be some frequency at which they both have the same reactance
and then the energy stored up in the magnetic field round the coil will combine
most efficiently with the energy stored up in the capacitor. The whole circuit,
which is said to be "resonant" to that particular frequency, will act rather like
a pendulum which can be kept swinging strongly with very light taps at the correct
moment. A current swings back and forth through the tuned circuit of the coil
and capacitor if the circuit is excited at the correct frequency by tiny currents
from, for example, an aerial.
In ordinary receivers the capacitor is made variable so that the tuned circuit
can be adjusted to any required frequency. Generally more than one coil is used,
the correct coil being chosen by a switch, so that for the Light programme on
the Long wave band a large coil is switched in, for the Medium wave band a
smaller coil is employed, and so on, until for the Short waves coils with only a
few turns of wire are needed.
A variable capacitor symbol is shown in Fig. g; it is a
normal capacitor symbol with a sharp -topped arrow through
it. A blunt arrow indicates a very small variable capacitor
called a trimmer or padder ; you will find more about these
in later Chapters.
Most receivers use more than one tuned circuit and then
"ganged" variable capacitors are used. Two variable capa-
FIG.9.
citors are built together so that the moving sections move
on the same spindle, and these two capacitors are connected to two identical
coils. In this way both tuned circuits work at exactly the same frequency.
A circuit which contains both reactance and resistance, or two reactances, is
said to have an "impedance." Two reactances, or a reactance and a resistance,
in series cannot have their values in ohms added together to give the final
impedance; a special mathematical formula must be used and this you will not
need to know for quite a time.
VALVES
The first components noticed in any radio receiver are the valves. Everyone
knows that they are important, and do strange things, and also that there are a
 Why Radio ? 21
great number of different sorts all coded by various sets of letters and numbers,
but once you know just a little about electrons and the way they flow you will
find it quite easy to understand the principles, at least, of valve operation.
The first work on valves was carried out by our own scientist Sir Ambrose
Fleming. He was experimenting with electric lamps at the time, and was puzzled
by the darkening of the glass after the bulbs had been used for a period. (It
still happens now and then, even with modern bulbs and their improved fila-
ments.) After a while he decided to put a small plate of metal into the bulb along
with the filament so that he could test electrically what was going on inside the
bulb in which, of course, there was a vacuum, and as he expected he found
that tiny particles of the filament were being carried over to the glass. He found
that the hot filament actually "boiled off" electrons, and by making his plate
positive with a battery, the negative end of the battery being connected to the
filament, he could set up an electric current through the vacuum itself between
the filament and the plate. This was very promising, for up to that time radio
detectors had been rather insensitive and peculiar gadgets, and this new type
of lamp, called a diode because it had two electrodes, could be developed into a
detector. As you will see when we reach the crystal set in Chapter I a radio
detector must be able to turn A.C. into D.C. (we call this rectification) and a
diode would do this easily. The electrons coming off the filament would only
travel to the plate when it was positive-if it became negative it would repel
electrons. If, then, an alternating voltage was put on the plate the electrons would
only travel to it on each positive half cycle, and to all intents and purposes this
is changing A.C. to D.C.
A further great advance was being made in America. Dr. Lee de Forest was
also experimenting with lamps in which he had introduced metal plates, but he
went further and put in a third electrode so that his new bulbs were called
triodes. This third electrode was a grid or mesh of wire between the filament
and the plate, so that electrons had to pass through this grid on their way from
the negative filament to the positive plate. Very few hit the grid and so whilst the
grid had no voltage of its own it had practically no effect on the current through
the valve.
The grid, however, could be given a voltage which could be either negative
or positive with respect to the filament. A positive voltage attracted more
electrons from the cloud of electrons round the filament, and although some of
these electrons were captured by the grid, the majority of them shot through and
reached the plate. The plate current thus increased when the grid was made
positive, and, in the same way, it fell quite rapidly as soon as the grid was made
negative. The grid then repelled electrons so that very few could pass through
it; instead they remained in a cloud by the filament.
But best of all was the fact that it needed only quite a low voltage on the grid
to bring about these important effects, and so the triode valve was a most im-
portant invention-it was an amplifier, which could take practically any small
22 Radio for Boys
electrical effect and amplify it, or strengthen it, many times. It meant that weak
signals, only just audible in headphones, could be amplified up until they could
work loudspeakers, but more important still was the fact that broadcast-that
is, sound-transmission became possible. Until that time all radio transmission
was in Morse code with transmitters often relying on spark coils, but it was
found that the triode valve would "oscillate" in a simple circuit giving out con-
tinuous high frequency energy which could be made to carry speech and music.

FIG.IOA.DIODE FIG.I0 B. TRIODE

FIG.10C.TETRODE FIG.10D. PENTODE

Other valves were developed from the triode which was discovered to be
rather poor at amplifying radio frequencies. This was because the valve acted
in a sense as a collection of small capacitors-there is capacitance between a
filament and grid, and between grid and plate, and so on. These capacitances
gave quite low reactance paths to radio frequencies, and so the valve worked
inefficiently unless very special circuits were used. Eventually a "screen" grid
valve was developed with an extra grid between the first grid, or control grid,
and the anode, the new grid being called a screen grid since it broke up the
unwanted grid to plate capacitance. The screen grid was made almost as posi-
tive as the plate, but was connected to the filament by a large capacitance.
The screen grid or tetrode valve (tetrode means four electrodes) was used for
years, but was still not so efficient as could be desired and it eventually gave way
to the pentode or five electrode valve now employed to a very great extent in all
types of radio gear. The pentode has a further grid, called a suppressor grid,
placed between the plate and the screen grid, and connected to the filament.
This new, third, grid suppresses a stray emission of electrons from the anode to
the screen grid which sometimes occurred in the tetrode; this "secondary
 Why Radio ? 23
emission" was caused by electrons from the filament being speeded up by the
positive potential on the screen grid to such an extent that they knocked or
"bombarded" electrons out of the plate, these secondary electrons then being
drawn to the screen grid. The suppressor grid turns these secondary electrons
back to the plate so that in the pentode they can no longer reach the screen grid.
Whilst the Americans still use the term "plate" for the positive electrode, we
now employ the term "anode." In the same way we call the filament the "cath-
ode," anode and cathode meaning positive and negative electrodes. In mains
valves the filament is no longer the cathode but instead heats up a metal tube
which acts as a cathode. Battery filaments and the tube cathodes of mains valves
are coated with special compounds which give off clouds of electrons when heated.
Different types of valves are shown in Fig. i o, starting with the diode-note
the cathode in the second diagram, drawn as a line over the filament, and the
anode at the upper end of the valve. Then comes the triode with the control
grid between the cathode and anode, the screen grid and finally the pentode
valve-sometimes the suppressor grid is connected to the filament within the
valve, and sometimes it is brought out to its own connecting pin.
There are, of course, different types of triodes, pentodes, etc., to carry out
different jobs; for example one type of pentode you will use is designed to give
a highly amplified voltage output while another type, called an output valve,
is designed to give a high current output to operate a loudspeaker. The output
from a valve is almost always taken straight from the anode. The anode is con-
nected to the H.T. line through a "load"-a resistor or coil-and the varying
currents in this load set up varying voltages across it which can be led off to
further stages. The H.T. line is the High Tension positive voltage supply whilst
the Low Tension filament supply is known as the L.T. line.
Some valves, especially output valves, also require a third voltage supply
known as G.B.-Grid Bias. This is a steady potential on the control grid of a few
volts negative, which prevents the grid ever becoming positive and so passing
grid current. Except for special reasons, one of which you will meet in the one
valve receiver soon to be described, a valve's control grid is not allowed to pass
current as this leads to distortion and incorrect working of the valve.
Connections to the valve's electrodes are made by inserting the valve into a
holder which connects with the valve pins. The valves you will use are called
"International Octal" types and fit into an 8 socket holder. The valve base has a
leg or spigot which fits into the valve holder in only one way, and the connections
to the valveholder are made to suit the valve to be used. On the circuit diagrams
the valve electrodes are coded with a number from r to 8, a small "key" diagram
showing the 8 sockets, with their numbers, on a valveholder. The key diagram
and numbering are always given looking at the valve pins and the underside of
the valveholder. Many valves have a further connection-the control grid is
brought out to a small top cap so that it is far from the anode connection and
the grid -anode capacitance is kept low.
24 Radio for Boys
Valves must always be handled with care, and inserted and withdrawn from
their holders very gently. Always hold the valve base, never the glass bulb, when
handling valves and especially when taking them from the holders.
The various numbers and letters given to valves are simply a means of
identifying them, and they are chosen by the valve manufacturer to indicate the
type of valve, its filament voltage and current, and so on. As you gain experience
you will learn several valve numbers but there is no point in storing them up in
dozens in your head. There are several excellent "Valve Data Books," some
quite cheap, and one of these will give you all the information you need about
ordinary valves.

PART III
TOOLS AND SOLDERING
AGREAT deal could be written about tools but perhaps the best way to
learn how to use and treat them is by practice. For radio work you will
not need many tools at first and a few hints may help you to choose and
use them well.
Screwdrivers-use a screwdriver whose blade is as wide as the screwhead, so
that it fits the slot well. Make a collection of different sizes as you can afford
them.
Pliers-start off with 5 in. flat -nosed pliers, then obtain some small round
nosed pliers. You can collect pliers for years.
Cutters-old scissors will do at first. Buy a pair of top or side cutters when you
can.
Spanners-never use pliers on nuts. Buy a set of Terry spanners, sizes o-8 B.A.
Files-collect one or two small flat and half -round files for cleaning holes and
the edges of chassis.
Drills-a good twistdrill and a set of drills is a valuable tool and makes a fine
present. Use a "centre -punch" for marking the spot where a hole is to be drilled;
a punch can be made from a stout nail. Lightly tap this on the drilling spot to
leave a small pit for the drill to start off in.
Chassis punches-used for cutting out large holes in aluminium chassis; a
chassis, of course, is the shaped metal sheet on which a receiver is built. See
Chapter II.
Soldering-you will need a soldering iron and unless you have no mains
electricity supply, buy the best electric iron you can afford; a "Solon" with a
pencil bit is a good choice. Those of you without mains will have to use a small
copper -bit iron heated in a flame. Such an iron needs a good deal of practice
to use properly, as the bit must be kept at the correct temperature. Frequently
wipe the bit with a pad of rag to keep it bright and clean.
Make a soldering iron stand with two strips of tin plate cut from an old tin
and bent into W shapes. Turn these upside-down and nail them down to a block
 Why Radio? 25
of wood so that the handle and bit of the iron each rest in the middle dip of the
W at each end of the block.
Soldered joints are made by flowing molten solder over the jointed wires-
they must be firmly made before the solder is applied. The solder makes an alloy
with the metals which provides a good electrical path. The metals being soldered
must be bright and clean-the whole secret of good soldering is lightly to scrape
the metals first. An old razor blade makes a good scraper. The bright surface
must be protected from the air and this is done by a "flux" ; modern solders
("Ersin Multicore" is excellent and easy to obtain) contain their own fluxes. To
make a joint, or to "tin" a metal, bring the soldering iron and the solder to tbie
joint at the same time so that the flux melts and runs out over the metal. The
flux then boils and the solder runs after it. Never use more solder than necessary.
The bit of the soldering iron must be tinned before it is used- the iron will
have instructions with it and these must be followed exactly. Generally it is
necessary to start by filing off a protective layer to expose the clean copper bit.
Connecting wire is sold already tinned and so needs no further tinning, but
the tags on components and valveholders should be cleaned and tinned before
joints are made to them. To tin a tag, flow a very little solder over it with the
iron so that it forms a thin film on the metal, rubbing the tag with the iron if the
solder does not flow at first. Avoid blocking up any hole in the tag.
Small resistors and capacitors have wire ends which are soldered directly into
place, and not too much heat should be allowed to reach the body of the com-
ponent. It is a good scheme to hold the wire end in broad nosed pliers, gripping
it between the soldered joint and the component's body, to allow some of the
heat to escape into the pliers.
The receivers described in this book have connections between components
made by a length of tinned copper wire over which is slipped a length of in-
sulating sleeving. The first joint is easily made, but when the sleeving is on the
wire it is easily burnt by the iron when the second joint is made. Practice this
type of joint, besides joints where rubber -covered flexible wire with several fine
strands is connected to a soldering tag. Be careful, when making joints, to leave
no blobs of solder which could touch other wires or joints, and clean out any
drops of solder which fall amongst the wiring and components.
Once a joint is made, never move the wires or parts until the solder is set-
this takes only a few seconds. Poor joints, called "dry" joints, have a brittle grey
appearance and will give a great deal of trouble sooner or later. Dry joints must
be remade with fresh solder.
 CHAPTER I

A Crystal Set
ACRYSTAL set is the simplest wireless receiver that can be built, and for
those who live fairly close to a transmitting station it is a good plan to start
off on the hobby of radio by making this sort of set. It costs nothing to run,
since it needs no batteries or mains electricity, and whilst it is of little use to those
of you who live out in the wilds it gives good clear signals up to distances of
roughly 5o or 6o miles from a strong station. A crystal set needs a very good earth
and the best aerial possible, though often a bed -spring can be used as an aerial, a
wire from the metal frame of the bed being connected to the aerial terminal on
the receiver. A good earth is made by burying a copper plate two feet deep in the
garden, a strong flexible copper wire being soldered to the copper plate, or an
earthing rod can be bought and driven into the soil until it is almost completely
buried. A flower bed under a window is a good spot for the earth, for then the
ground will be kept moist and the earth lead-in can enter the house through the
window frame. Ask if you can drill a small hole through the wooden frame, take
the stranded flexible wire through and then seal the hole with putty; there is no
need to insulate the earth wire. If you are not allowed to drill the window frame,
or if it is of metal, a good earth can be made to a water pipe inside the house.
Choose the "rising main" (the main pipe which goes up to the roof tank), if
possible, clean its surface, and connect the earth lead to it by using a circular
hose clip which you can buy for a penny or two at a hardware store. NEVER
use a gaspipe or the conduit or earthed lead of the house electricity supply as a
wireless earth, it can be dangerous as well as against the rules of the supply
companies.
All receivers need an aerial of some sort, even portable sets which appear to
have no aerial at all. (In portables the first tuning coil is made large enough, by
being wound over a frame, to act as the aerial.) Usually an aerial is a straight
length of wire, which draws energy from radio waves by having tiny electric
currents induced in it by the waves on their passage through space. These
currents flow up and down the aerial lead-in, through the first coil or tuned
circuit of the radio set, and through the earth lead-in. They flow up and down
because they are actually alternating currents at a high frequency.
The length of the aerial of an ordinary broadcast set is not very important,
but it is worth while remembering that an aerial can actually be tuned to any
wavelength and frequency by cutting it to the correct length-a half wave-
length long. For the Long Wave Light Programme this would mean an aerial
75o metres or about 820 yards in length, which would be both unnecessary and
26
 A Crystal Set 27
ridiculous, but the amateur transmitting on zo metres or so can quite easily
arrange an aerial about 33 feet long to radiate strongly and efficiently, because
it is tuned to the correct frequency. Some radar sets use aerials about 2 inches
long, these tiny aerials throwing their energy into a curved reflector which
sends the waves forward just as a torch reflector gathers all the light from a
small bulb and transmits it as a single beam. The frequency of the waves from
these sets is so high that it is found better to use specially designed metal tubes,
rather than wires, for carrying the power from the transmitter to the aerial, or
from the aerial to the receiver, the waves travelling along the tubing rather as
though they bounced from wall to wall.
Modern radio receivers for the normal broadcast programmes are so sensitive
that in many cases they work quite well from a small indoor aerial, and give all
the stations needed at good volume. Nevertheless it is a fact that results would
be better still if a good outdoor aerial were used, especially in the case of mains
receivers. An indoor aerial must be fairly close to the house electricity wiring,
and this wiring carries all sorts of interfering signals which can cause odd noises
in the radio set. Any electrical spark sets up wireless waves-the first trans-
mitters were spark operated-so that a refrigerator motor, a poor light switch
or even an electric bell can send out waves and signals which travel along the
house wiring. These waves affect the aerial and cause clicks, bangs, hissing and
other noises to spoil the programmes. At the same time the indoor aerial is
generally never very high, and height is important to a good aerial; the higher
the aerial can be, the better it is.
To obtain the best results possible from the crystal set, then, an outdoor aerial,
as high as possible and, say, 5o feet long or so, is the ideal to aim at, though a
great many of you will have to be content with something much simpler. Where -
ever the aerial is placed it should be insulated at each end with proper aerial
insulators which can be bought quite cheaply, and the aerial wire itself, as well
as the lead in, should be of stranded copper wire which can often be found at
Woolworth's. The lead-in need not be joined onto the aerial, for the end of the
aerial wire itself can be brought down to the window where the earth wire
enters the house. The aerial lead-in must be taken through the window frame
by means of a lead-in tube; this has a brass connector running through an
ebonite tube so that the actual connection is insulated. The lead-in should be
kept away from gutterings and drain pipes and other metal objects which are
connected to earth.
Once again, an outside aerial, like an outside earth, means drilling through
a window frame, and if you cannot get permission to do this you will have to
make the best of an indoor aerial. Use insulated copper wire for this, and ex-
periment by running the wire along the picture rail in your bedroom. Generally
a wire round two of the walls is best; don't forget to try the bedspring as an
aerial, it often works well.
When you have an aerial and earth system which will work the crystal
28 Radio .for Boys
receiver you can be sure that it will give very good results with the other sets
later on.
The circuit of the crystal set is shown in Fig. r in what is call a 'theoretical'
diagram and in Fig. 2 the same arrangement of parts is shown in a 'practical'
diagram. A comparison of the two
illustrations shows how much neater
and clearer the theoretical diagram
can be, and all radio circuits are shown
in this way. With a very little practice
the symbols can be easily read; in
Fig. 1, for example, it is clear that only
5 or 6 components are needed for the
crystal set. These components are L,
the coil, which has two windings
separated and insulated from each
PHONES
other, C2, the tuning capacitor, which
is variable, C3 connected across the
headphones, the headphones them-
selves, and the crystal detector. CI
will be usec't only in some cases, this is
shown by the dotted lines.
EARTH FIG. I-THE CRYSTAL RECEIVER
The straight lines of the theoreti-
cal diagram indicate wires between the components; where these lines join in a
dot an actual electrical joint is meant. If the wires meet with one 'jumping'
over the other in a small bridge (this can be seen in Fig. 6) the wires do not
connect at that point, and are insulated one from the other.
The aerial or input end of the receiver is always shown on the left and the
output end on the right, and the heavier or thicker line along the bottom of
each diagram is known as the 'earth line.' It will be seen in later diagrams that
a great number of components are connected, on one side, to this earth line,
and in the actual receivers it is very convenient to make this earth line the actual
metal chassis.
Components for the Crystal Receiver, Fig. 1.
L Wearite PA2 coil.
C i See below.
C2 50o pF. variable tuning capacitor. J.B. "Dilecon."
C3 50o pF. Mica. Type T.C.C. CM2oN.
Semi -permanent crystal detector.
High resistance headphones.
CI is used when the set is to operate at some distance from a transmitter, and
when C i is connected into circuit the aerial is no longer taken to the first coil,
but goes straight to C i, whose other side is taken straight to the 'top' of the
 A Crystal Set 29
second coil. The value of CI rather depends on conditions, but too pF. is usually
about right.
It is a good plan to collect a number of capacitors and resistors as soon as
possible, so that different values can be tried out in circuits. The best
way to buy
these parts is to watch the advertisements in magazines such
as Practical
Wireless and to buy components by post; for those of you who live in villages
and small country towns this will sometimes be the only way.
The crystal detector is "Semi -permanent." This means that instead of the
old-fashioned catswhisker a second crystal is used to make contact with the main
crystal. The main crystal is held in a cup and looks silvery, the movable crystal
is usually purple and must be treated with respect as it is not too strong and will
not stand a lot of grinding or twisting. Once a 'good spot' is found, however,
there will be no need to move the crystal again, whilst it is very easy to find a
spot where signals come through clearly.
Make sure you have high resistance headphones. If you take a headphone
apart you will find a diaphragm of thin, special, iron under the ebonite cap.
Carefully slide this off to one side; underneath will be the two poles of a powerful
magnet with a coil round each pole. (Some headphones are made differently;
if you have a pair where ft-. diaphragm is sealed into a perforated chamber
do
not try to dismantle them further.)

