Review

 If statement allows a program to make a decision based on the

truth or falsity of a statement of fact called a condition.
 Conditions in if statement are formed by suing the equality
operators and relational operators.
 The precedence of relational operators
 = should be read “gets” and == should be read “double
equals”.
 Key words.

Chapter 3

Structured Program Development in C

Before writing a program to solve a particular problem,

it is essential to have a thorough understanding of the
problem and a carefully planned approach to solving the
problem.

Acknowledgment

The notes are adapted from those provided by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education Inc.

30
OBJECTIVES
 In this lecture, you will learn:
 Develop algorithms

 Pseudo
seudo code aandd flowchart
owc a t
 Control structures

 Sequence structures

 Selection structures (if selection statement and

if…else selection statement)
 Repetition structures (while repetition statement to
execute statements ini a program repeatedly)
dl )
 Structured programming with Top-Down refinement

 The assignment, increment and decrement operators

 Review

Algorithms
 Computing problems --- Target of Algorithms
 All can be solved by executing a series of actions in a

specific order
 Algorithm: procedure in terms of
 Actions to be executed

 The order in which these actions are to be executed

 Program control
 Specify order in which statements are to be executed

 Two representations of an algorithm

 Pseudocode --- style like everyday’s English

 Flowchart --- a graphical representation

31
Pseudocode
 Pseudocode
 Artificial, informal language that helps us develop
algorithms
 Similar to everyday English

 Not actually executed on computers

 Helps us “think out” a program before writing it

 Easy to convert into a corresponding C program

 Consist only of executable statements, i.e.

without comments and variable definition.

Flowchart
 Flowchart
 Graphical representation of an algorithm

 Drawn
aw us
using
g ce
certain
ta special-purpose
spec a pu pose symbols
sy bo s connected
co ected by
arrows called flowlines
 Rectangle symbol (action symbol):

 Indicates any type of action

 Oval symbol:
 Indicates the beginning or end of a program or a section of
code
 Single-entry/single-exit control structures
 Connect exit point of one control structure to entry point of
the next (control-structure stacking)
 Makes programs easy to build

32
Control Structures
 Sequential execution (by default)
 Statements executed one after the other in the order written

 Transfer of control
 When the next statement executed is not the next one in sequence

 Overuse of goto statements led to many problems

 All programs written in terms of three control structures

 Sequence structures: Built into C. Programs executed
sequentially by default
 Selection structures: C has three types: if, if else and
if if…else,
switch
 Repetition structures: C has three types: while,
do…while and for

Flowcharting C’s sequence structure

33
The if Selection Statement
 Selection structure:
 Used to choose among alternative courses of action

 Pseudocode:
seudocode:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
 If condition true
 Print statement executed and program goes on to next
statement
 If false, print statement is ignored and the program goes
onto the next statement
 Indenting makes programs easier to read

 C ignores whitespace characters

The if Selection Statement

 Pseudocode statement in C:
if ( grade >= 60 )
printf( "Passed\n" );
 C code corresponds closely to the pseudocode
 Diamond symbol (decision symbol)
 Indicates decision is to be made

 Contains an expression that can be true or false

 Test the condition, follow appropriate path

34
The if Selection Statement
if statement is a single-entry/single-exit structure

 A decision can be made on any

expression.
 zero - false
 nonzero - true
 Example:
 3 – 4 is true

The if…else Selection Statement

 if
 Only performs an action if the condition is true
 if…else
 Specifies an action to be performed both when the condition
is true and when it is false
 Psuedocode:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
else
Print “Failed”
 Note spacing/indentation conventions

35
The if…else Selection Statement
 C code:
if ( grade >= 60 )
printf( "Passed\n");
else
printf( "Failed\n");
 Ternary conditional operator (?:)
 Takes three arguments (condition, value if true, value if
false)
 Our pseudocode could be written:
printf( "%s\n"
%s\n , grade >= 60 ? "Passed"
Passed :
"Failed" );
 Or it could have been written:
grade >= 60 ? printf( “Passed\n” ) : printf(
“Failed\n” );

