A

PROJECT REPORT ON
“MODELLING OF FACT DEVICE
FOR POWER FLOW ANALYSIS”

RVS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY, JAMSHEDPUR.
DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

Submitted by Under guidence of

Sandeep kumar (EEE/618/17L) Prof. Kumar Rahul

Bimlesh kumar singh (EEE/626/17L)

Ajit kumar ram (EEE/622/17L)

Vishal kumar thakur (EEE/366/15)

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the department of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, for giving the opportunity to carry out this project. We
would like to express our heartfelt gratitude and regards to our project
guide, prof. Kumar Rahul, department of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering for being the corner stone of our project. It was his incessant
motivation and guidance during periods of doubts and uncertainties that
has helped out to carry on with this project. We would like to thank Prof.
Gopal Chandra Mahto Head of department, Electrical and Electronic
Engineering Department. For his guidance, support and direction we
would also obliged to the staff of Electrical Engineering Department for
aiding our during the course of our project. We offer our heartiest thanks
to my friends for their help in collection of data samples wherever
necessary. Last but not the least we want to acknowledge the
contributions of our parents and family members, for their constant and
never ending motivation.

Your truly:-

Sandeep kumar (EEE/618/17L)

Bimlesh kumar singh (EEE/626/17L)

Ajit kumar ram (EEE/622/17L)

Vishal kumar thakur (EEE/366/15)

2
 ABSTRACT

This paper presents a simple modeling for one of most popular flexible AC
Transmission System (FACTS) cevices; static VAR Compensator (SVC) into
Newton - Raphson load flow algorithm. SVC now is being in wide range in
transmission application. SVC is applied in transmission line for increasing the
voltage stability and control voltage magnitude at a specified value the developed
model based on transmitting the connected SVC bus from Load bus (PQ bus) to PV
bus with controlling the voltage magnitude value. However the transmitted bus
generated zero active power and updated reactive power until the convergence of
load flow is achieved. The simplified SVC model has different merits then the
other traditional models such as; limits of jacobian matrix modification, avoiding
the modification in original admittance matrix, improving the convergence
characteristics and reducing computation time.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sl no. TOPIC NAME

1. Introduction
2. Power Flow Analysis
2.1 - Necessity for power flow studies
2.2 - Classification of Buses
2.3 - The Power Equations
2.4 - Power Flow Analysis Method.
(a) Gauss-Siedel Method
(b) Newton-Raphson Method
(c) Fast Decoupled Load Flow Method
2.5 - Comparison of Load Flow Method

3. Newton-Raphson Method
3.1 - Flow Chart of Newton-Raphson Method
3.2 - Advantages and Limitations
4. Fact Devices
4.1 - Overview
4.2 - Objectives of Shunt Compensation
5. Static Representation of SVC
5.1 - Control Concept of SVC
5.2 - Criterion for Optimal Location of SVC
5.3 - Benefits of SVC in Power Transmission
5.4 - Benefits of SVC in Power Distibution
6. Sample Problem
6.1 - Program for the load flow problem
6.2 - Results

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 CHAPTER 1:- INTRODUCTION
In a power system, power flows from generating station to the load through different branches of
the network. The flow of active and reactive power is known as load flow or power flow. Load
flow analysis is an important tool used by power engineers for planning and determining the
steady state operation of a power system. Power flow studies provide a systematic mathematical
approach to determine the various bus voltages, phase angles, active and reactive power flows
through different branches, generators, transformer settings and load under steady-state
conditions. The power system is modeled by an electric circuit which consists of generators,
transmission network and distribution network.
The increasing demand of electricity with high power quality along with more reliable and secure
power system is fulfilled by providing the electricity which operates more flexibly and with best
utilization. This increase in demand can be fulfilled either by installing new transmission lines or
by increasing power transfer capability of the transmission line. The effective and economical
solution is to increase transfer capability of transmission line giving attention to more utilization.
To operate the power system flexibly, controlling action should be made fast by utilizing the
advance research and development in power electronics technology. Initially the power system is
controlled mechanically. Further, the power transmission capacity has been enhanced without
exceeding the thermal limit of transmission line and is achieved by incorporating Flexible AC
Transmission System (FACTS) technology.
With the use of FACTS technology, the parameters of the power system such as shunt
impedance, series impedance including current, voltage and phase angle are controlled.
Previously capacitor banks are used to control the voltage and reactive power. However, the
FACTS technology consists of collection of various types of controllers and these can be applied
to the power system individually or in the combination to control the parameters. The FACTS
technology uses the basic elements of power electronics such as Thyristors. Besides, the FACTS
controller is chosen according to the applications to overcome the defined problem.
The compensator has two effects which appeared immediately. The first is it alters no load supply
point voltage and second is it modifies sensitivity of supply point voltage to load reactive power.
There are two types of compensators, active and passive compensators. Normally the passive
compensators include the devices which are permanently connected for step less variation of
reactive power. Generally shunt devices are included in active compensators. These
compensators maintain constant voltage at the bus terminals to which they are connected.

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Basically there are four types of FACTS controllers:
A] Shunt controller
B] Series Controller
C] Shunt-Series Controller
D] Series-Series Controller
The series controller injects the voltage in series with the transmission line with any phase angle
according to driving voltage to control the line current. The shunt controller draws or injects the
current into the power system. The combination of shunt and series controller could inject the
current via shunt controller of the system and injects the voltage via series controller of the
system. These are coordinately control. The combined Series-Series controller provides
independent reactive power compensation with the transmission of real power via DC link. In
multiline transmission system these types of controller are used which controlled coordinately.
The list of all controllers is given in Table 1.1.
Types of FACTS Sub-classes of FACTS Controllers
Controllers

Shunt Controller 1. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)

2. Static Synchronous Generator (SSG)
3. Battery Energy Storage System (BESS)
4. Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)
5. Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR)
6. Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
Series Controller 1. Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)
2. Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
3. Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC)
4. Thyristor Controlled Series Reactor (TCSR)
Combined 1. Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC)
Series-Series
Controller
Combined Shunt- 1. Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
Series Controller 2. Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer
(TCPST)

