Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H.

Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2019-2020

Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering (Syllabus)

Assistant Professor Dr. Basim Hussein Khudair Al-Obaidi

E-Mail: [email protected]

Text Books:

1) Water Supply and Sewerage by: E. W. Steel and T. J. McGhee

2) Water Supply and Wastewater Engineering (Part 1 and 2) by: D.Lal and A. K. Upadhyay

FIRST SEMESTER

Part One: Water Supply Engineering

Lecture 1 Introduction 3-9
Chapter One (1) (2)
Lecture 2 Quantity of water: Consumption for various purposes, the per capita 10-22
Chapter Two (1) (2) demand, variation in rate of consumption, factors affecting
consumption, fire demand, forecasting population
Lecture 3 Quality of water supplies: Impurities of water: Potable water, polluted 23-36
Chapter Eight (1) water, water borne diseases, lead poisoning, fluoride, water bacteria,
Chapter Four (2) pathogen and coliform, soluble mineral, standards for drinking water
Lecture 4 Water distribution systems: The pipe system, design, of water 37-55
Chapter Six (1) (2) distribution systems, flow in pipes, equivalent pipe method, hardy cross
method
Lecture 5 Collection and distribution of water: Intakes, intakes of impounding 56-64
Chapter Six(1) reservoirs, river intakes
Chapter Three(2)
Lecture 6 Pumps and Pumping Stations: Classification of Pumps, Work and 65-73
Chapter Seven(1) efficiency of pumps, Pump capacity, head, efficiency, and power, Effect
of varying speed, Characteristics curves of centrifugal pumps, Suction lift,
Cavitation, pump station.
Lecture 7 Treatment of water–Clarification- Plain Sedimentation: Screens, 74-83
Chapter Nine(1) principles of sedimentation, discrete particles, sedimentation tank
Chapter Five(2) details, scour.
Lecture 8 Treatment of water–Clarification- Sedimentation with chemicals 84-98
Chapter Nine(1) (Coagulation and Flocculation): purposes and action of coagulation,
Chapter Five(2) simplified coagulation reactions, mixing, flocculation, suspended solids
contact clarifiers, design criteria
Lecture 9 Treatment of water-Filtration: Filter types, rapid filters, theory of 99-112
Chapter Ten(1) filtration through coarse media, filter media, gravel, filtration rates,
Chapter Five(2) under drain system, washing process, operating problems, pressure
filters
Lecture 10 Miscellaneous water treatment methods-Disinfection: Chlorine in 113-119
Chapter Eleven(1) water, chlorination, chloramines, use of chlorine gas, hypochlorination,
Chapter Five(2) other disinfection techniques, water softening, cation exchange method
Lecture 11 Special Treatments: Hardness Removal or Water Softening: water 120-128
Chapter Eleven(1) hardness, Softening Processes, Ion Exchange method, Membrane
filtration.

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PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Lecture 1: Introduction
Sanitary Engineering: The branch of civil engineering associated with the supply of water, disposal of
sewage, other public health services and the management of water and sewage in civil engineering.

Sanitary Engineer:

1. An expert or specialist in the branch of civil engineering associated with the supply of water, collect
and disposal of sewage, and other public health services.
2. An engineer whose training or occupation is in sanitary engineering.
3. An engineer specializing in the maintenance of urban environmental conditions conductive to the
preservation of public health.

Work of sanitary engineering:

The development of sanitary engineering has paralleled and contributed to the growth of cities. Without
an adequate supply of safe water, the great city could not exist, and life in it would be both unpleasant and
dangerous unless and other wastes were promptly removed. The concentration of population in relatively
small areas has made the task of the sanitary engineer more complex.

Groundwater supplies are frequently inadequate to the huge demand and surface waters, polluted by
cities, towns, and villages on watersheds, must be treated more and more elaborated as the population
density increases. Industry also demands more and better water from all available sources. The river
receives ever-increasing amounts of sewage and industrial wastes, thus requiring more attention to sewage
treatment, stream pollution, and the complicated phenomena of self-purification.

The public looks to the sanitary engineer for assistance in such matters as design, construction, and
operation of water and sewage works are treated, the control of malaria by mosquito control, the
eradication of other dangerous insects, rodent control collection and disposal of municipal refuse,
industrial hygiene, and sanitation of housing and swimming pools. The activities just given, which are likely
to be controlled by local or state health departments, are sometimes known as public health or
environmental engineering, terms which while descriptive are not accepted by all engineering. The terms,
however, are indicative of the important place the engineer holds in the field of public health and in the
prevention of diseases.

EPA: Environmental Protection Agency

NPSES: National Pollutional Discharge Elimination System

FWPCA: Federal Water Pollution Control Administration

USPHS: U.S. Public Health Service

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Water treatment plant

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Water supply distribution networks

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Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2019-2020

SEWAGE COLLECTION NETWORK

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WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT

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How to Choose a DRM Software to protect your document?

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

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PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Lecture 2: Quantity of Water

Water Consumption

In the design of any waterworks project it is necessary to estimate the amount of water that is required.
This involves determining the number of people who will be served and their per capita water consumption,
together with an analysis of factors that may operate to affect consumption.

It is usual to express water consumption in liters or gallons per capita per day, obtaining this figure by
dividing the total number of people in the city into the total daily water consumption. For many purposes
the average daily consumption is convenient. It is obtained by dividing the population into the total daily
consumption averaged over one year.

L
L Total daily water consumption ( )
day
Water consumption ( )=
(Cap. day) Total number of people in the city (Capita)

L
L Total daily consumption averaged over one year ( )
day
Average daily consumption ( )=
(Cap. day) Total population in the city (Capita)

L
L Quantity Required in 12 Months ( )
day
Average daily per capita demand ( )=
(Cap. day) (360 x Population (Capita)).

If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the fluctuations.

Consumption for various purposes (Water Demand):

1. Domestic or Residential use 40 – 60% of the total water demand.

2. Industrial use 25- 30% a)domestic, b)industrial process

3. Commercial use 10 - 15%.

4. Public use 5 -10%.

5. Fire demand

For calculating the total water demand 10 -15% is added for losses and wastage.
The table shows same typical commercial and public water demand flows.

Type Rate Type Rate

2
Hospital 950 L/bed/ d Shopping center 6 L/m floor area/d
School 76 L/student/ d Barber shop 210 L/ chair/d
Rest home 380 L/ bed/d Laundry 3000 L/machine/d
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Restaurant 30 L/customer/d Airport 10 L/passenger/d
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Public
discrepancies parks
have occurred. 1.5 L/m2/d Car wash 209 L/ car/d
Store 40 L/person/d Factory 100 L/employee/d
 Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2019-2020

Domestic or Residential demand:

Domestic demand (volume/time) = rate of consumption (volume/time/capita) X population (capita)

Industrial demand:

For water used in industrial processing, Symons formula maybe used water demand =12.2 m3/ 103 m2 floor area
per day. The table shows typical industrial water demands:

Type of industry Quantity m3/metric ton

Dairy 2 -3
Chemicals 8 - 10
Meat packing 15 – 25
Canning 30 -60
Paper 200 – 800
Steel 260 - 300
Textile 250 - 350
Petroleum 80 gallon/barrel

Consumption for various purposes (Summary):

Type of Use Purposes Depend Average Percentage

Consumption upon Water of Total
Demand
(L/c.d)
Domestic Houses,
Sanitary, culinary, Living 190-340 50
hotels, etc
drinking, washing, conditions
bathing, air conditions of
of residences and consumers
irrigation or sprinkling
of privately owned
gardens or lawns
Commercial Industrial Water process Local 200 15-30
and and according to floor area conditions
industrial Commercial per day
plants (12.2m3/1000m2)
Public Public - City halls, jails, and Local 50-75 10
building school. conditions
and public - flushing streets and
service fire protection)
Loss and Uncounted Network, equipment Execution 50-75 10
waste degree

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Factors affecting water consumption (per capita demand):

1. Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that for smaller towns as
big cities have sewered houses.
2. Presence of industries and commerce.
3. Quality of water: If water is aesthetically and medically safe, the consumption will increase as people will
not depend to private wells, etc.
4. Cost of water.
5. Pressure in the water distribution system.
6. Climatic conditions.
7. Characteristics of population: Habits of people and their economic status.
8. Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two different ways: on the basis of meter
reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate.
9. Efficiency of waterworks administration: Leaks in water mains and services; and unauthorized use of water
can be kept to a minimum by surveys.

Fluctuations in Rate of Demand

1. Annual or yearly variation:

2. Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Fire break outs are generally more in summer,
increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation.
3. Monthly variation:
4. Weekly variation:
5. Daily variation: Depends on the activity. People draw out more water on holidays and Festival days, thus
increasing demand on these days.
6. Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active household working hours i.e.
from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken.
During other hours the requirement is negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is
required to be supplied during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly supply.

max

Demand

Average (rate)

Time

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So, an adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand. To meet all the fluctuations, the
supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution pipes must be properly proportioned. The water is supplied by
pumping directly and the pumps and distribution system must be designed to meet the peak demand. The effect of
monthly variation influences the design of storage reservoirs and the hourly variations influences the design of
pumps and service reservoirs. As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases. Figure above shows
variation of water consumption with time.

Goodrich formula to estimate the percentage of annual average consumption ( p = 180 t -0.1 )

Where: p = percentage of the annual average consumption for time t

t = time in day (2hr/24 – 360). Hence; day (t=1), weekly (t=7), monthly (30) and yearly (360).

The formula gives the percentage of the maximum daily as 180 percent, the weekly consumption as 148 percent,
and the monthly as 128 percent of the average daily demand. The maximum hourly consumption is likely to be
about 150 percent of the maximum for that day.

Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak demand in certain area of a city will affect design of the
distribution system while minimum rate of consumption is of less important than maximum flow but is required in
connection with design of pump plants, usually it will vary from (25-50) percent of the daily demand.

Average daily demand = Average water consumption (L/Cap.day) x NO. of population

Maximum daily demand = p x average daily demand=1.8 x average daily demand

Maximum weekly demand = p x average daily demand=1.48 x average daily demand

Maximum monthly demand = p x average daily demand=1.28 x average daily demand

Maximum hourly demand = p x maximum daily demand =1.5 x maximum daily demand=1.5 x 1.8 x average daily
demand=2.7 x average daily demand

Minimum hourly demand = p x maximum daily demand = 0.5 x maximum daily demand=0.5 x 1.8 x average daily
demand=0.9 x average daily demand

The table below shows a proposal of the average domestic water demand. In Iraq it is assumed to be 400 L/c/d.

Single family Rate L/c/d

Low income 270
Medium income 310
High income 380

Peaks of water consumption in certain areas of a city will affect design of the distribution system.

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Fire demand

Firefighting systems: a) with water, b) without water

a) Firefighting systems using water

1-Hydrants: an outdoor system

2-Hose reel: an indoor system
3- Sprinkler: an indoor system

b) Firefighting systems without water

Fire extinguishers are used with engineering criteria for location and number of cylinders. It should not be used for:
1) electrical risk, 2) flammable liquids.

Fire demand formulas: The per capita fire demand is very less on an average basis but the rate at which the water
is required is very large. The rate of fire demand is sometimes treated as a function of population and is worked out
from following empirical formulas:

a)- Insurance Service Office Formula (ISO):

0.5
𝐹𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 18 𝐶 (𝐴𝑓𝑡 2 ) 𝐹𝐿/𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 223.18 𝐶 (𝐴𝑚2 )0.5 𝐹𝐿/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 3.724 𝐶 (𝐴𝑚2 )0.5

F = Fire demand
C = Coefficient related to the type of construction material (0.6 – 1.5), 1.5 wood frame, 1 ordinary frame as
brick & 0.6 resistance material.
A = Total floor area (ft2) (m2 = 10.76 ft2) excluding the basement of the building.

Limitations:
1- One fire per day
2- Fire duration 4-10 hr
3- F = 500-8000 gpm

b)- National Board of Fire Underwriters (NBFU):

𝐺𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 1020√𝑃 × (1 − 0.01√𝑃) & 𝐺𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 3.86√𝑃 × (1 − 0.01√𝑃)

G= fire demand
P = population in thousand (103)

Limitations:

1- One fire per day

2- Fire duration 4 -10 hr
3- P ≤ 200 X 103 capita

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Q for 1 lakh
Authority Formulae (P in thousands)
Population)
1 American Insurance Association Q (L/min)=4637 P0.5 (1-0.01 P0.5) 41760
0.5
2 Kuchling's Formula Q (L/min)=3182 P 31800
3 Freeman's Formula Q (L/min)= 1136.5(P/5+10) 35050
0.5
Ministry of Urban Development Q (kilo liters/d)=100 P for P>50000 31623
4
Manual Formula
General limitation for Fire flow requirement

Fire flow requirement (gpm)

Details
gpm L/min
In general case 8000 30240
For one story construction 6000 22680
The minimum fire flow 500 1890
The total for all purposes for single fire 12000 45360
To calculate the amount of water required for fire-fighting to a group of houses single and dual:

Distance between adjacent units Required fire flow (gpm)

ft m ft m
> 100 > 30 500 1890
31-100 9.5-30.5 750-1000 2835-3780
11-30 3.4-9.2 1000-1500 3780-5670
 10 3 1500-2000 5670-7560
The amount of water required for firefighting must suffice as a minimum for four hours, most of the residential
campus designed on the basis of the need for a period of 10 hours., So the times the fire depends on the amount
of flow:

Required fire flow

Duration (hr)
gpm L/min
< 1000 < 3780 4
1000-1250 3780-4725 5
1250-1500 4725-5670 6
1500-1750 5670-6615 7
1750-2000 6615-7560 8
2000-2250 7560-8505 9
> 2250 > 8505 10

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Forecasting Population

To design any waterworks element, the total water demand should be calculated for adopt period of design. It is
necessary to estimate the maximum population expected to be served by the designed facility for any time in the
future. To estimate the growing number of population the following methods are used:

1- Arithmetic method: Assumes a constant growth rate (∆P/∆t = constant)

Pf = Po + K ∆t

Pf = Population in the future (capita) P slope=∆P/∆t

Po = Base population (capita)

K = Growth rate =∆P/∆t (capita/ time)

∆t = Time increment between Pf and Po time

2- Geometric method: The growth rate is proportional to population (∆P/∆t ≈ P)

ln Pf = ln Po + k ̅ ∆t

Pf = Population in the future (capita) P ∆P/∆t

Po = Base population (capita)

k ̅ = [ ln P1- ln P2]/∆t (ln capita/ time)

time

∆t = Time increment between Pf and Po

3- 𝑃𝑓 = 𝑃0 × (1 + 𝑖)𝑛

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Density of population

Population density, considering a whole city, rarely exceeds an average of (7500-10000 capita per km2). More
important to the designer engineer, solving water and sewerage problems, are the densities in particular areas:

Area Density (capita per km2)

The sparsely built-up residential sections

3,800

Closely built-up single-family residential

8,800-10,000
areas with small lots

Apartment and tenement districts 2,500-250,000

Commercial districts High variable according to development

Periods of design and water consumption data required

Design
Detail period Design criteria
(year)

Development of
source
The design capacity of the source should be adequate to provide
For Groundwater 5 the maximum daily demand anticipated during the design period.