FIG. 2 -THE CRYSTAL RECEIVER "HOOKED UP"

The resistance of the headphones depends on the number of turns and kind
of wire in the coils, and for many purposes low resistance headphones are
employed. For ordinary crystal sets these are not nearly so useful as high resis-
tance headphones.
3o Radio for Boys
When you are buying the components, also buy some tinned copper wire for
making connections, with some sleeving to slip over it as insulation. Make sure
the sleeving is just large enough to run over the wire; good sizes are 22 S.W.G.
tinned copper wire (S.W.G. stands for Standard Wire Gauge) and I i millimetre
sleeving. Although it seems rather expensive at first, buying a good reel or
length of each in one go is cheapest in the end.
Unlike other sets the crystal receiver can be built up 'anyhow.' You could
build it neatly into a small box, but if you want to experiment with it, the parts
can be connected up rather as they are shown in Fig. 2 ; you could also practice
your soldering on them.

THINGS TO TRY
Fig. 1 shows one way of building a crystal receiver; there are other ways.
There is no need to follow the parts list too closely for this set; for example
practically any variable capacitor could be used as the tuner. The one shown is
known as a "solid -dielectric" capacitor since the moving plates are separated
from the fixed plates by thin sheets of insulator instead of air, which allows the
capacitor to be made smaller than an "air -dielectric" tuner.
It is certainly worthwhile trying a home-made coil in the crystal receiver,
when a different type of aerial coupling can also be tested. The coil is wound
on a cardboard, or better still, a paxolin former, 2 inches in diameter and about
2 inches long, using 28 S.W.G. enamelled
copper wire. 6o turns, wound neatly side
by side are needed, with taps brought out
at 3o and 45 turns. Each end of the win-
ding is anchored in a pair of small holes
drilled through the coil former. The taps
are easily made by doubling the wire back
on itself at the correct turn and twisting
the loop thus formed into a pigtail about an
inch long. The winding is then carried on
in the same direction as before, and the
tap will stand out firmly from the co.The
coil is connected so that the first turn goes
to the crystal detector and the last to earth,
in this way the 45 turn tap is 15 turns
from the earthed end of the coil. The fini-
shed coil is shown in Fig. 3, and when this
type of coil is used, the aerial is connected
FIG. 3 -THE HOME-MADE COIL on to one or other of the taps, the best
connection being found by trial. The effect of a small capacitor between the
aerial and the tap can also be tried. The enamel must, of course, be cleaned from
the wire ends and the taps with fine emery paper before a connection can be made.
 A Crystal Set 31
It is also possible to try radar crystals in the receiver instead of the ordinary
crystals. Two types of radar crystals are shown in Fig. 4; in each case the con-
nections are made to the metal ends of the crystal holder. There is no adjustable

FIG. 4-RADAR CRYSTALS

contact; inside the holder a very delicate spring is sealed into connection with a
germanium or silicon crystal. Small clamps made from sheet brass can be used
to hold the crystal and give contact with its ends; do not try to solder the con-
nection onto the ends of the crystal holder.

How THE CRYSTAL SET WORKS

The currents in the aerial of a radio receiver, set up by the passage of wireless
waves, can be drawn as the curves shown in Fig. 5. When the wave is not carry-
ing speech or music (it is then called an "Unmodulated Carrier"), it can be
drawn as at (a) for the same diagram can be used for both the carrier wave
itself; and the aerial currents it causes. When speech or music "Modulate" the
wave, its strength varies in time with the variations of the sounds, and so it can
be drawn as at (13), which again also serves to show the currents in the aerial.
At some points, as you can see, the currents rise to twice the strength of those
due to the unmodulated carrier; at other points the wave dies right away for
the fraction of a second.
The important point to remember is that the currents are alternating,
changing direction regularly at a high speed. This means that when they flow
through the first coil in the receiver of Fig. i they induce similar currents in the
second, tuned, coil. If the first coil is not used and the aerial is connected straight
through CI to the tuned coil, or if a tapped coil like the one of Fig. 3 is employed,
the currents then run through the tuned coil itself. The currents are at so high
a frequency that CI presents only a low reactance to them.
The coil is tuned by C2 to the frequency of the currents set up by the required
transmitter; as a result a voltage is set up across the tuned circuit. Once again
Fig. 5 (b) serves to show the voltage which, like the currents causing it, is alter-
nating. If this voltage were to be connected directly across the headphones
currents would flow through their coils. The currents would not, however,
cause any sound to be heard as they would be alternating far too rapidly.
A varying current, flowing through the headphone coils, affects the strength
of the magnets round which the coils are wound, and thus affects the head-
phone diaphragm. A current in one direction will strengthen the magnet and
so draw the diaphragm further in; a current in the opposite direction will allow
32 Radio for Boys

(a)

(b)

J
(c)
FIG. 5

the diaphragm to spring away from the magnet by weakening the magnetism.
These movements of the diaphragm move the surrounding air, and so cause
sounds to reach the ears when the headphones are worn. Sounds can be caused
by slowly alternating currents or by direct currents of varying strength, but
the currents shown in Fig.. 5 (b) cannot cause sounds because both sides of the
carrier are modulated-an upwards peak at any one point is balanced by an
equal and opposite downwards peak, and so on. Thus if this waveform were to
 A Crystal Set 33
be fed to the headphones, the diaphragms would each try to move in two
directions at once, and finish up by remaining still and causing no sound.
To operate the headphones, therefore, one half of the modulated wave is
needed-a wave like that shown in Fig. 5 (c), and it is the job of the crystal
detector to provide this from the full modulated wave of Fig. 5 (b).
Several natural crystals have the strange power of being able to pass elec-
tricity quite well in one direction, but only poorly in the other direction-
that is, a current can pass through the crystal easily only if it flows in the direc-
tion which suits the crystal. If the current reverses, and endeavours to flow
through the crystal in the opposite direction, very little current gets through.
This is called a rectifier action, and is very similar to the way in which a simple
diode valve operates. Obviously, if an alternating current is passed through the
crystal only one half of each full alternation, or cycle, gets through, the other
half being blocked by the crystal.
This is what has happened to the modulated carrier in Fig. 5 (c), so that only
one half of the complete wave is left. This consists of many half -cycles or half
alternations of current, each of which rises from zero up to a strength which
depends on the speech or music with which the carrier was modulated. The
total effect of all the currents seems to the headphones like a speech or music
current which the diaphragm can copy, and so sound is heard from the head-
phones.
We sometimes say that the current now has two components, one a high or
radio frequency component and one a sound or low frequency component. The
low frequency component, as just explained, operates the headphone dia-
phragms, and the high frequency component can flow to earth through the
capacitor C3. The receiver will still work if C3 is removed, but it is best to
have it in circuit.
So much, then, for the crystal receiver, though there are still one or two
things to be learnt from it. Notice, for example, how "broadly" it tunes com-
pared with the home mains or battery set-a station which tunes in and out
very sharply on the big receiver spreads across quite a wide movement of the
crystal set tuning capacitor. This is because the crystal set has only one tuned
circuit, and also because all the energy which operates the headphones had to
come from the wireless signal itself; the rest of the crystal set acts as a load on the
tuned circuit which therefore cannot act with full efficiency.
The next step, then, is to use a valve instead of a crystal.

RI3-C
 CHAPTER II

A One -Valve Battery Receiver

WE have already seen that the great disadvantage of a crystal receiver
is that the wireless signal itself has to supply the energy, after recti-
fication, to operate the headphones of the set; this means that the
crystal receiver is insensitive (it will not work on weak signals) and unselective
(it does not tune sharply). Much better reception can be obtained from a valve
receiver for in this type of set the energy required to operate the headphones
comes from a battery whilst the valve does not load the tuned circuit to a very
great extent. The tuned circuit merely supplies a voltage which controls the
valve and since a greatly amplified signal can be drawn from the valve's anode
the set is sensitive to quite weak signals. The one -valve circuit shown in Fig. 6
will work practically anywhere, and after dark, when reception conditions
improve, it will bring in several foreign stations as well as local programmes.
The receiver also tunes over both the medium and long waves, and in addition,
it has been designed rather like a Meccano set-you can add to it stage by
stage until it is a full sized four -valve receiver giving really fine loudspeaker results.
Up to C5 the circuit of Fig. 6 is really very similar to the tuned circuit of
Fig. r. Si is a switch which "short-circuits" part of the main tuning coil for
medium wave reception, the full coil coming into use for the long waves when
the switch is opened. C2 and C3 are "Trimmer" capacitors and are more
important when a further valve and tuned circuit are added to make the set a
two valve receiver. Their values are quite small, and the work they perform is
described in Chapter III.
The tuned circuit supplies a modulated carrier voltage to the grid of the
valve V 1 . This valve acts as a triode, although it is pentode, because the screening
grid and the anode are connected together. The signal is applied through C5
which, although passing the high frequency voltages, acts as an insulator to
any D.C. voltage or low (sound) frequency voltage on the valve grid. The grid
and the filament of the valve act as a diode, and so a small current flows from
the filament to the grid whenever the signal voltage goes positive-that is, on
the upper half of the carrier wave as drawn in Fig. 5 (b).
This current cannot flow past C5 and so must flow through RI. We have seen
already that a current flowing through a resistor causes a voltage to appear
across the ends of the resistor, and so a negative voltage appears at the grid of
V 1, its strength depending on the strength of the signal. This voltage, therefore,
must vary with any variation of the signal strength, and as a result the negative
voltage on the grid of the valve rises and falls with the modulation of the carrier
34
 A One -Valve Battery Receiver 35

FIG. 6 -THE ONE -VALVE RECEIVER

-in other words, it becomes a speech or music voltage. Since it is negative it

acts as grid bias and controls the current through the valve from the filament
to the anode, this current therefore varying with the voltage. The H.F. (high
frequency) component is taken down, or "bypassed," to earth, through C6 and
the L.F. (low frequency) flows through R2, R3 and R5, then through C8 to
earth.
R2 assists in separating out the H.F. which is no longer required, and the
varying L.F. current then flows through R3. Here again a voltage varying in
time with the current is set up across the resistor, and it is this voltage which is
used to operate the headphones which are connected through C7 to R3. C7 has
a capacitance high enough to pass low frequency currents, but it insulates the
headphones against the steady high tension or high voltage due to the H.T.
battery.
R5 is a control which permits the valve anode to be fed with any value of
H.T. voltage, and so serves both as a volume and a 'reaction' control.

REACTION
The one -valve receiver is far more sensitive than the crys.tal set not only
because the valve amplifies the speech and music voltages on its grid, but because
36 Radio for Boys
it also amplifies the original small voltages in the tuned circuit caused by the
wireless signal. This very valuable amplification is obtained through the use of
`reaction' or (a better word) 'regeneration.'
We have already seen that the unwanted H.F. currents flow to earth through
C6-this means, clearly, that they must flow through the anode coil first. This coil
is coupled to the main tuned coil (generally called the grid coil) and so currents
in the anode coil induce similar currents in the grid coil. Note that all the coils
shown are wound on the same coil former, and are close to one another.
But the currents in the anode coil are controlled by the Signal currents in
the grid coil, and therefore the induced currents in the grid coil can be added
to those already flowing. This increases the grid voltages at the valve, which
increases the currents in the anode coil which increases the induced currents in
the grid coil-and so on and so on until, as we say in technical language, all the
grid losses are made up, and the valve oscillates. An oscillating valve is really a
small transmitter, generating wireless waves in the tuned circuit connected to
the valve, and giving out radio power. At first sight this looks like something
for nothing, but actually the power is being drawn from the H.T. battery. The
valve is really a power inverter, turning direct current energy into alternating
energy.
In the receiver we do not want the valve to oscillate, and R5, by controlling
the anode voltage, allows the valve to be run up to the "critical point" which is
where the valve is about to oscillate and where it is amplifying the signal very
strongly.
If the valve is run past the critical point, and the tuning capacitor rotated,
stations will be heard as whistles. This is quite a useful way of tuning in, but the
regeneration control, R5, must be turned back immediately for the receiver
will then be sending out energy and very probably interfering with nearby
receivers.
In the circuit of Fig. 6 you will find it possible to make the valve oscillate on
the medium waveband, but on the long waves it will only just reach the critical
point. This is quite satisfactory since long wave stations are, in general, more
powerfully received and require less amplification.
Remember-when the set is oscillating, it delivers energy to the aerial and
interferes with others. Until you have fitted the second valve, as described in
the next chapter, and which will prevent this interference, you must handle the
regeneration control carefully.
BUILDING THE RECEIVER
Valve receivers must be built up carefully, with every wire taken directly
from point to point and properly insulated, and the components cannot be
"hooked up" as in the crystal set. For one thing the valve or valves would be
ruined if, by an accidental short-circuit, the go volts H.T. battery became
connected across the filament circuit which, in the present receiver, needs only
 A One -Valve Battery Receiver 37
i volts; for another, the valve or valves are amplifying tiny currents. Untidy
wiring could cause unwanted regeneration by feedback, the currents in one
circuit inducing currents in another circuit. One of the most important points
in receiver construction is the prevention of feedback.
The receivers described in this book have been very carefully tested. This
means that the correct components must be used, especially the correct coils,
and where makers' names are given in the component lists every effort must be
made to obtain the correct parts. The same tuning capacitor and fixed capacitors
should be used, and the same coils must be used, as must the same valves. Any
make of resistors, valveholders and so forth may be employed.
Beside the circuit of each receiver described, an under -chassis view is also
given to show where valveholders, switches and other components are placed.
This is the real job of these diagrams, and they do not always show the wiring
exactly as it will appear in the finished set. The connections shown are, ofcourse,
correct, but to prevent confusion in the drawing the wiring has to be drawn in
straight lines and large curves. Remember, then, that these under -chassis views
are really to show where all the components are placed-where necessary
wiring hints are given in the chapters.
Components for the One -Valve Receiver, Fig. 6.
Li pair of Weymouth CT2W2 coils. See below.
See below.
C2, C3 4 to 6o pF. trimmers. Walter Instruments, MS70.
C4 One section of 500 pF. variable two -gang tuner, Jackson Bros.
Type E. See below.
C5, C6 500 pF. 35o v.w. Mica. T.C.C. CM2oN.
C7 0.0! mF. 500 v.w. Tubular. T.C.C. 543.
C8 0.5 mF. 35o v.w. Tubular. T.C.C. 343.
Rr 2.2 megohms, -} watt.
R2 I o,000 ohms,
R3 220,000 ohms,
R4 ioo,000 ohms,
R5 i megohm, potentiometer, with 2 pole on -off switch.
Si 2 pole, 2 way switch. Rotary, Messrs. Walters Type B.T.
S2 2 pole on -off switch, ganged with R5. See below.
Vi Mullard DF33
Octal valveholder.
4 Sockets and plugs, Belling Lee, L315 and L1021/3.
I Flex fuseholder, Belling Lee, Lio37. See below. Fuse, 1055, 6o mAs.
2 Wander plugs, red and black, Belling Lee, L341. (H.T. Battery Connectors)
L.T. Battery Plug, 2 pin.
Tuning Drive, Messrs. Jackson Bros. "Squareplane."
Rubber Grommet,1 in. diameter.
38 Radio for Boys
C

2):: 2' 11/2. B. r If_j;

1'
---' .. ilID
t
3'16 D1AM. 5- G F
5
14 i 16
le 16
DAM. DIAM. 2 40 /MAKE

3/. f

I/4 111111 1110

4
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8

m'
Dual. Ili"
- --
1' 4.4 4.. AM N
St'

DIAM
4. I.
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25e 1'
7 -1 4

AI A

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i ck6'
36.
DAM.
'I 3/0°
.DIAM

FIG. 7-TOP VIEW OF THE CHASSIS, SHOWING HOW TO DRILL IT

Grid clip, octal size.