TABLE I. LIST OF FACTS CONTROLLER

CHAPTER 2:- POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

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Power flow studies are performed to determine voltages, active and reactive power etc. at various
points in the network for different operating conditions subject to the constraints on generator
capacities and specified net interchange between operating systems and several other restraints.
Power flow or load flow solution is essential for continuous evaluation of the performance of the
power systems so that suitable control measures can be taken in case of necessity. In practice it
will be required to carry out numerous power flow solutions under a variety of conditions. For the
purpose of power flow studies a single phase representation of the power network is used, since
the system is generally balanced. When systems had not grown to the present size, networks were
simulated on network analyzers for load flow solutions. These analyzers are of analogue type,
scaled down miniature models of power systems with resistances, reactances, capacitances,
autotransformers, transformers, loads and generators. Network equations can be solved in a
variety of ways in a systematic manner. The most popular method is node voltage method. When
nodal or bus admittances are used complex linear algebraic simultaneous equations will be
obtained in terms of nodal or bus currents. However, as in a power system since the nodal
currents are not known, but powers are known at almost all the buses, the resulting mathematical
equations become non-linear and are required to be solved by interactive methods. Load flow
studies are required as has been already explained for power system planning, operation and
control as well as for contingency analysis. The bus admittance matrix is invariably utilized in
power flow solutions
2.1 Necessity for Power Flow Studies
Power flow studies are undertaken for various reasons, some of which are the following:
I. The line flows
2. The bus voltages and system voltage profile
3. The effect of change in configuration and incorporating new circuits on system loading
4. The effect of temporary loss of transmission capacity and (or) generation on system loading
and accompanied effects.
5. The effect of in-phase and quadrative boost voltages on system loading
6. Economic system operation.
7. System loss minimization.
8. Possible improvements to an existing system by change of conductor sizes and system
voltages.
2.2 Classification of Buses

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(a) Load bus:-
A bus where there is only load connected and no generation exists is called a load bus. At this
bus real and reactive load demand Pd and Qd are drawn from the supply. The demand is generally
estimated or predicted as in load forecast or metered and measured from instruments. Quite often,
the reactive power is calculated from real power demand with an assumed power factor. A load
bus is also called a P Q bus. Since the load demands P d and Qd are known values at this bus. The
other two unknown quantities at a load bus are voltage magnitude and its phase angle at the bus.
In a power balance equation P d and Qd are treated as negative quantities since generated powers
Pg and Qg are assumed positive.
(b) Voltage controlled bus or generator bus:-
A voltage controlled bus is any bus in the system where the voltage magnitude can be controlled.
The real power developed by a synchronous generator can be varied by changing the prime
mover input. This in turn changes the machine rotor axis position with respect to a synchronously
rotating or reference axis or a reference bus. In other words, the phase angle of the rotor  is
directly related to the real power generated by the machine. The voltage magnitude on the other
hand, is mainly, influenced by the excitation current in the field winding. Thus at a generator bus
the real power generation Pg and the voltage magnitude |Vg| can be specified. It is also possible to
produce vars by using capacitor or reactor banks too. They compensate the lagging or leading
vars consumed and then contribute to voltage control. At a generator bus or voltage controlled
bus, also called a PV-bus the reactive power Q g and g are the values that are not known and are
to be computed.
(c) Slack bus:-
In a network as power flows from the generators to loads through transmission lines power loss
occurs due to the losses in the line conductors. These losses when included, we get the power
balance relations
Pg - Pd - Pl = 0
Qg - Qd - Ql = 0
Where Pg and Qg are the total real and reactive generations, Pd and Qd are the total real and
reactive power demands and Pl and Ql are the power losses in the transmission network. The
values of Pg, Qg, Pd and Qd are either known or estimated. Since the flow of cements in the
various lines in the transmission lines are not known in advance, P l and Ql remains unknown
before the analysis of the network. But, these losses have to be supplied by the generators in the
system. For this purpose, one of the generators or generating bus is specified as 'slack bus' or

8
'swing bus'. At this bus the generation Pg and Qg are not specified. The voltage magnitude is
specified at this bus. Further, the voltage phase angle  is also fixed at this bus. Generally it is
specified as 0° so that all voltage phase angles are measured with respect to voltage at this bus.
For this reason slack bus is also known as reference bus. All the system losses are supplied by the
generation at this bus. Further the system voltage profile is also influenced by the voltage
specified at this bus.
2.3 The Power Flow Equations
Consider an n-bus system the bus voltages are given by
V 1∠δ

[ ]
………
V = ……….
………
Vn ∠ δ
The bus admittance matrix
[Y] = [G] + j [B] eq. 2.1
Where y ik =| y ik|∠θ ik eq. 2.2
¿ gik + j bik eq. 2.3
V i=|V i|∠ δ i=|V i|(cos δ i+ jsin δ i) eq. 2.4
V ¿i =|V i|∠−δi =|V i|(cos δ i + jsin δ i ) eq. 2.5
The current injected into the network at bus 'i'
I i=Y i 1 V 1 +Y i 2 V 2+ …+Y ¿ V n where n is no. of buses
n
 I i=∑ Y ik V k eq. 2.6
k=1

The complex power into the system at bus i

Si=Pi + jQi=V i I ¿i eq. 2.7
n
¿ V i ∑ Y ik V ¿k eq. 2.8
k=1

n
¿ ∑ ¿ V i V k Y ik ∨¿ exp ⁡(δ i−δ i−θik )¿ eq. 2.9
k=1

Equating the real and imaginary parts

n
Pi=∑ ¿V i V k Y ik ∨¿ cos ⁡( δ i −δ k −θik )¿ eq. 2.10
k=1

n
and Qi=∑ ¿V i V k Y ik ∨¿ sin ⁡( δ i−δ k −θ ik )¿ eq. 2.11
k=1

9
where i=1,2,……….,n
Excluding the slack bus, the above power flow equations are 2 (n - 1) and the variables are P i, Qi,
|Vi| and i
Simultaneous solution to the 2 (n - 1) equations
n
PGi−P Di−∑ ¿ V i V k Y ik ∨¿ cos ( δ i −δ k −θik )=0 ¿ eq. 2.12
k=1

k ≠ slack bus
n
QGi−Q Di−∑ ¿ V i V k Y ik ∨¿ sin ( δ i−δk −θik ) =0 ¿ eq. 2.13
k=1

k ≠ slack bus
Constitutes the power flow or load flow solution.
The voltage magnitudes and the phase angles at all load buses are the quantities to be determined.
They are called state variables or dependent variables. The specified or scheduled values at all
buses are the independent variables.
Y matrix interactive methods are based on solution to power flow equations using their current
mismatch at a bus given by
n
Δ I i=I i−∑ Y ik V k eq. 2.14
k=1

or using the voltage form

Δ Ii
ΔV i=
Y ii
eq. 2.15
At the end of the interactive solution to power flow equation, ∆I i or more usually ∆Vi should
become negligibly small so that they can be neglected.
2.4 Power flow analysis method
The numerical analysis involving the solution of algebraic simultaneous equations forms the
basis for solution of the performance equations in computer aided electrical power system
analyses e.g. for load flow analysis. The first step in performing load flow analysis is to form the
Y-bus admittance using the transmission line and transformer input data. The nodal equation for a
power system network using Y bus can be written as follows:
I = YBus V eq. 2.16
The nodal equation can be written in a generalized form for an n bus system.