The if…else Selection Statement

 Flow chart of the if…else selection statement

 Nested if…else statements

 Test for multiple cases by placing if…else selection
statements inside if…else selection statement
 Once condition is met, rest of statements skipped

 Deep indentation usually not used in practice

36
The if…else Selection Statement
 Pseudocode for a nested if…else statement
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 90
Print “A”
else
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 80
Print “B”
else
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 70
Print “C”
else
l
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “D”
else
Print “F”

The if…else Selection Statement

 Compound statement:
 Set of statements within a pair of braces

 Example:
if ( grade >= 60 )
printf( "Passed.\n" );
else {
printf( "Failed.\n" );
printf( "You must take this course
again.\n" );
}
 Without the braces, the statement
printf( "You must take this course
again.\n" );
would be executed automatically

37
Programming Errors in if…else Selection Statement

 Syntax errors
 E.g. Forget one or both of the braces that delimit a
compound statement
 Caught by compiler

 Logic errors:
 Have their effect at execution time

 Non-fatal: program runs, but has incorrect output

 Fatal: program exits prematurely

The while Repetition Statement

 Repetition structure
 Programmer specifies an action to be repeated while some

condition remains true

 Psuedocode:

While there are more items on my shopping list

Purchase next item and cross it off my list
 while loop repeated until condition becomes false

38
The while Repetition Statement
 Example:
int product = 2;
while ( product
p <= 1000 )
product = 2 * product;

Fig. 3.4 | Flowcharting the while repetition statement.

Counter-Controlled Repetition
 Loop repeated until counter reaches a certain value
 Definite repetition: number of repetitions is known
 Example: A class of ten students took a quiz. The grades
(integers in the range 0 to 100) for this quiz are available to
you. Determine the class average on the quiz
 Pseudocode:
Set total to zero
Set grade counter to one
While grade counter is less than or equal to ten
Input the next grade
Add the grade into the total
Add one to the grade counter
Set the class average to the total divided by ten
Print the class average

39
1 /* Fig. 3.6: fig03_06.c
2 Class average program with counter-controlled repetition */
3 #include <stdio.h>
4
5 /* function main begins program execution */
6 int main( void )
7 {
8 int counter; /* number of grade to be entered next */
9 int grade; /* grade value */
10 int total; /* sum of grades input by user */ Counter to control while loop
11 int average; /* average of grades */
12
13 /* initialization phase */
14 total = 0; /* initialize total */
15 counter = 1; /* initialize loop counter */ Initialize counter to 1
16
17 /* processing phase */
18 while ( counter <= 10 ) { /* loop 10 times */ while loop iterates as long as
19 printf( "Enter grade: " ); /* prompt for input */ counter <= 10
20 scanf(
f( "%d",
"%d" &grade
& d );
) /* read
d grade
d from
f user */
21 total = total + grade; /* add grade to total */
22 counter = counter + 1; /* increment counter */
Increment the counter
23 } /* end while */

24
25 /* termination phase */
26 average = total / 10; /* integer division */
27
Calculate the average
28 printf( "Class average is %d\n", average ); /* display result */
29
30 return 0; /* indicate program ended successfully */
31
32 } /* end function main */

Enter grade: 98
Enter grade: 76
Enter grade: 71
Enter grade: 87
Enter grade: 83
Enter grade: 90
Enter grade: 57
Enter grade: 79
Enter grade: 82
Enter grade: 94
Class average is 81

40
Top-Down, Stepwise Refinement
 Problem becomes:
Develop a class-averaging program that will process an
arbitrary number of grades each time the program is run.
 Unknown number of students

 How will the program know to end?

 Use sentinel value

 Also called signal value, dummy value, or flag value

 Indicates “end of data entry.”