3 Knobs.
Chassis, gl in. x 44 in. x 2 in. aluminium.
High Resistance Headphones.
Odd lengths metal for clips, etc.
6 B.A. nuts and bolts, soldering tags, connecting wire and sleeving, 3 yards
rubber covered flex for battery leads. Washers for spacing tuner from chassis;
See. below.
H.T. Battery, go volts, L5o39, Vidor.
L.T. Cell, 1.5 volts, L5o4g, Vidor.
Notes.
A pair of CT2W2 coils is required, although only one coil is used in the one -
valve receiver, since the second coil is used when the next valve is added, later
on. The coil to be employed in the present receiver is that marked "H.F. Coil"
or "H.F. Transformer." The aerial coil should be carefully boxed up and left
for later work. Note that the connections on the coil are numbered; tag No. 7
is at the base of the coil and can easily be found since it is the only bottom tag
with a wire going to it.
CI is chosen to suit the aerial and the distance from the local stations. If the
local station is nearby CI should be fairly small, but if the receiver is to be used
some way from the transmitter C I may be larger. The value for this capacitor
 A One -Valve Battery Receiver 39

FIG. 8 -UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF THE ONE -VALVE RECEIVER

must therefore be found by experiment, capacitances of between i oopF and

0.001 mF. being tried. A good all-round value is 200 pF.
C4 is part of a two gang tuner; here again the second section is used when
the set is enlarged. The moving plates are connected by a wiper to the capacitor
frame or body, and so these are automatically connected to the chassis when
the tuner is bolted down.
The way in which the tuner is mounted needs special attention, but first it is
necessary to note the way in which the chassis is drilled and punched-this is
shown in Fig. 7. In this diagram the sides of the chassis are shown as though
folded out flat so that the dimensions can be clearly drawn. Notice, too, that in
later diagrams of the under -chassis view some of the chassis walls are shown as
though bent out flat to allow the components to be seen-the front chassis wall,
with volume control and switch, together with C8, is drawn in this way in Fig. 8.
Naturally the chassis sides are not bent out flat at any time, but are drilled in
their normal positions.
Small holes are drilled with twist drills, and the large valve holes with a
chassis punch of ii- in. diameter. There are several sorts of punches, but in each
case it is necessary first to drill a fairly large hole-about 4 in. diameter-in the
40 Radio for Boys
exact centre of what will become the valve hole. The punch spindle is then
placed through this hole, and the two sides of the punch are then either screwed
together with a special spanner, or one half is hammered into the other with one
or two sharp clean blows. In either case the correct size hole is punched cleanly
through the chassis. Chassis punches are rather expensive; the best type is a
"Speda" which can cut all the usual sizes of valve holes from in. up to i 2 in.
diameter. All the valve holes required for the receivers in this book are of i s in.
diameter.
Valve holes can also be cut with a "tank cutter" which is an adjustable cutter
used in a hand brace. This is a cheaper tool to buy, but is a good deal more
difficult to manage.
All the holes shown in Fig. 7 should be drilled and cut before any of the com-
ponents are mounted for the chassis can then have further valves and stages
added without difficulty.
The tuning capacitor is mounted on the chassis by bolts through the holes
marked A in Fig. 7. When the tuner is bought it will be found to have three feet;
when stood on these feet turning the spindle will open the moving vanes to the
left. It has been found better in this design, however, to have the vanes moving
to the right and so the feet must be removed and replaced. The feet are riveted
to the frame with soft aluminium rivets, and the heads must be filed from these
so that the feet can be taken off. This is quite simple, and takes only a minute or
so, but every care must be taken not to bend the tuner, or to strain the plates,
in the process. The moving vanes should be turned into the fixed vanes and the
tuner held by its frame; it can then be supported on the edge of a bench or
table for the filing. When the feet are removed they can be bolted onto the frame
by boltholes already drilled in the tuner. These holes will be found in corres-
ponding positions to those previously holding the feet, at the opposite sides of
the endplates. With the feet bolted to these holes by 6 B.A. nuts and bolts, the
tuner will again stand flat and firm, but the vanes will open towards the right.
Use short bolts so that there is no chance of the bolt ends fouling the moving
vanes as they are rotated.
If you feel a little nervous about filing the rivets and changing over the feet
of the tuning capacitor, there is a very easy way out-use three small Meccano
brackets. If you haven't a Meccano set, you can the buy brackets quite easily.
Bolt these onto the frame and leave the original feet in position.
To make the tuner fit the tuning or slow motion drive it must be raised about
in. above the chassis-the exact amount is not important because the drive
itself is adjustable in height. A few washers are therefore placed over each bolt,
each stack of washers being of the same height, and the capacitor is bolted to
the chassis by the holes marked A. Bolts about z in. long are needed, again of
6 B.A. gauge. The changes to the feet of the tuner, and the way in which it is
mounted, are shown in Fig. g.
Almost all the components and wiring are below the chassis so that with the
 A One -Valve Battery Receiver 41

MOVE FEET TO
NEW POSITIONS REAR
FRONT
SHOWN BY FRAME
FRAME
ARROWS

4 e 1
WASHERS
SPACING TUNER
FROM CHASSIS

Li!! thl Iil !MAN

FIG. 9-MOUNTING THE TUNING CAPACITOR

tuner in place the chassis can be turned over and the underside work commenced.
Support the ends of the chassis on old books, or blocks of wood, so that no weight
comes on the tuner.
Bolt in place the valveholder, noting from Fig. 8 the position it takes and the
direction in which the keyway points. Under the left hand nut fasten a soldering
tag; this gives a good direct connection with the aluminium chassis which, of
course, will not take solder.
The coil is bolted to hole B of Fig. 7, and the trimmers to hole C. The trimmers
are bolted together as shown in Fig. 8. If you inspect the trimmers you will see
that the adjusting screw contacts the upper plate which then curves round in a
spring and becomes the fixing tag. Make sure that this tag-the one in contact
with the adjusting screw-is the tag of C3 which is attached to the chassis by the
nut and bolt. When the trimmers are bolted together place a soldering tag
between them, over the bolt, and again make sure that the plate of C2 which is
in contact with the adjusting screw is the one bolted down onto the tag of C3.
42 Radio for Boys
This arrangement is necessary so that when the trimmers are adjusted the
screwdriver is in contact with the earthed plate; the screwdriver would other-
wise add some capacitance to the trimmer and upset the tuning when it touched
the screw.
The four sockets are fixed to the rear chassis wall. D in Fig. 7 is the aerial
socket, E the earth socket and F and G the headphone sockets. Socket E, the
earth socket , is connected by a length of wire to the socket at F and thus to the
earthed soldering tag under the valveholder nut. This wire cannot easily be
shown in Fig. 8 so it has been left out of the diagram. Actually socket E is
hidden, in the illustration, by the aerial socket.
The front panel components can now be mounted, as shown in Fig. 8. The
connections to Si are easily traced but the on -off switch which is a part of
R5 needs a little care. This will be found to have 4 contacts on the back, these
making up two pairs, but it is not always easy to tell which pair is which. The
illustration shows a normal type of switch, but it is always best to test out the
contacts with a battery and bulb-you could borrow these from your torch. As
the spindle of R5 is rotated from one end of its movement it is easy to feel and hear
a click-this means that the switch is closed in the "On" position. Connect the
battery and bulb in series with the contacts, using a length of wire, testing the
contacts in pairs. The bulb will light when a pair is found, and will also light
across the other pair. One pair is used for the L.T.-lead, and the other for the
H.T.-lead, one side and earthed to a
soldering tag near the front edge of the chassis.
This tag is actually held under one of the bolts securing the slow motion drive,
but until this is fitted the tag should be held in place by a temporary bolt and
nut.
C8 is clamped to the front chassis wall by a strip of scrap metal, drilled with
a small hole at one end and bent into a curve to fit the capacitor.
The receiver is now wired up as shown, with special care being taken over
the leads to the coil. In Fig. 8 each lead is labelled with the number of the coil
tag to which it goes.
Remember that the thick base line of Fig. 6 represents the chassis, and that
contacts to this thick line are actually made to the earthed soldering tags already
bolted in place.
One lead from tag No. 2 of the coil goes through hole J in the chassis to the
fixed vanes of the front section of the tuning capacitor.
The connection to the fixed vanes of the tuner is actually made to a small
brass eye, and it is a good plan to check whether the soldering iron will reach
underneath the capacitor, and touch this eye, before finally bolting the tuner
down. If the soldering iron is too large for this a length of wire can be soldered
to the eye before the tuner is secured, the wire being left about 6 in. long and
passed down through the chassis hole. Remember to insulate it with sleeving
when it is out to the correct length, for if this connection touches the chassis
 A One -Valve Battery Receiver 43
where it passes through, it will short circuit the grid coil. No damage will be
done, but the set will not work.
C5 and RI are the only components wired in above the chassis, and their
positions can be seen in Fig. 16 (where they are numbered C 10 and R2). The
earth connection for RI is made by bolting a soldering tag to a hole in the end
frame of the tuning capacitor; C5 is taken to the front fixed plates where a
further brass eye connector will be found. Both components are connected, at
their opposite ends, to the clip which attaches to the valve top cap.
C5 and R1, like the other small components, have their own wire ends. To
find the correct length of lead needed insert VI into its holder, making sure that
the key on the valve spigot (the rod between the valve pins) fits into the keyway
on the base. The components can then be checked and the leads cut to length;
remember to leave 4 in. of wire at each end for the soldered joint.
The small components can then be wired in under the chassis. In Fig. 8 the
component leads are shown as neatly curved so that the parts and wiring can
be drawn clearly-in actual fact the leads should always be kept short and
direct. The leads to the valveholder can be checked by observing the small
numbers against the valve symbol in Fig. 6 and comparing these with the "valve
key" shown above the circuit. This key shows the base of the valve, looking at
the pins, and also the underside of the valveholder. The connection to the valve
top cap is shown by the letter and mark "T." Notice that most valves have pin
No. I connected to earth; this pin makes contact with the metal coating on the
outside of the valve which screens the electrodes inside from stray electrical fields.
Tag No. 6 on the valveholder is used to anchor the lead from C7 and the lead
from the right hand headphone socket, and is therefore called an "anchoring
point." If you look at the base of the valve you will find that pin No 6 is missing,
so that this valveholder tag is spare and can be used safely as an anchoring point.
Rubber covered flexible wire is employed for the battery leads, and it is
worthwhile to get four different colours of covering so that the leads can easily
be identified. The usual colours are:-
L.T. (1.5 volts) Positive, PINK.
L.T. Negative, BLACK.
H.T. (go volts) Positive, RED.
H.T. Negative, BLACK or BROWN.
The two L.T. leads are soldered into the small two pin plug which fits the
socket on the L.T. battery. The thicker pin is the positive plug.
All the battery leads leave the chassis through the hole marked H, into which
is fitted the rubber grommet. This insulates the edge of the hole so that there is
no chance of the leads being cut through and short-circuiting.
FITTING THE FUSE
The fuse is not shown either in the circuit of Fig. 6 or the layout of Fig. 8
since it is fitted in the H.T. negative lead itself. It is not soldered in place; the
 44 Radio for Boys
lead is cut at any convenient point and the ends of the wire bared for about I in.
The end cap of the fuse holder is unscrewed and the washers, fuse and spring
removed. One bared wire end is passed through the hole in the fuseholder body
and secured under the base washer, the spring and fuse are then replaced and
the other wire end secured in the top washer which is then pressed down on the
fuse as the cap is screwed back in place. A 6o mAs. fuse is used, type Grey,
No. 1055, Belling Lee.
Some of you may have difficulty in obtaining this type of fuse. If so, you will
have to use a small bulb type fuse, which looks like a torch bulb, with a fuse -
holder to suit. The fuseholder can be mounted below the chassis on the front
wall in the space between C8 and the end of the chassis, Fig. 8, two small holes
being drilled to take two 6 B.A. bolts which will secure the bulbholder. The
negative lead from the H.T. battery is then taken to one holder contact and the
negative H.T. lead from S2 to the other contact. Take special care to see that
no bare wire or 'live' metal part of the holder touches the chassis.
FINISHING AND TESTING THE SET
It now only remains to fit the slow motion drive on the top of the chassis,
and then the set can be tested out. The drive is bolted down to the two holes
marked K in Fig. 7. Before placing it in position, loosen off the screws which
hold the adjustable bottom bracket of the drive. Slip the driving hub over the
capacitor spindle, let the bottom bracket slide down to touch the chassis, and
bolt it in place, remembering to fasten down the soldering tag holding the SI
and Sz leads under the left hand nut.
Turn the drive spindle so that the pointer reads the lowest wavelength, zoo
metres, and then turn the moving vanes of the tuner so that they are right out
of mesh, or open-this of course is before the hub screw is tightened. Then
tighten the screw, and make sure that both pointer and capacitor vanes rotate
together when the front spindle is turned.
Place a knob on each spindle-two switches and the tuner-and tighten
their grub screws. When the spindles have flat faces cut along one side, the grub
screw of the knob should fall on this "flat" as it is called. Plug in the headphones;
one phone lead will be striped or marked differently from the other and this
should go to right hand phone socket, looking at the rear wall of the chassis,
the socket connected to C7. This marked lead is the positive lead. In some
circuits H.T. current flows from the batteries to the valve or valves through
the headphones, and then it is important to see that the positive lead goes to
the positive side of the battery. If the phones are connected the other way round,
the magnets will, in time, become weaker.
This is not very important in the circuits described in this book, because the
headphones are always insulated against direct current by a capacitor.
Now plug in the valve. When handling valves always hold them by their
bases, not by the, glass, and plug them in, and remove them from their sockets,
 A One -Valve Battery Receiver 45
by curling the fingers right over the top of the valve to get a grip on the solid
base. Pulling on the top loosens the joint between the glass and the base. When
a new valveholder is stiff it sometimes needs a good deal of patience to get the
valve in and out, but just go gently at it, slightly rocking the valve from side
to side. Always place and remove top cap clips very carefully.
Plug the small two pin plug into the H.T. battery, and rotate S2 to switch on.
Check that the valve filament is glowing; this is sometimes not easy to see
but in a dark room a pale red or orange light should be seen in the centre of the
valve, through the clear glass at the top. Put on the headphones, then plug in
the H.T. negative lead. Take the H.T. positive lead and tap it on the go volts
socket of the battery; there should be a good loud click in the phones at each
tap. If there is only one click, or no click at all, check the fuse in the H.T.
negative lead. If it has "blown" something is wrong with the wiring, and it
must be found and put right.
If all is well, and there is no reason why it shouldn't be, the positive plug
can be inserted into the battery. There should be a gentle hissing in the phones.
Turn Sito the medium wave band (to the left) and turn the volume/reaction
control up and down. At one point the set will be heard going into oscillation
by a louder hissing; possibly there will be a squeal as the knob is rotated further
round.
You should have no trouble at all in making the set oscillate; indeed it is
possible that until the aerial is connected up there will be too much oscillation.
In one or two cases, however, the set may refuse to oscillate at all, and if this
should happen plug in the aerial and earth straight away to see if that corrects
matters. If not, remove the battery plugs, headphone plug and the valve and
turn the receiver over, then carefully unsolder the leads to tags Nos. 4 and 6 on
the coil, and reverse them. That is, take the lead which went to tag 6 to tag 4,
and the lead which went to tag 4 to tag 6.
If that does not cure the trouble, put the leads back in their original places,
and very carefully check all the wiring and joints, first making sure that all the
connections to the coil are made correctly.
With the reaction working, connect the aerial and earth to their sockets, turn
the reaction control down, and tune the receiver till the pointer reads the
wavelength of the local medium wave station. Turn up R5 to the reaction
point; probably the station will not be heard, so turn the tuner one way, then
the other, till the station is found. Experiment with R5 for best reception,
remembering not to let the set oscillate.
Now the trimmers can be used to make the dial read correctly. Set the
pointer to the right spot on the dial, and very carefully turn the set over onto
one end, still switched on, so that you can reach the trimmers, then adjust C2
with a screwdriver-do not let the metal blade touch any of the wiring or other
components. An insulated screwdriver is best; later on you might afford a
proper set of trimming tools.
46 Radio for Boys
If it was necessary to turn the pointer up the dial to find the station, screw
C2 in; if the pointer had to come down, unscrew C2. In either case it should be
possible to tune in the station with C2, and then the dial will read correctly.
Now switch to the long waves and tune in the Light wave programme at
1,500 metres. Set the pointer correctly, then again turn up the set so that C3
can be adjusted to tune in the signal properly.
You may find that the ends of the wave bands, on the dial, do not read quite
correctly, but the amount of error will be very small, and not important.
And now-well, it's your set! See how much fun you can have with it. But put
the escutcheon (the frame) and the glass of the tuning dial away carefully, till
you build the receiver into a cabinet of its own. And don't forget to switch off,
or the batteries won't last very long.
 CHAPTER III