10
 n
I i=∑ Y ij V j for i=1,2,3,n eq. 2.17
j=1

The complex power delivered to bus i is

Pi + jQ i=V i I ¿i eq. 2.18
P i− jQ i
I i= eq. 2.19
V ¿i
Substituting for Ii in terms of Pi & Qi , the equation gives
n n
P i− jQ i
=V i ∑ y ij −¿ ∑ yij V j ¿ j≠i eq. 2.20
V ¿i j=1 j=1

The above equation uses iterative techniques to solve load flow problems. Hence, it is necessary
to review the general forms of the various solution methods; Gauss-Seidel, Newton-Raphson and
Fast decoupled load flow.
(a) Gauss-Siedel Method
The Gauss-Siedel method is na iterative algorithem for solving a set of nonlinear algebraic
equations. We consider a system of n equations in n unknowns x1 ,x2 ,…….,xn . We rewrite these n
equations in the form:
xi = fi (xi,….,xn), i = 1,……,n eq. 2.21
To find the solution, we assume initial values for x1,……,xn, based on guidance from practical
experience in a physical situation. Let the initial values be x01,…,x0n. Then, we get the first
approximate solution by substituting these initial values in the above n equation.
In general, we get the kth approximate solution in the kth iteration as follows:
x ki =f i (x k1 ,… , x ki−1 , x k−1 , x k−1 k−1
i i+1 ,… , x n ) , i = 1,2,……..,n eq. 2.22
The iterative process is repeated till the solution converges within prescribed accuracy.
(b) Newton-Raphson Method
The Newton-Raphson method is a powerful method of solving nonlinear algebraic equations. It
works faster, and is sure to converge in most cases as compared to the Gauss- Siedal method. It is
indeed the practical method of load flow solution of large power networks. Its only drawbacks
are the large requirement of computer memory, which can be overcome through a compact
storage scheme. Convergence can be considerably speeded up by performing the first iteration
through the GS method, and using the values so obtained for solving the NR iterations.
(c) Fast Decoupled Load Flow Method
The Fast Decoupled Power Flow Method is one of the improved methods, which is based on a
simplification of the Newton-Raphson method and reported by Stott and Alsac in 1974. This

11
method, like the Newton-Raphson method, offers calculation simplifications, fast convergence
and reliable results and became a widely used method in load flow analysis. However, fast
decouple for some cases, where high resistance-to-reactance (R/X) ratios or heavy loading (low
voltage) at some buses are present, does not converge well because it is an approximation method
and make some assumption to simplify Jacobian matrix. For these cases, many efforts and
developments have been made to overcome these convergence obstacles.

2.5 Comparison of load flow method

Sl. Parameter of Gauss siedel Newton Raphson Fast Decoupled Load
No. comparison Flow
1. Coordinates Works well with Polar coordinates Polar coordinates
Rectangular preferred as
coordinates rectangular
coordinates occupies
more memory
2. Arithmetic Least in number to Elements of Less than Newton
Operations completer one Jacobian to be Raphson
iteration calculated in each
iteration
3. Time Require less time Time/iteration is 7 Less time when
per iteration, but times of Gauss compared to Newton
increases with in Siedel and increases Raphson and Gauss
number of buses with increase in Siedel
number if buses
4. Convergence Linear Quadratic Geometric Convergence
Convergence Convergence
5. No. of iteration Large number, Very less (3 to 5 Only 2 to 5 iterations for
increases with only) for large practical accuracies
increase in buses systems and is
practically constant
6. Slack bus Choice of slack bus Sensitivity to this is Moderate
selection affects minimal
convergence
adversely
7. Accuracy Less accurate More accurate Moderate
8. Memory Less memory Large memory even Only 60% of memory
because of sparsity with compact when compared to NR
of matrix storage scheme

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 9. Usage/ Small size systems Large systems, ill – Optimization studies,
application conditioned multiple load flow
problems, optimal studies, contingency
load flow studies evaluation for security
assessment and
enhancement
10. Programming Easy Very difficult Moderate
logic
11. Reliability Reliable only for Reliable even for More reliable then NR
small systems large systems metod

CHAPTER 3:- NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

This method was named after Isaac Newton and Joseph Raphson. The origin and formulation of
Newton-Raphson method was dated back to late 1960s. It is an iterative method which
approximates a set of non-linear simultaneous equations to a set of linear simultaneous equations
using Taylor’s series expansion and the terms are limited to the first approximation. It is the most
iterative method used for the load flow because its convergence characteristics are relatively
more powerful compared to other alternative processes and the reliability of Newton-Raphson
approach is comparatively good since it can solve cases that lead to divergence with other
popular processes. If the assumed value is near the solution, then the result is obtained very
quickly, but if the assumed value is farther away from the solution then the method may take
longer to converge. This is another iterative load flow method which is widely used for solving
nonlinear equation.
The admittance matrix is used to write equations for currents entering a power system.
Equation 2.17 is expressed in a polar form, in which j includes bus i
n
I i=∑ |Y ij||V i|<θij +δ ij eq. 3.1
j=1

The real and reactive power at bus i is

Pi− jQi=V ¿i I i eq. 3.2
Substituting for Ii in Equation 3.1 from Equation 3.2
n
Pi− jQi=|V i|<δ i ∑|Y ij||V j|<δ ij δ j eq. 3.3
j=1

The real and imaginary parts are separated:

n
Pi=∑|V i||V j||Y ij|cos ⁡( θij −δ i+ δ j) eq. 3.4
j=1

13
 n
Qi=∑ |V i||V j||Y ij|sin ⁡(θ ij−δ i +δ j ) eq. 3.5
j=1

The above Equation 3.4 and 3.5 constitute a set of non-linear algebraic equations in terms of |V|
in per unit and δ in radians. Equation 3.4 and 3.5 are expanded in Taylor’s series about the initial
estimate and neglecting all higher order terms, the following set of linear equations are obtained.

∂ P(k) ∂ P(k) ∂ P(k) ∂ P(k)

[ ] |
2 2 2 2
… …
∂δ2 ∂δn ∂|V 2| ∂|V n|
∆ P(k) ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ∆ δ2

[]
2

[]
(k) (k)
⋮ ∂ Pn ∂ Pn ∂ Pn(k)
∂ P(k)
… … n ⋮
∆ P(k) ∂δ2 ∂δn ∂|V 2| ∂|V n| ∆ δn
n
=
∆ Q(k) ∂ Q(k2 ) ∂ Q(k) ∆V2
2 ∂Q(k) ∂Q(k) 2

|
2
… 2 …
⋮ ∂|V 2| ∂|V n| ⋮
∂ δ2 ∂ δn
∆ Q(k) ∆Vn
n ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
(k )
∂Q n(k)
∂Q(k) ∂ Qn ∂ Q(k)
n
… n
…
∂ δ2 ∂ δn ∂|V 2| ∂|V n|

In the above equation, the element of the slack bus variable voltage magnitude and angle are
omitted because they are already known. The element of the Jacobian matrix are obtained after
partial derivatives of Equations 3.4 and 3.5 are expressed which gives linearized relationship
between small changes in voltage magnitude and voltage angle. The equation can be written in
matrix form as:

[ ∆∆ QP ]=[ JJ JJ ][ ∆∆|Vδ |]
1

3
2

4
eq. 3.6

J1, J2, J3, J4 are the elements of the Jacobian matrix.