For Surface Water 50

The design capacity of the pipe lines should be based upon average
Pipelines from source > 25
consumption at the end of the design period.

Most WTP will be designed for average daily flow at the end of the
Water treatment plant 10-15 design period. Hydraulic design should be based upon maximum
anticipated flow.

Pump selection requires knowledge of maximum flow including fire

Pumping plant 10 demand, average flow, and minimum flow during the design
period.

Design requires knowledge of average flow, fire demand,

Minimum
Amount of storage maximum hour, maximum week, and maximum month, as well as
cost
the capacity of the source and pipe lines from the source.

Distribution system Indefinite Maximum hourly flow including fire demand is the basis for design.

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Solved problems

Problem 2.1: Find the maximum daily domestic demand for a population of 1000 capita with a rate of 300 L/c/d?

Solution:

Average domestic daily demand=1000 x300=300 x103 L/day=300 m3/day

Maximum daily demand =1.8 x average daily demand=1.8 x300=540 m3/day

Problem 2.2: For the above Problem find the maximum demand if p = 250%?

Average domestic daily demand=1000 x300=300 x103 L/day=300 m3/day

Maximum daily demand =2.5 x average daily demand=2.5 x300=750 m3/day

Problem 2.3: A 6 story building was constructed for an engineering company. The building is an ordinary type
structure with 103 m2 for each floor. Determine: the maximum rate, and the total storage, for both domestic and
fire demand in L/c/d. Knowing that the building can serve 22 X 103 capita having an average water consumption
rate of 200 L/c/d?

Solution:

Average domestic demand = 22000  200 = 4.4  10 6

L/day


Maximum daily demand = Average domestic demand 1.8 = 4.4 106 1.8=7.92 106 L/day   
F(gpm) =18CA0ft.25 =181(100010.766)0.5 = 4574
gpm=17288
L/ min= 24.89106 L/ day
  
Maximum rate = 7.92 106 + 24.89 106 = 32.81 106 L/day for 10 hours = 1491 L per capita/day

The total flow required during this day would be:


7.92 106 + 24.89 106  10= 18.29 10 6
liter =
18.29106 832L per capita/day
24 22000
Problem 2.4: A 4 story wooden building, each floor is 509 m2. This building is adjacent to a 5-story ordinary type
building, each floor is 900 m2. Determine the fire flow in m3/hr for each building, and both buildings if they are
connected?

Solution:

For wooden building:

F(gpm) =18CA0ft.25 =181.5(50910.764)0.5 =3996

.306gpm=15126
.02L/ min=21.79106 L/ day

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For ordinary building:

F(gpm) =18CA0ft.25 =181.0(90010.765)0.5 =3960

.81gpm=14991
.696L/ min=21.59106 L/ day

By using the fractional area:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4 × 509 + 5 × 900 = 6536 𝑚2

4 × 509
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 0.311
6536
5 × 900
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 0.689
6536

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

= 18

× [1.5 × 0.311 × √4 × 509 × 10.76 + 1 × 0.689 × √5 × 900 × 10.76 = 3971.844 𝑔𝑝𝑚

𝑚3 𝑚3
= 902 = 21648.138 ]
ℎ𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦

Which equivalent to 16500 population

Problem 2.5: For the data given find the population in year 2035.

Year 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005

Population 24700 29000 33500 38100 32000
Solution:
Information

year

population

Arithmetic method Geometric method

∆P ∆t
K KAverage Pt k kAverage LN (Pt) Pt

1965 24700

1975 29000 4300 10 430 0.016049

1985 33500 4500 10 450 0.014425

1995 38100 4600 10 460 0.012867

Base year 2005 32000 6100 10 610 487.5 -0.01745 0.006473

Period design
30
(t)

First stage 2020 39312.5 10.47059 35263.05

Second stage 2035 46625 10.56769 38858.83

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Problem 2.6: For the data given find the population in year 2035 by using arithmetic and geometric method, and
average daily demand, maximum daily demand, weekly daily demand, and monthly daily demand as well as the
maximum and minimum hourly demand. Also determine the fire water demand and total water demand if the water
consumption of 500 liters per capita per day?

Year 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005

Population 25000 32000 42500 55000 69000
Solution:
Information

year

population

Arithmetic method Geometric method

∆P ∆t
K KAverage Pt k kAverage LN (Pt) Pt

1965 25000

1975 32000 7000 10 700 0.024686

1985 42500 10500 10 1050 0.028377

1995 55000 12500 10 1250 0.025783

Base year 2005 69000 14000 10 1400 1100 0.022677 0.025381

Period design
30
(t)

First stage 2020 85500 11.52257 100969.5

Second stage 2035 102000 11.90328 147751.2

If adopting the arithmetic method:

Average daily demand = 500 x 102000=51000000 L/day=51000 m3/day

Maximum daily demand =1.8 x average daily demand=1.8 x51000=91800 m3/day

Maximum weekly demand =1.48 x average daily demand=1.48 x51000=75480 m3/day

Maximum monthly demand =1.28 x average daily demand=1.28 x51000=65280 m3/day

Maximum hourly demand =1. 5 x Maximum daily demand =1.5 x91800=137700 m3/day

Minimum hourly demand =0. 5 x Maximum daily demand =0.5 x91800=45900m3/day

Fire demand for 10 hr duration:

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𝐹 = 1020 × √𝑃 × (1 − 0.01 × √𝑃) = 1020 × √102 × (1 − 0.01 × √102) ≈ 9261𝑔𝑝𝑚 ≈ 50476 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

Problem 2.7: A community has an estimated population of 40 X103 capita in a period of 25 years ahead. The present
population is 30 X103 capita with a daily water consumption of 20 X 103 m3/d. The existing water treatment plant
(WTP) has a maximum design capacity of 45.6 X 103 m3/day, assuming an arithmetic growth rate; determine for
how many years this plant will reach its design capacity.

Solution:

20 × 103
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 0.667 𝑚3 /(𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎. 𝑑𝑎𝑦)
30 × 103

∆𝑃 40 × 103 − 30 × 103
𝑘= = = 400 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎/𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
∆𝑡 25

Maximum daily demand = Average domestic demand 1.8 

45.6 × 103 = 1.8 × (30 × 103 + 400 × ∆t) × 0.667 ⇒ ∆t ≈ 20 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

Problem 2.8: A community has an estimated population 20 year hence which is equal to 35000. The present
population is 28000, and present average water consumption is 1610 L/day
6
. The existing water treatment plant
has a capacity of 5 mgd. Assuming an arithmetic rate of population growth determine in what year the existing plant
will reach its design capacity?

Solution:

Average n=
dailyconsumptio16106
l / day=571.42literpercapita/day
28000
capita
Water treatment capacity = 5 × 106 × 3.785 = 18.925 × 106 𝑙/𝑑𝑎𝑦

= 18.92510 l / day33120
6
Number
ofcapitaat theendofdesignperiodWTP
571.42l / c.d

k = PO − P = 35000
−28000= 350
t 20
Pf = PO +kt33120= 28000
+350t t =14.62815year
Problem 2.9: Determine the fire flow required for a residential area consisting of homes of ordinary construction,
2500 ft2 in area, 10 ft apart. What total volume of water must be provided to satisfy the fire demand of this area?

Solution:

From (Table 2-3 page 18 STEEL), the residential fire flow = 1500 gpm
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F(gpm) =18CA0ft.25 =181(2500

)0.5 =900gpm
Water demand = 900 + 1500 = 2400 gpm = 9084 L/min = 545040 l/hr

3
l/hr10 1m = 227m3
V=545040
24 1000
l
Problem 2.10: A residential area of a city has a population density of 15000 capita per km 2 and an area of 120000
m2. If the average water flow is 300 L/capita.day. Estimate the maximum rate to expected in m3/sec?

Solution:
120000
𝐴 = 1000000 = 0.12 𝑘𝑚2 & P = 15000*0.12 = 1800 capita

𝐿 𝐿
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 300 × 1800 = 540000 = 540 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑐𝑎𝑝. 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 × 540 = 972 = 40.5 = 0.011 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦 ℎ𝑟

𝑚3 𝑚3
𝐺 = 1020 × √1.8 × (1 − 0.01 × √1.8) = 1350.113 𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 5110.177 𝐿𝑝𝑚 = 5.11 = 0.085
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐
= 7358.655 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑚3
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 972 + 7358.659 = 8330.659 = 0.096 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑎𝑦

10 𝑚3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 972 + 7358.655 × = 4038.105 = 0.0467 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
24 𝑑𝑎𝑦

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

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PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Lecture 3: Common Impurities in Water

Raw Water Source

The various sources of water can be classified into two categories:

1. Surface sources, such as (Ponds and lakes; Streams and rivers; Storage reservoirs; and Oceans,
generally not used for water supplies, at present).

2. Sub-surface sources or underground sources, such as (springs; Infiltration wells; and Wells and
Tube-wells).

Water is in continuous recirculation between the earth’s surface and the atmosphere through various
processes which are collectively bound under the heading ‘The Hydrological Cycle’ as shown in the diagram
below explains the hydrological cycle which maintains the balance of the world’s water.

Water absolutely pure is not found in nature. Water picks up different types of materials as it passes
through the hydrological cycle. These particles make the water not pure and are called impurities which
are suspended and dissolved in water.

Impurities in Water (sizes)

mm 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7

µm 103 102 10 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4
Suspended Dissolved
Sand Silt Clay
Colloidal
Bacteria Viruses
Protozoa, Algae, Fungi
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The size of the water molecular is 0.9 X 10-4 µm.

Impurities in Water (types)

Suspended Dissolved

Soil Microorganisms Salts Gases Organic

Matter
Cation Anion

Sand Bacteria Ca HCO3 Oxygen

Silt Algae Mg CO3 Carbon dioxide

Clay Fungi Mn SO4 Hydrogen sulfide

colloidal Protozo Fe Cl Methane

Viruses Na, K F Nitrogen

Pb, Hg NO3, NO2 Ammonia

Impurities in Water (Causes):

Suspended Dissolved Impurities

Causes
Impurities Salts -Cations Causes
Bacteria Disease Calcium Hardness
Algae Odor, Color, Turbidity Magnesium Hardness
Protozoan Disease Iron Hardness, Color
Viruses Disease Manganese Hardness, Color
Silt Murkiness and Turbidity Others Dissolved Solids
Clay Murkiness and Turbidity
Colloids Color, Murkiness and Turbidity Salts -Anions Causes
Bicarbonate Alkalinity
Carbonate Alkalinity
Sulfate Laxative
Chloride Taste
Fluoride Tooth Mottling

Organics Color, Taste, Odor, Toxicity

Gases Causes
Oxygen Corrosive, Oxidizing Agent
Carbon Dioxide Acid
Hydrogen Sulfide Acid, Reducing Agent
Nitrogen None
Ammonia Caustic

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Impurities of water may be divided into two classes:

1. Suspended Impurities:
a) Microorganisms: They may get into water from the air with dust, etc., as rain falls, or commonly
when soil polluted with human and animal wastes is washed into the water source. The latter type
of impurity in water is the most dangerous one because a good number of microorganisms are
pathogenic and cause disease.
b) Suspended solids: Minute particles of soil, clay, silt, soot particles, dead leaves and other insoluble
material get into water because of erosion from higher ground, drainage from swamps, ponds,
top soil, etc. Toxic chemicals such as insecticides and pesticides are also included in this category.
They are introduced to streams either as industrial wastes or drained in after rain from land
treated with these chemicals. Generally, suspended solids cause taste, color or turbidity.
c) Algae: Algae are minute plants that grow in still or stagnant water. Some algae are green, brown
or red, and their presence in water causes taste, color and turbidity.
Some species of algae could be poisonous both for aquatic animals and humans.
There are different types of algae found in water:
i. Asterionell – Gives water an unpleasant odor.
ii. Spirogyra – Is a green scum found in small ponds and polluted water. It grows in thread like groups. It is
slippery and non-toxic.
iii. Anabaena – Is blue- green and occurs in fishponds, pools, reservoir, and clogs filters.
2. Dissolved Impurities:
a) Gases: Oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), etc, find their way into water
as it falls as rain or, in the case of the latter two, from the soil as water percolates through the
ground. All-natural water contains dissolved oxygen, and in certain circumstances carbon dioxide.
The presence of CO2 and H2S (but not O2) causes acidity in water. In addition, H2S imparts a bad
odor to the water.
b) Minerals: Minerals get into water as it percolates downward though the earth layers. The type of
minerals dissolved will depend on the nature of the specific rock formation of an area. Most
common dissolved minerals in water are salts of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, etc.
Salts of the first two elements cause hardness in water, while salts of the latter two elements
cause alkalinity. Salts of toxic elements, such as lead, arsenic, chromium, etc, get into water mainly
as industrial wastes dumped into streams.
c) Plant dyes: These originate from plants, which grow in or around water and cause acidity and
color.

