VOCABULARY

Autistic: affected by a mental disorder which inhibits social interaction, communication and
emotional development
Psychotic: affected by a mental illness which is characterized by delusions, hallucinations and
losing touch with reality
Deranged (or unhinged):
insane
Lunatic: mentally ill or used to
indicate someone who is
affected by drastic mood
swings
Retarded: a very derogatory
term for people with learning difficulties or
brain and/or physical disabilities if not used
specifically in a medical sense
Psychoanalytical = Freud’s theory and
therapy
Psychodynamic = refers to both Freud’s
theories and those of his followers. In
contrast to behavioral psychology,
psychodynamic psychology ignores the
trappings of science and instead focuses
on trying to get “inside the head” of
individuals in order to make sense of their relationships, experiences and how they see the
world.
Id (= it): represents our inherited (= biological) and unconscious wishes (aggression =
Thanatos and sexual desires = Eros) based on “pleasure principle”
Ego (= I): conscious aspect of our personality modified by direct contact with the outside
world that mediates and permits us to live in a community by controlling the Id through the
“reality principle”; has no concept of right and wrong
Superego (= above I): incorporates learned values and morals of society; controls the id’s
impulses and persuades the ego to turn to moralistic goals (compromise) and consists of two
systems: conscience and ideal self (or egoideal)
Personal unconscious: things that have been repressed, rejected from consciousness; it is
therefore something that is built up during the individual's lifetime
Collective unconscious: older than the individual and older than consciousness; it consists of
the whole spiritual heritage of mankind’s evolution born anew in the brainstructure of every
individual
Synonyms: words with similar meanings (ex. disease, condition, illness)
Antonyms: words with opposite meanings (ex. male/female, healthy/sick)
Hypernyms: general word for a set of words (ex. diseases may be infectious, congenital,
hereditary)
Linked words: words pertaining to a common semantic category (ex. young, teenage, in
his/her 20’s, adult, old…)
Cognitive development: refers to how a person perceives, thinks and gains understanding of
his or her world through the interaction of genetic and learned factors
Scaffolding: refers to a variety of instructional techniques used to move students
progressively toward stronger understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the
learning process (Vygotsky: teacher should provide scaffolding)
Memory: the mental capacity to encode, store and retrieve information
Short-term memory: the initial memory stage in which information is held in consciousness
for about 10 to 20 seconds
Long-term memory: the final phase of memory in which information storage may last from
hours to a lifetime
Declarative memory: memory for information such as facts and events
Iconic memory: sensory memory in the visual domain
Procedural memory: memory for performing skilled actions (e.g. driving a car)
Working memory: the structures and processes used for temporarily storing and
manipulating information
Personality: is the “relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguish
them from other people, making them unique, but which at the same time allow people to be
compared with each other.”
Self-efficacy: a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. It
emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism
in the development of personality
Trait theory: according to this theory, personality is made up of a number of broad traits. A
trait is basically a relatively consistent characteristic that causes an individual to behave in
certain ways
Humanism: emphasizes the importance of free will and individual experience, in other words
of the individual, in the development of personality
Self-actualization: refers to a person’s desire for self-fulfillment, i.e., the tendency for him or
her to become actualized in what he or she is potentially
Situationalism: a theory that holds that personality is influenced more by external factors and
situations than by internal traits or motivation
Digressions: stories or anecdotes that the lecturer uses to move away from a main point
Abuse: the continued use of something despite adverse consequences
Addiction: the condition of being addicted to something (the person suffering from such a
condition is called an “addict”)
Compulsion: an irresistible desire to do something
Dependency/dependence: the state of needing something so much that it is not possible to
function without it
Obsession: an overpowering, repetitive thought, action or feeling
Disorder: an ailment that affects the function of mind or body (ex. eating disorder, mental
disorder)
Relapse: return to a previous state or behaviour pattern after recovering
Salience: importance or relevance
Substance: material or chemical composition; psychoactive drug
Withdrawal: the removal or discontinuation of something that entails symptoms following the
cessation of a dependence
ESP: extra-sensory perception = reception and comprehension of information that is sensed
with the mind and not the senses (telepathy, clairvoyance, “sixth sense”, intuition)
PP: parapsychology or psi phenomena = (alongside psychology) pseudoscience that studies
paranormal psychic phenomena (telepathy, reincarnation, precognition, apparitions)
REG: random event generator = devices that use quantumindeterminate electronic noise and
have been placed around the world in order to computistically determine when an
extraordinary event is about to happen
EE: experimenter effect = any subtle cues or signals from an experimenter that affect the
performance or response of subjects in an experiment (psi-conductive or psi-inhibitory)
RV: remote viewing = the practice of seeking impressions about a distant or unseen target
using unconventional means like extra-sensory perception (ESP) or "sensing with mind"
OBE: out-of-body experience = experience in which the “physical body” and “subtle body”
are separated
PK: parakinesis = relating to the movement of people and objects through abnormal means
Ganzfeld (entire field) = experiment procedure that produces mild sensory deprivation
Sixth sense = intuition, ability to perceive events that are not evident through normal means
Séance = meeting that has the aim of contacting the dead
(a) Medium = person who is sensitive to the presence of spirits
(the) Supernatural = phenomena that are not part of or subject to the laws of nature
Ghostbusters = comedy series about a company that trapped and removed hostile ghosts
Déjà vu = sensation one has of already having lived or known a particular experience that is
happening at the moment
Psychiatric disorders may be:
• Organic: due to organic brain disease (ex. dementia)
• Functional: no obvious pathology or anatomical change (ex. substance abuse, affective
disorder, neurotic, stressrelated disorders, behavioural syndromes)
Difference between:
• Affect: used for temporary emotions, expressed through manner of speaking and behaving
and appearance
• Mood: more permanent emotional state (ex. depression)
Common psychiatric disorders:
• Delusion: firmly held belief which is wrong but not open to argument
• Dementia: significant mental deterioration due to physical changes in the brain
• Disorientation: mental confusion about time, place, language or identity
• Hallucination: apparently normal perceptions which happen without the appropriate
stimulus
• Illusion: misinterpretation of real stimuli
• Obsessional compulsions: stereotyped ideas, thoughts or impulses that a person cannot
resis