Differentiating Pi w.r.t. I to find J1ii
∂ Pi n
=∑ V V −Gik sin ( δ i−δ k ) + Bik cos ( δ i−δ k ) ]
∂ δ i k=1 i k [ eq. 3.7
k ≠i

Differentiating Pi w.r.t. k (k≠i) to find J1ik

∂ Pi
=V i V k [ G ik sin ( δ i−δ k )−Bik cos ( δ i−δ k ) ] eq. 3.8
∂ δk
Differentiating Pi w.r.t. VI to find J2ii

14
 n
∂ Pi
=2 Gii V i + ∑ V k [ Gik cos ( δ i −δ k ) +B ik sin ( δ i−δ k ) ] eq. 3.9
∂V i k=1
k≠ i

Differentiating Pi w.r.t. Vk (k≠i) to find J2ik

∂ Pi
=V i [ Gik cos ( δ i−δ k ) + Bik sin ( δ i−δ k ) ] eq. 3.10
∂V k
Differentiating Qi w.r.t. i to find J3ii
∂Q i n
=∑ V V G cos ( δ i −δ k ) + Bik sin ( δi −δ k ) ]
∂δ i k=1 i k [ ik eq. 3.11
k ≠i

Differentiating Qi w.r.t. k (k≠i) to find J3ik

∂Q i
=V i V k [−G ik cos ( δ i −δ k ) −Bik sin ( δ i−δ k ) ] eq. 3.12
∂δk
Differentiating Qi w.r.t. Vi to find J4ii
n
∂Q i
=−2 Bii V i + ∑ V k [ Gik sin ( δi−δ k ) + Bik cos ( δ i−δ k ) ] eq. 3.13
∂V i k=1
k≠ i

Differentiating Qi w.r.t. Vk (k≠i) to find J4ik

∂ Qi
=V i [ Gik sin ( δ i −δ k ) + Bik cos ( δ i−δ k ) ] eq. 3.14
∂V k

The difference between the schedule and calculated values known as power residuals for the
terms ΔPi(k) and ΔQi(k) is represented as:
sch
∆ P(k) (k)
i =Pi −Pi eq. 3.15
sc h
∆ Q(k) (k)
i =Q i −Q i eq. 3.16
The new estimates for bus voltage are
δ (ki +1)=δ sci h+ ∆ δ (k)
i eq. 3.17

|V (k+1)
i |=|V sci h|+∆|V (k)i | eq. 3.18
The procedure for power flow solution by Newton Raphson method is as follows:
1. For load buses, where Pisch and Qisch are specified, voltage magnitudes and phase
angles are set equal to the slack bus values, or 1.0 and 0.0, i.e., |V i0|=1.0 and i0 = 0.0.
For voltage-regulated buses, where |V i| and Pisch are specified, phase angles are set
equal to slack bus angle, or 0, i.e., i0 = 0.

15
 2. For load buses, Pik and Qik are calculated from equation 3.4 and 3.5 and ∆P ik ∆Qik are
calculated from equation 3.15 and 3.16.
3. For voltage- controlled buses, Pik and ∆Pik are calculated from equation 3.4 and 3.15
respectively.
4. The element of the Jacobian matrix J1, J2, J3, and J4 are calculated from 3.7-3.14.
5. The linear simultaneous equation 3.6 is solved directly by optimally ordered triangular
factorization and Gaussian elimaination.
6. The new voltage magnitudes and phase angles are computed from 3.17 and 3.18.
7. The process is continued until the residuals ∆Pik and ∆Qik are less than the specified
accuracy, i.e., |∆Pik| ≤ Ԑ and |Qik| ≤ Ԑ

3.1 Flow chart of Newton-Raphson Method:

16
 Fig. 3.1 Flowchart for the Newton Raphson power flow algorithem

3.2 Advantages and Limitations:

17
The various advantages of Newton Raphson method are as follows:
a. It possesses quadratic convergence characteristics. Therefore, the convergence is very
fast.
b. The number of iterations is independent of the size of the system. Solutions to a high
accuracy are obtained nearly always in two to three iterations for both small and large
systems.
c. The Newton Raphson method convergence is not sensitive to the choice of slack bus.
d. Overall, there is a saving in computation time since fewer numbers of iterations are
required.
The various limitations are given below:

a. This solution technique is difficult.

b. It takes longer time as the elements of the Jacobian are to be computed for each iteration.
c. The computer memory requirement is large.

CHAPTER 4:- FACT DEVICES

18
Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the recent years a well known term for
higher controllability in power systems by means of power electronic devices. Several FACTS-
devices have been introduced for various applications worldwide. A number of new types of
devices are in the stage of being introduced in practice. Even more concepts of configurations of
FACTS-devices are discussed in research and literature.
In most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid cost intensive or landscape
requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like upgrades or additions of substations and
power lines. FACTS-devices provide a better adaptation to varying operational conditions and
improve the usage of existing installations.
The basic applications of FACTS-devices are:

• Power flow control,

• Increase of transmission capability,
• Voltage control,
• Reactive power compensation,
• Stability improvement,
• Power quality improvement,
• Power conditioning,
• Flicker mitigation,
• Interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages.
In all applications the practical requirements, needs and benefits have to be considered carefully
to justify the investment into a complex new device. The usage of lines for active power
transmission should be ideally up to the thermal limits. Voltage and stability limits shall be
shifted with the means of the several different FACTS devices. It can be seen that with growing
line length, the opportunity for FACTS devices gets more and more important. The influence of
FACTS-devices is achieved through switched or controlled shunt compensation, series
compensation or phase shift control. The devices work electrically as fast current, voltage or
impedance controllers. The power electronic allows very short reaction times down to far below
one second.