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Water Quality
Sources of water supply
Different of types of water sources are available in nature: rivers, lakes, reservoirs, groundwater and springs. Each
of these sources has different raw water quality depending on the environmental conditions they flow through.
Water quality deals with the type and quantity (amount) of impurities existing. This quality is considered according
to certain regulations related to the usage of water, such as drinking, industrial, agriculture … etc.
Potable water: Water safe to drink, pleasant in taste and usable for various purposes. This quality is considered
according to the WHO, EPA, or Iraqi Standards, Limitations, Specifications for drinking water. These limitations
give the water properties as:
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑚𝑔/𝐿) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
The unit used mg/L or ppm (part per million), in water ppm= mg/L/ Gs (specific gravity) of water. As Gs =1 in water
then ppm = mg/L.
𝑘𝑔 𝑔𝑚
𝜌𝑤 = 1000 𝑚3 = 1 𝑐𝑚3 , 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑐𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑔𝑚 ,
1𝑐𝑚3 = 1𝑚𝐿 = 1𝑔𝑚 , 1𝐿 = 103 𝑚𝐿 → 𝑆𝑜, 1𝑚𝐿 = 1𝑔𝑚
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 1
= 3 = 3 3
= 6
𝐿 10 𝑚𝐿 10 × 10 𝑚𝑔 10
Contaminated water is one that contains microorganisms, chemicals, industrial or other wastes, or sewage so that
it is unfit for its intended use.
Polluted water is synonymous with contaminated.
The specification represents water properties in the forms:
Physical properties: Color, Turbidity, Odor, Temperature, Density, Electrical Conductivity.
Chemical properties: Total Dissolved Solids (Salts, Metals), pH.
Biological properties: Different type of microorganisms present in water.
Laboratory tests are very important to evaluate water quality; these tests are performed according to the standard
tests for the examination of water and wastewater.

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Water Quality
The raw or treated water is analyzed by testing their physical, chemical and biological characteristics:

Physical Characteristics:
Turbidity:
If a large amount of suspended solids is present in water, it will appear turbid in appearance. The turbidity depends
upon fineness and concentration of particles present in water.
Originally turbidity was determined by measuring the depth of column of liquid required to cause the image of a
candle flame at the bottom to diffuse into a uniform glow. This was measured by Jackson candle turbidity meter.
The calibration was done based on suspensions of silica from Fuller's earth. The depth of sample in the tube was
read against the part per million (ppm) silica scales with one ppm of suspended silica called one Jackson Turbidity
unit (JTU). Because standards were prepared from materials found in nature such as Fuller's earth, consistency in
standard formulation was difficult to achieve.
These days' turbidity is measured by applying Nephelometry, a technique to measure level of light scattered by
the particles at right angles to the incident light beam. The scattered light level is proportional to the particle
concentration in the sample. The unit of expression is Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU). The IS values for drinking
water is 5 NTU.
Color:
Dissolved organic matter from decaying vegetation or some inorganic materials may impart color to the water. It
can be measured by comparing the color of water sample with other standard glass tubes containing solutions of
different standard color intensities. The standard unit of color is that which is produced by one milligram of
platinum cobalt dissolved in one liter of distilled water. The IS value for treated water is 5 to 25 cobalt units.
Taste and Odor
Odor depends on the contact of a stimulating substance with the appropriate human receptor cell. Most organic
and some inorganic chemicals, originating from municipal or industrial wastes, contribute taste and odor to the
water. Taste and odor can be expressed in terms of odor intensity or threshold values.
A new method to estimate taste of water sample has been developed based on flavor known as 'Flavor Profile
Analysis' (FPA). The character and intensity of taste and odor discloses the nature of pollution or the presence of
microorganisms.
Temperature
The increase in temperature decreases palatability, because at elevated temperatures carbon dioxide and some
other volatile gases are expelled. The ideal temperature of water for drinking purposes is 5 to 12 °C - above 25 °C,
water is not recommended for drinking.

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Chemical Characteristics:
pH
pH value denotes the acidic or alkaline condition of water. It is expressed on a scale ranging from 0 to 14, which is
the common logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration. The recommended pH range for
treated drinking waters is 6.5 to 8.5.

Acidity
The acidity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralize bases. Acidity of water may be caused by the presence
of uncombined carbon dioxide, mineral acids and salts of strong acids and weak bases. It is expressed as mg/L in
terms of calcium carbonate. Acidity is nothing but representation of carbon dioxide or carbonic acids. Carbon
dioxide causes corrosion in public water supply systems.
Alkalinity
The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralize acids. It is expressed as mg/L in terms of calcium
carbonate. The various forms of alkalinity are (a) hydroxide alkalinity, (b) carbonate alkalinity, (c) hydroxide plus
carbonate alkalinity, (d) carbonate plus bicarbonate alkalinity, and (e) bicarbonate alkalinity, which is useful mainly
in water softening and boiler feed water processes. Alkalinity is an important parameter in evaluating the optimum
coagulant dosage.
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Hardness
If water consumes excessive soap to produce lather, it is said to be hard. Hardness is caused by divalent metallic
cations. The principal hardness causing cations are calcium, magnesium, strontium, ferrous and manganese ions.
The major anions associated with these cations are sulphates, carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides and nitrates.
The total hardness of water is defined as the sum of calcium and magnesium concentrations, both expressed as
calcium carbonate, in mg/L. Hardness are of two types, temporary or carbonate hardness and permanent or non-
carbonate hardness. Temporary hardness is one in which bicarbonate and carbonate ion can be precipitated by
prolonged boiling. Non-carbonate ions cannot be precipitated or removed by boiling, hence the term permanent
hardness. IS value for drinking water is 300 mg/Las CaCO3.
Chlorides
Chloride ion may be present in combination with one or more of the cations of calcium, magnesium, iron and
sodium. Chlorides of these minerals are present in water because of their high solubility in water. Each human
being consumes about six to eight grams of sodium chloride per day, a part of which is discharged through urine
and night soil. Thus, excessive presence of chloride in water indicates sewage pollution. IS value for drinking water
is 250 to 1000 mg/L.
Sulphates
Sulphates occur in water due to leaching from sulphate mineral and oxidation of sulphide. Sulphates are associated
generally with calcium, magnesium and sodium ions. Sulphate in drinking water causes a laxative effect and leads
to scale formation in boilers. It also causes odor and corrosion problems under aerobic conditions. Sulphate should
be less than 50 mg/L, for some industries. Desirable limit for drinking water is 150 mg/L. May be extended up to
400 mg/L.
Iron
Iron is found on earth mainly as insoluble ferric oxide. When it comes in contact with water, it dissolves to form
ferrous bicarbonate under favorable conditions. This ferrous bicarbonate is oxidized into ferric hydroxide, which
is a precipitate. Under anaerobic conditions, ferric ion is reduced to soluble ferrous ion. Iron can impart bad taste
to the water, causes discoloration in clothes and incrustations in water mains. IS value for drinking water is 0.3 to
1.0 mg/L.
Solids
The sum total of foreign matter present in water is termed as 'total solids'. Total solids are the matter that remains
as residue after evaporation of the sample and its subsequent drying at a defined temperature (103 to 105 °C).
Total solids consist of volatile (organic) and non-volatile (inorganic or fixed) solids. Further, solids are divided into
suspended and dissolved solids. Solids that can settle by gravity are settleable solids. The others are non-settleable
solids. IS acceptable limit for total solids is 500 mg/L and tolerable limit is 3000 mg/Lof dissolved limits.
Nitrates
Nitrates in surface waters occur by the leaching of fertilizers from soil during surface run-off and also nitrification
of organic matter. Presence of high concentration of nitrates is an indication of pollution. Concentration of nitrates
above 45 mg/L causes a disease methemoglobin. IS value is 45 mg/L.

Bacteriological Characteristics:
Bacterial examination of water is very important, since it indicates the degree of pollution. Water polluted by
sewage contains one or more species of disease producing pathogenic bacteria. Pathogenic organisms cause water
borne diseases, and many non-pathogenic bacteria such as E.Coli, a member of coliform group, also live in the
intestinal tract of human beings. Coliform itself is not a harmful group but it has more resistance to adverse
condition than any other group. So, if it is ensured to minimize the number of coliforms, the harmful species will
be very less. So, coliform group serves as indicator of contamination of water with sewage and presence of
pathogens.
The methods to estimate the bacterial quality of water are:
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Standard Plate Count Test

In this test, the bacteria are made to grow as colonies, by inoculating a known volume of sample into a solidifiable
nutrient medium (Nutrient Agar), which is poured in a petridish. After incubating (35°C) for a specified period (24
hours), the colonies of bacteria (as spots) are counted. The bacterial density is expressed as number of colonies
per 100 mL of sample.
Most Probable Number
Most probable number is a number which represents the bacterial density which is most likely to be present. E. coli
is used as indicator of pollution. E.Coli ferment lactose with gas formation with 48 hours incubation at 35°C. Based
on this E.Coli density in a sample is estimated by multiple tube fermentation procedure, which consists of
identification of E.Coli in different dilution combination. MPN value is calculated as follows:
Five 10 mL (five dilution combination) tubes of a sample is tested for E.Coli. If out of five only one gives positive
test for E.Coli and all others negative. From the tables, MPN value for one positive and four negative results is read
which is 2.2 in present case. The MPN value is expressed as 2.2 per 100 mL. These numbers are given by Maccardy
based on the laws of statistics.

Membrane Filter Technique

In this test a known volume of water sample is filtered through a membrane with opening less than 0.5 microns.
The bacteria present in the sample will be retained upon the filter paper. The filter paper is put in contact of a
suitable nutrient medium and kept in an incubator for 24 hours at 35°C. The bacteria will grow upon the nutrient
medium and visible colonies are counted. Each colony represents one bacterium of the original sample. The
bacterial count is expressed as number of colonies per 100 mL of sample.

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Water Treatment
To use water for drinking from the available raw water in nature, it should be within drinking specifications; if not
then water treatment is required.
Water treatment, a number of processes that are required for the removal of:
1. Pathogenic organisms;
2. Unpleasant taste and odor
3. Color and turbidity
4. Dissolved minerals
5. Harmful chemicals
The degree of treatment depends on:
1. Degree of contamination
2. Type of impurity
3. Size of impurity

Water treatment plants (WTP) consists of many units which are designed to remove the impurities of different
types and sizes. The most common type of these plants is the conventional (typical or routine) treatment plant,
which consists of:
1. Intake, (low pump station)
2. Screen (Coarse and fine),
3. Coagulation and flocculation, (Chemical Process)
4. Sedimentation, (Physical Process)
5. Filtration, (Clean Water)
6. Disinfection, (clean and safe water)
7. Storage water with high pump station (Enough Flow and Pressure).

Water treatment plant schedule

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Water Treatment Philosophy

The available raw waters must be treated and purified before they can be supplied to the public for their domestic,
industrial or any other uses. The extent of treatment required to be given to the particular water depends upon
the characteristics and quality of the available water, and also upon the quality requirements for the intended
use.
The layout of conventional water treatment plant is as follows:

Depending upon the magnitude of treatment required, proper unit operations are selected and arranged in the
proper sequential order for the purpose of modifying the quality of raw water to meet the desired standards.
Indian Standards for drinking water are given in the table below.
Indian Standards for drinking water
If no alternative source
Parameter Desirable-Tolerable available, limit extended
upto
Physical
Turbidity (NTU unit) < 10 25
Colour (Hazen scale) < 10 50
Taste and Odour Un-objectionable Un-objectionable
Chemical
pH 7.0-8.5 6.5-9.2
Total Dissolved Solids mg/L 500-1500 3000
Total Hardness mg/L(as CaCO3) 200-300 600
Chlorides mg/L(as Cl) 200-250 1000
Sulphates mg/L(as SO4) 150-200 400
Fluorides mg/L(as F ) 0.6-1.2 1.5
Nitrates mg/L(as NO3) 45 45
Calcium mg/L(as Ca) 75 200
Iron mg/L(as Fe ) 0.1-0.3 1.0

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The typical functions of each unit operations are given in the following table:
Functions of Water Treatment Units
Unit treatment Function (removal)
Aeration, chemicals use Colour, Odor, Taste
Screening Floating matter
Chemical methods Iron, Manganese, etc.
Softening Hardness
Sedimentation Suspended matter
Coagulation Suspended matter, a part of colloidal matter and bacteria
Filtration Remaining colloidal dissolved matter, bacteria
Disinfection Pathogenic bacteria, Organic matter and Reducing substances

The types of treatment required for different sources are given in the following table:
Source Treatment required
1. Ground water and spring water fairly free from contamination No treatment or Chlorination

2. Ground water with chemicals, minerals and gases Aeration, coagulation (if necessary),
filtration and disinfection

3. Lakes, surface water reservoirs with less amount of pollution Disinfection

4. Other surface waters such as rivers, canals and impounded Complete treatment
reservoirs with a considerable amount of pollution

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

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PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Lecture 4: Water Distribution Systems

The primary purpose of this system is to transport treated water from the treatment facilities
(plants) to the consumers. This system should have sufficient capacity to meet the water supply
needs (demand) of the consumer, under all demand conditions in quantity, quality and pressure.
In some communities this system may provide water for fire demand also. Distribution system is
used to describe collectively the facilities used to supply water from its source to the point of
usage.

Design stages of water distribution systems:

1. Preparation of a master plan.
2. Topography survey of the study area
3. Hydraulic study of the existing system.
4. The improvement programs.
Requirements of Good Distribution System:

5. Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.

6. It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient pressure
head.
7. It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during firefighting.
8. The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during the
repair of any section of the system.
9. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one meter away or above the sewer
lines.
10. It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the minimum.
Methods of distribution

1. By gravity
2. By means of pumps and storage
3. By pumps only
A typical distribution system consists of: pipes, nodes and loops, by which a network will be
formed. The main components in this system are the pipes, which are in the following form
according to their size:

1. Primary feeders.
2. Secondary feeders.
3. Small distribution mains.
4. Service pipes.

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Types of networks, according to the method of connecting different types of pipes:

The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such their layouts
generally follow the layouts of roads. There are, in general, four different types of pipe networks;
any one of which either singly or in combinations, can be used for a particular place. They are:

1. ring system
2. radial system
3. Dead end system
4. grid system

Ring system

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Radial system

Dead end system

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Grid iron system

Characteristics of pipes used in distributing water:

1. Adequate strength to with stand external and internal pressure.

2. Ability to resist impact loads.
3. Smooth and non-corrosive interior surface for minimum friction losses.
4. Can be provided with tight joints.

Types of pipes according to the materials used in their manufacture:

1. Cast iron – iron + silicon + carbon

2. Ductile – cast iron + Mg
3. Steel – iron + Cr + Ni
4. Galvanized steel – steel + Zn
5. Concrete
6. PVC- polyvinyl chloride pipes.
7. Asbestos cement-port land cement + silicon + asbestos fibers
8. Lead.
9. Copper.
10. Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic (GRP).
11. High density polyethylene pipe (HDPE).