IMPORTANT NOTIONS

How to report sources to not commit plagiarism (depending on the type of source its
referencing changes):
- Bibliography and list of references/sources at end of essay or research
- Quotes in the author’s words (with indication of source)
- Reporting the author’s thoughts (with indication of source)
- Paraphrasing (with indication of the source)
When writing a bibliography, it is important to distinguish between:
- Monographic books (book on a topic written by one or more authors)
Last name of author(s), Initial of name of authors (year of publication). Title of book. Place of
publishing, Publishing house.
GREGORY, R. J., & POFFEL, S. A. (1985). START: Stimulus and response tools for
experiments in memory, learning, cognition, and perception. Iowa City, IA: Conduit.
- Edited books (collection of essays) or anthologies
Last name of author(s), Initial of name of author(s) (year of publication) in Initial of name of
editor (Ed(s).), Title of volume or collection (p. or pp.). Place of publication, Publishing house.
Lewin, K. (1999). Personal adjustment and group belongingness [1941]. In M. Gold (Ed.)
(2004), A Kurt Lewin reader: The complete social scientist (pp. 327–332). Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association. (Original work published 1941)
- Essays/articles
Last name of author(s), Initial of name of author(s) (year of publication). Title of article. Title of
journal, volume/issue/month/season, p. or pp.
BUTLER, D. L. (1988). Selection of software in the instructional laboratory. Behavior Research
Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 20, pp. 175-177.
- Websites
Last name of author(s), Initial of name of authors/Name of organization (year of publication if
available). Title of internet article. date of retrieval, full URL.
Lee, C. (2013). How to Cite an Anthology or Collected Works. Retrieved October 30, 2014,
from
http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2013/09/how-to-citean-anthology-or-collected-works.html

When directly referring to a specific assertion you can:

1) Quote it directly or word by word (words are in quotation marks and the source, with year
and page number, is mentioned);
2) Quote it indirectly (reporting the statement and mentioning the source afterwards with the
year of publication);
3) Paraphrase, i.e. restate or rewrite a sentence, in a very different manner (about 65-70%
difference). Mention the work when paraphrasing something from a source.
Methods of paraphrasing:
1) Use a synonym of a word or phrase;
2) Change negative to positive and vice versa;
3) Change the order of information;
4) Change from active to passive or vice versa;
5) Use a replacement subject (ex. Language acts as an interface between individuals →
people use language to communicate);
6) Use discourse/stance markers and academic phraseology (ex. A final example of the
influence of both scientists on teaching approaches is the relatively new development of
collaborative learning → Finally, another influential idea from the scientists in the pedagogical
field consists in…).
In English, important information is presented at the beginning or end of a sentence:
• “Given” information is already known from general knowledge or the text. It is usually
positioned at the beginning of the sentence;
• “New” information is presented for the first time and normally goes at the end of the
sentence so the reader can better hear/remember it.
The position of certain elements in the sentence may be changed in order to emphasize a
certain piece of information.
Words in English can be:
1. “neutral” (denotation): commonly used and with no particular connotation for the writer;
objective definition such as those found in the dictionary
2. “marked” (connotation): containing an especially positive or negative meaning through its
use
Ex.: the word “dog” • neutral/denotation: “a common animal with four legs, especially kept by
people as a pet or to hunt or guard things” • marked/connotation: loyalty, friendship,
companionship, fun but also threat, wildness, unsophisticated
Neutral words are basic and learned early on while marked language is more complex,
detailed and must be understood in order to be used well. Marked language may be used in
any sort of text or essay and makes it more interesting and clear because it stands out,

especially in objective or formal contexts and texts.