4.1 Overview

19
The development of FACTS-devices has started with the growing capabilities of power electronic
components. Devices for high power levels have been made available in converters for high and
even highest voltage levels. The overall starting points are network elements influencing the
reactive power or the impedance of a part of the power system. Table 4.1 shows a number of
basic devices separated into the conventional ones and the FACTS-devices.
For the FACTS side the taxonomy in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs some explanation. The
term 'dynamic' is used to express the fast controllability of FACTS-devices provided by the
power electronics. This is one of the main differentiation factors from the conventional devices.
The term 'static' means that the devices have no moving parts like mechanical switches to
perform the dynamic controllability. Therefore most of the FACTS-devices can equally be static
and dynamic.
conventional FACTS-Devices
(switched) (fast, static)

R, L, C, Transformer Thyristor valve Voltage Source

Converter (VSC)
Shunt- Switched Shunt- Static Var Static Synchronous
Devices Compensation (L,C) Compensator Compensator
(SVC) (STATCOM)
Series- (Switched) Series- Thyristor Controlled Static Synchronous
Devices Compensation (L,C) Series Compensator Series Compensator
(TCSC) (SSSC)
Shunt & Phase Shifting Dynamic Flow Unified / Interline
Series- Transformer Controller Power Flow Controller
Devices (DFC) (UPFC/ IPFC)
Shunt & HVDC Back to Back HVDC VSC
Series- (HVDC B2B) Back to Back
Devices (HVDC VSC B2B)

Table 4.1 Overview of major FACTS-Devices

4.2 Objectives of Shunt Compensation:

The purpose of this reactive compensation is to change the natural electrical characteristics of the
transmission line to make it more compatible with the prevailing load demand. Thus, shunt

20
connected, fixed or mechanically switched reactors are applied to minimize line overvoltage
under light load conditions, and shunt connected, fixed or mechanically switched capacitors are
applied to maintain voltage levels under heavy load conditions.
In this section, basic considerations to increase the transmittable power by ideal shunt-connected
Var compensation will be reviewed in order to provide a foundation for power electronics-based
compensation and control techniques to meet specific compensation objectives. The ultimate
objective of applying reactive shunt compensation in a transmission system is to increase the
transmittable power. This may be required to improve the steady-state transmission
characteristics as well as the stability of the system. Var compensation is thus used for voltage
regulation at the midpoint (or some intermediate) to segment the transmission line and at the end
of the (radial) line to prevent voltage instability, as well as for dynamic voltage control to
increase transient stability and damp power oscillations.
1. Midpoint Voltage Regulation for Line Segmentation:
Consider the simple two-machine (two-bus) transmission model in which an ideal var
compensator is shunt connected at the midpoint of the transmission line, as shown in Figure 4.1.
For simplicity, the line is represented by the series line inductance.
The compensator is represented by a sinusoidal ac voltage source (of the fundamental frequency),
in-phase with the midpoint voltage, Vm , and with an amplitude identical to that of the sending-
and receiving-end voltages (Vm= Vs = Vr = V) The midpoint compensator in effect segments the
transmission line into two independent parts: the first segment, with an impedance of X/2, carries
power from the sending end to the midpoint, and the second segment, also with an impedance of
X/2, carries power from the midpoint to the receiving end. The relationship between voltages, V s,
Vr Vm, (together with Vsm, Vrm), and line segment currents Ism and Imr is shown by the phasor
diagram in Figure 4.2. Note that the midpoint var compensator exchanges only reactive power
with the transmission line in this process.

21
Fig. 4.1 Two-machine power system with an ideal midpoint reactive compensator

Fig. 4.2 phasor diagram

For the lossless system assumed, the real power is the same at each terminal (sending end,
midpoint, and receiving end) of the line, and it can be derived readily from the phasor diagram of
Fig. 5.l(b). With
δ 4V δ
V sm =V mr=Vcos ; I sm=I mr=I = sin eq. 4.1
4 X 4
the transmitted power is
δ δ
P=V sm I sm=V mr I mr=V m I sm cos =VIcos eq. 4.2
4 4
V2 δ
Or P=2 sin eq. 4.3
X 4
δ 4V2 δ
Similarly Q=VIsin =
4 X (
1−cos
2 ) eq. 4.4

The relationship between real power P, reactive power Q, and angle  for the case of ideal shunt
compensation is shown plotted in Figure 4.3. It can be observed that the midpoint shunt
compensation can significantly increase the transmittable power (doubling its maximum value) at
the expense of a rapidly increasing reactive power demand on the midpoint compensator (and
also on the end-generators).

22
Fig. 4.3 power transmission vs. angle
characteristic showing the variation of real power P, and the reactive power output of the
compensator Q, with angle 

First segment, with an impedance of X/2,carries power from the sending end to the midpoint, and
the second segment, also with an impedance of X/2, carries power from the midpoint to the
receiving end. The relationship between voltage, Vs, Vr, Vm, (together with Vsm, Vrm), and line
segment currents Ism and Imr is shown by the phasor diagram. Note that the midpoint VAR
compensator exchanges only reactive power with the transmission line in the process.
For the lossless system assumed, the real power is the same at each terminal (sending end,
midpoint, and receiving end) of the line, and it can be delivered readily from the phasor diagram
of figure 4.2.
Vsm = Vmr = V cosδ/4; Ism = Imr = I = (4V/X) sin δ/4
The transmitted power is
P = VsmIsm = VmrImr = VmIsm cosδ/4 = VI cosδ/4 eq. 4.5
P = 2V2/X sinδ/2 eq. 4.6
Similarly, Q = VI sinδ/4 = 4V2/X (1- cosδ/2) eq. 4.7
The relationship between real power P, reactive power Q, and angle δ for the case of ideal shunt
compensation is shown plotted in figure 4.3.it can be observed that the midpoint shunt
compensation can significantly increase the transmittable power (doubling its maximum value) at
the expense of a rapidly increasing reactive power demand on the midpoint compensator (and
also on the end - generators).

23
 2. End of Line Voltage Support to Prevent Voltage lnstability:

The midpoint voltage support of a two machine transmission power system discussed above can
easily to the more special case of radial transmission. Indeed if a passive load, consuming power
P at voltage V, is connected to the midpoint in place of the receiving end part of the
system(which comprises the receiving – end generator and transmission link X/2 ), the sending –
end generator with the X/2 impedance and load represent a single radial system. Clearly, without
compensation the voltage at the midpoint (which is now the receiving end) would vary with the
load ( and load power factor).
A simple radial system with feeder line reactance of X and load impedance Z, is shown in
figure(a) together with the normalized terminal voltage Vr vs power P plot at varies load power
Factors, ranging from 0.8 lag and 0.9 lead. The “ nose–point” at each plot given for a specific
power factor represent he voltage instability corresponding to that system condition. It should be
noted that the voltage stability limit decreases with inductive loads and increases with capacitive
loads.
The inherent circuit characteristics of the simple radial structure, and the Vr vs P plots shown,
clearly indicate that shunt reactive compensation can effectively increase the voltage stability
limit by supplying the reactive load and regulating the terminal voltage ( V- Vr = 0) as illustrated
in figure(b).it is evident that for a radial line, the end of the line, where the largest voltage
variation is experienced, is the best location for the compensator. (Recall that, by contrast, the
midpoint is the most effective location for the line interconnecting two ac system buses.)
Reactive shunt compensation is often used in practical applications to regulate the voltage at a
given bus against load variation, or to provide voltage support for the load when, due to
generation or line outages, the capacity of the sending- end system becomes impaired. A
frequently encountered example is when a large load area is supplied from two or more
generation plants with independent transmission lines.(This frequently happens when the locally
generated power becomes inadequate to supply a growing load area and additional power is
imported over separate transmission link. ) The loss of one of the power sources could suddenly
increase the load demand on the remaining part of the system, causing severe voltage depression
that could result in an ultimate voltage collapse.
3. Improvement of Transient Stability:
As seen in the previous sections, reactive shunt compensation can significantly increase the
maximum transmittable power. Thus, it is reasonable to expect that, with suitable and fast
controls, shunt compensation will be able to change the power flow in the system during and

24
following dynamic disturbances so as to increase the transient stability limit and provide effective
power oscillation damping.