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Standard pipe laying conditions.

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Distribution Reservoirs

Distribution reservoirs, also called service reservoirs, are the storage reservoirs, which store the
treated water for supplying water during emergencies (such as during fires, repairs, etc.) and also
to help in absorbing the hourly fluctuations in the normal water demand.

Functions of Distribution Reservoirs:

• To absorb the hourly variations in demand.

• To maintain constant pressure in the distribution mains.
• Water stored can be supplied during emergencies.

Location and Height of Distribution Reservoirs:

• Should be located as close as possible to the center of demand.

• Water level in the reservoir must be at a sufficient elevation to permit gravity flow at an
adequate pressure.

Types of Reservoirs

• Underground reservoirs.
• Small ground level reservoirs.
• Large ground level reservoirs.
• Overhead tanks.

Storage Capacity of Distribution Reservoirs

The total storage capacity of a distribution reservoir is the summation of:

1. Balancing Storage: The quantity of water required being stored in the reservoir for
equalizing or balancing fluctuating demand against constant supply is known as the
balancing storage (or equalizing or operating storage). The balance storage can be worked
out by mass curve method.
2. Breakdown Storage: The breakdown storage or often called emergency storage is the
storage preserved in order to tide over the emergencies posed by the failure of pumps,
electricity, or any other mechanism driving the pumps. A value of about 25% of the total
storage capacity of reservoirs, or 1.5 to 2 times of the average hourly supply, may be
considered as enough provision for accounting this storage.
3. Fire Storage: The third component of the total reservoir storage is the fire storage. This
provision takes care of the requirements of water for extinguishing fires. A provision of 1
to 4 liter per person per day is sufficient to meet the requirement.

The total reservoir storage can finally be worked out by adding all the three storages.
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Water flow in pipes

Since the flow is turbulent in pipes for water supply, the friction (f) will depend on:

1) Roughness of the pipe.

2) Reynolds no. which depends on the velocity of flow in the pipe and its diameter.

𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑙 = 𝑓 × 𝐷 × 2𝑔 P1 P2

Where: hl = Head loss = P1 –P2 Q V f D

V = Velocity of flow (m/s) L

g = Acceleration of gravity (m/s2)

D = Diameter of the pipe (m)

P1, P2 = Pressure heads (m)

To predict the head loss (hl), which is a function of the velocity of flow, Hazen – William formula is
used:

𝑉 = 𝑘 × 𝐶 × 𝑅 0.63 × 𝑆 0.54 = 0.85 × 𝐶 × 𝑅 0.63 × 𝑆 0.54

Where: k = Experimental coefficient and a unit conversion factor= 0.85 (m/s, m)

C = Hazen – William coefficient depending on the roughness of the pipe according to its
material and age.
𝐷
R = Hydraulic radius = 𝑅 = 4

ℎ𝑙
S = Hydraulic gradient = 𝑆 = (L = length of the pipe)
𝐿

As the discharge (Q) flowing in the pipe is filling, it is equal to the velocity (V) x cross section area of the
pipe (π D2 /4). By applying the velocity according to the Hazen – William formula, then the discharge is
written as

𝐷 0.63 𝜋𝐷 2
𝑄 = 0.85 × 𝐶 × ( 4 ) × 𝑆 0.54 × = 0.278 × 𝐶 × 𝐷2.63 × 𝑆 0.54
4

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Hazen – William coefficient can be taken from the table below

Material of the pipe Value of C

Cast Iron - new 130
5 years 120
10 years 110
20 years 90 -100
30 years 75 - 90
Concrete 120 – 140
PVC 150
Asbestos cement 120 - 140

According to the design criteria, V should be taken in the range 0.6 to 2.6 m/s for designing the
distribution system.

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Material C Material C

ABS- Acrylonite Butadiene Styrene 130 Fiber 140

Aluminum 130 - 150 Fiber Glass Pipe - FRP 150
Asbestos Cement 140 Galvanized iron 120
Asphalt Lining 130 - 140 Glass 130
Brass 130 - 140 Lead 130 - 140
Metal Pipes - Very to
Brick sewer 90 - 100 130 - 140
extremely smooth
Cast-Iron - new unlined (CIP) 130 Plastic 130 - 150
Cast-Iron 10 years old 107 - 113 Polyethylene, PE, PEH 140
Cast-Iron 20 years old 89 - 100 Polyvinyl chloride, PVC, CPVC 150
Cast-Iron 30 years old 75 - 90 Smooth Pipes 140
Cast-Iron 40 years old 64-83 Steel new unlined 140 - 150
Cast-Iron, asphalt coated 100 Steel, corrugated 60
Cast-Iron, cement lined 140 Steel, welded and seamless 100
Steel, interior riveted, no
Cast-Iron, bituminous lined 140 110
projecting rivets
Steel, projecting girth and
Cast-Iron, sea-coated 120 100
horizontal rivets
Cast-Iron, wrought plain 100 Steel, vitrified, spiral-riveted 90 - 110
Cement lining 130 - 140 Steel, welded and seamless 100
Concrete 100 - 140 Tin 130
Concrete lined, steel forms 140 Vitrified Clay 110
Concrete lined, wooden forms 120 Wrought iron, plain 100
Wooden or Masonry Pipe -
Concrete, old 100 - 110 120
Smooth
Copper 130 - 140 Wood Stave 110 - 120
Corrugated Metal 60
Ductile Iron Pipe (DIP) 140
Ductile Iron, cement lined 120

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Hydraulic Analysis

This analysis is important to determine the flow (Q) and head loss (h L) in each pipe, also the
resulting pressure at critical points in the distribution system under different water supply
demands and working conditions. Some recommended pressures are shown in the table below.

Case Pressure (bar)

Houses up to 4 stories 1.8 – 2.8
Business areas 4.2
Fire fighting 5.3
Methods of analysis

1) Equivalent pipe method

2) Hardy Cross method
3) Circle method
4) Electrical method
5) Software such as PIPE ++ and WATERCAD.

Pipe Network Analysis

Analysis of water distribution system includes determining quantities of flow and head losses in
the various pipe lines, and resulting residual pressures. In any pipe network, the following two
conditions must be satisfied:

1. The algebraic sum of pressure drops around a closed loop must be zero, i.e. there can be
no discontinuity in pressure.
2. The flow entering a junction must be equal to the flow leaving that junction; i.e. the law of
continuity must be satisfied.

Based on these two basic principles, the pipe networks are generally solved by the methods of
successive approximation. The widely used method of pipe network analysis is the Hardy-Cross
method.

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Hardy-Cross Method

This method consists of assuming a distribution of flow in the network in such a way that the
principle of continuity is satisfied at each junction. A correction to these assumed flows is then
computed successively for each pipe loop in the network, until the correction is reduced to an
acceptable correction flow magnitude (0.20 m3/min).

1. Assuming a distribution of flow in the network and balancing the resulting head losses
(Q in =Q out).
2. For a pipe circuit the sum of the head losses must be zero ( hf = 0)
3. Clockwise flows are positive and produce positive head loss.

Q= kQ1
x
= − h = − hf  0.2m3 / min
xkQ1x−1
x h  1.85 f 
h
Q  Q
Problem 11.1: The following example is solved by the Hardy cross method. Determine the residual
pressure at G if the static pressure at A is 650 kPa and is it adequate for fire supply of 170 kPa.
Assume (1 bar = 100 kPa = 14.503 psi, and 1 kPa = 0.102 m of water head).

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Solution:

Steps taken in investigation of distribution system.

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FIRST CORRECTION:

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SECOND CORRECTION:

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THIRD CORRECTION:

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The maximum head loss:

Path 1 Head loss Path 2 Head loss Path 3 Head loss

AI 20.90 AB 20.63 AB 20.63

IH 12.20 BH 8.80 BE 4.64

HG 18.38 HG 18.38 EF 6.42

FG 13.20

T.H.L (m) 51.5 46.81 44.89

T.H.L (kPa) 505 468.72 440

Residual 145 181.28 210

pressure at G

The residual pressure at G = 650 – 505 =145 kPa

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Homework: In the pipe systems shown, find the distribution of flow and the pressure at A. assume
all pipes not otherwise labeled are at identical elevations?

Homework: Define fire hydrant and what are the requirements of fire hydrant as manufacturing
and location specification? Chapter 6.24 page 140

Homework: Problems 6.3, 6.4, & 6.5

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Homework: Design the water supply networks as shown below:

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

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PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Lecture 5: Intakes and Screens
Intakes:

Definition: The intake is a structure made of several parts, mainly constructed to collect raw water from
the source to water treatment plant. Intakes consist of the opening, strainer, or grating through which the
water enters and conduit conveying the water, usually by gravity, to a well or sump. From the well the
water is pumped to the mains or treatment plant.

Intakes should be so located and designed that possibility of interference with the supply is minimized and
where uncertainty of continuous serviceability exists, intakes should be duplicated.

The following must be considered in designing and locating intakes:

a) The sources of water supply, whether impounding reservoir, lakes, or river (including the
possibility of wide fluctuation in water level).
b) The character of the intake surroundings, depth of water, character of bottom, navigation
requirements, the effects of currents, floods, and storms upon the structure and in scouring
the bottom.
c) The location with respect to sources of pollution; and
d) The prevalence of the floating material such as ice, legs, and vegetation.

General requirements for the location of an intake:

1) Near to the water treatment plant (WTP).

2) Upstream waste disposal sites.
3) In pure water to avoid additional loading and/or complicated treatment.
4) Far away from navigation area.
5) It should be in deep water to provide sufficient quantity of water in dry weather conditions and if
expansion is required in the water treatment plant.
6) Far away from the effects of currents, erosion and deposition.
7) In meandering rivers, the best location is on the concave side.

Intake criteria design:

1) Water velocity through foot valve = (0.15-0.3) m/sec
2) Detention time in suction well = 20 min
3) Water velocity through suction pipe = (1-1.5) m/sec
4) Water velocity through back wash pipe = (3) m/sec
5) Water discharge through backwash pipe =
1suction
pipe
3
6) Q= V & Q=vA
T
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Types of intakes

1) Tower intake.
2) River intakes (pipe intake).

River intake:

They must be sufficient stable, and the water deep enough to allow a submergence of at least 1 m at all
times with a clear opening beneath the pipe so that any tendency to form a bar is overcome. River intakes
are especially likely to need screens to exclude large floating matter which might injure pumps.

Screened pipe intake.

Intakes from impounding reservoirs:

1) The water of impounding reservoirs is likely to vary in quality at different levels, making it usually
desirable to take water from about a meter below the surface.
2) The intake is usually a concrete tower located in deep water near the upstream toe of the dam.

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Reservoir intake.

River intake.

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Lake intakes:

1) The intake should be so located that danger of the pollution will be minimized. This may require
study of currents and effects of winds with particular attention to movement of sewage or
industrial wastes, if these are discharged into lake.
2) Entering velocities less than (0.15 m/sec) have been used successfully.
3) To avoid offshore winds, intakes must be located at distance not less than (600-900 m) from
shore.
4) A depth of (6-9 m) is required to avoid trouble caused by ice jams which may solidly fill the water
at shallow depths.

Typical pier intake structure

The intake conduit:
1) A shore intake may also be the supply well for the suction pipe leading to the pumps.
2) Intakes located long distances from the pumps usually deliver their water to the pump well at the
shore end by gravity.
3) The velocities in pipes will be low but not low enough to allow sedimentation.

Intake, tunnel and pump station.

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Screens

Definition: Screening is a unit operation that removes floating and large suspended matter from water.
Screens may be classified as coarse, fine, microstrainer, depending on the size of material removed. Screens
may be located at the intake structure, raw water pump station, or water treatment plant.

The screen is a device with openings uniform in size. It is placed across the flow to retain floating particles.
It serves as a protective unit.

Types of screens:

1) According to its shape 1- rack 2- mesh

2) According to its size:

a) Course, openings ˃ 25 mm:

Intake ports should be equipped with a coarse screen or bar rack to prevent large objects from
entering the conveyance system. These screens consist of vertical flat bars or, in some cases a
round pipes spaced with (5-8) cm of clear opening. The velocity through the coarse screen is
generally less than 8 cm/s. Screens should be installed outside (on the water side) of any sluice gate
or stop log slot, to prevent debris from interfering with their operation.

b) Medium 6 mm ˂ openings ˂ 25 mm

c) Fine, openings ˂ 6 mm:

Fine screens are used to remove smaller objects that may damage pumps or other equipment. They
may be located either at the intake structure or at the raw water pump station. These screens
consist of heavy wire mesh with 0.5 cm square openings or circular passive screens with similar
opening widths. The screen area efficiency factor (0.5-0.6) and the typical velocity through the
effective area is in the range of (0.4-0.8) m/s.

d) Microstrainer are used for the removal of plankton and algae from impounded waters. Therefore,
microstrainer installed before chemical coagulation will often improve the performance of
clarifiers.

3) According to its workability, manual and mechanical.

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Design criteria

1) Flowing velocity through the openings = 0.3 – 1.0 m/sec

2) Head loss (hL) = 150 -300 mm

(𝑣𝑠2 − 𝑣𝑐2 ) 1
ℎ𝐿 = ×
2𝑔 0.7

Where:
vs = Velocity through the screen (m/s)
vc = Velocity in the canal (m/s)
g = Acceleration gravity (m/s2)

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SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem 5.1: Design a coarse screen (rack) for a flow of 0.15 m3/sec. The screen is placed in a canal 0.6 m in
width and 0.4 m in height. Use rectangular bars 10 X 30 mm in cross section, assume size of the openings = 25
mm?