A Two -Valve Battery Receiver

you grow accustomed to the one valve receiver you will decide, sooner
or later, that although it is a great deal better than a crystal set it still has
S some faults. Those who live near to a transmitter will find the signal
spreading out over the dial and blotting out interesting foreign stations, whilst
those who can hear the foreign stations without this trouble will find that several
of them cannot be heard clearly enough. In other words, the set is still lacking
in selectivity and sensitivity.
Forgetting the selectivity business for the moment, there are two ways in
which signals can be amplified or made stronger. One way is to use a valve
after the detector, this new valve amplifying the sound signals before they reach
the headphones; the other method is to use a valve before the detector to am-
plify the whole modulated carrier signal.
The first method works very well indeed on signals which can already be
heard clearly-a stage of L.F. amplification, as it is called, would make the
local and home stations really loud. The foreign stations, however, would seem
to be very little improved; there would be more hiss or "background noise"
and the foreigners would still be mumbling away down in this noise instead of
speaking out clearly. What actually happens is that the detector needs a cer-
tain signal strength before it can work most efficiently, so that no matter how
much L.F. amplification is used, the set will not receive signals any better.
The other method of obtaining amplification improves matters a great deal.
An H.F. stage (a valve and another tuning circuit before the detector), ampli-
fies the tiny voltages due to the signal currents in the aerial, and hands on to
the detector a much stronger signal. The local stations will not sound so very
much louder in the headphones, but the distant and foreign stations will be
very much clearer and louder.
There is, however, another advantage. We have just seen that the H.F.
stage has its own tuned circuit in front of the detector, which means that the
two valve receiver has two tuned circuits. This helps tremendously in improving
the selectivity of the receiver, for each and every signal is tuned twice and this
has the effect of making the tuning much sharper.
Of course the two tuned circuits have to operate exactly in step, which is why
a special pair of coils is used, with a two gang tuning capacitor. The coils are
made so that the tuned sections have exactly similar performances, whilst the
two sections of the tuner are also exactly alike. (The dotted line between the
two sections, C4 and Cg, in Fig. 1o, indicate the ganging and show that both
47
48 Radio for Boys
sections work together.) The small trimmer capacitors are also very important
in the ganged tuning circuits. The wiring, switches and the valve and valve -
holder connected to each coil add small capacitances to the tuned circuit and
naturally these affect the tuning. In a single valve set this is not of great
importance, but when two tuned circuits are used the extra small capacitances
(known as "stray" capacitances) must be balanced; that is the strays in one
circuit must be made equal to the strays in the other. This can be done by
adjusting the four trimmers.
It may not be easy, at first, to see how the new stage, V 1 in Fig. 1o, amplifies
the signals without rectifying them as does the detector. Notice, though, that the
H.F. stage has no grid capacitor or resistor; the grid works without grid bias and
so swings in voltage with the alternating signal voltages. These are amplified
at the anode and appear across the coil in the anode circuit of V 1. This coil has
very little resistance to the flow of current through the valve caused by the H.T.
battery, but it does have a great impedance to the small alternating currents
due to the signals, the currents therefore setting up voltages across the coil.
The signal frequency currents must be kept from the rest of the circuit to
prevent feedback, and so they are presented with an easy path to earth through
C6.
The coupling coil in the anode circuit of VI is actually wound on the former
of the second tuning coil-indeed it is the coil which was used as an aerial
coupling coil in the one -valve receiver. The voltages across this coil therefore
induce corresponding voltages and currents in the tuned circuit of the detector
with a further amplification, and it is these amplified signals which are rectified
and whose L.F. components are passed on to the headphones.
Notice that whilst VI is the same type of valve as V2, it is connected as a
pentode with the screen fed through RI and decoupled or bypassed by C5.
CONSTRUCTING THE TWO -VALVE RECEIVER
The main circuit of the one -valve receiver requires no changing, but it is
important to observe that the component numbering of Fig. 6 has been changed.
This has been done since it is usual to number components from the aerial end
of the receiver diagram. Thus LI in Fig. 6 is now L2, RI has become R2 and
so on. The original C I is still used in that position, and the new capacitors are
numbered, in Fig. Io, from C2 to C6.
In the following components list only the extra parts needed for the H.F.
stage are shown.
Components for the H.F. stage of the Two -Valve Receiver, Fig. I 0
C2, C3 4 to 6opF. trimmers. Walter Instruments, MS7o.
C5, C6 o.I mF. 35o v.w. Tubular. T.C.C. 343.
RI 15,000 ohms, I watt.
VI Mullard DF33
 A Two -Valve Battery Receiver 49
Octal valveholder.
Wire, sleeving, nuts, bolts, etc.
Grid clip, octal size.
The first work to be done is to prepare the existing one -valve set for the
addition of the new stage. Disconnect the headphones, batteries, etc., and remove
the valve. Turn the receiver over, supporting it at the ends as before, and
remove CI by unsoldering its wire ends. Disconnect the lead between tag No. 7
on the coil and the earthed headphone socket, also removing the lead from the
socket to the soldering tag at the valveholder.
Now bolt in the new valveholder in the position shown in Fig. II with a
soldering tag below the left hand bolt. Connect the valveholder tags Nos. I and 7
to this soldering tag, and also the nearby headphone socket from which the
leads have just been cleared. Next run a carefully insulated lead from valve -
holder tag No. 2 to tag No. 2 on the other valveholder; in Fig. I I, for the sake of
clearness, the leads are shown meeting further up the chassis but actually the
lead should be run as just described.
RI is connected between valveholder tags Nos. 4 and 6, so that as before tag
No. 6 is used as an anchoring point for the H.T. lead. C5 is held between tags
No. 4 and the earthed soldering tag, whilst C6 is held in place with the existing
capacitor now numbered C13. The metal clamp must be reshaped to hold C6,
or a new metal strip can be bent to hold both capacitors.
Tag No. 3 on the new valveholder is taken to tag No. 5 on the existing tuning
coil, whilst tag No. 7 of the coil is now taken to tag 6 on the new valveholder
where it meets the H.T. lead. Remember that H.T. leads must be carefully
insulated.
The rest of the components are mounted on the top of the chassis, and can be
seen in Fig. 16. The Aerial coil, saved from the pair originally bought, is bolted
down with a 6 B.A. bolt and nut, to the hole marked L in Fig. 7, whilst the two
trimmers C2 and C3 are bolted together with a soldering tag between them.
They are then bolted down to the hole marked N in Fig. 8 so that they stand up
from the chassis in the same way that the first trimmers stand out from the back
wall of the chassis. The lower trimmer is C3, and the tag touching the chassis
must be the one in contact with the adjusting screw. In the same way the lower
tag of C2 (the one bolted to C3) must be the tag in contact with the adjusting screw.
The earthed lead from tag No. 1 of Li is taken to the tag which will be found
soldered to the frame of the tuner, whilst a lead from tag No. 2 of the coil goes
to the upper brass eye of the rear section fixed plates of the tuner, a further short
lead from this eye going to the top cap clip of V 1. This short lead should be of
rubber -covered flex. Tag 2 of the coil is also taken to the top tag of C2, and tag 3
of the coil goes to the soldering tag between the two trimmers. From Tag 3 a
further lead is taken down through the hole M, which falls right below the coil.
This lead is taken to the switch-remember to connect up the other switch
contact as shown in Fig.
RB-D
FIG. 10 -THE TWO -VALVE RECEIVER
FIG. II -UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF THE TWO -VALVE RECEIVER
52 Radio for Boys
CI is placed inside the coil, with one lead connected to coil tag No. 5, the
other lead going down through the hole M to the aerial socket.
The receiver is now ready for testing. As before, plug in the valves and
connect up their top caps, plug in the headphones and the L.T. battery plug,
then switch on and inspect the filament of V i to make sure it is glowing. Plug
the negative H.T. lead into the H.T. battery, and tap the positive lead on the
go volts socket, making sure there is a click in the headphones at each tap.
The lead can then be plugged in, the aerial and earth connected, and the set
tuned round the medium waves. There may be some improvement; on the
other hand it may not be possible to hear anything at all, but adjusting the
trimmers will soon correct this. Tune the set to the medium wave local wave-
length on the dial, then adjust C2 gently, first one way, then the other, until the
signal is heard at its best. Make sure that the original trimmers, now numbered
C7 and C8, have not been disturbed by turning the tuner; if the station is not
received at the correct point on the dial correct C7 and then readjust C2 for
best results again.
Switch to the long wave band, and adjust C3 for best results on the Light
programme, and then tune round both wavebands. Signals should be sharper,
tuning in and out with less movement of the tuner knob, and as foreign stations
begin to come through at evening, it should be possible to hear more of them,
with much clearer reception.
It is now safe to allow the receiver to oscillate, too, for the coils in which the
oscillations are set up are now no longer directly connected to the aerial.
Naturally there is no point in letting the receiver oscillate strongly, but tuning
will be easier if the reaction control is turned just sufficiently to give oscillation
whilst the tuner is rotated. The signals then come in as whistles, at first high
pitched with the note rapidly falling as the tuning continues. At the exact
tuning point the note drops to a deep growl then ceases altogether-if the tuner
is turned further the note is again heard rising in pitch.
This note is called a "heterodyne" and is produced by two radio frequencies
beating together, the pitch of the note being decided by the difference in fre-
quency between the station signal and the frequency at which the receiver is
oscillating. When the two are exactly in tune the note disappears but it is still
necessary to turn the reaction control back to beyond the critical point to allow
the station clearly to be heard.
With the two -valve set you should receive enough stations to make a station
list necessary, so that you can identify all the signals heard. The best list is
Guide to Broadcasting Stations, published by Messrs. Iliffe and Sons, Ltd., at x/6.
 CHAPTER IV

A Three -Valve Battery Receiver

WITH the two valve set working properly, you will begin to think about
working a loudspeaker instead of headphones and, perhaps, some of
you have tried connecting in a speaker to the output sockets. Probably
you were disappointed-this is why. Headphones need very little power to work
them, even a tiny current through the coils being sufficient to vary the mag-
netism and allow the diaphragms to move, but a loudspeaker requires a great
deal more power. Practically all modern loudspeakers are of the moving coil
type, in which powerful currents are needed. The currents flow through a coil
with a very few turns, thus making it an electro-magnet, and since the coil is held
in the field of a strong permanent magnet, the two magnetic forces operate one
against the other, making the coil move back and forth. The coil is connected
to the cone of the speaker, so that this moves too, causing sound waves in the air.
When valves amplify, they can act in one of two ways-as "Voltage ampli-
fiers" or as "Power amplifiers." So far the valves and stages we have been
dealing with have all been voltage amplifiers-the small voltages due to the tiny
aerial currents have been amplified greatly, but there is still no real power to
pass on to a loudspeaker. To drive a loudspeaker we must have a power output
stage which uses a valve passing more current than those so far employed in the
set, but this power output valve in its turn needs quite a high voltage at its grid
to control this heavier current. Before the output stage and a loudspeaker are
added the small L.F. voltages which have so far been enough to drive the head-
phones must be given further amplification, and to do this the extra stage shown
in Figs. 12 and 13 is connected up.
The valve used is a diode -triode, a double valve which can do two jobs at once,
but in this receiver only the triode section is employed, the diode anode being
connected to earth and forgotten. The stage is again a voltage amplifier, so that it
still will not work a loudspeaker properly-though results from the local station
might be reasonably good-but it will at least give very good headphone
strength until the final stage can be included.
Very little work has to be done to include the new valve, and only one or
two parts are needed. The extra parts are shown in the list below.
Components for the L.F. stage of the Three -Valve Receiver, Fig 12
CI4 500 pF. 35o v.w. Mica. T.C.C. CM2oN.
C15 0.01 mF. 50o v.w. Tubular. T.C.C. 543.
R7 2.2 megohms, I watt.
53
FIG. I2 -THE THREE -VALVE RECEIVER
FIG. I3 -UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF THE THREE -VALVE RECEIVER
56 Radio for Boys
R8 1 megohm, watt.
V3 Mullard DAC32
Octal valveholder.
Wire, sleeving, nuts, bolts, etc.
Grid clip, octal size.
CONSTRUCTING THE THREE -VALVE RECEIVER.
As before, commence the work by unplugging the batteries, headphones, etc.,
and remove the valves from the chassis. Turn the set over, and support its ends
so that it rests clear of the bench or table and unsolder the lead from tag No. 6
of V2 to the right hand phone socket. This is the only lead which must be
removed.
Bolt the new valveholder in place in the position shown in Fig. 13 with its
keyway pointing in the same direction as those of the other valveholders, and
remember the soldering tag under the left nut. Connect this soldering tag to
valveholder tags Nos. I and 7, also to tag No. 5, the diode anode connecting
point. Connect tag No. 2 of the new valveholder to tag No. 2 of the V I holder,
to give V3 its filament supply, then solder in C15 as shown from the headphone
socket to tag No. 3. Also from tag No. 3 take C14 across to tag No. 5 so that it is
earthed at this point; C14 is a bypass capacitor giving a path to earth for any
stray H.F. at the anode of V3. If C14 is omitted the receiver may whistle and
show other signs of feedback.
One end of R8 is also connected to tag No. 3, its other end being left uncon-
nected for the moment.
R7 is connected in at the holder of V2 between tags Nos. 6 and 7, whilst from
tag No. 6 is taken the grid lead to V3. This lead should be of rubber covered
flex and should be as short as possible, passing through the chassis by means of
the drill hole beside the V3 holder and up to the top cap of V3, where it is
fastened by means of the grid clip. It is very important to keep this lead as short
and direct as possible, for should it pick up any stray or unwanted signals from
the other stages of the receiver these will be amplified and possibly fed back
yet again to cause instability, howling and similar troubles. In the original trial
receiver this lead was moved into various positions to test for possible stray
pick-up without any feedback taking place, but should feedback occur in any
case it can be cured quite easily. The cure consists of a screen round the lead
made of a mesh of fine wires, this screen, like the metal round a valve, pro-
tecting the lead inside against stray fields and signals, and such a screen can be
obtained as insulated screened sleeving. This is used in the same way as ordinary
insulating sleeving, except for the wire mesh woven around the tubing. A 4 in.
of this is carefully unravelled at one end of the screening, and taken to the
nearest earthed point-to use such a screen in the circuit of Figs. 12 and 13, for
example, it would be best to add another soldering tag to the V2 holder, under
the right hand nut, and take the screen to this. At no point should the screening
 A Three -Valve Battery Receiver 57
touch any other component or connection of course, for this would cause a
short-circuit, and care must be taken to see that whiskers of wire at either end
of the screen cannot touch the wire inside where it emerges, or the grid clip.
Finally it remains to connect the free end of R8 which must be taken to the
nearest H.T. supply point. It may be soldered onto the H.T. lead as shown in
Fig. 13, but it might also be taken across to tag No. 6 on the V i holder. In
either case the connection must of course be clear of any other connection,
component, or chassis.
The receiver is now ready to have its valves replaced, with the new DAC32 in
the V3 holder. After plugging in to the L.T. battery, and connecting up the
headphones, test the set by watching for the filament glow and by tapping the
H.T. plug onto the go volts battery tapping as before. The clicks should now
be really loud, and when all is found to be in order, and the battery and aerial
and earth all connected up correctly, reception should be very good indeed.
It is interesting to learn that the new valve just added to the receiver is
amplifying the output from the detector about 5o times-though this doesn't
mean that stations will sound 5o times as loud! The ear is a most interesting
part of the body, worth looking up and reading about if you can find something
suitable in the local library, and roughly speaking it can only judge between
quite big differences in volume-for example if the power to a loudspeaker is
halved, the ear has the impression that volume has dropped only by about one -
fifth. You might try to find out something, too, about decibels and phons. They
don't bother us in this book, but later on when you design receivers for your-
self, or, perhaps, become a transmitting amateur, decibels are very useful units.
For the moment it is enough to know that the three -valve receiver is taking
signals of, perhaps, a few tens of microvolts (millionths of a volt) and giving an
output to the headphones of a volt or so, very roughly, depending on the station
tuned in. This means an amplification of, say, 20,000 times, again very roughly;
not bad for three valves and a few components.
FIG. I4 -THE FOUR -VALVE RECEIVER
FIG. I5 -UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF THE FOUR -VALVE RECEIVER
 CHAPTER V

A Four -Valve Battery Receiver

IT remains now to add the fourth and final stage to make the receiver into
loudspeaker -type set, and the circuit of this final stage can be seen in
Fig. 14.
There are one or two important facts to notice in the diagram. In the first
case the output valve has a different grid resistor circuit from the other valves,
for two resistors in series are used with the H.T. negative line coming in to the
junction of the resistors. This provides grid bias for the valve.
Grid bias is necessary as quite a large voltage L.F. signal is supplied to the
grid from the L.F. stage. Many modern battery valves are designed to operate
without grid bias, but output valves must always be biased to prevent their grids
becoming positive at any time, and so drawing grid current, which would
distort the sound very seriously. The bias voltage needed by the present output
valve, a DL35, is 7.5 volts negative, and this is provided automatically by the
flow of current through Rio. All the H.T. current drawn by the receiver has to
flow through this resistor, since it is in series with the H.T. battery and the
negative or earth line of the set. This current flow amounts to 12 or 13 mAs.
which through a 68o ohms resistance sets up a suitable voltage across the resis-
tance. Naturally the end of the resistor connected to the negative side of the H.T.
battery is then 7 or 8 volts negative to the chassis end of the resistor, and the grid
leak of V4 is connected to this negative point.
The second important fact arises from this method of biasing the output valve.
In the previous circuits the H.T. and L.T. negative lines are connected directly
together after the switch, but now this connection must be removed and the H.T.
negative switch point taken to the junction of R9 and Rio.
Third, it must be noted that C16 is an electrolytic capacitor, and so must be
connected into circuit the correct way round. The capacitor provides a path
for all the varying L.F. and H.F. currents which would otherwise have to pass
through Rio and the H.T. battery; when the battery is new they can do so
easily but as the battery ages it has an increasing internal resistance which can
finally lead to feedback, loss of volume and howling.
The final important point is the fact that the loudspeaker, as in any other
receiver, is fed through a step-down transformer. The moving coil which drives
the loudspeaker cone requires, as we have already seen, a fairly heavy current,
and whilst the output valve draws more current than the other valves, this anode
current is still not large enough to work the moving coil efficiently. The coil is
therefore "matched into" the output valve by a transformer-the anode
6o
 A Four -Valve Battery Receiver 61