 Loop ends when user inputs the sentinel value

 Sentinel value chosen so it cannot be confused with a

regular input (such as -1 in this case)

Top-Down, Stepwise Refinement

 Top-down, stepwise refinement
 Begin with a Pseudo code representation of the top:

Determine the class average

g for
f the quiz
q
 Divide top into smaller tasks and list them in order:
Initialize variables
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
Calculate and print the class average
 Many programs have three phases:
 Initialization: initializes the program variables

 Processing: inputs data values and adjusts program

variables accordingly
 Termination: calculates and prints the final results

41
Notice!!

 Each refinement, as well as the top itself, is

a complete specification of the algorithm;
only the level of detail varies.

Top-Down, Stepwise Refinement

 Refine the initialization phase from Initialize variables to:
Initialize total to zero
Initialize counter to zero
 Refine Input, sum and count the quiz grades to
Input the first grade (possibly the sentinel)
While the user has not as yet entered the sentinel
Add this grade into the running total
Add one to the grade counter
Input the next grade (possibly the sentinel)

42
Top-Down, Stepwise Refinement
 Refine Calculate and print the class average to
If the counter is not equal to zero
Set the average to the total divided by the counter
Print the average
else
Print “No grades were entered”

Pseudocode algorithm that uses sentinel-controlled

repetition to solve the class average problem

1 Initialize total to zero

2 Initialize counter to zero
3
4 Input the first grade
5 While the user has not as yet entered the sentinel
6 Add this grade into the running total
7 Add one to the grade counter
8 Input the next grade (possibly the sentinel)
9
10 If the counter is not equal to zero
11 Set the average to the total divided by the counter
12 Print the average
13 else
14 Print “No grades were entered”

43
 When to stop the top-down, stepwise refinement
process?

 Stop the top-down, stepwise refinement process when the

pseudocode
d d algorithm
l ith is i specified i sufficient detail for
ifi d in f
you to be able to convert the pseudocode to C.

 Implementing the C program is then normally straightforward.

1 /* Fig. 3.8: fig03_08.c

2 Class average program with sentinel-controlled repetition */
3 #include <stdio.h>
4
5 /* function main begins program execution */
6 int main( void )
7 {
8 int counter; /* number of grades entered */
9 int grade; /* grade value */
10 int total; /* sum of grades */
float type indicates
11
12 float average; /* number with decimal point for average */ variable can be a non-
13 integer
14 /* initialization phase */
15 total = 0; /* initialize total */
16 counter = 0; /* initialize loop counter */
17
18 /* processing phase */
19 /* get first grade from user */
20 printf(
i f( "Enter
" grade,
d -1
1 to end:
d " );
) /* prompt for
f input
i */
21 scanf( "%d", &grade ); /* read grade from user */
22

44
23 /* loop while sentinel value not yet read from user */
24 while ( grade != -1 ) {
25 total = total + grade; /* add grade to total */
26 counter = counter + 1; /* increment counter */ while loop repeats until user enters
27 a value of -1
28 /* get next grade from user */
29 printf( "Enter grade, -1 to end: " ); /* prompt for input */
30 scanf("%d", &grade); /* read next grade */
31 } /* end while */
32
33 /* termination phase */
34 /* if user entered at least one grade */
35 if ( counter != 0 ) { Ensures the user entered at least one grade
36
37 /* calculate average of all grades entered */
38 average = ( float ) total / counter; /* avoid truncation */
39
Converts total to float type
40 /* display average with two digits of precision */
41 printf( "Class average is %.2f\n", average );
42 } /* end if */
43 else { /* if no grades were entered, output message */ Prints
i result
l with
i h 2 digits
di i after
f decimal
d i l point
i
44 printf( "No grades were entered\n" );
45 } /* end else */
46
47 return 0; /* indicate program ended successfully */
48
49 } /* end function main */ ( float ) is the cast operator that changes the data
type of a variable.