We may identify the stance (=position) and level of confidence of the writer through the
following means:
1) Use of discourse and stance markers
2) Use of neutral and marked language
3) Use of certain expressions which convey a more or less confident or tentative attitude
Look at the following sentence: “The expansion of Internet accessibility ______________ an
increase in online addictions.”
Fill the gap with the following expressions: • probably caused • may have contributed to • was
possibly one of the factors which contributed to • could have been a factor which led to •
caused • seems to have caused. Which of the expressions seem very confident, confident and
tentative?
Answers: • probably caused: confident • may have contributed to: tentative • was possibly
one of the factors which contributed to: tentative • could have been a factor which led to:
tentative • caused: very confident • seems to have caused: confident
DIGRESSIONS
Recognizing the beginning: That reminds me… I remember once… By the way… Actually...
Now that you mention it…
Recognizing the end: Anyway… Where was I? Back to the point… As I was saying…
Explaining the relevance of the digression: Of course, the point of that story was… The reason
why I mentioned this is… Why did I tell that story? Well…
Asking about the digression: I didn’t get the bit about… How does this relate to…?
NOUN -> ADJECTIVE
aggressiveness -> aggressive; restlessness -> restless; withdrawal -> withdrawn; distraction ->
distracted; flamboyance -> flamboyant; anxiety -> anxious; carelessness -> careless.
Words to describe moods:
• Positive: happy, very happy, fine, OK, cheerful, excited, bright, optimistic, positive
• Negative: may relate to different fields of unhappiness
- depression: fed up, sick and tired, sad, low, miserable, depressed, dejected, down, bad
- anxiety: cross, angry, worried, anxious, afraid, wound up, restless, frightened, agitated,
tense, panicky

More fixed lecture phrases:

EXERCISES
1- Which kind of essay do these titles belong to?1
1) ‘Violent crimes are often committed by those who are violently ill.’ To what extent do you
agree with this statement? Give examples to support your points.
2) Describe four stereotypes of mental illness. How do they relate to the symptoms of real
illnesses?
3) Explain the method used by the media to influence popular images of mental illnesses.
4) Describe Asch’s conformity experiments. How do they explain the influence of the media
on individual attitudes to mental illnesses?
5) Outline the differences and similarities between schizophrenia and dissociative identity
disorder.
2- Which preposition/word follows these phrases? Are they followed by a noun, a subject +
verb, a gerund verb, or an infinitive verb?2
As shown …. In such a way…. As well …. In the case …. In
addition….
Known …. In order …. The end ….
What are these expressions used for?
As shown in + noun = to indicate something shown in an image, diagram or table; As shown
by + gerund = as above/to demonstrate something; As well as + noun or gerund = add
information; In addition to + noun or gerund = add information; In order to + infinitive = to
explain the purpose for doing something; In such a way that + subject + verb = to indicate the
result of something; In the case of + noun or gerund = to mention a specific case or example;
Known as + noun = to refer an alternative name or title; The end of + noun = to refer to the
end of something; The use of + noun = to refer to the use of something.
3- Substitute the following expressions used in lectures (the different - for example – creating
- on the other hand - in the first stage – then - constitute - at the end) with one of these
corresponding expressions: serve the function of – in the initial phase – in contrast – in the
following phase – in the final phase – a number of – the development of – for instance3

1
1-arg; 2-descr; 3-ana; 4-pract; 5-comp/eval.
2
As shown in + noun; As shown/demonstrated by + noun or gerund; As well as + noun or gerund; In addition to + noun or
gerund; In order to + infinitive; In such a way that + subject + verb; In the case of + noun or gerund; Known as + noun; The
end of + noun
3
the different = a number of; for example = for instance; creating = the development of; on the other hand = in contrast;
in the first stage = in the initial phase; then = in the following phase; constitute = serve the function of; at the end = in the
final stage
4- Now look at the following expressions and decide whether they are confident (c) or
tentative (t)4:
• Without (a) doubt… • It is important to recognize… • Many writers seem to agree… • …may
be considered similar… • It could be claimed that… • It can be argued that… • This analysis is
largely supported… • Research has identified…
5- Look at the following expressions5:
another point is - as a result – because – finally – firstly – for example – in addition – moreover
– one result of this is – secondly – since – so
Which ones are used: 1) for discussing reasons and results? 2) for building an argument?
Which ones are used: 1) Within a sentence/clause? 2) Between sentences/clauses?

4
• Without (a) doubt… Confident • It is important to recognize… Confident • Many writers seem to agree… Tentative •
…may be considered similar… Tentative • It could be claimed that… Tentative • It can be argued that… Tentative • This
analysis is largely supported… Confident • Research has identified… Confident
5
Used for discussing reasons and results: as a result, because, one result of this is, since, so. Used for building an
argument: another point is, finally, firstly, for example, in addition, moreover, secondly. Used within a sentence/clause:
because, since (they could also be used at the beginning of another sentence). Used between sentences/clauses: another
point is, as a result, finally, firstly, for example, in addition, moreover, one result of this is, secondly, so.