current through the primary induces a heavier current at a lower voltage in

the secondary, and it is this current which drives the moving coil.
The matching between the output valve and the loudspeaker must be correct
if the whole circuit is to work correctly. All output valves deliver power most
efficiently into one certain load or resistance; in the case of the present valve
the anode needs a load of 8,000 ohms. The resistance of the loudspeaker moving
coil (often called the "voice coil") is about 3 ohms, and it is the job of the
transformers to match these two resistances together. (Actually they should be
called impedances rather than resistances, since they deal with alternating
currents.) Although it is quite easy to see how a transformer can step up voltage
or current from one winding to another it may not be so simple at first to under-
stand how resistances can be matched or transformed-however, try thinking of
it in this way. Forget for the moment that transformers deal chiefly with A.C.
and that we are really talking about impedances, not resistances, and imagine
that we have a step-down transformer whose primary is taking 10 mAs. at 8o
volts-the primary is then acting like a resistance of 8,000 ohms, for 8o volts
across 8,000 ohms would pass 10 mAs. If the step-down ratio were 4o to r the
secondary of the transformer (ignoring losses and so on) would supply 40o mAs.
at 2 volts, and therefore the secondary would act like a resistance of 5 ohms.
The transformer, then, is matching a resistance of 5 ohms to one of 8,000,
and it is in this way that the loudspeaker coil is matched into the output valve
anode circuit to give the best results.
The loudspeaker should be of the type which has its transformer mounted on
it, bolted to the speaker frame, and the loudspeaker itself is mounted not on the
chassis with the other components, but inside the cabinet into which the
receiver is to be placed. If the set is not to have a cabinet the speaker should be
placed in a case of its own, or on a baffle board. The tone from the speaker will
be very poor if it is stood alone on a table or bench, and the bigger the case in
which it can be placed, within reason, the better.
A baffle board can be used in place of a speaker cabinet, and consists of a large
flat board of, say, heavy 5 -ply wood with a central hole of the right diameter
for the speaker cone. The loudspeaker is screwed or bolted very firmly to its
baffle board or case.
A baffle is needed because both the front and the back of the loudspeaker
cone give off sound waves, and if you think about it you will see that these sound
waves are of opposite sorts-when the cone moves forward the sound wave in
front will consist of compressed air, but that at the rear will consist of rarefied
air. The same sound is heard either in front or behind the speaker, but the
sound waves are out of phase and if they are allowed to mix the tone is affected.
The real job of the baffle board (a loudspeaker cabinet is only a baffle folded
up into a box), is to make the rear sound waves travel a longer distance than
the front waves so that they are in phase when they emerge into the room. The
low sounds have the longest wave -length and so for good low tones, or good bass,
FIG. 16 -TOP VIEW OF THE FOUR -VALVE RECEIVER
 A Four -Valve Battery Receiver 63
the baffle needs to be as large as possible. It must be firm and thick so that it
will not vibrate and add unwanted sound waves of its own to those coming
from the loudspeaker.
CONSTRUCTING THE FOUR -VALVE RECEIVER
Only a few extra parts are needed for the output stage and these are listed
below.
Components for the Output Stage of the Four -Valve Receiver, Fig. 4
C16 8 mF. 20o v.w. Electrolytic. T.C.C. CEI8G.
R9 2.2 megohms, z watt.
R 10 68o ohms, watt.
V4 Mullard DL35
Octal valveholder.
T 1 and Sp., 5 in. moving coil, permanent magnet loudspeaker, with output
transformer to match to 8,000 ohms anode load.
Wire, sleeving, nuts, bolts, soldering tags, etc.
Prepare the chassis as before, so that with the valves removed it can be turned
over and supported at the ends. The only wire to be removed is that from the
on -off switch which connects the switched H.T. negative lead to the chassis.
The new valveholder is bolted down over the last valve -hole but in this case
its keyway points in the opposite direction from the other valveholders and the
soldering tag is secured under the right hand nut (Fig. 15). Tags Nos. 1 and 7
of the valveholder are connected to the earthed soldering tag.
C16, the electrolytic capacitor, is fastened to the end wall of the chassis by
another clip bent out of scrap sheet metal. Make sure that the positive tag is well
clear of the front chassis wall. Connect the negative capacitor tag to the sol-
dering tag at the V4 holder, and wire in R9 and R 1 o as shown in Fig. 15, with
their junction point connected to the switch contact on S2. From tag No. 5,
where R9 meets the valveholder, take a well insulated lead, as short and direct
as possible, to the nearer headphone socket to which C15 is connected; this
enables the headphone sockets to be left on the chassis and still working, so that
if a faint foreign station is tuned in the headphones can still be plugged in to get
better reception.
If R8 was connected to the H.T. positive lead without being taken to an
anchoring point it can now be supported by tag No. 6 of the new valveholder,
to which tag No. 4 is also connected. Tag No. 4, the screen grid tag, acts as a
main H.T. positive anchor and is connected to the positive tag of C16, whilst
from this tag (4) and from Tag No. 3 a pair of rubber covered flex leads are
taken through the nearby hole in the chassis for connection to the two tags
which will be found on the speaker transformer. These leads must be left long
enough to reach the speaker without stretching or straining, and if the speaker
and the receiver are both to be fitted into one cabinet, the leads should still be
64 Radio for Boys
long enough to allow the set to be taken out of the case for adjustment, and
testing.
Tag No. 2 of the new valveholder is connected to tag No. 2 of the V3 holder,
to give the output valve its filament supply, and the set is then ready to be turned
right way up and tested. First, though, connect up the two leads to the loud-
speaker-there are no special connections, either lead may go to either trans-
former tag. The receiver must never be switched on without the loudspeaker
connected to the output valve, for then the anode of V4 would not be able to
draw current and the screen grid would pass too much current, which might
possibly spoil the valve.
Insert the valves into their holders, plug in the L.T. leads to the L.T. battery,
and switch on so that the valve filaments can be inspected. With the H.T.
negative plug in the H.T. battery, tap the positive plug on its socket, as before-
there should be a loud plop from the speaker at each tap. If all seems well,
plug in correctly, and connect up the aerial and earth and tune round the
medium and long waves. If results are as good as they were with the test
receiver, you should feel very pleased with your set.
Just one more point. Listen carefully to the tone of music and speech. It
should be clear and natural, with no hollowness or boom, and no suspicion
of whistling or howling. If there are whistles or howls (apart from normal
heterodyne whistles when the reaction is too far advanced), this probably means

does not improve matters, connect a 500 pF. 35o v.w. Mica capacitor from
tag 3, the anode, of V4 straight down to the earthed soldering tag. This should
not be necessary, however.
To return to the tone of the speaker-not all ears are alike, and what pleases
one listener does not always please another. It is very simple to vary the tone
of the receiver, within limits, by connecting a capacitor directly across the two
tags of the speaker transformer, where the rubber -covered leads are connected,
the value of the capacitance being found by trial. Values between o.00 r and o.o
mF. can be tested, each will have the effect of cutting off some of the higher
frequency response, with a slight drop in volume. Capacitances vary the tone
in this way-we have already seen that a capacitor "passes" A.C. and so has
an impedance to A.C. The impedance depends on the frequency at which the
current alternates, the higher the frequency the lower the impedance. In the
L.F. signal supplied to the loudspeaker the high notes are, naturally, at a higher
frequency than the low notes, and the capacitor, therefore, has a lower impe-
dance to high notes than to low notes. A proportion of the higher frequencies
are thus bypassed through the capacitor without affecting the loudspeaker,
the proportion growing larger as the capacitance is increased.
 CHAPTER VI

Four -Valve Battery Superhet

THE four -valve receiver described in the earlier chapters is known as a
"straight" or "Tuned Radio Frequency" set (T.R.F. for short) because
both the tuned circuits are adjusted to the frequency of the station being
received. If you read a few wireless receiver advertisements, however, you won't
find much about T.R.F. sets in them-practically every receiver will be
described as "superhet."
Superhets seem very peculiar receivers indeed when you first meet them,
because although they have several tuned circuits, only one or two are actually
tuned to the station you want.
We have already seen that a simple receiver with a single tuned circuit is
not very selective-the two tuned circuits of the final T.R.F. set give much
better results, with a great deal less interference between stations. Even so there
will still be some conditions where the T.R.F. set will not separate stations-it
should always receive the local stations well, with several foreign stations also,
but it would be better if it were more selective still. This could be done by
adding another R.F. stage, but then it would be difficult to keep the receiver
stable; that is there might easily be feedback over the two R.F. stages.
Another trouble with T.R.F. receivers is a change in sensitivity as they are
tuned over the medium wave band. Careful listening will show that results are
better at the low wavelength end than at the high wavelength end-this is
because the tuned circuit has greater efficiency when the tuning capacitance is
low. Again, the T.R.F. receiver is not very useful for short wave listening-
short wave coils could be added but a superhet will give better results because
it can be made more sensitive.
A really good receiver, then, would have ( i) several tuned circuits for
selectivity, and (2) these tuned circuits would be arranged to work at their most
efficient point. (3) There would be long, medium and short wave tuning,
whilst, (4) it should be possible to do away with a reaction control, letting the
receiver work at the best sensitivity to suit the signal being received. This means
(5) some form of "Automatic Volume Control," operated by the signal itself,
so that the set is very sensitive for a distant weak station, but much less sensitive
for a strong local signal.
The most important points on this list are the tuned circuits. If these are to
work at their most efficient point they should not have variable tuning at all,
and in fact this is done in a superhet. The required station, whatever its wavelength
and frequency, is first tuned in normally, then converted to a standard "Inter -
65
RB-E
66 Radio for Boys
mediate Frequency" and passed on to sets of coils and amplifiers which work
at that one frequency. The intermediate frequency signal (I.F. signal) is then
passed to a diode detector, from which the audio is taken to an amplifier and
output stage. The important thing to understand, then, is the frequency con-
verter and I.F. amplifier; the rest of the superhet receiver is similar to any
other type of set.
The circuit of the battery superhet is shown in Fig. 17 and at first the coils and
capacitors round V i may seem rather startling. The 4 windings on L i, however,
merely provide tuning over the three wavebands, the correct coil being chosen
by a switch, Sib, and the signal, once tuned, is passed to one of the 5 grids of
V i, a DK32 frequency changer or frequency converter. This type of valve
is known as a heptode since it has 7 electrodes altogether, and since it has so
many grids it can act as more than one valve-the first two grids, for example,
which are connected through switches to the coils of L2 on the right hand side
of V i, act, with the filament, like a triode valve.
In this section of the valve oscillations are generated, the frequency of oscil-
lation being controlled by the tuned circuit of L2 which is switched in by Sic
and Sid. In this particular circuit the feedback coil is connected to the grid and
the tuned coil to the 'anode' or second grid of the frequency changer, but the
oscillations are still generated in the way explained in Chapter 2. There is no
regeneration control, and the triode section of the frequency changer is oscil-
lating all the time the set is switched on.
You will remember that when an oscillating detector is tuned to a broadcast
signal a beat note or heterodyne is heard, the frequency of the note depending
on the difference in frequency between the signal and the detector tuning. A
similar effect takes place in V i of the superhet-the oscillator is automatically
tuned to a frequency higher than that of the required broadcast signal and the
two carriers beat against each other in the valve to produce a heterodyne. In
the majority of receivers, as in the present set, this heterodyne has quite a high
frequency of its own, about 465 kcs. which is far above audibility, and therefore
it is known as a "Supersonic Heterodyne." From these two words, of course,
comes the name "superhet."
The tuned circuits of L i and L2 are so arranged that no matter what fre-
quency is tuned in the Li -C6 circuit, the L2 -C o circuit always tunes to a
frequency 465 kcs. higher; for this purpose L2 has specially arranged windings
and the "Padding" capacitors C i i and C12 are added to the circuit. If the
oscillator section falls "out of gang" so that the difference frequency is more or
less than 465 kcs. the set will tune incorrectly; when the oscillator is in correct
adjustment it is said to "track" properly.
The heterodyne caused by the beating of the broadcast modulated signal with
the plain carrier of the oscillator carries the modulation, and is now known as
the intermediate frequency; this I.F. appears at the final anode of Vi and is
passed to the first I.F. transformer. The first tuned winding is, of course, adjusted
 40 V141:

YELLOW
YELI.0
R.F.C. C,7

TOE. FLYING LEAD

4o 0
3o o6
20 07
AE BLACK
GREEN
VALVE KEY GREEN BLACK
C S

6t' -
1D
C1

Li L2
C2
S SIB C22
Sic r E -11

4 C21 V4
3
SIA VI 5
C-; C4 C5 41110
72 2 7 2 7
7 2
CI C15
5
2 HT
to

142
C27 R9 LT -
41 'C11:
I LT. I.

FIG. I7-THE BATTERY SUPERHET

68 Radio for Boys
to 465 kcs. and so accepts the heterodyne signal, whilst other beat notes caused
by the heterodyne action are discarded. The primary of the I.F. transformer
passes the signal on by induction to the secondary and thus to V2 where the I.F.
is amplified-V2 is therefore known as the I.F. stage, or I.F. amplifier. Again
the signal is taken to a tuned winding of a transformer and again passed on by
induction to a second tuned winding-it thus undergoes four separate stages of
tuning, which gives the receiver a very high selectivity.
The diode detector (or "demodulator" as it is sometimes called) is part of
the diode triode, V3. Besides rectifying the signal, the diode also gives automatic
volume control. The secondary of the second I.F. transformer is connected to
the diode anode so that the diode passes current over the positive peaks of the
modulated carrier wave. This permits a flow of current through R5 so that at
its "upper" end appears a negative voltage varying in strength with the modu-
lation. This varying voltage is passed through C 18 to a potentiometer from which
is fed the grid of the triode; the potentiometer R6 is therefore the volume
control, as any proportion of the varying voltage can be tapped off from it.
C19 provides a bypass for the R.F. component of the signal.
The automatic volume control, generally called A.V.C., is also obtained
from the negative voltage across R5. The medium and long wave tuning coils
of Li, beside the secondary of the first I.F. transformer are connected to an
"A.V.C. line" instead of to the earthed chassis; C16 provides a return path for
the R.F. and, I.F. signals but not, of course, for any steady or D.C. voltage on
the line. The line is at practically the same voltage as the negative end of R5,
although the varying negative voltage due to speech or music is smoothed out
by R4 and C16, so that the final voltage on the line is a steady negative one
whose value depends on the strength of the signal being received. A powerful
signal gives a high voltage, a weak signal gives a low voltage. The voltage,
since it is negative, acts through the coils of Li and I.F.T.i as a bias on the
grids of VI and V2, each valve giving less amplification as the bias rises.
A strong signal therefore reduces the amplification of VI and V2, whilst it
rises again when a weak signal is tuned in.
The audio signal, after amplification by the triode of V3, is passed on to the
output stage V4 which operates the loudspeaker. Any stray R.F. is passed down
to earth through C2o, and this capacitor, if increased in value, can also serve
as a simple tone control by passing some of the higher frequencies to earth.
You will have noticed that A.V.C. is not used on VI when the receiver is
switched to the short waves. This is because short wave signals are weaker, and
need full amplification, whilst at the same time the frequency converter works
better on these high frequencies without any negative bias. You can see, too,
from Fig. 17 that an aerial coupling coil is not used on the short waves; S r a
switches the aerial straight through C2 to the short wave tuning coil and the
signal grid of VI. A coupling coil is used for medium and long wave reception.
One unusual component in the superhet circuit is the short wave choke
 A Four -Valve Battery Superhet 69
through which the H.T. current reaches the oscillator section of V t. The short
wave coils of L2 do not oscillate so strongly as the medium and long wave coils
and the choke prevents any oscillatory energy from leaving the circuit. With a
new battery the choke could be left out of circuit with practically no effect,
but as the battery ages and drops in voltage the short wave section would
stop oscillating before the medium and long wave sections if the choke were not
in circuit. If the oscillator stops working, naturally, there is no heterodyne or
I.F. signal, and so nothing can be heard.
Components for the Four -Valve Superhet Battery Receiver, Fig. 17
LI, L2 pair of Weymouth CS3W3 superhet coils.
CI, CI8, C21 o.oi mF., 50o v.w. Tubular. T.C.C. 543.
C2 5o pF, 35o v.w. Mica. T.C.C. M.W.N.
C3, C4, C5
C13,C14, C15 4 to 6o pF. trimmers. Walter Instruments MS7o.
C6, Ca) 50o pF. variable two -gang tuner. Jackson Bros., Type E.
C7, CI6, C17 0.1 mF. 35o v.w. Tubular. T.C.C. 343.
C8, C9, C19, C20 50o pF. 35o v.w. Tubular. T.C.C. CM2oN.
CII 16o pF. Yellow Spot J
Cl2 65o pF. Orange Spot J double padder
Walter Instruments Type 356.
C22 8 mF. 200 v.w. Electrolytic. T.C.C. CE 18G.
RI 68,000 ohms, watt.
R2 220,000 ohms,
R3 to,000 ohms,
R4, R5, R7 megohm, ,, 72
R6 megohm potentiometer, with 2 pole on -off switch.
R8 2.2 megohms, 2 watt.
R9 470 ohms,
R.F.C. Short wave choke, Eddystone Type tot o.
I.F.T. 1, 2 pair I.F. transformers, Weymouth, Type P4J and P4K.
Sta., b, c, d 4 pole, 3 way rotary switch. Walter Instruments, Type
B.T.
S2 2 pole on -off switch, ganged with R6.
VI Mullard DK32
V2 Mullard DF33
V3 Mullard DAC32
V4 Mullard DL35
4 Octal valveholders.
2 Sockets and plugs, Belling Lee L315 and L to21/3.
Flex fuseholder, Belling Lee, L 1037. Fuse to55, 6o mAs.
2 Wander plugs, red and black, Belling Lee L341. (H.T. Battery Connectors).
L.T. Battery plug, 2 pin.
 Radio for Boys

FIG. I8 -THE BATTERY SUPERHET CHASSIS, TOP VIEW

Sp. & Ti, 5 in. permanent magnet moving coil loudspeaker, with output
transformer to match to 8,000 ohms anode load.
Tuning Drive, Messrs. Jackson Bros. "Full Vision Drive."
Tuning Scale, Messrs. Weymouth Type T.S.I. See below.
Chassis, aluminium, min. x 8 in. x 21 in., drilled as shown in Fig. i8. Small
piece scrap metal sheet for capacitor clip.
3 Knobs.
Rubber Grommet, to fit 5)16 in. hole.
3 Octal grid clips.
Soldering tags, nuts and bolts, wire, sleeving, solder, etc. Length of screened
sleeving for grid lead of V3.
H.T. Battery, io8 volts. Ever Ready Winner, 108.
Note.-A go volts battery may be used instead.
L.T. Battery, 1.5 volts, Vidor, Type L5o49
Note.-The I.F. transformers have adjusting screws at the top and bottom
of their cans. Avoid touching these screws until the receiver is ready to test.
In the circuit diagram the capacitors tuning the I.F. transformer windings
are un-numbered. This is because these capacitors are supplied already fitted
to the transformers.
 A Four -Valve Battery Superhet 71

FIG. 19 -UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF THE BATTERY SUPERHET