Enter grade, -1 to end: 75

Enter grade, -1 to end: 94
Enter grade, -1 to end: 97
Enter grade, -1 to end: 88
Enter grade, -1 to end: 70
Enter grade, -1 to end: 64
Enter grade, -1 to end: 83
Enter grade, -1 to end: 89
Enter grade -1
grade, 1 to end: -1
1
Class average is 82.50

Enter grade, -1 to end: -1

No grades were entered

45
Nested control structures
 Problem
 A college has a list of test results (1 = pass, 2 = fail) for 10
students
 Write a program that analyzes the results

 If more than 8 students pass, print "Raise Tuition"

 Notice that
 The program must process 10 test results

 Counter-controlled loop will be used

 T counters can be
Two b usedd
 One for number of passes, one for number of fails
 Each test result is a number—either a 1 or a 2
 If the number is not a 1, we assume that it is a 2

Nested control structures

 Top level outline
Analyze exam results and decide if tuition should be raised
 First Refinement
Initialize variables
Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures
Print a summary of the exam results and decide if tuition should
be raised
 Refine Initialize variables to
Initialize passes to zero
Initialize failures to zero
Initialize student counter to one

46
Nested control structures
 Refine Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures
to
While student counter is less than or equal to ten
Input the next exam result
If the student passed
Add one to passes
else
Add one to failures
Add one to student counter
 Refine Print a summary of the exam results and decide if
tuition should be raised to
Print the number of passes
Print the number of failures
If more than eight students passed
Print “Raise tuition”

Nested control structures

1 Initialize passes to zero
2 Initialize failures to zero
3 Initialize student to one
4
5 While student counter is less than or equal to ten
6 I
Input
t the
th nextt exam result
lt
7
8 If the student passed
9 Add one to passes
10 else
11 Add one to failures
12
13 Add one to student counter
14
15 Print the number of passes
p
16 Print the number of failures
17 If more than eight students passed
18 Print “Raise tuition”

Fig. 3.9 | Pseudocode for examination results problem.

47
1 /* Fig. 3.10: fig03_10.c
2 Analysis of examination results */
3 #include <stdio.h>
4
5 /* function main begins program execution */
6 int main( void )
7 {
8 /* initialize variables in definitions */
9 int passes = 0; /* number of passes */
10 int failures = 0; /* number of failures */
11 int student
i d = 1; /*
/ student
d counter */
/
12 int result; /* one exam result */
13
14 /* process 10 students using counter-controlled loop */
15 while ( student <= 10 ) {
16
while loop continues until 10 students have been processed
17 /* prompt user for input and obtain value from user */
18 printf( "Enter result ( 1=pass,2=fail ): " );
19 scanf( "%d", &result );
20
21 /* if result 1, increment passes */
22 if ( result == 1 ) {
23 passes = passes + 1; if and else statements are nested
24 } /* end if */ inside while loop
25 else { /* otherwise, increment failures */
26 failures = failures + 1;
27 } /* end else */
28
29 student = student + 1; /* increment student counter */
30 } /* end while */

31
32 /* termination phase; display number of passes and failures */
33 printf( "Passed %d\n", passes );
34 printf( "Failed %d\n", failures );
35
36 /* if more than eight students passed, print "raise tuition" */
37 if ( passes > 8 ) {
38 printf( "Raise tuition\n" );
39 } /* end if */
40
41 return 0; /* indicate program ended successfully */
42
43 } /* end function main */

Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1

Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail):
( p , ) 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2
Passed 6
Failed 4
(continued on next slide… )

48
 (continued from previous slide…)
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 2
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail):
(1=pass 2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Enter Result (1=pass,2=fail): 1
Passed 9
Failed 1
Raise tuition

Assignment Operators
 Assignment operators abbreviate assignment expressions
c = c + 3;
can be abbreviated as c += 3;
; using
g the addition assignment
g
operator
 Statements of the form
variable = variable operator expression;
can be rewritten as
variable operator = expression;
 E
Examples
l off other
th assignment
i t operators:
t
d -= 4 (d = d - 4)
e *= 5 (e = e * 5)
f /= 3 (f = f / 3)
g %= 9 (g = g % 9)