Figure 4.4 Variation of voltage stability limit of a radial line with load and load
power factor , and extension of this limit by reactive shunt compensation.

The potential effectiveness of shunt (as well as other compensation and flow control techniques)
on transient stability improvement can be conveniently evaluated by the equal area criterion. The
meaning of the equal area criterion is explained with the aid of the simple two machine (the
receiving end is an infinite bus), two line system shown in Figure 5.4(a) and the corresponding P
versus δ curves shown in Figure 5.4(b). Assume that the complete system is characterized by the
P versus δ curve "a" and is operating at angle δ i to transmit power P 1 when a fault occurs at line
segment "1." During the fault the system is characterized by the P versus δ curve "b" and thus,
over this period, the transmitted electric power decreases significantly while mechanical input
power to the sending-end generator remains substantially constant corresponding to P 1. As a
result, the generator accelerates and the transmission angle increases from δ1to δ2 at which the
protective breakers disconnect the faulted line segment "l" and the sending-end generator absorbs
accelerating energy, represented by area "A 1." After fault clearing, without line segment "l" the
degraded system is characterized by the P versus δ curve "c." At angle δ2 on curve "c" the
transmitted power exceeds the mechanical input power P1 and the sending end generator starts to
decelerate; however, angle δ further increases due to the kinetic energy stored in the machine.

25
The maximum angle reached at δ3, where the decelerating energy, represented by area "A2,"
becomes equal to the accelerating energy represented by area "A 1", The limit of transient stability
is reached at δ3 = δcrit, beyond which the decelerating energy would not balance the accelerating
energy and synchronism between the sending end and receiving end could not be restored. The
area "Amargin ," between δ3 and δcrit, represent the transient stability margin of the system.

Figure 4.5 Equal area criterion to illustrate the transient stability margin for a simple two
machine system without compensation , and with an ideal midpoint compensator.

CHAPTER 5:- STATIC REPRESENTATION OF SVC

26
The Static Var Compensator (SVC) is a shunt connected Var generator or absorber whose output
is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control specific
parameters of the electric power system, typically bus voltage. It includes separate equipment for
leading and lagging Vars. A simple connection diagram of SVC has been given in Figure 5.1.

FIGURE 5.1 SVC CONNECTIONS TO A BUS

The main types of SVC controllers presently used are as follows:

1. Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR): In this type of SVC a reactor with thyristor valves is
incorporated in each phase. Reactive power is varied by controlling the current through the
reactor using the thyristor valves. This type of SVC is characterized by smooth and continuous
control.
2. Fixed capacitor Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR): In this type of SVC a TCR is
used in combination with a fixed capacitor bank when reactive power generation is required. This
is often the optimum solution for sub-transmission and distribution applications. The main
characteristics of this type of SVC are smooth and continuous control, elimination of harmonics
by tuning the fixed capacitors and compact design.
3. Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC): In this type of SVC a shunt capacitor bank is divided
into an appropriate number of branches. Each branch is individually switched on or off through
anti-parallel connected thyristors. The main characteristics of this type of SVC are step and
smooth control, no harmonics, low losses and flexibility.

4. Thyristor Controlled Reactor–Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TCR–TSC): In this type of

SVC the TCR and the TSC is combined to get an optimum solution in many cases. With a TCR–

27
TSC SVC, continuously variable reactive power can be obtained across the entire control range,
with full control of both the inductive and the capacitive parts of the compensator. The principal
benefit is optimum performance during major disturbances in the system such as line faults and
load rejections. This type of SVC is characterized by continuous control, elimination of
harmonics through TSC control, low losses, redundancy, and flexibility [30].
Shunt FACTS device has been represented as injection at one node to which it is connected
whereas a series FACTS device is generally taken as power injection at two nodes connected at
both the ends of a line in which series FACTS controller exists.

In the active control range, the susceptance (Bsvc) and, hence, the reactive current is varied

according to the voltage regulation slope characteristics shown in Fig. 2.3. The slope value
depends upon the desired voltage regulation, the desired sharing of reactive power among various
sources and other needs in the system. Typically, it varies between 1-5%. The SVC behaves like
a shunt capacitor of maximum value (BCsvc) at the capacitive limit, and as fixed shunt reactor at

minimum value (-BLsvc) corresponding to the inductive limit. These limits are reached when

there are large variations in the bus voltage. The inductive limit is reached when the bus voltage
exceeds the upper limit, whereas the capacitive limit is reached when it falls below the lower
limit.

FIGURE 5.2
SVC OUTPUT
CHARACTERISTICS

5.1 CONTROL CONCEPT OF SVC :

28
An SVC is a controlled shunt susceptance (B) as defined by control settings that injects reactive
power (Q) into the system based on the square of its terminal voltage. Fig. 5.3 illustrates a TCR
SVC, including the operational concept. The control objective of the SVC is to maintain a desired
voltage at the high-voltage bus. In the steady-state, the SVC will provide some steady-state
control of the voltage to maintain it the high-voltage bus at a pre-defined level. If the high-
voltage bus begins to fall below its set point range, the SVC will inject reactive power (Q net) Into
thereby increasing the bus voltage back to its net desired voltage level. If bus voltage increases,
the SVC will inject less (or TCR will absorb more) reactive power, and the result will be to
achieve the desired bus voltage. From Fig. 1, +Q cap is a fixed capacitance value, therefore the
magnitude of reactive power injected into the system, Q net, is controlled by the magnitude of –Q ind
reactive power absorbed by the TCR. The fundamental operation of the thyristor valve that
controls the TCR is described here. The thyristor is self commutates at every current zero,
therefore the current through the reactor is achieved by gating or firing the thyristor at a desired
conduction or firing angle with respect to the voltage waveform.