TAG NO. 7 OF L2 IS EARTHED TO THE COIL'S FIXING BOLT

CONSTRUCTING THE SUPERHET

The superhet is not at all difficult to build and wire up, although you should
have built at least part of the T.R.F. set first for practice. The chassis is a standard
size and can be bought from any good radio store-again, the best way is to buy
it by post from advertisements in the radio magazines. The chassis must be
completely drilled and punched with valve holes before any wiring up is
commenced.
Fig. 19 shows how the parts are mounted below the chassis. On the top of
the chassis the tuning capacitor is mounted in the way already described in
72 Radio for Boys
Chapter II, its feet being moved, or new feet being fitted, so that it can be
mounted with the vanes opening to the right, as shown in Fig. 9. Once again the
tuner must be spaced by washers to a height of about / in. above the chassis
surface. The holes marked A in Fig. 18 provide the mounting points for the
tuner, whilst those marked B each have a trimmer bolted to them. The trim-
mers both above and below the chassis should be bolted down, as already
described, with their top plates connected to earth.
The Aerial coil is bolted to the top of the chassis at the hole marked C, and
the leads to its top tags then pass through the hole D and so up through the coil
itself. A soldering tag bolted down with the Aerial coil provides an earthing
point for tags Nos. 4 and 7. The lead to tag No. 9 passes through the hole E.
The tags at the bottom of the Aerial coil can be easily identified, tag No. 7 is
directly below No. 2 and tag No. 9 is directly below No. 5. Remember to connect
tags Nos. I, 2 and 9 to the trimmers bolted on top of the chassis.
On the Oscillator coil the tags must also be correctly identified, for if any of
the windings are connected in reverse there will be no oscillation. Tag No. 7
is again below tag No. 2, No. 8 is below No. 4 and No. 9 below No. 5.
Care must be taken, too, with the switch contacts. Before mounting the switch
on the front chassis wall, make sure how each of the four moving contacts meet
the fixed contacts, and compare the switch with the drawing in Fig. 19.
When mounting the padder CI 1, C12, make sure the two adjusting screws
can be reached easily through
metal of the chassis. Remember to connect Tag No. 5 to Tag No. 2 on Lz.
When the I.F. transformers are placed into position, remember that the one
with a lead from the top of the can goes between VI and V2, the other trans-
former being placed between V2 and V3. Check the colours on the connecting
pins with Fig. 19.
Only one lead is wired in above the chassis, apart from the coil leads-a
length of rubber covered flex is taken from the top tag of C6, the front section
of the tuner, over to the top cap of V 1. To find the correct length of wire, plug
in V r for a minute, and solder a grid clip to the end of the wire which should
just be long enough to connect to the valve without any strain. Take out V
before turning the chassis over again, and remember to support its ends on
wooden blocks or books whilst the wiring goes on.
Once the coils, trimmers, padders and the wavechange switch are wired
correctly, the rest of the work is easy. The component positions are shown in
Fig. 19, but remember that the wiring should be as direct as possible. Once
again it has been necessary in the under -chassis view to show the wires spaced
out so that each can be seen clearly, and some can be shorter than they appear
in the diagram. Remember that insulation must be perfect. The screened
sleeving is used to screen the lead from the volume control up to the top cap of
V3. Push back the screening slightly at each end so that there is no chance of its
touching the main lead and thus making a short circuit, and note that the
 A Four -Valve Battery Superhet 73
screening at the volume control end of the lead is earthed. This joint is made by
wrapping one turn of connecting wire round the screening and soldering it.
Be careful not to burn the sleeving material inside the screen.
This lead should also be measured for length with V3 in place, and a grid clip
soldered to the end of the lead; the third grid clip is soldered to the lead from
the top of I.F.T.1.
The rubber grommet is used to bush the hole in the rear left corner of the
chassis through which the battery leads pass. Remember to check the switch
contacts on the on -off switch behind R6 so that the correct pairs are chosen-
the method of testing is described in Chapter 2.
Also described in Chapter 2 is the method of fitting the flex fuseholder to the
H.T. Negative lead.
The loudspeaker is not mounted on the chassis, but should be bolted to the
cabinet in which the set is placed, or of course it may have its own cabinet or
baffleboard. The speaker leads, which should be of rubber covered flex wire,
pass through the hole in front of the V4 valveholder.
When the under -chassis work is complete the tuning scale can be fitted to the
receiver. The scale already fastened to the Full Vision Tuning drive is not used,
and is removed, the Weymouth TS' scale being used in its place. This must be
drilled with a hole for the. pointer spindle-to remove the old scale the pointer
screw must be taken out and the pointer removed.
The hole in the new scale is drilled at the point marked by a red cross below
and between the red letters W and R at the base of the scale. A in. hole is
needed and must be drilled carefully so that the celluloid is not cracked. Fit
the new scale on the drive and mark where the bolt holes must be drilled, two
each side, to allow the scale to be bolted to its framework. These holes are then
drilled, the scale bolted on, and the pointer replaced.
Now fit the whole drive assembly to the tuner, first loosening the screws
holding the adjustable base of the drive. Lower the base onto the chassis, and
bolt it in place with 6 B.A. bolts and nuts, remembering that a soldering tag
fits under one of the nuts below the chassis. Tighten up the adjusting bolts, and
turn the tuning spindle as far as possible to the right, before tightening the grub
screws onto the tuner spindle. Turn the vanes right in, then tighten up the grub
screws so that the moving vanes rotate with the tuning spindle on the drive.
Finally turn the spindle again to the right as far as possible, and adjust the
pointer so that it too lies flat and to the right.
When the set is completely wired up, check every lead and component against
the diagrams, then connect up the loudspeaker and plug in the valves. Remem-
ber never to switch on without the speaker connected. Plug in to the L.T. battery,
and make sure that each filament is glowing. Plug in the H.T. negative plug to
the H.T. battery, and tap the positive plug on the 90 or 108 volts socket. At each
tap there should be a plop from the speaker. If all seems well, plug in, and then
tap the top cap of V I very gently with a screwdriver, holding the metal blade
74 Radio for Boys
in the hand. Once again there should be a click or plop. There is not much use
in tuning round for stations, for the set has to be aligned, or trimmed up, and
that is a job which will need a good deal of care and patience.

ALIGNING THE SUPERHET.

Before signals can be properly received with a superhet receiver the three
different tuned sections must be adjusted correctly. The two I.F. transfor-
mers must have their four windings tuned to 465 kcs., the oscillator must be
adjusted, on each waveband, to tune 465 kcs., higher than the first tuned
circuit or aerial circuit, and this first tuned circuit must be trimmed to tune in
agreement with the tuning scale. Receiver manufacturers and radio repair
engineers make these adjustments very quickly and easily with the help of
"Signal Generators"-small oscillators which can be tuned to give a signal at
any required frequency. One or two of you may be lucky enough to know a
radio dealer or an experimenter who will show you how to align your superhet
with a signal generator, but most of you will have to adjust the receiver using
broadcast station signals.
MAKE ALL ADJUSTMENTS VERY CAREFULLY, USING A THIN -BLADED SCREW-
DRIVER. NEVER USE FORCE ON ANY OF THE ADJUSTING SCREWS.
Tune the set in the following steps: -
I. Stand the receiver carefully on one end, so that all trimmers, padders, and the top and
bottom I.F. transformer screws can be reached.
2. Set the trimmers C3, C4, C5, and C t3, C14 and C t5 to half capacity. To do this, unscrew
each trimmer till the top plate is as far out as it will go, then gently screw it right down,
counting the number of turns. Then unscrew it again, half the number of turns counted.
Set the two padders, C11 and C12, to about of full capacity. For the time being, leave
the I.F.T. screws in the positions found when the transformers were bought.
3. Plug in a good aerial and earth, and switch on the receiver. Turn the volume control
fully up, and switch St to the long wave band (over to the right).
4. Tune the receiver to the Light Programme, 1,500 metres on the red scale, and see if the
station can be heard. If not, tune on either side of the 1,50o metre point, until the station
is found. As soon as the station is heard, trim up the I.F. transformers for loudest volume,
starting with the top screw on I.F.T.2. Turn this screw in or out to see if the volume can be
increased and leave it at the point where results are best. Then adjust the bottom screw
on I.F.T.2, and follow by adjusting first the top and then the bottom screws on I.F.T.t.
Once the I.F. transformers have been set this in way, leave them alone during the rest of
the adjustments.
5- If the Light Programme is tuned in on one side or the other of the correct 1,50o metres
point, turn the tuning knob till the pointer reads 1,50o exactly, and then vary the padder,
CI 1, until the station is tuned in.
6. Now tune to lower wavelength station, such as Kalundborg on 1224 metres. If it is
not at its correct tuning point, set the pointer to the correct place and tune in the station
by adjusting C13.
Note-When adjusting either the trimmers or the padders, these should be screwed in to
give more capacitance when the station is found above its correct setting, and out, for less
capacitance, when the station is found below its correct setting.
7. If at point 5 the Light Programme was found at the correct point without touching the
padder, go straight to adjustment No. 6.
8. Having made adjustment No. 6, retune to the Light Programme. The adjustment made
to the trimmer; C13, will probably have moved the station just a little from its correct
 A Four -Valve Battery Superhet 75
setting. Correct the padder Cit, to bring it back, then return to adjustment No. 6. The
trimmer will now probably need a slight further adjustment.
g. Continue to make adjustments Nos. 6 and 8, one after the other, till one has no effect on
the other. Then trim up C5 to give best volume on the Light Programme. If the signal is
weak at adjustment No. 5, C5 can be trimmed then to increase volume, and then retrimmed
after adjustment No. 8.
to. Now switch to the medium waves (Siin the central position), and tune to the North
Region Home Service, 434 metres on the black scale. If signals are weak trim C4 until
they improve and then find whether the North Regional station is above or below its
correct point. Set the pointer to the correct position and tune in the station by varying
the padder C12.
11. Now tune down to the Light Programme on 247 metres, find on which side of the setting
the signal lies, then set the pointer correctly and tune in the station by adjusting the trim-
mer C 4.
12. Tune back to the North Regional station and correct the padder.
13. Tune back to the Light Programme and correct the trimmer.
14. Repeat adjustments 12 and 13 until one has no effect on the other. Finally retrim C.4 for
best results.
15. Now switch to the short waves, St over to the left, and tune over the green stripe beside
the 3o metres point. When a signal is heard trim first C 1 5, then C3, for best results. As
C t5 is adjusted the station will move position, and it will be necessary to retune the main
tuner.
The best way of trimming up the short wave band is to tune to a station giving English
programmes and to wait until an announcement is made when the correct wavelength of
the signal is given. The pointer can then be set to that wavelength and the station tuned
in again by adjusting C15.
16. All the adjustments so far mentioned have supposed that the I.F. transformers were roughly
tuned to the correct frequency. If this is not the case, however, the Light Programme will
not be heard at all at adjustment No. 4.
If no signals can be found the I.F. transformers must be roughly set by placing the
cores at their mid positions. To do this, unscrew the trimming adjusters on the trans-
formers till they are right out-do not force them or the iron dust cores will be damaged-
then screw them in, counting the turns in each case, till the screw slot is level with its
holder. Then unscrew the cores for half the number of turns counted, when the cores
will be central. It should now be possible to hear a signal on the long wave band, and the
I.F. transformers will be corrected during adjustment No. 4.
With the short wave tuning range adjusted, the aligning is complete and
the set ready for use, once it is placed in its cabinet.
 CHAPTER VII

An A.C. Mains Superhet

LL the circuits described in this book so far have been battery operated.
This is for a very good reason-so that they are completely safe for you
to use and experiment with them. A mains receiver is cheaper to run, it
can be more sensitive and gives a much greater output, but it can be dangerous
until you know something about constructing and handling radio receivers.
You must not try building a mains operated receiver, therefore, until you are
accustomed to battery sets.
There are two types of mains operated receivers-A.C. sets, which work off
A.C. mains only, and A.C./D.C. or Universal Mains receivers, which operate
either from A.C. or D.C. mains. No. A.C./D.C. receiver is shown in this book,
because the circuit and very often the chassis itself of such a receiver is directly
connected to the mains wiring, making such a set very dangerous indeed under
certain circumstances. In the A.C. receiver the mains are "isolated," as it is
called, from the set by the mains transformer. Most of you will have A.C. mains
supplies in your homes and so will be able to use the receiver circuit shown in
Fig. 2 0 ; those of you who have D.C. supplies only must be content with battery
receivers until you have a lot more experience.
The A.C. mains receiver of Fig. zo is actually a good deal more simple to
build and adjust than the battery superhet since a coilpack is used; a coilpack
contains all the aerial and oscillator coils ready assembled round the wave -
change switch, with all the wiring completed. For this reason there is no need
to show the coils, trimmers, switch, etc., in the diagram and only the 5 soldering
tags actually connected to the rest of the circuit are drawn. There is also a
sixth connection but this is made automatically when the coilpack is bolted by
its single large fixing nut onto the metal chassis. Besides being ready built and
wired, the coilpack, like the I.F. transformers, is also "pre -aligned," that is the
trimmers and adjustable cores in the coils are all set correctly so that if all
connections and components are in order the receiver works as soon as it is
first switched on, and needs only very slight trimming corrections to suit it to
the aerial being used. The adjustable cores act as Padders.
Whilst the mains superhet operates in the same manner as the battery
receiver-the received signal is heterodyned to produce a modulated standard
I.F. which then passes to a diode detector and an L.F. and output stages-
there are some points in Fig. zo which need explanation. In the first case, V i
is not a heptode but a triode-hexode, two, valves in one. The aerial signal is
supplied to the hexode and the triode provides the oscillator section; notice
76
 An A.G. Mains Superhet 77
that the triode grid is extended, in the valve, to behave as one of the hexode
grids as well. This gives an "injection" of the oscillator power into the hexode
as a grid voltage to heterodyne the broadcast signal. The hexode section is so
called as it has 6 electrodes.
Notice that the electrode which supplies electrons to the valve is no longer
a filament but a cathode heated by a filament or heater. The cathode is
shown as a flat bar at the bottom of each valve in Fig. zo and in each
case is brought out at the No. 8 tag on the valveholder. The actual
cathode within a mains valve is a metal tube coated with a special preparation
which emits electrons when heated; the heater itself is placed inside the
tube and insulated from it. This form of construction is needed to allow
the valve filaments of heaters to be operated from A.C. supplies. The cath-
ode takes some seconds to heat up to operating temperature but once there
it will keep a steady temperature, and emit electrons steadily, even though its
heater varies slightly in temperature from time to time. If the electrons were
drawn from an ordinary filament operated from A.C. their emission would
be governed by the temperature changes in the filament caused by the alter-
nating wave, and any signals applied to the valve would be masked by a 50
cycles hum.
One or two valves, chiefly rectifiers, have heavy strip filaments without separate
cathodes for A.C. operation, but all the modern mains valves which you will
use in this receiver have cathode tubes-it is easy to see the tube, and the leads
to the heater inside it, near the base of unmetallised glass valves.
In the present circuit the heaters of V i to V4 require 6.3 volts at varying
currents, whilst the heater of V5, the rectifier, takes 5 volts at 2 amperes. Some
types of mains valves require 4 volts across the heaters, whilst other types, for
A.G./D.C. operation, require as much as 3o volts and more across the heaters,
since these last valves have their heaters connected in series.
A further point to notice about the cathodes of the valves in Fig. 20 is that
they are not connected directly to the earth line-the connection is made
through a resistor bypassed by a capacitor; R16 and C16 in the case of V4.
This arrangement gives the valve automatic grid bias, or cathode biasing as it
is usually called. Modern battery valves are, in the main, designed to work
without grid bias-in the 4 valve battery receivers only the output valves are
biased-but most mains valves require a bias to set their operating conditions
correctly. The valve's anode current flows up through the cathode resistor and
thus sets up a voltage across it which makes the cathode positive to the earth
line. This is exactly the same thing as making the grid negative to the earth line,
and so the proper grid bias can be obtained by making the cathode resistor the
right value. If the valve passes to mAs. and needs r volt grid bias, Ohm's Law
gives the answer that the cathode resistor should have a value of t oo ohms.
In a pentode the cathode resistor is carrying both anode and screen current,
since the screen draws a few milliamps, and, in some cases, even a little grid
78 Radio for Boys
current as well, if the grid should run positive. The anode current will obviously
be varying with the signal, so to prevent the cathode voltage from fluctuating a
capacitor is connected across the resistor as a bypass. In R.F. circuits only
o. i mF. or so is needed, whilst in audio and output circuits 25 mF. is a common
value. If the capacitor is omitted the cathode voltage varies in opposition to the
grid voltage and reduces the amplification given by the valve; this is known as
one form of "negative feedback" and can be very useful in audio amplifiers
and similiar circuits, where it is used to reduce distortion, correct tone, and
so on.
In Fig. 20 Vi and V2 share one resistor and capacitor. This is simply for
economy, both valves need the same bias and so R4 and C5 serve for both of
them, just as R6 and C9 serve for both screens. Valves cannot always be fed
together in this way, but in this case the method is perfectly suitable.
A further difference between mains and the battery circuit is found in the
A.V.C. arrangement. V3 in Fig. 20 has two diode anodes-it is a double-diode-
triode-and so one of these diodes can be used for A.V.C. alone. It is fed by a
small capacitor from the anode of V2 instead of from the I.F. transformer
secondary. The A.V.C. in this case is delayed for the cathode of V3 is biased by
Rio to about 2.5 volts positive so that the diode anode must be more than 2.5
volts positive before the diode current will flow. (The anode must be more
positive than the cathode.) The weakest signals will not supply sufficient anode
voltage to give current flow and so the A.V.C. does not come into operation
on them, it is "delayed" until a signal is strong enough to overcome the bias
on the diode section of V3. The weakest signals therefore receive full ampli-
fication in the controlled valves, Vi and V2, although of course there is no
correction on them if they should fade.
Since, however, this is your first mains receiver, the most important and
interesting part is the power pack, which is made up of T2, the mains trans-
former, V5, the rectifier, L.F.C., the low frequency choke, and C18 and C17,
the reservoir and smoothing capacitors.
T2 has its primary fed from the mains through Si, the on -off switch, which
is on the rear of the volume control R8. The primary of the transformer is tapped
so that it can be adjusted correctly to any mains voltage between 200 and 250
volts-the most usual voltage is 230 volts though some of you may be able to
check this by looking at your electricity meters which may have your mains
voltage stamped onto their information plates. If you cannot discover your
exact mains voltage, it is generally safe to use the 23o volts tapping. The con-
nections to the primary, therefore, are made to the "Common" and to the
23o volts or other correct tapping. The other primary tappings are unused, and
must be most carefully insulated-it is a good idea to roll them up, each one
separately, and to bind them with a layer of insulating tape. Never pull the
wires, or bend them about unnecessarily.
Between the primary and the other transformer windings is a screen, shown
 -4

giCi8

Rii
R5

BRED
RED

I. F.T. 2 12

TOP FLYING
LEAD I-11 ez' GREEN
of I I to T
-/ B
III NI
C19
-4 I ACip
- BLACK T1

YELLOW
YELLOW./
CI' MM.

