LECTURE 8

Cardinality
In this lecture we shall discuss the relative size of sets. If S and T are sets with only a finite number of
elements then this notion of relative size is straight-forward, the set S is the same size as the set T if it has
the same number of elements and S is larger than the set T if S has more elements than T. If, however, S
and T are sets with infinite numbers of elements then the notions of equivalent and relative sizes are a bit
subtler.
We begin by stating a definition that tells us when two sets (infinite or finite) are the same size.
Definition 8.1. Two sets S and T are equinumerous if there exists a bijection from S to T .
Theorem 8.2. Let F denote any family of sets, The relation
S ∼ T ⇐⇒ S and T are equinumerous
is an equivalence relation on F.
The proof of this is easy, and will be assigned as homework.
We shall use the notation S ∼ T to indicate that S and T are equinumerous. Since this is an equivalence
relation on any family F of sets, it partitions F up into disjoint equivalence classes. With each of these
equivalence classes we shall associate a cardinal number indicating the size of the sets in that equivalence
classs. This is done as follows.
Notation 8.3. For n ∈ N, Let In denote the set of integers between 1 and n:
In = {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}
Definition 8.4. A set S is said to be finite if S = {} or if there exists a natural number n, and a bijection
f : In → S . If S is finite, we say that the cardinal number (or cardinality) of S is 0 if S = {}, or n
if the bijection is from I n to S.If no such bijection exists we say that S is infinite,and that the cardinal
number of S is transfinite.

Definition 8.5. A set S is denumerable if there exists a bijection f : N → S.

Definition 8.6. If a set is finite or denumerable, then we say that the set is countable.
Remark 8.7. If a set S is countable, then there either exists a bijection from In to S or there exists a
bijection from N to S. Such a bijection (in either case) allows us to create a listing of the elements of S:
S = {f(1), f(2), f(3), . . . }
Notation 8.8. The cardinal number of a denumberable set is denoted by ℵ0
Example 8.9. Show that the cardinality of the set of integers is ℵ0 .
As usual we denote by Z, the the set of integers, and by N, the set of natural numbers . Then it is easy to
verify that the map

n
f : N → Z n
→ − n2+1 ifif nn isis even
odd
2
is a bijection. Thus,. Z ∼ N, and so the cardinality of Z is ℵ0 .
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 8. CARDINALITY 26

Lemma 8.10. If T is an infinite subset of a set S , then S is also infinite.

Proof. (Proof by Contradiction). Suppose that T is an infinite subset of a finite set S. Then, since S is
finite, for some n ∈ N, there is a bijection f : In → S. Let {f(1), . . . , f(n)} be the corrresponding listing
of elements of S. Now remove from this list those elements of S that are not in T (this is a finite list so
this is a finite procedure). What is left is a listing of elements of T which is equivalent to giving a bijection
from some Im → T with m ≤ n. However, T is supposed to be infinite, so no such bijection is possible. We
conclude that S must also be infinite.
Theorem 8.11. Let S be a countable set and let T be a subset of S. Then T is countable.
Proof. If T is finite, then we are done. Suppose then that T is infinite. The preceding lemma implies that
S is infinite, so it is denumerable (since it is infinite and countable). Hence, there is a bijection f : N → S.
We can then list the elements of S as
S = {f(1), f(2), . . . }
Now define
A = {n ∈ N | f(n) ∈ T }
This set is nonempty (since T is now assumed to be infinite) and so by the Well-Ordering Axiom for N, it
has a least element, say m1 . Similarly, the set A\{m1 } has a least member; call it m2 . Proceeding like this,
we denote by mk the least element of A\ {a1 , . . . , ak−1 }.
We now define a function g : N → N by g(n) = an , since T is infinite g(n) is defined for every n ∈ N. Since
an+1 > an > . . . . > a1 g must be injective. The composition f ◦ g : N → T is also then injective, and since
every element of T must appear somewhere in this listing of S, f ◦ g is also surjective. Hence, there is a
bijection from N to T so T is denumerable, hence countable.
Theorem 8.12. Let S be a non-empty set. Then the following conditions are equivalent.
1. S is countable
2. There exists a injective function f : S → N.
3. There exists a surjective function g : N → S .

Proof.

1 ⇒ 2: Suppose S is countable. Then either S is finite or S is denumerable.