Solution:

Assume n = number of bars

Width of the canel = n × Size of the bar + (n + 1) × Size of the openning

600 mm = n × 10 mm + (n + 1) × 25 ⇛ 575 = 35n ⇛ n = 16.4 ≈ 16

Number of spacing = n+1= 16 +1 = 17

Check the velocity:

ASpacing = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 × 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠

Width = 600 − 16 × 10 = 440 mm = 0.44m

m3
0.15 𝑠𝑒𝑐 m
Velocity through the rack = = 0.852 with acceptable velocity O. K
0.4 × 0.44 sec
Q 0.15
Assume the velocity through the canal vc = = = 0.625 m/sec
ACanal 0.6 × 0.4

(vs2 − vc2 ) 1 (0.8522 − 0.6252 ) 1

Head loss through the openings hL = × = × = 0.0244m
2g 0.7 2 × 9.81 0.7

Or using 10 mm bars 35 mm c/c

Width 0.6 m
Number of spaces = c = 0.035 ≈ 17
Spaces c

Number of bars = Number of spaces − 1 = 17 − 1 = 16

𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 35 − (5 + 5) = 25 𝑚𝑚 , also, check vs

Or using velocity through openings 0.85 m/sec

Q 0.15
Check the velocity: vs = A ⇛ 𝐴𝑠 = 0.85 = 0.176 𝑚2
Spacing

𝐴𝑠 = 0.6 × 0.4 − 10 × 10−3 × 𝑛 × 0.4 ⇛ 𝑛 = 16 & 𝑛 + 1 = 17

Also, check: 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0.176 = 0.4 × 17 × 𝑠 ⇛ 𝑠 = 0.026 𝑚 = 26 𝑚𝑚

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Problem 5.2: Design a coarse screen (rack) for a flow of 0.8 m3/sec. The screen is placed in a channel 1.5 m in
depth and 2 m width. Use square bars 13 X 13 mm in cross section, assume size of the openings c/c = 80 mm?

Solution:

13
Width of the openning = 8 − = 6.7 cm
10

Assume n= number of bars

Width of the channel = n × Size of the bar + (n + 1) × Size of the openning

2 m = n × 0.013 m + (n + 1) × 0.067 m ⇛ 1.933 = 0.08n ⇛ n = 24.16 ≈ 24

Number of openings = 24+1 = 25

Width 2m
Or, Number of spaces = = = 25
Spaces c/c 0.08

Number of bars = Number of spaces − 1 = 25 − 1 = 24

Assume freeboard depth for maintenance = 20 cm

Depth of flow = channel depth − freeboard depth = 1.5 − 0.2 = 1.3 m

Area of openings A = No. of opening × Clear distance between bars × Depth of flow

Area of openings A = 25 × 0.067 × 1.3 = 2.178 m2

m3
0.8 sec m
Velocity through the rack = = 0.367 with acceptable velocity
2.178 sec

assume the velocity through the canal = 0

(vs2 − vc2 ) 1 (0.3672 − 0) 1

Head loss through the openings hL = × = × = 0.0098 m
2g 0.7 2 × 9.81 0.7

(vs2 − vc2 ) 1 (0.3642 − 0) 1

Head loss through the openings, hL = × = × = 0.00964 m
2g 0.7 2 × 9.81 0.7

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Problem 5.3: Design a raw water intake system as a headwork to water treatment plant at design capacity
10000 m3/hr including (10 suction pipes, 10 discharge pipes, 2 header or distributor, backwash pipe and wet
well)? Assume water velocity in suction, discharge, header and backwash pipes 1, 2.25, 2, and 3 m/sec
respectively and detention time in wet well 20 min.

Solution:

Suction Pipe:

10000 𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋 2
𝑄𝑆𝑃 = 𝑣 × 𝐴 = = 1000 = 0.278 =1 × × 𝐷𝑆𝑃 → 𝐷𝑆𝑃 = 0.595 ≈ 0.6 𝑚
10 ℎ𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4

Discharge Pipe:

10000 𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋 2
𝑄𝐷𝑃 = 𝑣 × 𝐴 = = 1000 = 0.278 = 2.25 × × 𝐷𝐷𝑃 → 𝐷𝐷𝑃 = 0.396 ≈ 0.4 𝑚
10 ℎ𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4

Header Pipe:

10000 𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋 2
𝑄𝐻𝑃 = 𝑣 × 𝐴 = = 5000 = 1.388 =2 × × 𝐷𝐻𝑃 → 𝐷𝐻𝑃 = 0.94 ≈ 1 𝑚
2 ℎ𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4

Backwash Pipe:

1000 𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋 2
𝑄𝐵𝑃 = 𝑣 × 𝐴 = = 333.34 = 0.0926 =3 × × 𝐷𝐵𝑃 → 𝐷𝐵𝑃 = 0.198 ≈ 0.2 𝑚
3 ℎ𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4

Wet well:

Assume one wet well with two department

𝑉 𝑚3 𝑉
𝑄𝑊𝑊 = = 5 × 1000 = 5000 = → 𝑉 = 1666.67 𝑚3
𝑡 ℎ𝑟 20
60

Assume effective water depth = 3 m

Assume rectangular cross-section and L = 4W

𝑉 = 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ × 𝐴 → 1666.67 = 3 × 𝐴 → 𝐴 = 555.556 𝑚2 = 4𝑊 2 → 𝑊 = 11.785 ≈ 12 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 = 48 𝑚

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = 3 + 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑(0.5) = 3.5 𝑚

So, use two wet well each at dimension (48 x 12 x 3.5) m

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

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PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Lecture 6: Pumps and Pumping Stations

A pump is a device which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. It lifts water from a lower to a
higher level and delivers it at high pressure. Pumps are employed in water supply projects at various stages
for following purposes:

1. To lift raw water from wells.

2. To deliver treated water to the consumer at desired pressure.
3. To supply pressured water for fire hydrants.
4. To boost up pressure in water mains.
5. To fill elevated overhead water tanks.
6. To back-wash filters.
7. To pump chemical solutions, needed for water treatment.

Classification of Pumps

Based on principle of operation, pumps may be classified as follows:

1. Displacement pumps (reciprocating, rotary)

2. Velocity pumps (centrifugal, turbine and jet pumps)
3. Buoyancy pumps (air lift pumps)
4. Impulse pumps (hydraulic rams)

Work and efficiency of pumps

The work done by a pump is equal to the product of the mass flow and the total head against which the
flow is moved.

Head, hydraulic energy, kinetic or potential energy is defining as equivalent to the potential energy of a
column of water of specified height.

Pressure may be expressed in terms of either absolute or gauge reading

𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.433 𝑝𝑠𝑖 or 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 9.81 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Total dynamic head (TDH) of a pump is the sum of the static suction head (SSH), the static discharge head
(SDH), the total friction head ( T.H.L), and velocity head (DH)

𝑇𝑆𝐻 = 𝑆𝑆𝐻 + 𝑆𝐷𝐻

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Fig. 1 Head terms used in pumps

Pump capacity (Q) is a term used to describe the maximum flow rate through a pump at its designed
conditions. It is a measurement usually given in gallons per minute (gpm) or cubic meters per hour (m3/h).

Head (H) is expressed in units of height such as meters or feet. The static head of a pump is the maximum
height (pressure) it can deliver. The capability of the pump at a certain RPM can be read from its Q-H curve
(flow vs. height).

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝑇𝐻)

= 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑(𝑆𝐻) + 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝐷𝐻) + 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝐻𝐿)
+ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝑃𝑟 )

Pump efficiency (𝜼) is defined as the ratio of water horsepower output from the pump to the shaft
horsepower input for the pump. The efficiency of a particular pumps estimated by determining two values.
These values are pump flow rate and total head.

𝑃
𝜂 = 𝑃𝑀 & 𝜂 = 𝜂𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝 × 𝜂𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑊

Pump water power (Pw), In the hydraulic field, the load of a pump is expressed in theory in height of water.
It is the hydraulic power communicated to the liquid of its passage through the pump (Watt or kW).

𝑃𝑤 = 𝛾 × 𝑄 × 𝐻

Where:

Pw: water power (Kw), : water weight density (9.81 kN/m3), Q: pump capacity (m3/sec), and H: total head
(m).

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Pump Power (P) is a metric in fluid dynamics that quantifies the energy-efficiency of pump systems. It is a
measure of the electric power that is needed to operate a pump (or collection of pumps), relative to the
volume flow rate. ... It is commonly used when measuring the energy efficiency of buildings.

𝑃𝑤 𝛾 × 𝑄 × 𝐻
𝑃𝐸 𝑂𝑅 𝑀 = =
𝜂 𝜂

Effect of varying speed

𝑄1 𝑁1 𝑇𝐷𝐻1 𝑁12 𝑃1 𝑁13

= , = & =
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝑇𝐷𝐻2 𝑁22 𝑃2 𝑁23

Characteristics curves of centrifugal pumps:

Pump Characteristic Curves. The performance of a centrifugal pump can be shown graphically on
a characteristic curve. A typical characteristic curve shows the total dynamic head, brake horsepower,
efficiency, and net positive Suction head all plotted over the capacity range of the pump.

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Fig. 2 Characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump at constant speed

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Suction lift:

Net positive suction head (NPSH) is total head at pump suction branch over and above the vapor
pressure of the liquid being pumped. Also, it’s a function of the system design, and represent the force
available to drive the flow into the pump.

NPSH required (NPSHr) is a function of the pump design and is the lowest value of NPSH at which the pump
can be guaranteed to operate without significant cavitation.

Available NPSH is the sum of the barometric pressure and the static head on the pump inlet, less the losses
and fittings and vapor pressure of the water.

𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝑃𝐵 − ℎ𝐿 − 𝑃𝑣 − 𝑃𝑠

Where; PB: Barometric Pressure, hL: Head losses, Pv: Vapor Pressure, Ps: Allowable suction lift of the pump.

Barometric pressure vs. altitude Vapor pressure of water vs. temperature

Cavitation is the formation of vapor cavities in a liquid, small liquid-free zones ("bubbles" or "voids"), that
are the consequence of forces acting upon the liquid.

NPSH available < NPSH required

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Pump stations:

Pumping stations are facilities including pumps and equipment for pumping fluids from one place to
another. They are used for a variety of infrastructure systems, such as the supply of water to canals, the
drainage of low-lying land, and the removal of sewage to processing sites.

Design consideration for pump stations:

1) Location: the location of pump stations has an important bearing on the pressure maintained in
the distribution system.
2) Architecture: the building should be adequate in size and have space for placing additional units as
needed. It should be fireproof, pleasing in appearance, and have well-kept grounds. Its architecture
can and should be in harmony with surroundings.
3) Capacity and operation: the pumps must have sufficient capacity to care for peak load, and the
designer and operator must furnish and the pumping plant may operate 8-12 hours.

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SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem 6.1: Residential campus of 50,000 inhabitants and per capita consumption of 250 liters per day
and assume that the water needed to fire demand for 10 hr duration. Determine:

a) All draft water demand and fire demand?

b) Total daily water flow rate and water volume?

c) Dimension of water storage capacity (four parts) each L=8W & D= 5m?

d) NO. of duty and standby pump if available pump in Iraqi Market a centrifugal pump operates at a
speed of 1450 r/min and Q =250 m3/hr, H=40 and efficiency=55%?

e) Calculate the pump power and horse power?

f) Compute the efficiency of the pump, the discharge, head, and power if the pump speed were
changed to 2900 r/min?

Solution:

a) 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 0.25 × 50000 = 12500 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 × 12500 = 22500 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.48 × 12500 = 18500 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.28 × 12500 = 16000 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2.7 × 12500 = 33750 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑀𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.9 × 12500 = 11250 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝐺 = 1020 × √𝑃 × (1 − 0.01√𝑃) = 1020 × √50 × (1 − 0.01√50) = 6702.49 𝑔𝑝𝑚

𝑚3
= 1522.135 = 36531.247 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
ℎ𝑟
𝑚3
b) 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 22500 + 36531.247 = 59031.247 𝑑𝑎𝑦 ≈ 2460 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟

10
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 22500 + 36531.247 × = 37721.353 𝑚3 ≈ 37722 𝑚3 > 𝑀𝑀𝐷
24
37722
c) 𝑉 = = 𝐿 × 𝑊 × 𝐷 = 8𝑊 2 × 5 → 𝑊 = 15.35 𝑚 𝐿 = 122.83 𝑚 & 𝐷 = 5𝑚
4
2460
d) 𝑁𝑂. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑠 = ≈ 10
250

10
𝑁𝑂. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑠 = ≈3
3
So, use 13 number of pumps (10NO.s duty pump +3NO standby pump)

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250
e) 𝑃𝑤 = 𝛾 × 𝑄 × 𝐻 = 9.81 × 3600 × 40 = 27.25 ≈ 28 𝑘𝑊

𝑃𝑤 28 50.9
𝑃𝑚 = = = 50.9 𝑘𝑊 → = 68.34 ℎ𝑝
𝜂 0.55 0.745
Q1 𝑁1 250 1450
f) = → = 2900 → 𝑄2 = 500 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝑄2

𝐻1 𝑁12 40 14502
= → = → 𝐻2 = 160 𝑚
𝐻2 𝑁22 𝐻2 29002

𝑃1 𝑁13 50.9 14503

= → = → 𝑃2 = 407.2 𝑘𝑊
𝑃2 𝑁23 𝑃2 29003

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

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PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Lecture 7: Plain Sedimentation
Water Treatment-Clarification Process

Process Function

Chemical sedimentation Removal of colloidal particles

Aeration, chemical oxidizing Removal of taste and odors

agents, and adsorbents

Softening Removal of divalent cations-generally calcium and magnesium

Stabilization Prevent corrosion or deposition in distribution system.

Sedimentation theory:

Sedimentation is the separation of impurities known as discrete particles from the flowing fluid (flow) by
the action of natural forces (gravity). This process takes place in a basin known as the sedimentation tank
or the clarifier.

Discrete particles are the particles that do not change in size, shape or in weight when falling freely through
the flowing flow.

Forces acting on the falling particle:

Assume that the particle is a sphere with diameter (d)

Fi = Impelling (driving) force = Fg –Fb

Fg =Gravity force, 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑔 × 𝜌𝑠 × 𝑉

Fb = Buoyancy force, 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑔 × 𝜌𝑤 × 𝑉

g = Gravity acceleration

4𝜋𝑟 3 𝜋𝑑𝑠3
Volume = Particle volume, 𝑉 = =
3 6

ρs = Density of the solids (Particles)

ρw = Density of the fluid (Water)

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𝑔×𝜋×𝑑𝑠3
Then, 𝐹𝑖 = × (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤 )
6

𝐶𝐷 ×𝑉𝑠 ×𝐴×𝜌𝑤
Fd = Drag or frictional force, 𝐹𝑑 = 2

CD = Drag coefficient.

Vs = Settling velocity of the particle.