C10
3
34-1
C15
COIL PACK (
4-
C6 V
11-* V3 FUSE
C2 39
R15
2 4 8
2 7
3 COIL PACK
C12 41(
R9 TO TAG
C3 R14
'VV* 7, ON
C9
,

R4 VI, v2. v4
13
R16
- - c 6
14
RiI
C4 RI3
LTR)

FIG. 20-THE A.C. MAINS SUPERHET

8o Radio for Boys
in Fig. zo as a line of dashes connected down to the earth line. This can be
identified from the colour code card with the transformer, as can all the other
leads. This screen is actually a single layer of thin wire over the primary with a
connection at only one end; it prevents noises in the mains lead (electrical
noises, of course, caused by poor switch contacts, electric motors, and so on)
from being induced into the secondary windings and so interfering with
reception.
The two heater secondaries, one giving 6.3 volts and one giving 5 volts are
easily identified because of the thick wire used to carry heavy current. Some
transformers will have a centre tap to each of these windings, but in this
circuit these are not required and can also be rolled up separately and
insulated.
Finally the 250-o -25o volts winding, the H.T. winding, will be found.
When the transformer is working this winding has 500 volts across it, a really
dangerous figure, so that you must never run any risk of touching the two
contacts on the V5 holder to which this winding is connected. The centre tap
of the H.T. winding is taken to earth through a fuse bulb which is a protection
for the transformer if the capacitors C i 7 and C i8, or the rectifier, V5, should
ever break down.
The duty of the H.T. secondary of T2 and the rectifier V5 is to convert the
alternating output from the transformer into smooth direct current; any trace
of A.C. left would cause serious hum, and C17 and C18, with the L.F. choke
perform the smoothing. First the A.C. from T2 is rectified or converted into
D.C. in the following way.
Since the centre tap of the H.T. winding is connected to the earth line, when-
ever one end of the winding is 25o volts positive to earth the other end must be
25o volts negative to earth, and since the winding is supplying A.C. each end
is positive in turn. Consider the moment when Tag 4 of V5 is positive to earth
-it will draw electrons from the rectifier's cathode, these electrons in turn
coming from the H.T. supply line, through the L.F. choke, and also from any
charge on C18. The electrons flow through the lower half of the H.T. secondary,
through the fuse bulb and so to the earth line, where they are available for
passage through the circuits and valves.
No electrons are drawn to tag No. 6 anode of V5 since this is very
negative.
In the next instant, however, the ends of the H.T. winding reverse their
polarity and it is the turn of the tag No. 6 anode of V5 to draw electrons from
the cathode. This time they flow round the upper half of the H.T. winding, but
still arrive at the earth line to feed the receiver circuit.
Electrons flowing through the valves and into the H.T. line first charge C17,
the smoothing capacitor, then flow through the L.F choke to charge C,18 and
return to the rectifier cathode. The rectifier tries to draw electrons in spurts, as
each anode goes positive in turn, but the choke opposes current flowing in
 RB-F
list. components the after
mentioned are points Special superhet. mains the building about
you everything almost you know to need
tell will 22 and 21 20, Figs. diagrams, three the and
receivers constructing about deal good a learned have will you
time this By
SUPERHET. MAINS A.C. THE CONSTRUCTING
pack. power the of part other any or choke L.F. the
through pass to having without line earth the to down straight bypassed fore
there- are which variations these for path impedance low a
poor and provides C17 tone.
distortion least, the at or, howling cause and interact might which
voltages up set immediately would they impedance or resistance of type any
through or pack power the through flow to had current of
round. flow to path complete a have must they circuit variations these If
any in as
just lines; supply H.T. the in found also are variations electrical other
these
its to applied is signal a as soon as current anode varying a naturallya and grid
has circuit in valve
Each variations. L.F. and R.F. for path a as important very also is it
remove and H.T. current direct the out hum, mains
smooth to helps it Whilst perform. to tasks
two has really 20), Fig. in 17 (C capacitor
smoothing the pack power any In
current. true the up make and positive to negative
from flow electrons that remember to have however, radiomen, We capacitor.
smoothing the by then and choke L.F. the by out smoothed being spurts
spurts, in capacitor reservoir the up charging so these
cathode, its to anode rectifier
the from flows current how read will theory-you
flow" "current old the
by described pack power a of action the find will you books some In Note.
regulation. poor exhibit to said is kind this of variation wide a
has which transformer A fall. voltage the makes current more
a rise will voltage the drawing little,
secondary H.T. the from drawn are mAs. few a only If
load. of change a with degree some to output voltage their vary
Transformers
on. so
and capacitor, volts 45o a preferably and volts 35o a
least at have must
transformer volt 25o voltage-a
a have therefore must receiver anytransformer the than rating voltage higher
in capacitor reservoir The volts. 1.414 x 25o
almost actually is peaks-it at volts 25o than more is C18 across
so and voltage, voltage the
R.M.S. the than higher deal good a is secondary transformer
H.T. the across voltage peak the that is remember to point
Another position. this
in used be always must component good a and conditions
and difficult
rather under working is therefore, capacitor, reservoir The wearing
course, of although, capacitor, D.C. pass not does it
the through A.C. of flow heavy quite a is there
this of because and one, each after recharges which C18
are current of spurts The from taken therefore
effect. spurt the out wipes practically which voltage
and current opposite an induces and varies winding choke
the around field
magnetic the rise to starts current the as soon
self-induction-as its by spurts
81 Superhet Mains A.C. An
 load. anode ohms 5,000 to match to transformer
output with loudspeaker, coil moving magnet permanent in. 5 Ti. & Sp.
MC3. Type Feldman, W. A. Messrs.
below. See ohms. 360 resistance mAs., 6o carry To Choke. L.F.
FMI/25o. Type Feldman, W. A. Messrs.
amps. 2 volts, 5
amps. 3 volts, 6 Secondaries, L.T.
mAs. 6o volts, 250-0-250 Secondary, H.T.
volts. -200-25oPrimary
below. See T2. Transformer, Mains
below. See mAs. 25o Bulb, holder. with Fusebulb
Lio21/3. and L315 Lee Belling plugs, and Sockets 2
valveholders. Octal 5
GZ32. Mullard V5
6V6GT. V4
EBC33 Mullard V3
EF39. Mullard V2
ECH35 Mullard VI
R8. with ganged switch, -off on pole 2 Si
-aligned. Pre Osmor, transformers, I.F. pair i 2 I.F.T.i,
watt. i ohms, 27o R16
3,
ohms, R14
/3 )5
megohm, i R13
I RI
))
ohms, 220,000
I)
ohms, 3,goo Rio
watt. I ohms, 470,000 RI2 Rg,
switch. -off on pole 2 with potentiometer, megohm i R8
watt. i ohms, 33,000 R6
33 3)
ohms, 200 R4
2)
ohms, 47,000 R7 R5, R3,
)3
ohms, ioo,000 R2
watt. ohms, 10,000 R15 RI,
below. See g iC
CE27P. T.C.C. Electrolytic. v.w. 45o mF. 8 plus 8 C18 C17,
CE32C. T.C.C. Electrolytic. v.w. 25 mF. 25 Ci6
CM2oN. T.C.C. Mica. v.w. 35o pF. 200 C8
CM2oN. T.C.C. Mica. v.w. 35o pF. ioo C12 I, CI Cm, C6,
543. T.C.C. Tubular. v.w. 500 mF. o.i C14 Cg, C5, C4,
below. See E. Type
Bros. Jackson tuner, -gangtwo variable pF. 500 C7 C3,
543. T.C.C. Tubular. v.w. 500 mF. 0.0I CI5 CI3, C2, CI,
-aligned. Pre H.O., Type Coilpack, "Q" Osmor Coilpack
20. Fig. Superhet, Mains A.G. the for Components
Boys for Radio 82
 VIEW TOP CHASSIS SUPERHET, MAINS A.C. -THE 21 FIG.
16'
I
7/8
11.-4 N.
3i" 3" 3,1/4
343'DIAm. /8
DIAM 3
/44
0
1 16t
4%8' 3/. /8, 741
2
414" r 4
V 41- t3/4*
F F
146 (8
I T5
/.4'DIAM
4DIAM. <51
2 3
3/4!
/16" 1
.DIAM. 3/4:
HERE
%414 DIAM. HOLDER
FUSE
3/4! 1.
I 8
fiF
m D
'61
/
4 AM'
DIAM.
: /43
A
8" t
14' .. /4
4 2 I, 8 16 16
1 1....E-44
41 11 11
3
43 41.-4-,(e..6-
.9
.43"DIAM.3
T O A A
1/4DIAM. 6
3/4!
4' ti
48 a 4. 2
DIAM. lipif
83
 flex. covered rubber of length a by valve the to over
tuner- the of section front C3-the of lug soldering top the from taken is it
before as and chassis the above made is VI of cap top the to connection The
21. Fig. F, marked holes the to
bolted is tuner The receivers. other the in as just right, the to opening vanes the
with washers, of stacks on down bolted is and on, put feet new or moved, feet
its has it is, down"-that "upside mounted again is capacitor tuning The
list. parts the in mentioned is it why is set-that battery old your from
drive tuning the use to want probably will you of many but transformers, I.F.
and coilpack the with drive tuning Osmor complete a buy course, of can, You
scale. the scratch not do
wire the of ends the sure Make bolt. fixing pointer the hold to enough large just
middle, its in loop a into wire of length right the bend pointer, the make To
true. and
straight remains and slightly stretches wire The wire. the of end other the on
pull strong good a put and pliers, by or vice, a in wire the of end the grip so, or
yard a unwind reel or hank a off wire straighten To S.W.G. i8 like gauge, thick
fairly a wire-use copper tinned of length straight a from made be also can
it this, buy could you whilst but enough long not is one old the as needed be
will pointer new A itself. drive "Squareplane" the to brackets aluminium by
held be easily quite could It scale. the mount to way better some of think to
able be may you because 21 Fig. in shown not are these for holes chassis-the
the of edge front the to bolted aluminium of strips two of means by spindle,
pointer the over falling hole central its place, in mounted was dial Osmor large
the Then first. removed was course, of pointer, The away. filed were it holding
lugs small the and drive, the from removed was scale celluloid white The drive.
motion slow Bros."Squareplane" Jackson a with used was scale tuning Osmor
an set this of model trial the in that list components the from see will You
transformers. I.F. and
coilpack the on screws adjusting the of any touch not Do tuned. already is, that
pre-aligned- are I.F.T.'s and coilpack the that sure make together; ordered
be all should scale tuning and transformers, I.F. coilpack, H.O. Osmor The
lead. mains for cable lead twin "cabtyre" of Length
sleeving. screened of Length
etc. solder, sleeving, wire, bolts, and nuts tags, Soldering
Knobs. 3
clips. grid Octal 3
V3. Type T.C.C. clip, can Capacitor
.
12 Fig. in shown as drilled in., 24 x in. 8 x in. io aluminium, Chassis,
below. See
coilpack. H.O. suit to type metal square Osmor, Messrs. Scale, Tuning
"Squareplane." Bros. Jackson Messrs. Drive, Tuning
Boys for Radio 84
 also is transformer the from leads secondary the all of insulation Perfect
insulated. perfectly are joints the that see to
taken be then must care great and leads longer to connected be to have will they
not if ; used be can course of these enough long are leads transformer the If
C. hole the through up passes primary the to switch the from lead mains The
enough. large not are B.A. 6
purpose, this for bolts B.A. 4 Use B. marked holes the to choke the and A,
marked holes the to down bolted is transformer The them. suit to holes the drill
these of makes different obtain to have you if and list the in mentioned choke
and transformer the for course, of are, 21 Fig. in points drilling The chassis. the
fit will choke and transformer the that ensure to is point important next The
values. common
most two the are these used; be may choke Henrys 20 or 10 a Either resistance.
a low too not with least, at mAs. 6o for be must rating current the choke, the
of case the in windings-and, amps 2 volts 5 and amps 3 volts 6 with mAs. 6o
at secondary volts 250-0-250 correct-a are ratings voltage the that are points
important The circuit. this in perfectly work will which chokes and transformers
of types several are there used, are parts made well as long important-so too
not is this However, mentioned. ones the exactly obtain to possible be always
not may it that components these of makes many so are there but list, parts
the in given are receiver trial the in used choke L.F. and transformer The
down. bolted is it when holder bulb the beneath fixed and cut be can cardboard
of circle a this of danger any is there If chassis. the touch to down bent not
is arm contact bottom the place into screwed is bulb the when that check and
chassis, the and lugs the between get solder of blobs no that sure Make up. wiring
are you when holder bulb the to leads the solder and file fine small a with lugs
the clean wires, the hold which screws connecting small two the out Take best.
is holder bakelite A position. V5 the beside drilled be should They 2r. Fig. in
shown not are so and itself, holder the on depend will chassis the in holes fixing
The though! those, for ask Don't houses. dolls' sister's your in holders bulb of
sort the have; already will you of many which type metal or bakelite a be can
holder the mAs.-whilst 25o of rating correct the has it that so specially bought
be must it bulb-though torch a as size same the is fusebulb The anywhere.
practically found be can list parts the in mentioned holder and fusebulb The
turned. is
spindle control volume the when which with connects point which show soon
will bulb and battery A voltages. mains handling is switch the since receiver
this in important especially is This pairs. correct the are which sure make
to R8 of back the on contacts switch the check to again, once Remember,
results. pleasing most the give will mF. 0.01 Probably
tone. on effect big a has mounting speaking the for C19, choosing before baffle its
on or cabinet its in mounted properly speaker the have you till Wait trial. by
chosen best is value final the and capacitor, correcting tone a again is C19
85 Superhet Mains A.G. An
77711*.5111_
 so, or second a after
off, switch far, so well is all If brilliance. good a to up coming
glow should heater V4's using. are you socket the fit to plug mains proper a
have should course, of lead, mains The on. switch and mains the to lead mains
the connect only, V4 in plug this, do To tested. be now can receiver The
open. fully vanes capacitor tuning
the with scale the across straight lies pointer the that sure Make described.
already manner the in mounted be should scale tuning and drive motion
slow the checked carefully and completed been has wiring the all When
itself. speaker the on mounted
be should which transformer output the on tags the across connected is capacitor
the since 22 Fig. in shown not is Cig on. switched is set the before up connected
be must speaker the and used, be should leads covered Rubber holder. V4
the beside hole the through passed are loudspeaker the to V4 from leads The
clear. connections
as diagram
the make to simply is this outwards, bent were front chassis the if
the in shown is potentiometer The in. bolted being is it when care with pack the
as
Handle downwards. pointing trimmers and coils the with 22, Fig. in shown
placed is it so and reach, within screws adjusting its have also must coilpack The
outwards.
face screws adjusting the that so transformers the Mount positions. -V3 V2 the
and -V2 VI the between holes the over mounted are transformers the that clear
is properly-it up them connect to and transformers I.F. the of leads coloured
the identify to Remember build. to set simple a quite this find should you
22 Fig. of help the with and straightforward, quite is wiring the of rest The
it. of sides both on cut-out or "snick"
a
little a with tags, positive two the from shape different slightly have also
may tag capacitor earthed the but black coloured generally is This earthed.
i i on tags
is tag capacitor third the as identified be must tags These 8. 7-C C
capacitor two the at anchored be can and E hole through pass leads choke The
tag. soldering earthed nearest the to hole either through pass can lead screen The
holder. V5 the of 6 and 4 Nos. tags to
them connect and D, hole through down these pass leads, volt 25o the Take
holder. V5
the of tag earthing nearby the to it connect and D hole through down this pass
wire, covered rubber a take holder fusebulb the of side other the From holder.
fusebulb the of side one to lead tap centre or o the Take volts. 250-0-250
holder. V5 the of 8 and 2 Nos.
tags to connect and D, hole the through these Take leads. heater volts 5
holders. V3 V2, Vi, the on tag 7 No. the with 7 No. tag this Connect holder.
V4 the on 7 No. tag to other the take and valveholder, V4 the of tag soldering
nearer the to one Earth G. hole the through both Take leads. heater volts 6
follows: as in wired are they transformer, the with
supplied coding colour the from identified been have leads the Once necessary.
Boys for Radio 86
 Light the band wave long the On well. as stations other many probably and
received, be should Programme Home local the least At band. the over tune and
coilpack, the on position switch central the band, wave medium the to Switch
far. too up turned control volume the have to not best is it
and speaker the from click loud a be should there plug, aerial the in plugging
by this Follow hum. slight any reduce may This plug. earth the in plug Now
circuits. receiving the in wrong something or troubles pack power indicates hum
bad slight, very be should hum The hum. little a possibly also speaker, the in
rustling or hissing gentle a be should there minute a half about again-after on
Switch fusebulb. the in screw also V5; in plug and up, connected is loudspeaker
the sure make more, once off Switch glowing. are and correctly connected
are heaters all that sure make to again, on
switch and V3 and V2 Vi, in plug
SHOWN NOT WIRING HEATER VIEW, -CHASSISUNDER SUPERHET,
MAINS A.G. -THE 22 FIG.
87 Superhet Mains A.C. An
 volume. greatest for C24 adjust and metres i,000 about at station any to Tune 3.
volume. greatest for L4 of core the Adjust 2.
L5. of
core the adjusting by position correct its to signal the Set Programme. Light the metres,
1,500 to capacitor the tune and band wave long the to switch wavechange the Switch t.
way: following the in adjusted be now can range wave long The
again. touched be not should formers
trans- I.F. the adjustments further all During adjusted. then is range wave medium The
volume. greatest for
point tuning metres 45o the near signal weak any on L3 of core the adjust Then volume.
greatest for point metres 225 the near signal weak a on C23 of setting the correct Finally 9.
adjustments. further no with positions tuning correct their in found are stations