If S is denumerable, then by definition there exists a bijection f : N → S. But a bijection always has a
bijective inverse and so f −1 will be, in particular, an injective function from S to N.
If S is finite, then by definition there exists a bijection f : In → S. The inverse f −1 : S → In of this mapping
then exists and is bijective. Let ι : In → N be the natural inclusion mapping, where i(k) = k for all k ∈ In .
This is an injective function. The composition i ◦ f −1 : S → In → N, as the composition of two injective
mappings, is itself injective.
2 ⇒ 3: Suppose f : S → N is injective. Then f˜ : S → f(S) , s
→ f(s) is bijective, and so f˜−1 : f(S) → S
exists and is bijective. Then k be any element of f (S) and define g : N → S by

˜−1
g(n) = f (n) if n ∈ f(S)
k if n ∈/ f(S)
This function is obviously surjective and so we are done.
3 ⇒ 1: Suppose there is a surjective function g : N → S. Then for each s ∈ S, f −1 ({s}) is a non-empty
subset of N. By the Well-Ordering Axiom each of these subsets has a minimal element, call it ns . This
gives us a one-to-one pairing of elements of S with elements of N; hence, an injective function from S to N.
 8. CARDINALITY 27

Example 8.13. Show that the set Q of rational numbers is countable

In view of the preceding theorem, it suffices to display an injective function from Q to N. Every rational
number r has a unique presentation as the ratio p/q of two integers which have no common factors. But
then it is easy to check that the function
p
g:Q→N ; → 2p 3q
q
is injective. Hence, Q is countable.
Theorem 8.14. The set of real numbers is not countable.

Proof. By a preceding theorem, every subset of a countable set is countable, therefore it suffices to show
that the subset of R consisting of real numbers between 0 and 1 is not countable. So set
J = {x ∈ R | 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}
If J is countable then we can form a list of its elements
J = {x1 , x2 , . . . }
Every real number is representable in terms of a (possibly infinite) decimal expansion, so we can write
x1 = 0.a11 a12 a13 . . .
x2 = 0.a21 a22 a33
..
.
Now we construct a real number y ∈ J by defining
y = 0.b1 b2 b3 . . .
where


2 if a = 2
bi = 3 if aii = 2
ii
Now y evidently belongs to J, however, y can not be any of the xn .For suppose
y = xn
Then, by construction the nth digit its decimal expansion can not be the same as that of xn , so y = xn .We
conclude if we can not list the elements of J without running into a contradiction. Therefore, J and hence
R is not countable.
Notation 8.15. Let S be a set. We shall denote the cardinal number of S by |S|. We shall say that
|S| = |T | if there exists a bijection f : S → T and that |S | ≤ |T | if there exists an injection f : S → T and
we shall write |S | < |T | if |S | ≤ |T | but |S | =
 |T |.
Theorem 8.16. Let S, T, and U be sets.

1. If S ⊂ T , then |S | ≤ |T | .
2. |S | ≤ |S|
3. If |S | ≤ |T | and |T | ≤ |U |, then |S | ≤ |U | .
4. If m, n ∈ N and m ≤ n, then |{1, 2, 3, . . . , m}| ≤ |{1, 2, 3, . . . , n}|
5. If S is finite, then |S | ≤ ℵ0
Definition 8.17. Given any set S, we denote the collection of all subsets of S , by P (S) and refer to it as
the power set of S.
Theorem 8.18. For any set S,we have |S| < |P (S)|
 8. CARDINALITY 28

Proof. If S and P (S) are equinumerous, then there must exist a bijection f : S → P (S). The natural
inclusion map
i : S → P (S) , s
→ {s}
is obviously injective, so |S | ≤ |P (S)|., We need to show that no map from S to P (S) can be surjective.
Let f be an injective map from S to P (S). Then for each x ∈ S , each f(x) is a subset of S. Now for some
x in S it may be that x is in the subset f(x), while for others may not be. Let
T = {x ∈ S | x ∈/ f(x)}
Now T ⊂ S, so T ∈ P (S). If f is surjective then T = f(y) for some y ∈ S. But now either y ∈ T or y ∈/ T;
however, both possibililities lead to contradictions.
• If y ∈ T, then s ∈/ f(y) = T.
• If y ∈/ T,then y ∈/ f(y) ⇒ y ∈ T.
Theorem 8.19. |P (N)| = |R|
Problem 8.1. Is there a set S such that |N| < |S| < |R|?