𝜋𝑑𝑠2
A = Projection area of the particle on the direction of the flow, 𝐴 = 4

The rate of change in momentum of a particle of mass (m) settling in a still fluid is:

𝑚 × 𝑑𝑉𝑠
( = 𝐹𝑖 − 𝐹𝑑 )
𝑑𝑡

When the settling velocity is constant then, Fi = Fd

4𝑔𝑑𝑠 (𝜌𝑠 −𝜌𝑤 ) 4𝑔𝑑(𝐺𝑠 −1)

Then, 𝑉𝑠 = √ 3𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑤
=√ 3𝐶𝐷
that is known as Newton's settling formula.

𝜌
Gs = Specific gravity of the particles, 𝐺𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑠
𝑤

24 24𝜇𝑤
For laminar flow conditions; 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑅 = 𝑉 ×𝑑 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅𝑒 < 0.5
𝑒 𝑠 𝑠 ×𝜌𝑤

24 3
For transition flow conditions; 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑅 + + 0.34 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅𝑒 > 1000
𝑒 √𝑅𝑒

For turbulent flow conditions; 𝐶𝐷 = 0.4

𝑉𝑠 ×𝑑𝑠 ×𝜌𝑤
Where Re = Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇𝑤
( µw = Viscosity of water)

𝑔𝑑𝑠2 (𝜌𝑠 −𝜌𝑤 ) 𝑔𝑑𝑠2 𝜌𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 −1)

Then, 𝑉𝑠 = 18𝜇𝑤
= 18𝜇𝑤
that is known as Stock's settling formula.

The design of sedimentation tanks is generally based upon the concept of the ideal sedimentation as shown
in the figure below.
The particle entering the basin will have a horizontal velocity
equal to the velocity of the flow (vf) and a settling velocity (Vs)
according to Stocks velocity.
For the particle to be removed from the flow, its resultant
velocity should be equal the resultant velocity (V) which will
carry it to the bottom of the tank.
Summary: if (𝑉𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠 = 𝑉𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ) , (𝑉𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑙𝑎𝑤 ) ,

(𝑉𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠 = √𝑉𝑓 2 + 𝑉𝑠 2 ) & 𝑉𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = √𝑉𝑓 2 + 𝑉𝑠 2

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So, the particles will be removed 100% if (𝑉𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 )

Considering the velocity vector triangle and the dimensions of the tank (L= length, H = height and W =
width).
𝑄 𝑄
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑓 = =
𝐴𝑐 𝑊 × 𝐻
If particle is to be removed, it's settling velocity and horizontal velocity (𝑣𝑓 ) must be such that their
resultant, (V), will carry it to the bottom of the tank before the outlet zone is reached, all particles with the
same settling velocity will be removed.

𝑣𝑓 𝐿 𝑣𝑓 × 𝐻 𝑄 𝐻 𝑄 𝑄
= 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉𝑠 = = × = =
𝑉𝑠 𝐻 𝐿 𝑊 × 𝐻 𝐿 𝑊 × 𝐿 𝐴𝑠

Where:
Q: The discharge entering the tank;
Ac: The cross-sectional area of the tank perpendicular to the flow = 𝑊 × 𝐻
As: The surface area= 𝑊 × 𝐿
Surface overflow rate (SOR or Vs) is numerically equal to the flow divide by the plan or surface area of the
basin, but which physically represents the settling velocity of the smallest particle to be 100% removed
from the flow or to be settled. Any particle of (Vs) larger or equal to SOR will settle (𝑉𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 ≥ 𝑆𝑂𝑅),
and while those which settle at lower velocities will be removed in direct proportion to the ratio of their
settling velocity to (Vs), so, if Vs is smaller than SOR, it will not settle (𝑉𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 < 𝑆𝑂𝑅).

Weir Overflow Rates is the flow rate of the clarifier effluent per the length of the overflow weir. It is argued
that if the weir loading rates exceed the recommended values, the velocity of currents approaching the
weirs may be such that excessive solids are carried over the weir.

Ideal sedimentation

Solid liquid separation process in which a suspension is separated into two phases:

1) Clarified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank (overflow).

2) Concentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the sedimentation tank (underflow).

The following characteristics exhibit in an ideal sedimentation process:

1) The flow is evenly distributed across the tank;

2) The particles are evenly distributed in the flow.

Purpose of Settling:

1) To remove coarse dispersed phase.

2) To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.
3) To remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment.
4) To settle the sludge (biomass) after activated sludge process / tricking filters.

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Principle of Settling:

1) Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than that of water tend to settle
down by gravity as soon as the turbulence is retarded by offering storage.
2) Basin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank.
3) Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the settling tank is called the detention
period.

An ideal sedimentation basin is divided into the five zones:

1) Inlet zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly distributed over the cross section such that the
flow through settling zone follows horizontal path.
2) Settling zone: Settling occurs under quiescent conditions.
3) Sludge zone: For collection of sludge below settling zone.
4) Outlet zone: Clarified effluent is collected and discharge through outlet weir.
5) Freeboard zone: The distance between normal water level and the top of a structure, such as a
dam, that impounds or restrains water.

Inlet and Outlet Arrangement:

Inlet devices: Inlets shall be designed to distribute the water equally and at uniform velocities. A baffle
should be constructed across the basin close to the inlet and should project several feet below the water
surface to dissipate inlet velocities and provide uniform flow;

Outlet Devices: Outlet weirs or submerged orifices shall be designed to maintain velocities suitable for
settling in the basin and to minimize short-circuiting. Weirs shall be adjustable, and at least equivalent in
length to the perimeter of the tank. However, peripheral weirs are not acceptable as they tend to cause
excessive short-circuiting.

Types of Settling:

Type I-Discrete particle settling: Particles settle individually without interaction with neighboring particles.
Type II-Flocculent Particles: Flocculation causes the particles to increase in mass and settle at a faster rate.

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Type III-Hindered or Zone settling: The mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with individual particles
remaining in fixed positions with respect to each other.

Type IV-Compression: The concentration of particles is so high that sedimentation can only occur through
compaction of the structure.

Types of sedimentation tanks:

1) Shape: rectangular, square, circular (cylindrical);
a) Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously. The intermittent tanks
also called quiescent type tanks are those which store water for a certain period and keep it in
complete rest. In a continuous flow type tank, the flow velocity is only reduced and the water is
not brought to complete rest as is done in an intermittent type.
b) Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in plan. Long narrow rectangular tanks
with horizontal flow are generally preferred to the circular tanks with radial or spiral flow.
2) Direction of flow: horizontal, radial, vertical;
3) Detention time: full and with draw, continuous flow;
4) Plain sedimentation, sedimentation with chemicals

Design criteria

1) SOR: 20 – 80 m/d.
2) Detention time: 2- 6 hr (Average 3 –4 hr).
3) Depth or height (H): 2-6 m (Average 3–4 m).
4) Inlet velocity (vf) 0.15 – 0.5 m/min.
5) In rectangular tanks L/W = (2/1 – 5/1), L max less than 100 m.
6) In circular tanks Diameter (D) max less than 50m, inlet diameter less than 10%D.
Q
7) Weir loading rate ( ): 120 – 250 m3/m/d.
Weir Effluent Length
8) scouring velocity (vh)

8βgd𝑠 (Gs −1)

The horizontal velocity that will re-suspend the settled particles, vh = √ f

β = 0.04 – 0.06, f = 0.02 – 0.03

Why is it hard to reach ideal settling in sedimentation tanks?

1) Variable inlet flowing velocity.

2) Variable temperature inside the tank that will give different ρw and µw.
3) Un-similar particle distribution.
4) Short circuiting due to the shape of the tank.

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Rectangular clarifiers.

Center flow clarifier.

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Solved problems

Problem 7.1: Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to treat 393 m3/hr flows. Assume the smallest
particle to be 100% removed is 0.03 mm in diameter, detention time = 3hr, inlet flowing velocity = 0.15
m/min, temperature= 20 oC and Gs= 1.65. Find:

1) H, W and L of the tank.

2) Volume of the settled sludge per day (m3/d) if the influent suspended solids (SS) concentration is
200 mg/L , the sludge is 5% in solid content and the removal efficiency is 80% in the tank.
3) Discuss the effect of temperature changes, T=5 oC in winter and T= 33 oC in summer.
4) The dimensions of a circular sedimentation tank for the same example.
Solution:

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 642 𝜌𝑤 = 0.9982 × 103 3
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝑤 = 1.002 × 10−3
𝑚 𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐

3 −3 2
𝑔𝜌𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 − 1)𝑑𝑠2 9.81 × 0.9982 × 10 × (1.65 − 1) × (0.03 × 10 ) 𝑚
𝑉𝑠 = = −3
= 3.176 × 10−4
18𝜇𝑤 18 × 1.002 × 10 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚
= 27.39 = 𝑆𝑂𝑅
𝑑𝑎𝑦

m3
Q Q 393 × 24
SOR = ⇛ AS = = hr = 344.36 m2
AS SOR m3
27.39
day

Volume
Q= ⇛ Volume = As × H = Q × t
Time

m3
Volume = 344.36 × H = 393 × 3hr ⇛ H = 3.42 m O. K
hr
L m
vf = ⇛ L = 0.15 × 3hr × 60 = 27m
t min

As = L × W ⇛ 344.36 = 27 × W ⇛ W = 12.75m
𝐿 27
Check: 𝑊 = 12.75 = 2.12 𝑂. 𝐾

𝑄
Check: 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑊𝐿𝑅) = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Assume effluent length = W = 12.75 m

m3
Q 393 × 24
WLR = = hr = 739.76 m3 /m/day > 250 m3 /m/day 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝑂. 𝐾
Effluent length 12.75 m
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393 × 24
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 250 m3 /m/day = ⇛ Length = 37.7 ≈ 38 m
Length

Check the scouring velocity:

β
Assume =2
f

8βg(Gs −1)d m
vh = √ f
= √8 × 2 × 9.81 × (1.65 − 1)(0.03 × 10−3 ) = 0.055 sec = 3.319 m/min

∴ 𝑣𝑓 = 0.15𝑚/ min 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑠 > 𝑣𝑓 𝑂. 𝐾

2) Total amount of suspended solids in the effluent:

mg m3 103
200 × 393 × × 24 = 1886.4 kg/day
L hr 106

80% removal (sedimentation in the tank)

𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 = 0.8 × 1886.4 = 1509 = 𝑚𝑠
𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑆𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡

5 𝑤𝑠 1509
= = ⇛ 𝑤𝑤 = 28671 kg/day
100 𝑤𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤 1509 + 𝑤𝑤
ms mw
Volume of solids = ρs
& Volume of water = ρw

kg
Assume ρw = 998.2 m3 at T = 200 C ≈ 1000 kg/m3

1509 28671 m3
Volume of sludge = Volume of solids + Volume of water = + = 29.58
1.65 × 103 103 day
m3
≈ 30
day
⇛ 𝑇𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟

3) Settling velocity changeability with temperature or water mass density and viscosity and compare it with
the design criteria:

Temperature Water mass density Water viscosity

Season 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
( 0C) ρw ( 3 ) μw ( )
𝑚 𝑚.𝑠𝑒𝑐

Winter 5 0.9999 × 103 1.519 × 10−3

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Summer 33 0.9957 × 103 0.7983 × 10−3

So, for sedimentation tank design the best water temperature degree at winter temperature (50C), and
then increase the settling velocity with increase temperature due to (𝑉𝑠 > 𝑆𝑂𝑅).

4.50 SETTLING VELOCITY

4.00
(Vs)
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
SETTLING VELOCITY
1.50 (Vs)
1.00
0.50
0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig. 1 Settling velocity variation with different temperature.

Problem 7.2: A settling tank if designed for an overflow rate of 4000-liter pr m2 per hour. What percentage
of particles of diameter (a) 0.05 mm (b) 0.02 mm, will be removed in the tank at 100C? Assume specific
gravity of particles S.G = 2.65.

Solution:

4000×10−3
𝑄 𝑚
𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑆𝑂𝑅 = 𝐴𝑠
= 3600
1
= 1.111 × 10−3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 0.111 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

(a) For 0.05 mm particles:

S.G = 2.65,

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 at T = 100 C 𝜌𝑤 = 0.9997 × 103 3
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝑤 = 1.307 × 10−3
𝑚 𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐

3 −3 2
𝑔𝜌𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 − 1)𝑑𝑠2 9.81 × 0.9997 × 10 × (2.65 − 1) × (0.05 × 10 )
𝑉𝑠 = =
18𝜇𝑤 18 × 1.307 × 10−3
𝑚 𝑐𝑚 𝑚
= 1.719 × 10−3 = 0.1719 = 148.56 > 𝑆𝑂𝑅
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑑𝑎𝑦
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0.1719
% 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑑 = 0.111
× 100 = 154.86% > 100%, Hence all the particles of 0.05 mm diameter will
settle.
(b) For 0.02 mm particles:
3 −3 2
𝑔𝜌𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 − 1)𝑑𝑠2 9.81 × 0.9997 × 10 × (2.65 − 1) × (0.02 × 10 )
𝑉𝑠 = =
18𝜇𝑤 18 × 1.307 × 10−3
𝑚 𝑐𝑚 𝑚
= 2.751 × 10−4 = 0.0275 = 23.771 < 𝑆𝑂𝑅
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑑𝑎𝑦
0.0275
% 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑑 = 0.111
× 100 = 24.774% < 100%, Hence the particles of 0.02 mm diameter will
settle at 24.774%.

Problem 7.3: Find the diameter of the particles with specific gravity of 1.2 removed in a tank having a
surface area of 250 m2 and treating 8 million liters per day (MLD)? Assume temperature 260C and specific
gravity of particles S.G = 2.65.

Solution:

(8 × 106 ) × 10−3
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = 1.333 𝑚3 /𝑚2 /ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
250 × 24
1.333 × 100
∴ 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉𝑠 = = 0.037 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 × 3600

Applying stoke,s law:

S.G = 2.65,

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 at T = 260 C 𝜌𝑤 = 0.99681 × 103 3
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝑤 = 0.8746 × 10−3
𝑚 𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2
𝑔𝜌𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 − 1)𝑑 2 9.81 × 0.99681 × 103 × (2.65 − 1) × 𝑑
𝑉𝑠 = = 3.702 × 10−4 = ⇛𝑑
18𝜇𝑤 18 × 0.8746 × 10−3
= 0.019 𝑚𝑚

𝑔𝜌𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 − 1)𝑑2 9.81 × 0.99681 × 103 × (1.2 − 1) × 𝑑2

𝑉𝑠 = −4
= 3.702 × 10 = −3
⇛ 𝑑 = 5.4 × 10−5
18𝜇𝑤 18 × 0.8746 × 10
= 5.4 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

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PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Lecture 9: Filtration
Filtration is the separation of non-settleable solids from water by passing it through a porous
media. Filtration also removes from water: color, taste, odor, iron, manganese and
microorganisms such as bacteria. In water treatment plants this is done in a unit known as the
filter.