the and other the on effect any have to fails adjustment one until 7 and 6 Nos. Repeat 8.
volume.
greatest for L3 of core the Adjust L6. of core the adjusting by point tuning correct
7.
its to on station the bring and metres, 433.5 on service Home Northern the to tune Now
volume. greatest for C23 adjust Then point. metre 247 the on
tunes station the till C26 adjusting by tuning the Correct position. correct the of other the
or side one on fall probably will It metres. 247.1 on Programme Light the to tune Now 6.
volume. best giving position the to needle,
knitting a from made tool the using with starting core, each Tune cores. transformer
5.
I.F. four all of setting the test service, Home London the to tuned still receiver the With
volume. greatest
for L3 of core the adjust Programme, Home London the to tuned still set the With 4.
L6. of core the adjust and more, once metres 330.4 to Retune turn.
a half off them slacken then washers) ceramic white the crack not do and pressure light
only (use C26 and C23 up tighten point, tuning correct the near heard not is station the If 3.
point. tuning its onto
2.
right station the to bring and results best for L6 of core the turn heard, is station the If
position.
metres 330 the near heard be should station the well being All point. tuning proper
its at pointer the setting metres, 330.4 on service Home London the to metres) (too
end wavelength low the from Tune position. wave medium the to switch wavechange
the set and on switch reached, easily cores and trimmers all and end on set the With i.
C27. to C22
from numbered trimmers the with diagram, this on L8 to i L from numbered
are coils The itself. -pack coil the with receive will you which diagram pack
coil the to refer numbers coil and capacitor the instructions following the In
tool. trimming good very a makes blade, screwdriver a into filed
end one with needle, knitting plastic old An crumble. to them cause will this
for used be account no on must screwdriver metal a and care, of greatest the
with adjusted be must transformers I.F. and coils the of cores dust iron The
pack. power the of clear
hands the keep to remember and again, on Switch sides. their on it supporting
choke and transformer the with end, hand left its on carefully chassis the
stand and off, Switch trimming. final its receiver the give to remains now It
stations. several be should
there again once left) the to (switch waves short the on and right) the to (switch
programmes Continental other possibly with received be will programme
Boys for Radio 88
 C25.) touching
without in tuned been has metres 19 about at station a once slightly C22 adjust
to just sufficient be should it coilpack -aligned pre the (On volume. greatest for
C22 adjust then point; metres 19 the at station a in tune and open, half C22
and C25 trimmers the Set touched. not are L7-8 and L1-2 of cores coil the as long
so generator a without obtained be can results good very but generator, signal
a of assistance the with tuning careful requires really range wave short The
89 Superhet Mains A.G. An
 90
chassis new the fit not will these certainly almost and sizes, various of holes
drilled have already will case old an for one, new a with than cabinet old an on
harder is This space. dial tuning the out cutting and places, right the in holes
spindle the drilling are jobs tricky only The knobs. control the carry to remains
spindle of plenty that so cabinet, the of front the to up well get to needs chassis
the and mounting, firm really a needs loudspeaker the that are remember to
points The leatherette. with over it cover to going are you if especially either,
hard, not is case a Building paper. and pencil and ruler, a loudspeaker, and
chassis the with work some for calls trouble-it and time little a spend must
you which over job a is it although difficult not is size cabinet the Deciding
go. to is radio the
where room the of scheme colour the with in fit will it that though, sure, make
colour- bright of coats three or two with it enamelling then and smooth really
is it till glasspaper fine a with down cabinet the rubbing by experiment
can you brave feel you If covering. a for leatherette like something with joints,
for battens wood and plywood good are materials best The ones. new simple build
or cabinets old on either rely to have will you however, being, time the For
it. into fit to set a design then and first cabinet a
buy to possible it find will you experienced really are you when and prices able
reason- quite at magazines radio the in advertised are cabinets plastic Sometimes
cabinets. about ideas for windows, shop in those studying and sets, radio of
types different several at looking worthwhile is It speaker. the for room find to
job a rather is it used, is scale tuning large a when sometimes, though well, quite
receivers mains most suits case upright an loudspeaker; the behind placed be
can batteries the then for sets battery for useful especially is cabinet long The
dial. tuning the above placed is
speaker the where type upright the and cabinet, the of side one to loudspeaker
the with long, and low one cabinets, radio of types main two are there know,
you As loudspeaker. the and chassis the of position the is settle to point first the
one, build to decide or cabinet a have already you whether but chassis, the house
will which cabinet set radio old an find to able be may you cases some In
this. than better rather something need receivers loudspeaker
but box, small simple a in up made be can set crystal The cabinet.
a into fitted be to has do-it to work some still is there correctly
working and made is it once build, you receiver of type WHATEVER
Cabinets
VIII CHAPTER
 with covered is panel the of rest the if uncovered left being effect, decorative a
give to wood other some of be could panel the of outside the on strips The glass.
theof sides the overlapping slightly hole, the of edges the along plywood of strips
use place in glass the hold To panel. the in hole a into this mount and scale,
the as size same the glass of piece square a obtain can you case this In drive.
"Squareplane" the to fitted dial Osmor larger the for small too be to cheon
escut- the consider will you of some superhet mains A.C. the of case the In
bolts. fixing escutcheon the take to holes drill small with measurement,
outside its than smaller slightly be to have will escutcheon-it the suit to
hole the cut and scale, tuning the against escutcheon the check measurements
any taking Before wood. the on off these marking and chassis the on scale the
to spindles the from measurements taking by panel the onto drawn be can scale
tuning the for cut-out the panel the through drilled are holes spindle the Once
marks. their make to spindles other the allow and
panel the through pass then will It first. one that for hole the drill others the than
longer be should spindle one If guide. a as hole small the using drill, in. a with
again through drill panel, the of front the from then, drill, small a with mark this
of centre the through Drill come. must hole the where showing mark white
a leave will end spindle Each panel. the of back the onto spindles the of ends
the press and point right the at cabinet the into chassis the put then spindle,
each of end the on chalk ordinary of layer a Rub marking. own their do them
let to is spindles control the for positions drilling the marking of way best The
tacks.
the hide to used be will enamel or covering further a that supposing is -this
baffle the into panel the through tapped are tacks brass small some if serve will
glue lighter a but needed, really is glue carpenter's hot Good panel. the and
wood the through right go to enough long not are used screws the sure it-make
onto down screwed be can which speaker the for base firm a gives It mounted. is
it before it in cut hole similar a have course, of must, baffle small This position.
into glued firmly be should wood thicker of piece a cone) loudspeaker the of
diameter the than smaller slightly be should (which hole speaker the Behind
necessary. not is grille decorative a and hole the
over right taken is cloth the necessary; is speaker the for hole round plain a only
that advantage the has This best. is pattern a without colour plain tweed-a
as such cloth, of weave heavy a use to is cabinet old or new a either
decorating
of method neat very One that. in cut grille new a and cabinet the of face the
up right taken be can panel plywood new the then and fashioned, old look may
grille speaker the cabinets old On pieces. in out cut and designed be can grille
decorative a or fretsaw, a with away right sawn be can hole circular a Either
cabinet. new a on cut and positioned easily is speaker the for grille or hole The
it. enamel to or material of surface new a with
completely cabinet old the cover to cut, and drilled finally is this when and, ply,
thin of panel new a with case old the fit to is difficulty the of out way best The
91 Cabinets
way the in be not will they where places Choose cabinet. the of roof and walls
inside the on positions various into them stick glue good with and batten wood
of lengths odd some take resonates cabinet your If this. cure to hard too not is
it but bothersome, be can which notes some on "boom" or resonance a be may
there wood light of made is case the If cabinet. the in different is tone speaker
the that find will you for transformer, output the of primary the across shunted
is circuits some in which capacitance the choose to time the really is This
tone. for tested and up connected be can set the careful) not are you if knobs the
into jammed or damaged easily are they as well, really grubscrews small the fits
which screwdriver a (choose spindles their onto screwed are knobs the When
place. into it fix and cabinet the
in chassis the mount then and metal, rough or burrs any remove to ends their
file lightly trimmed, are spindles the When pressure. cutting downwards the
against it support also and saw the with rotate cannot it that so hand left the in
firmly spindle the Grasp cut. easily are and brass, of are spindles control Most
noises. grating causing and coil, speech the and magnet the between gap narrow
the into getting dust metal the of chance a always is there for loudspeaker the
near metal file or saw Never steel. of are spindles the of any if especially clear
loudspeaker the keep also and on, so and coilpacks switches, the from away
kept is sawing the from dust metal the that sure Make forced. not and gently
worked is it if well perfectly job the do will fretsaw a but this, for best is hacksaw
toothed fine A size. correct the to down spindle each cut and cabinet the of out
chassis the take Then notch. file small a with spindle each on point trimming the
mark and firmly knobs the hold to left is enough that so them, cutting before first
them trimmed-measure be must they lengths, unequal of are spindles the if or
do, they If case. the of front the from far too out stand they if see to spindles
their onto knobs the put cabinet the into fixed finally is chassis the Before
foot. each of underside
the on baize or felt of layer a stick to plan good a is it and place, into glued and
tacked wood of blocks small from made be can feet The furniture. scratch not
will they that so heads the for room allow to feet with fitted be therefore must
which cabinet the of underside the on protruding heads bolt be will there that
means firmly-this down bolted be can they that so bracket, each under one
holes, two with drilled then is floor The floor. cabinet the on rest portions flat
their that so chassis the of wall rear the to bolted brackets Meccano small two
be can These brackets. or feet with chassis the fit to is way best the but chassis,
the of back the against lightly presses it that so cabinet the of floor the on batten
wooden a down screw to then and panel, the of back the against face front
its with place in chassis the set to is method One cabinet. the into firmly fixed
be to is chassis the how is decide to point next the drilled is panel the When
cabinet. the of colour and style the
suit to chosen be course of must wood the though scale, the round frame a such
making for useful are mahogany or oak of strips Thin enamelled. or material
Boys for Radio 92
 LISTENING! GOOD
managed. be can it if position good a is which too, corner, a across
angle an at set the difference-try the notice and so or inch an forward cabinet
the bring then wall, the against tight back the with it Try effect. and tone best
the for room the in positions different in it placing by experiment complete is
cabinet and set whole the When vibrate. cannot back the that so screws wood
small 8 or 6 Use back. cardboard or ply the through driven be can screws which
into strips wooden with framed being case the of edge rear inside the cabinet,
the of back the for mounting a form to used be can battens again, Once
down.
temperatures their keep to components other and transformer, the chassis, and
valves the round circulate to able be must air of plenty and heat of deal good
a generate valves Mains receiver. mains a of case the
in important very and
set battery a with even important quite is which ventilation for
needed are back
the in holes The on. so and leads, mains or battery plugs, and sockets earth and
aerial the for allow to remember and set, radio commercial a of back the like
rather holes of pattern a with out it Cut cardboard. good of even or plywood
of made be can this and dust out keep to back a require will cabinet The
boom. and resonances the up break and cabinet the of
wood the stiffen will battens These walls. the across angles odd at and anywhere
them stick that from apart but out, it take to require you when chassis the of
93 Cabinets
 94
85 80, 73, 43, Fuse, 18 Condenser,
78 Rectifier, Wave Full 15 Resistors, Code, Colour
18 -Wavelength, 30 Tapped, Coil,
66 Converter, 76 Coilpack,
18 12, Frequency, 16 Coils,
65 Superhet, 20 Tuned, Circuit,
60 Receiver, Battery Valve Four 87 79, 71, 67, 62, 59, 58,
21 de, Lee Dr. Forest, 55, 54, 51, 50, 39, 35, 29, 28, Diagrams, Circuit
16 of, Lines Force, 68 Wave, Short
81 12, Current, Flow, 78 17, Coil, Choke
21 A., Sir Fleming, 83 70, 38, 24, Chassis,
21 Filament, 11 Cell,
18 16, Magnetic, Field, 77 Resistor, /3
78 56, Feedback, 77 Bypass,
19 17, Faraday, 77 Bias,
19
Farad, 77 23, Cathode,
31 Wave, Carrier
19 Tubular,
48 45, 41, 34, 20, Trimmer, 9 9
22 Secondary,
21 Electron, Emission, 20 Padder,
11 E.M.F., 84 71, 39, 20, Tuning, Ganged
81 12, Flow, Electron 19Electrolytic,
18 Capacitor,
21 11, Electrons,
19 Capacitor, Electrolytic 20 Reactance, Capacitive
11 Electrolyte, 48 Stray,
11 Electro-Motive-Force, 22 -electrode,Inter
22 11, Electrodes, 18 Capacitance,
90 Cabinets,
11 Electricity,
11 Current, Electric
26 Earth,
77 48, 35, Capacitor, Bypass
19D.C., Blocking,
77 68, 60, 23, Bias,
11 Cells, Dry 52 Note,
78 -Triode, -Diode Double 52 Frequencies, Beat
23 Distortion, 11 Batteries,
14 Power, Dissipation, 61 Board, Baffle
81 12, Flow, Current of Direction 20 16, E.M.F., Back
12
Current, Direct
68 53, Triode, Diode
53
21 Diodes, 78 68, 65, Control, Volume
68 21, Detector, Diode 77 60, Bias, Automatic
11 Potential, Difference, 12 Electric,
33 21, Detection, 12
Magnetic, Attraction,
68 Demodulator, 11 Atoms,
78 A.V.C., Delayed 23 Anode,
57 Decibels, 53 Voltage,
12 D.C., 53 Power,
47 L.F.,
47 H.F.,
12 Cycles, 21 Amplifier,
81 12, Flow, Current 57 47, 15, Amplification,
33 to 26 Receiver, Crystal 11 Ampere,
31 Radar, 12 Current, Alternating
33 29, Crystals, 88 74, Receivers, of Alignment,
36 Point, Critical 17 Coils, -cored Air
48 Coupling, 26 Aerial,
16 Cores, 78 Supplies, Power A.C.
66 Frequency, Converters, 76 Superhet, Mains A.G.
21
Grid, Control A.C./D.C.,
77 76,
11
Conductors, 12 A.C.,
Index
 20 Resonance, 61 Transformer, Matching
14 Ratings, 7 Marconi,
15 Code, Colour Resistor 78 17, Transformer, Mains
13 Resistors, 12 Poles,
11 Resistance, 18 16, Field, Magnetic
81 Regulation,
36 Regeneration,
80 33, 21, Rectification, 61 53, Loudspeakers,
89 to 76 Superhet, Mains A.C. 33 Loading,
75 to 65 Superhet, 61 Anode, Load,
64 to 60 Four 16 Force, of Lines
57 to 53 Three 47 Amplification, L.F.
17
52 to 47 Two 18
Ohm's, Law,
46 to 34 Battery, Valve One 17
Laminations,
33 to 26 Crystal,
Receivers:
35 Reaction, 14 Kilohm,
20 Reactance, 18 Kilocycle,
61 Transformer,
18 Waves,
22 Frequencies, 25 Joints,
10 Clubs, Radio
12 R.M.S.,
R, 13 17 Cores, Dust Iron
16 Cores, Iron
88 76, 68,
17 Coil, Primary Transformer,
78 A.C., Supplies, 68 Amplifier,
13 Dissipation, 76 66, Frequency, Intermediate
53 Amplifiers, Power 22 Capacitance, -Electrode Inter
14 Potentiometers, 11 Insulators,
11 Difference, Potential 56 Instability,
19 Polarity, 20 Reactance,
21 Current, Plate 48 Coupling, Inductive
21 Plate, 31 16, Induction,
19 Picofarads, 16 Inductance,
22 Pentodes, 61 Matching,
12 Values, Peak 20 Impedance,
14 Resistors, Parallel 66 I.F.,
76 74, 72, 66, 20, Capacitor, Padding 13 I,
60 Transformer, Output 87 Hum,
66 Oscillator, 91 71, 39, 24, Punching, and Drilling Holes,
36 Oscillation, 52 Heterodyne,
66 36, Detector, Oscillating 66 Heptode,
34 Receiver, Battery Valve One 17 Henry,
13 Law, Ohm's 47 Amplification, H.F.
Ohm, 13 12 Effect, Heating
77 Heater,
29 Impedance, Headphone
11 Particles, 53 35, 29, Headphones,
78 Feedback, Negative 26 Aerial, -WaveHalf
61 53, Loudspeakers, Coil Moving 22 Suppressor, 91
40 Capacitor, Tuning Mounting 22 Screen,
31 Modulation, 34 Detector,
11 Milliampere, 60 34, 23, Current,
57 Microvolts, 22 21, Control,
17
Microhenrys, 77 60, 23, Bias,
19
Microfarads, 23 22, Capacitance, -Anode
14 Megohm, 21 Grid,
18 Megacycle, 84 71, 39, 20, Capacitor, Tuning Ganged
95 Index
96 Index
Scout Licenses, 10 Transformers:
Screen Grid, 22 High Frequency, 17
Screening, 56 I.F., 68, 76, 88
Secondary Coil, 17 Mains, 17, 78
Emission, 22 Output, 60
Selectivity, 34, 47 T.R.F., 65
Sensitivity, 34 Trimmer Capacitors, 20, 34, 41, 45, 48, 72,
Series Resistors, 14 74, 88
Signal Generator, 74, 89 Triode, 20
Sine Wave, 13 Triode-Hexode, 76
Slow Motion Drive, 42, 73, 84 Tubular Capacitors, 19
Smoothing, 81 Tuned Circuits, 20
Choke, 78 Tuning Capacitor Mounting, 40
Soldering, 24, 25
Speed of Light, 18
Superhet, 65 V, 13
Supersonic Heterodyne, 66 Valves, 20 to 24
Suppressor Grid, 22 Variable Capacitor, 20
S.W.G., 30 Resistor, 14
Switch, 42, 60, 73, 85 Volta, Count, 11
Voltage Amplifier, 53
Drop, 14
Tapped Coil, 30 Grid, 21
Tetrodes, 22 Volts, 11
Three Valve Battery Receiver, 53 Volume Control, 35, 68
Tolerances, 15
Tone, 64 Watt, 14
, Control, 64, 92 Wattage, 14
Tools, 24, 25 Wave, Sine, 13
Tracking, 66 Wavelength, 18
Transformer, 16 Working Voltage, Capacitor, 19