FIGURE 5.3 SVC WITH CONTROL CONCEPT

5.2 CRITERION FOR OPTIMAL LOCATION OF SVC :

29
The generator buses and the buses having voltage control devices have not been considered for
SVC placement since these devices have some capabilities to control the active and reactive
powers at the buses. At PV nodes, the generators are capable to control both the power. At PQ
nodes, the generators are not connected and so do not have any control over the power at these
nodes. Hence, the sensitivity analysis is carried out on PQ nodes to place some external controller
which can have control over power as SVC can control the reactive power.
Moreover, it is assumed that all the losses are to be met by the slack bus in the system.

5.3 BENEFITS OF SVC IN POWER TRANSMISSION:

–– Stabilized voltages in weak systems
–– Reduced transmission losses
–– Increased transmission capacity, to reduce, defer or
eliminate the need for new lines
–– Higher transient stability limit
–– Increased damping of minor disturbances
–– Greater voltage control and stability
–– Power oscillation damping
5.4 BENEFITS OF SVC IN POWER DISTRIBUTION:
–– Stabilized voltage at the receiving end of long lines
–– Increased productivity as stabilized voltage means better
utilized capacity
–– Reduced reactive power consumption, which gives lower
losses and improved tariffs
–– Balanced asymmetrical loads reduce system losses and
enable lower stresses in rotating machinery
–– Enables better use of equipment (particularly transformers
and cables)
–– Reduced voltage fluctuations and light flicker
–– Decreased harmonic distortion

CHAPTER 6:- SAMPLE PROBLEM

30
6.1 Program for the load flow problem

BUSDATA
% busdata

function busdata = busdata5()

% | BUS | TYPE | Vsp | theta | PGi | QGi | PLi | QLi | Qmin |Qmax

busdata=[ 1 1 1.06 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 2 1 0 40 0 -20 -10 -300 300

3 3 1 0 0 0 -60 -10 0 0

4 3 1 0 0 0 -45 -15 0 0

5 3 1 0 0 0 -40 -5 0 0 ];

end

LINE DATA

31
% Line Data

function linedata = linedata5()

% |from | To | R | X | B/2 |

% | BUS | BUS | PU | PU | PU |

linedata = [ 1 2 0.02 0.06 0.06/2

1 4 0.08 0.24 0.05/2

2 4 0.06 0.18 0.04/2

2 5 0.06 0.18 0.04/2

2 3 0.04 0.12 0.03/2

4 5 0.01 0.03 0.02/2

5 3 0.08 0.24 0.05/2 ];

end

LINE POWER
function [Pg, Qg, Pi, Qi,Pl, Ql,Pij, Qij]= linepower( del, V)

% program for bus power injection, line and power flow

%function [ Iij] = loadflow5()

Y= ybusppg();

busdata= busdata5();

baseMVA= 100;

%del=[0 -2.06 -4.6 -4.9 -5.7];

%delr=del*(pi/180)

%V=[1.06 1 0.98 0.984 0.972];

linedata=linedata5();

32
busdata=busdata5();

fb=linedata(:,1); % from bus

tb=linedata(:,2); % tobus

b=linedata(:,5); % groun admittance B/2

nbr=length(fb);

Pl=busdata(:,7);

Ql=busdata(:,8);

%number of buses

[x y]=pol2cart(del,V)

Vm=complex(x,y);

nbus= length(Vm);

Iij=zeros(nbus,nbus);

Sij=zeros(nbus,nbus);

I=Y*Vm

Im=abs(I)

Ia=angle(I)*180/pi

for m=1:nbus

for n=1:nbr

if fb(n)==m

p=tb(n)

Iij(m,p)=-(Vm(m)-Vm(p))*Y(m,p)+b(n)*Vm(m)

Iij(p,m)=-(Vm(p)-Vm(m))*Y(p,m)+b(n)*Vm(p)

elseif tb(n)==m

p=fb(n);

Iij(m,p)=-(Vm(m)-Vm(p))*Y(p,m)+b(n)*Vm(m)

Iij(p,n)=-(Vm(p)-Vm(m))*Y(m,p)+b(n)*Vm(p)

end

33
 end

end

Iijr=real(Iij);

Iiji=imag(Iij);

for m=1:nbus

for n=1:nbus

if m~=n

Sij(m,n)=Vm(m)*conj(Iij(m,n))*baseMVA

end

end

end

Pij=real(Sij);

Qij=imag(Sij);

%bus power injection

Si=zeros(nbus,1);

for i=1:nbus

for k=1:nbus

Si(i)=Si(i)+conj(Vm(i))*Vm(k)*Y(i,k)*baseMVA

end

end

Pi=real(Si)

Qi=-imag(Si)

Pg=Pi+Pl

Qg=Qi+Ql

end

PROGRAM FOR ADMITTANCE YBUS

34
% program for admittance ybus

function ybus = ybusppg()

linedata = linedata5();

linedata = linedata5();

fb= linedata(:,1);

tb= linedata(:,2);

r= linedata(:,3);

x= linedata(:,4);

b= linedata(:,5);

z=r+i*x;

y=1./z;

b=i*b;

nbus = max(max(fb),max(tb)); % no of bus

nbranch= length(fb); % no of branches

ybus = zeros(nbus,nbus);

% formation of offdiagonal element

for k=1: nbranch

ybus(fb(k),tb(k)) = ybus(fb(k),tb(k)) -y(k);

ybus(tb(k),fb(k))=ybus(fb(k),tb(k));

end

% formation of diagonal element

for m= 1: nbus

for n=1 : nbranch

if fb(n)==m

ybus(m,m)= ybus(m,m)+y(n)+b(n);

elseif tb(n)== m

ybus(m,m)= ybus(m,m)+y(n)+b(n);

35
 end

end

end

end

PROGRAM FOR NEWTON RAPHSON LOAD FLOW

% program for newton raphson load flow

% bus 1 is slack bus

Y= ybusppg();

busdata= busdata5();

baseMVA= 100;

bus= busdata(:,1);

type=busdata(:,2);

V=busdata(:,3);

del=busdata(:,4);

Pg=busdata(:,5);

Qg=busdata(:,6);

Pl=busdata(:,7);

Ql=busdata(:,8);

Qmin=busdata(:,9);

Qmax=busdata(:,10);

nbus=max(bus);

P=Pg-Pl;

Q=Qg-Ql;

P=P/baseMVA;

Q=Q/baseMVA;

Qmin=Qmin/baseMVA;

36
Qmax=Qmax/baseMVA;

Tol=10;

Iter=1;

Psp=P;

Qsp=Q;

G=real(Y);

B=imag(Y);

pv=find(type== 2 | type==1); % index of pv bus

pq= find(type==3) % index of pq bus

npv= length(pv);

npq= length(pq);

while (Tol > 1e-5)

P= zeros(nbus,1);