Types of filter according to process workability:

1) Gravity filter:

a) Slow sand filter: They consist of fine sand, supported by gravel. They capture particles
near the surface of the bed and are usually cleaned by scraping away the top layer of
sand that contains the particles.
b) Rapid-sand filter: They consist of larger sand grains supported by gravel and capture
particles throughout the bed. They are cleaned by backwashing water through the bed
to 'lift out' the particles.

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Diagrammatic section of a rapid sand gravity filter.

2) Pressure filter:

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Pressure filter.

Types of filter according to media:

1) Mono-media: as sand or anthracite.

2) Multimedia filters: They consist of two or more layers of different granular materials, with
different densities. Usually, anthracite coal, sand, and gravel are used. The different layers
combined may provide more versatile collection than a single sand layer. Because of the
differences in densities, the layers stay neatly separated, even after backwashing.

Filter Media:
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The choice of a filter medium is dictated by the durability required, the desired degree of
purification, and the length of filter run and ease of backwash sought. The ideal medium should
have such a size and be of such material that it will provide a satisfactory effluent, return a
maximum quantity of solids, and be readily cleaned with a minimum of wash water.

1) Sand: Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media. The size of the sand is
measured and expressed by the term called effective size. The effective size, i.e. D 10 may
be defined as the size of the sieve in mm through which ten percent of the sample of sand
by weight will pass. The uniformity in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is
measured and expressed by the term called uniformity coefficient. The uniformity
𝐷60
coefficient, i.e. (𝐷𝑈 = ) may be defined as the ratio of the sieve size in mm through
𝐷10
which 60 percent of the sample of sand will pass, to the effective size of the sand.

2) Gravel: The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered water
to move freely to the underdrains, and allows the wash water to move uniformly upwards.

3) Other materials: Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthracite is used as filter media.
Anthracite is made from anthracite, which is a type of coal-stone that burns without smoke
or flames. It is cheaper and has been able to give a high rate of filtration.

Fine material Coarse material

1) Better effluent 1) Better utilization of the storage capacity
2) High head loss in upper layers of the bed. of the filter.
3) Short filter runs. 2) Permit deeper penetration of the floc.
4) Most difficult in cleaning upon backwash 3) Longer filter runs.
4) Easier cleaning upon backwash

Sand Anthracite Gravel

1) Clean, hard, and resistance. 1) Anthracite depth 1) Hard, rounded,
2) Not lose more than 5% by 600-700 mm. durable, free from flat,
weight after being placed in 40% 2) Effective size of 0.7 thin, and contain no
hydrochloric acid for 24 hr. mm. foreign material.
3) Sand depth 600-700 mm. 3) Uniformity 2) Effective size between
4) Effective size of 0.45-0.55 mm. coefficient of 1.75 0.8 to 2 mm.
5) Uniformity coefficient not less or less. 3) Uniformity coefficient
than 1.2 and not exceed 1.7. of not over 1.7.

Filtration Mechanisms: There are four basic filtration mechanisms:

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1) Sedimentation: The mechanism of sedimentation is due to force of gravity and the

associate settling velocity of the particle, which causes it to cross the streamlines and reach
the collector.
2) Interception: Interception of particles is common for large particles. If a large enough
particle follows the streamline that lies very close to the media surface it will hit the media
grain and be captured.
3) Brownian diffusion: Diffusion towards media granules occurs for very small particles, such
as viruses. Particles move randomly about within the fluid, due to thermal gradients. This
mechanism is only important for particles with diameters < 1 micron.
4) Inertia: Attachment by inertia occurs when larger particles move fast enough to travel off
their streamlines and bump into media grains.

The area of filter medium which is a function of particle size and bed depth, it follows that
increasing the size of the medium will require an increase in depth.

Rapid Sand Filters (RSF)

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Rapid filtration generally implies a process which includes coagulation, flocculation, clarification,
filtration, and disinfection.

Essential characteristics of a rapid filter:

1) The turbidity of water applied to the filters should not exceed 10 units and preferably 5
units,
2) High rate of filtration, 120 to 240 m/day,
3) Washing the filter units by revising flow of filtered water upward through the filter to
remove mud and other impurities which have lodged.

Filter component: As shown in the figures above:

A) Water head: Clearance, 600-900 mm in depth.

B) Filer bed (Sand layer), 600- 1200 mm in depth. The objectives of this layer:

i.Coarse to retain large quantity of solid particles.

ii.Fine to prevent the passage of small solid particles.
iii.Deep layer to allow long filtration run.
iv. Graded to permit good backwash cleaning.
Properties: Effective size (D10)= 0.45 -0.55 mm, Uniformity coefficient (Cu)= D60/D10
=1.2-1.7.
C) Gravel layer (bed), 400-600 mm in depth. The objectives of this layer:

i. Support the filter bed (sand layer).

ii. Permit the filtered water to move freely towards the underdrain system.
iii. Allows the washing water to move uniformly upwards to the filter bed.
Properties: clean, free from flat and thin shapes, hard, round, durable and ρ s = 1600
kg/m3

D) Underdrain system: The objectives of this layer:

i. To collect the filtered water.

ii. To distribute the washing water evenly.

Mathematical equation of filtration process:

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Qf = Filtration discharge (flow through one filter) Qf (Influent)

𝑄𝑓 = 𝐴𝑠 × 𝑉𝑓

As =surface area of the filter. Porous

Vf = Filtration rate (m/day). media

Qb= Backwash discharge (Washing water for one filter)

𝑄𝑏 = 𝐴𝑠 × 𝑣𝑏 Qb

vb = Backwash rate Filtered water (Effluent)

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑄

𝑄𝑏 = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉

* An expansion space for the filter media to move when backwashed

𝐻𝑒 (1−𝑛)
= (1−𝑛 He
𝐻 𝑒)

H = Height of the filter bed.

He = Height of the expanded filter bed when backwashed H

n = Porosity of the clean filter bed.

𝑣 0.22
ne = Porosity of the expanded filter bed, (𝑛𝑒 = ( 𝑣𝑏 ) )
𝑠

vb = Backwash velocity rate.

vs= Settling velocity of the filter media (Stoke ‘s settling velocity)

E) Trough: The objectives of this lateral channel to collect the backwash water.

Types of the troughs

Flat bottom V- bottom Rounded

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3 𝑞𝑡2
𝑦 = 1.73 × √
𝑔 × 𝑏2

y = Height of the trough (m).

b = Width of the trough (m).

g = Acceleration of gravity (m/ sec2)

𝑏 𝑄
qt = Backwash discharge reaching one trough (m3 /sec), (𝑞𝑡 = 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑠 )

F) Gullet: The objectives of this main channel to collect the backwash water from the troughs.

Design Criteria

1) Filtration rate (vf) = 120 -360 m/day.

2) Backwash rate (vb) = 0.15 -0.9 m/min (216-1296 m/day).
3) Surface area (As) = 5 – 200 m2
4) Washing time = 5 -15 min.
5) Horizontal distance for backwash water to reach the trough is not to exceed one meter.
6) Filtration run = 12-72 hr (if the turbidity of the influent is: a. Low–long run, b. High–short
run).
7) Total head loss = 2.7 – 3.7 m

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Operation Problems In RSFs

1) Air Binding:
a) When the filter is newly commissioned, the loss of head of water percolating
through the filter is generally very small. However, the loss of head goes on
increasing as more and more impurities get trapped into it.
b) A stage is finally reached when the frictional resistance offered by the filter media
exceeds the static head of water above the bed. Most of this resistance is offered
by the top 10 to 15 cm sand layer. The bottom sand acts like a vacuum, and water
is sucked through the filter media rather than getting filtered through it.
c) The negative pressure so developed, tends to release the dissolved air and other
gases present in water. The formation of bubbles takes place which stick to the
sand grains. This phenomenon is known as Air Binding as the air binds the filter and
stops its functioning.
d) To avoid such troubles, the filters are cleaned as soon as the head loss exceeds the
optimum allowable value.

2) Mud accumulation: The mud from the atmosphere usually accumulates on the sand
surface to form a dense mat. During inadequate washing this mud may sink down into the
sand bed and stick to the sand grains and other arrested impurities, thereby forming mud
balls.

3) Sand Incrustation (cracking of filter): to solve this problem a-Skimming b-Use anthracite
as a top layer on the filter Media-Carbonation. The fine sand contained in the top layers of
the filter bed shrinks and causes the development of shrinkage cracks in the sand bed. With
the use of filter, the loss of head and, therefore, pressure on the sand bed goes on
increasing, which further goes on widening these cracks.
Remedial measures to prevent cracking of filters and formation of mud balls by:

a) Breaking the top fine mud layer with rakes and washing off the particles.
b) Washing the filter with a solution of caustic soda.
c) Removing, cleaning and replacing the damaged filter sand.

Backwashing of Rapid Sand Filter

1) For a filter to operate efficiently, it must be cleaned before the next filter run. If the water
applied to a filter is of very good quality, the filter runs can be very long. Some filters can
operate longer than one week before needing to be backwashed. However, this is not
recommended as long filter runs can cause the filter media to pack down so that it is
difficult to expand the bed during the backwash.
2) Treated water from storage is used for the backwash cycle. This treated water is generally
taken from elevated storage tanks or pumped in from the clear well.

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3) The filter backwash rate has to be great enough to expand and agitate the filter media and
suspend the floc in the water for removal. However, if the filter backwash rate is too high,
media will be washed from the filter into the troughs and out of the filter.
When is Backwashing Needed?

The filter should be backwashed when the following conditions have been met:

1) The head loss is so high that the filter no longer produces water at the desired rate; and/or
2) Floc starts to break through the filter and the turbidity in the filter effluent increases;
and/or
3) A filter run reaches a given hour of operation.

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Principles of Slow Sand Filtration

1) In slow sand filter impurities in the water are removed by a combination of processes:
sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical and bacteriological action.
2) During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and physical-chemical
processes. The resulting accumulation of sediment and organic matter forms a thin layer
on the sand surface, which remains permeable and retains particles even smaller than the
spaces between the sand grains.
3) As this layer develops, it becomes living quarters of vast numbers of microorganisms which
break down organic material retained from the water, converting it into water, carbon
dioxide and other oxides.
4) Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed from the raw water as it
passes through the filter skin and the layer of filter bed sand just below. The purification
mechanisms extend from the filter skin to approx. 0.3-0.4 m below the surface of the filter
bed, gradually decreasing in activity at lower levels as the water becomes purified and
contains less organic material.
5) When the microorganisms become well established, the filter will work efficiently and
produce high quality effluent which is virtually free of disease carrying organisms and
biodegradable organic matter. They are suitable for treating waters with low colors, low
turbidities and low bacterial contents.

Slow sand filter.

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Sand Filters vs. Rapid Sand Filters

1) Base material: In SSF it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and 30 to 75 cm in depth while in

RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm in size and its depth is slightly more, i.e. about 60 to 90 cm.
2) Filter sand: In SSF the effective size ranges between 0.2 to 0.4 mm and uniformity
coefficient between 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0. In RSF the effective size ranges between 0.35 to 0.55
and uniformity coefficient between 1.2 to 1.8.
3) Rate of filtration: In SSF it is small, such as 100 to 200 L/h/sq.m. of filter area while in RSF
it is large, such as 3000 to 6000 L/h/sq.m. of filter area.
4) Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in demand whereas RSF are quite
flexible for meeting reasonable variations in demand.
5) Post treatment required: Almost pure water is obtained from SSF. However, water may be
disinfected slightly to make it completely safe. Disinfection is a must after RSF.
6) Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing of the top 1.5 to 3 cm thick layer is done to
clean SSF. To clean RSF, sand is agitated and backwashed with or without compressed air.
7) Loss of head: In case of SSF approx. 10 cm is the initial loss, and 0.8 to 1.2m is the final limit
when cleaning is required. For RSF 0.3 m is the initial loss, and 2.5 to 3.5 m is the final limit
when cleaning is required.

Item SSF RSF

Particle Size: 3-65 mm Particle Size: 30-40 mm

Base material
Depth: 20-75 cm Depth: 60-90 cm

D10: 0.2-0.4 mm D10: 0.35-0.55 mm

Filter sand
CU: 1.8-3 CU: 1.2-1.8

Filtration rate 2.4-4.8 m/day 120-360 m/day

not flexible for meeting variation in flexible for meeting reasonable variations in
Flexibility
demand demand

Post treatment water may be disinfected slightly to make Disinfection is a must after RSF
required it completely safe

Method of Scrapping and removing of the top 1.5 to 3 To clean RSF, sand is agitated and backwashed
cleaning cm thick layer is done to clean SSF with or without compressed air

10 cm is the initial loss, and 0.8 to 1.2m is 0.3m is the initial loss, and 2.5 to 3.5m is the
Loss of head
the final limit when cleaning is required final limit when cleaning is required

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SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 9.1: A WTP is designed to treat 48,000 m3/day. For filtration 12 RSFs are used, each filter
is designed with 2 troughs of a square cross-sectional area. The filtration rate is 160 m/day and
the backwash rate is 864 m/day. Find
1) Dimensions of each filter, L and W (m) with or without washing? Also filter depth?
2) Dimensions of each trough, y and b (m) and gullet?
3) Volume of water (m3) to wash 2 filters at the same time for 5 minutes?