49
Assignment Operators

Assignment Sample
Explanation Assigns
operator expression
Assume: int c = 3, d = 5, e = 4, f = 6, g = 12;
+= c += 7 C = c + 7 10 to c
-= d -= 4 D = d - 4 1 to d
*= e *= 5 E = e * 5 20 to e
/= f /= 3 F = f / 3 2 to f
%= g %= 9 G = g % 9 3 to g

Increment and Decrement Operators

 Increment operator (++)
 Can be used instead of c+=1

 Decrement
ec e e t operator
ope ato (--)
 Can be used instead of c-=1

 Preincrement
 Operator is used before the variable (++c or --c)

 Variable is changed before the expression it is in is

evaluated
 Postincrement
 Operator is used after the variable (c++ or c--)

 Expression executes before the variable is changed

50
Increment and Decrement Operators
 If c equals 5, then
printf( "%d", ++c );
 Prints 6
printf( "%d", c++ );
 Prints 5
 In either case, c now has the value of 6

 When variable not in an expression

 Preincrementing and postincrementing have the same effect

++c;
printf( “%d”, c );
 Has the same effect as
c++;
printf( “%d”, c );

Increment and Decrement Operators

Operator Sample expression Explanation

++ ++a Increment a by 1, then use the new value of a in the

expression in which a resides.
++ a++ Use the current value of a in the expression in which a
resides, then increment a by 1.
-- --b Decrement b by 1, then use the new value of b in the
expression in which b resides.
-- b-- Use the current value of b in the expression in which b
resides, then decrement b by 1.

++a;  a = a + 1; --b;  b = b – 1;

Unary operators should be placed directly next to their

operands with no intervening spaces.

51
1 /* Fig. 3.13: fig03_13.c
2 Preincrementing and postincrementing */
3 #include <stdio.h>
4
5 /* function main begins program execution */
6 int main( void )
7 {
8 int c; /* define variable */
9
10 /* demonstrate postincrement */
11 c = 5;
5 /* assign
i 5 to
t c */
12 printf( "%d\n", c ); /* print 5 */
13 printf( "%d\n", c++ ); /* print 5 then postincrement */ c is printed, then incremented
14 printf( "%d\n\n", c ); /* print 6 */
15
16 /* demonstrate preincrement */
17 c = 5; /* assign 5 to c */
18 printf( "%d\n", c ); /* print 5 */
19 printf( "%d\n", ++c ); /* preincrement then print 6 */ c is incremented, then printed
20 printf( "%d\n", c ); /* print 6 */
21
22 return 0; /* indicate program ended successfully */
23
24 } /* end function main */
5
5
6

5
6
6

Precedence of the operators encountered so far in

the text
Operators Associativity Type

++ (postfix) -- (postfix) right to left postfix

+ - ( type) ++ (prefix) -- (prefix) right to left unary

* / % left to right multiplicative

+ - left to right additive

< <= > >= left to right relational

== != left to right equality

?: right to left conditional

= += -= *= /= %= right to left assignment

52
Review
 Psedocodes consists only of action statements.
 It is better to list each variable and briefly mention the purpose
of each at the beginning of a pseudocode program.
 Three types of control structures are sequence structures,
selection structures and repetition structures.
 A flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm.
Flowcharts are drawn using certain special-purpose symbols
such as rectangles (action symbol), diamonds (decision
y
symbol), ), ovals,, and small circles are connected byy arrows
called flowlines (the order of the actions).
 If selection, if else selection and switch selection statements.
 While, do… while and for statement in repetition structures.

Review
 To include several statements in the body of an IF, enclose the
set of statements in {}.
 Counter-controlled repetition and Sentinel-controlled
repetition.
 Top-down, stepwise refinement is a technique that is essential
to the development of well-structured program.
 The type float represents floating-point numbers.
 To produce a floating-point calculation with integer values,
you must cast the integers to floating
floating-point
point numbers.
numbers
 Assignment operators.
 a = a + b;  a += b;

 Unary increment ++ and decrement operator --.

53