Q= zeros(nbus,1);

for i=1: nbus

for k= 1: nbus

P(i)= P(i)+V(i)*V(k)*(G(i,k)*cos(del(i)-del(k))+B(i,k)*sin(del(i)-del(k)));

Q(i)= Q(i)+V(i)*V(k)*(G(i,k)*sin(del(i)-del(k))-B(i,k)*cos(del(i)-del(k)));

end

end

if Iter <= 7 && Iter >=2

for n= 2:nbus

if type(n) == 2

if Q(n) < Qmin(n)

V(n)= V(n)+0.01;

elseif Q(n) > Qmax(n)

V(n)=V(n)-0.01

37
 end

end

end

end

dPa= Psp - P;

dQa = Qsp -Q;

dQ = zeros(npq,1);

k=1;

for i= 1:nbus

if type(i)==3

dQ(k,1)=dQa(i);

k=k+1;

end

end

dP = dPa(2:nbus);

M=[dP;dQ]; % mismatch vector

% jacobian

% j1 -derivative of real power with angle

J1 = zeros(nbus-1,nbus-1);

for i= 1: nbus-1

m= i+1;

for k= 1: nbus-1

n=k+1

if n==m

for q=1:nbus

J1(i,k)=J1(i,k)+ V(m)*V(q)*(-G(m,q)*sin(del(m)-del(q))+B(m,q)*cos(del(m)-
del(q)));

38
 end

J1(i,k)=J1(i,k)-V(m)^2*B(m,m);

else

J1(i,k)=V(m)*V(q)*(G(m,q)*sin(del(m)-del(q))-B(m,q)*cos(del(m)-del(q)))

end

end

end

% j2 -derivative of real power with voltage(dP/dV)

J2 = zeros(nbus-1,npq);

for i= 1: nbus-1

m= i+1;

for k= 1: npq

n=pq(k)

if n==m

for q=1:nbus

J2(i,k)=J2(i,k)+ V(q)*(G(m,q)*cos(del(m)-del(q))+B(m,q)*sin(del(m)-del(q)));

end

J2(i,k)=J2(i,k)+V(m)*G(m,m);

else

J2(i,k)=V(m)*(G(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n))+B(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)));

end

end

end

% j3 -derivative of Q power with angle dQ/ddelta

J3 = zeros (npq,nbus-1);

39
 for i= 1: npq

m= pq(i);

for k= 1: (nbus-1)

n=k+1;

if n==m

for q=1:nbus

J3(i,k)=J3(i,k)+ V(m)*V(q)*(G(m,q)*cos(del(m)-del(q))+B(m,q)*sin(del(m)-
del(q)));

end

J3(i,k)=J3(i,k)-V(m)^2*G(m,m);

else

J3(i,k)=V(m)*V(n)*(-G(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n))-B(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)))

end

end

end

% j1 -derivative of real power with angle

J4 = zeros (npq,npq);

for i= 1: npq

m= pq(i);

for k= 1: npq

n=pq(k)

if n==m

for q=1:nbus

J4(i,k)=J4(i,k)+ V(q)*(G(m,q)*sin(del(m)-del(q))-B(m,q)*cos(del(m)-del(q)));

end

J4(i,k)=J4(i,k)-V(m)*B(m,m);

40
 else

J4(i,k)=V(m)*(G(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n))-B(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)))

end

end

end

J=[J1 J2;J3 J4];

X=inv(J)*M

dTh= X(1:nbus-1);

dV=X(nbus:end);

del(2:nbus)= dTh + del(2:nbus);

k=1;

for i=2:nbus

if type(i)==3

V(i)=dV(k)+V(i);

k=k+1;

end

end

Iter=Iter+1;

Tol=max(abs(M));

end

Iter=Iter-1; %no of iteration took

V;

Del=180/pi.*del;

E1=[V Del]; % bus voltage and angle

disp('-------------------------------------------')

disp('| Bus no || V(pu) || Angle degree |');

for m=1:nbus

41
 fprintf('%4g', m), fprintf('%12.4f', V(m)),fprintf('%12.4f', Del(m)); fprintf('\n');

end

disp('-------------------------------')

% call linepower

[Pg, Qg,Pi,Qi,Pl,Ql, Pij, Qij]=linepower(del,V)

%graphplot(V,Del,fb,tb,Pij,Qij)

disp('##########################################################################
');

disp(' NEWTON RAPHSON LOAD FLOW ');

disp('##########################################################################
');

disp('|bus no| V || Angle || Injection || generation || LOad |');

disp('| | pu||(degree) || Mw Mvar || MW Mvar|| Mw Mvar |');

disp('##########################################################################
');

for m=1: nbus

fprintf('%3g',m);fprintf('%9.4f',V(m));fprintf('%9.4f',Del(m));fprintf('%9.2f',Pi(m));

fprintf('%9.2f',Qi(m));fprintf('%9.2f',Pg(m));fprintf('%9.2f',Qg(m));

fprintf('%9.2f',Pl(m));fprintf('%9.2f',Ql(m));fprintf('\n')

end

6.2 Results

42
 CONCLUSION:
With the help of a 5-bus system the effect of inclusion of FACTS(SVC) devices has been
explained in the paper and how the system parameters like voltage, power flow etc can be altered

43
by the use of SVC has also been observed. Hence SVC improves the flexibility of the system.
Furthermore, it was observed with the help of the results that the SVC helped in overall
improvement of the voltage profile of the system. SVC could be very useful for reducing load
curtailment which is occurring due to lack of reactive power or voltage problem. The installation
of SVC helped in the improvement of steady-state and dynamic stability of the grid. Therefore
with the help of these devices a control of system parameters has been observed.

REFERENCE:
[1] D.P. Kothari and I.J. Nagrath, “Modern Power System Analysis”, 4 thed, Tata McGraw-Hill
Education Pvt. Ltd , 2012.

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[2] N.G. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, “Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of
Flexible AC Transmission System”, IEEE Press, 2000.

[3] Narayana Prasad Padhy, M.A. Abdel Moamen, “Power flow control and solutions with
multiple and multi-type FACTS devices”, Electric Power Systems Research 74, pp 341–351,
2005.

[4] H. Amhriz-Perez, E. Acha, C. R. Fuerte-Esquivel, “Advanced SVC Models for Newton-

Raphson Load Flow and Newton Optimal Power Flow Studies”, IEEE Transactions on power
systems. vol. 15.no. 1, pp. 129-136, February 2000.

[5] D.P. Kothari and J.S. Dhillon, Power System Optimization, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd,
2006.

[6] C. R. Fuerte-Esquivel, E. Acha, and H. Ambriz-Perez, “A Thyristor Controlled Series

Compensator Model for the Power Flow Solution of Practical Power Networks”, IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems. vol. 15 no. 1, pp. 58-64, February 2000.

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