Solution:

1) ∵ 𝑛𝑏 = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 (𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑛𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔)

𝑄𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 48×103
𝑄𝑓 = = = 4000 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑛−𝑛𝑏 12

𝑚3
4000
𝑑𝑎𝑦 2
𝑄𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓 × 𝐴𝑠 ⇛ 𝐴𝑠 = 𝑚 = 25 𝑚 = 𝐿 × 𝑊
160
𝑑𝑎𝑦

For two troughs, W=4 m,

Assuming maximum horizontal flow for backwashing water to reach the trough = 1 m

25
∴𝐿= = 6.25 𝑚
4

Check: total filter depth = Freeboard (0.5m) + Water head (1m) + Sand layer (1m) + Gravel layer
(0.6m) + Underdrain (0.4m) = 3.5 m

So, use filter dimension (L = 6.25 m, W = 4 m, and H = 3.5 m)

2) Trough dimension:
864
𝑄 𝐴𝑠 ×𝑣𝑏 25 𝑚2 ×
𝑏
𝑞𝑡 = 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑠 = = 24×3600
= 0.125 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
2 2

Assume y = b (Square cross section of the trough)

3 𝑞𝑡2 3 𝑞𝑡2 5 3
𝑞𝑡2 3
01252
𝑦 = 1.73 × √ = 1.73 × √ ⇛𝑦 = (1.73) × = (1.73) × ⇛𝑦
𝑔 × 𝑏2 𝑔 × 𝑦2 𝑔 9.81
= 0.38 𝑚 = 𝑏

Gullet dimension:
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2 864
𝑄𝑏 𝐴𝑠 × 𝑣𝑏 25 𝑚 × 24 × 3600
𝑞𝐺 = = = = 0.25 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 1 1

Assume y = b (Square cross section of the gullet)

𝑞𝐺2
3 3 𝑞𝐺2 5 3
𝑞𝐷2 3
0252
𝑦 = 1.73 × √ = 1.73 × √ ⇛ 𝑦 = (1.73) × = (1.73) × ⇛𝑦
𝑔 × 𝑏2 𝑔 × 𝑦2 𝑔 9.81
= 0.505 𝑚 = 𝑏

𝑚 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3) 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑄𝑏 × 𝑡 × 𝑛𝑏 = 864 𝑑𝑎𝑦 × 25 𝑚2 × 60×24 × 2 =
150 𝑚3 (𝑊𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)

150
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = 75 𝑚3
2

Note: The ratio of water washing amount for one filter does not exceed 7% of the water filtration
amount.

𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4000 × 1 = 4000 𝑚3
𝑑𝑎𝑦

75
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 = × 100 = 1.875% < 7% 𝑂. 𝐾
4000

Problem 9.2: A city has a population of 100,000 capita with an average rate of demand of 160
L/cap.day. Find the area of rapid sand filter? Assume an average filtration rate of 120 m3/m2.day
of filter area, the filter length equal 1.5 width and filter area not exceed 40 m 2.

Solution:

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 × 160 × 10−3 × 100000 = 28800 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

28800 240
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 120
= 240 𝑚2 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 40
= 6 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

𝐴𝑠 = 40 = 𝐿 × 𝑊 = 1.5𝑊 2 ⟹ 𝑊 ≈ 5.20 𝑚 & 𝐿 = 7.8 𝑚

Problem 9.3: A flat bottom trough is to receive the wash water from a section of the filter which
is 2 m wide and 3 m long. The wash water rate is 700 liters per min per m2. If the water is to have
a depth of 25 cm at the upper end of the trough, what should be the dimensions of the trough?

Solution:

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𝐿 𝑚3
𝑄𝑏 = 𝑣𝑏 × 𝐴𝑠 = 700 × 2 × 3 = 4200 = 4.2 = 0.07 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛

3 𝑞𝑡2 3 0.072
𝑦 = 1.73 × √ ⟹ 0.25 = 1.73 × √ ⟹ 𝑏 = 0.406 𝑚
𝑔 × 𝑏2 9.81 × 𝑏 2

Assume freeboard = 5 cm, the depth of trough will be = 25 + 5 = 30 cm

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How to Choose a DRM Software to protect your document?

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

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PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Lecture 10: Disinfection
The filtered water may normally contain some harmful disease producing bacteria in it. These bacteria must
be killed in order to make the water safe for drinking. The process of killing these bacteria is known as
Disinfection or Sterilization, or, is the killing of microorganisms causing diseases.
Methods of disinfection

1. Treatment with chlorine (Chlorination).

2. Treatment with Ozone (Ozonation).
3. Treatment with Iodine and Bromine.
4. Treatment with Ultraviolet irradiation.
5. Extreme values of pH.
6. Treatment with ultrasonic waves.
7. Treatment with oxidizing agents (Potassium permanganate).
8. Boiling of water.
9. Chlorine dioxide.
Chlorination:

Chlorination is a cheap and reliable process, not difficult in handling. Chlorine is a disinfect that destroys
the enzymes of the bacterial cells and enters to attack the intracellular system. Chlorine may remove colour
and iron also the destruction of taste and odour. The efficiency of chlorine is reduced by increasing pH and
at low water temperature (less than 24 0C).

1) Chlorine in water: Chlorine and water react:

Cl2 + H2O HOCl + H+ + Cl- (HOCl hypochlorous acid)

HOCl H+ + OCl- (OCl- hypochlorite ion)

HOCl and OCl accomplish the disinfection process. Since the concentration of these components is a
function of the hydrogen ion concentration, so the efficiency of disinfection is affected by pH. Chlorine and
its products are most effective at low pH. Under pH = 3, molecular chlorine maybe present. Chlorine existing
in water as HOCl, OCl and molecular chlorine is defined as free available chlorine.

Free available chlorine will react with nitrogenous compounds like ammonia to form chloramines. The
reaction of ammonia with HOCl is shown below:

NH3 + HOCl H2O + NH2Cl (monochloramine) at pH over 7.5

NH2Cl + HOCl H2O + NHCl2 (dichloramine) at pH 5 – 6.5

NHCl2 + HOCl H2O + NCl3 (nitrogen trichloride) at pH 4.4

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Chlorine in water reacting with ammonia, nitrogenous compounds and organic matter is defined as
combined available chlorine. The above compounds are less active than free available chlorine as
disinfecting agents, but may maintain residuals for longer time than free chlorine.

2) Chlorine Demand = Chlorine added – Residual chlorine

It is the difference between the mount of chlorine added and the mount present as residual either Free or
Combined after a contact time.

Chlorine demand to kill microorganism = C X t

Where: C = Concentration of the disinfect (chlorine) and t = Contact time between the microorganism and
the disinfect (chlorine).

Residual chlorine is the remaining chlorine after disinfection in water. This may be necessary in the
distribution system and storage tanks to protect water in the pipes from any pollution.

3) What is used in chlorination?

a) Chlorine gas, chlorine is obtained in pressurized cylinders ranging in weight from 45 to 1000 kg.
b) Hypochlorination, chemical compounds such as Sodium hypochlorite NaOCl (laundry bleach) and
Calcium Hypochlorite Ca (OCl)2. 4H2O.

Hypochlorites are useful in disinfecting waters of reservoirs and swimming pools also in controlling algae
growth. Hypochlorites in water will give free available chlorine:

Ca(OCl) Ca+2 + 2OCl-

NaOCl Na+ + OCl-

OCl- + H+ HOCl

4) Chlorination is classified according to its point application as:

a) Plain Chlorination is used with no other treatment. Chlorine is added to the water from the
source. The dose added depends on the degree of contamination. About 0.5 mg/L or more is
used for disinfection and obtain residual chlorine free or combined.
b) Pre-chlorination, applying chlorine before any other treatment. It may be added to the suction
pipe of the raw water pumps or in the flash mixer. Its advantages:
i. Improve the coagulation process.
ii. Reduce taste and odor caused by organic sludge in sedimentation tanks.
iii. Killing algae and other microorganisms, so filters may remain clean to obtain long
filtration runs.

A dose of 5 – 10 mg/L is used to obtain 0.1 – 0.5 mg/L residual chlorine free or combined.

c) Post-chlorination, applying chlorine at the end of the treatment process. A contact time for
about 30 minutes is required for disinfection when adding 0.25 – 0.5 mg/L chlorine dose to
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obtain 0.1 – 0.2 mg/L residual chlorine. In Iraq a dose of 1 -2 mg/L is added to obtain 0.1 – 0.5
mg/L residual.

The combination of pre-and post-chlorination may be needed if the raw water is highly polluted. Also in
some cases chlorine is injected into the distribution system to maintain the desired residual.

d) Breakpoint chlorination, chlorine is consumed in oxidizing many compounds present in water.

No chlorine can be measured until the initial chlorine demand is satisfied. Then chlorine reacts
and may form combined chlorine residual (some are odorous and undesirable like
chlorophenols). These combines increase with the addition of chlorine dose until a maximum
combined residual is reached. Further addition of chlorine will cause a decrease in the combined
residual. This is the Breakpoint chlorination, at this point the combined are oxidized to oxides.
After this point, free chlorine residual is present. A chlorine dose of 7 – 10 mg/L in order to
obtain free chlorine about 0.5 mg/L.

The breakpoint indicates complete oxidation of the chloramines and other chlorine combinations, and the
residual above the breakpoint is mostly free available chlorine.

e) Super chlorination/Dechlorination, is adding a high chlorine dose for quick disinfection, this will
produce high residues, so dechlorination should be applied afterward. For dechlorination:
aeration, adding chemicals, using activated carbon (adsorbent) may be applied.

2.5
Combined formation oxidation Free chlorine
2
Residual mg/L

1.5

0.5

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Chlorine dose mg/L

Break point Chlorination

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Ozone: It's manufactured by electrical discharge into cooled dried air. Approximately 1% of the atmospheric
oxygen is converted to O3 at an energy consumption of 0.025 kWh per gram O3. The mixture of air and ozone
is transferred into water either by bubbling it through the bulk solution or by permitting droplets of water to
fall through a rising column of gas.

Advantage Disadvantage

1) It is effective as oxidizing agent and 1) It's restricted of use.

germicide, in destruction of organic 2) On-site generation
matter which might produce tastes and 3) Its cost relative to chlorine.
odors, and in oxidation or iron and 4) It is not providing residual disinfection in
manganese. water distribution system.
2) More rapid in action than other oxidizing
agents with small dose (0.25-1.5) mg/L at
low contact time (45 sec-2 min).
3) It is not particularly sensitive to pH within
range of pH (5-8), but is significantly
affected by temperature.

Chlorine dioxide: It is produced by the chlorination of sodium chlorite in a ratio of 1 mole chlorine to 2
moles chlorite, and the result compound (ClO2).

Advantage Disadvantage

1) It is effective as oxidizing agent and germicide, in 1) It's restricted of use.

destruction of organic matter which might produce tastes 2) On-site generation
and odors, and in oxidation or iron and manganese. 3) Its cost relative to chlorine.
2) It does not react with ammonia.
3) More rapid in action and appears to be able to oxidize
organics without formation of halogenated hydrocarbons.
4) It is unaffected by pH within the normal range encountered
in water.
5) It is relatively persistent at ordinary temperatures and can
provide residual protection.

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SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 10.1: Chlorine usage in the treatment of 20 MLD of water is 8 kg/day. The residual after 10-minute
contact is 0.2 mg/L. Compute the dosage in milligrams per liter and chlorine demand of water? Design the
two chlorine contact tank each L=4W, effective depth = 2 m, detention time = 30 m? Also, calculate the
total numbers of paths and baffles if clear width of path not more than 2 m?

Solution:

8 × 106 𝑚𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 = = 0.4 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
20 × 106 𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.4 − 0.2 = 0.2 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

20000 208.3 104.15

𝑉= × 30 = 104.15 𝑚3 → 𝐴 = = 104.15 𝑚2 → 𝑊 = √ = 5.1 𝑚 & 𝐿
2 × 24 × 60 2 4
= 20.4 𝑚

So, the chlorine contact tank dimensions (20.4 x 5.1 x 2.5) m

5.1
𝑁𝑂. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 = & 𝑁𝑂. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑙 = 3 − 1 = 2
3

Problem 10.2: Calculate the quantity of bleaching powder required per day for disinfecting 4 MLD. The
dose of chlorine has to be 0.5 ppm and the bleaching powder contains 30% of available chlorine?

Solution:
𝑚𝑔
0.5 𝐿 × 4 × 106 𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = = 2 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
106
2 × 100
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑑𝑒𝑟 = = 6.67 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
30

Problem 10.3: Chlorine usage in the treatment of 25000 m3/day is 9 kg/day. The residual chlorine after 10
minutes' contact is 0.2 mg/L. Calculate the dosage in milligrams per liter and chlorine demand of the water?

Solution:

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 25 × 106 𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 9 × 106 𝑚𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦

9 × 106
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = 0.36 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
25 × 106 𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦

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𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.36 − 0.2 = 0.16 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

Problem 10.4: A new water main is disinfected using a 50 mg/L chlorine dosage by applying a 2 percent
hypochlorite solution. (a) How many kilograms of dry hypochlorite powder, containing 70 percent available
chlorine, must be dissolved in 100 liters of water to make a 2 percent (20000 mg/L) solution? (b) At what
rate should this solution be applied to the water entering the main (400 L of water volume) to provide a
concentration of 50 mg/L? (c) If 34000 liters of water are used to fill the main at a dosage of 50 mg/L, how
many liters of hypochlorite solution are used?

Solution:
𝑘𝑔
100 𝐿×1 ×0.02 𝑘𝑔
𝐿
a) 𝐾𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2% 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 2.86
0.7 100 𝐿
𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑔 50 1 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2% 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
b) 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 50 𝐿
= 𝐿
𝑚𝑔 = 400 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 2.5 × 10−3
20000
𝐿
c) 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 34000 𝐿 × 2.5 × 10−3 = 85 𝐿

Problem 10.8: Results of chlorine demand test on a raw water are given below. Determine the break-point
dosage and the chlorine demand?

Sample Chlorine Residual chlorine

No. dosage mg/L after 10 min. mg/L
1 0.2 0.18
2 0.4 0.34
3 0.6 0.48
4 0.8 0.46
5 0.9 0.27
6 1 0.18
7 1.2 0.38
8 1.4 0.58
9 1.6 0.78
Solution:

Chlorine Residual chlorine Chlorine

Sample
dosage after 10 min. demand
No.
mg/L mg/L mg/L
1 0.2 0.18 0.02
2 0.4 0.34 0.06
3 0.6 0.48 0.12
4 0.8 0.46 0.34
5 0.9 0.27 0.63
6 1 0.18 0.82
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7 1.2 0.38 0.82

8 1.4 0.58 0.82
9 1.6 0.78 0.82

Figure bellows the curve plotted the basis of the above data.

From the curve, we find that break point occurs at point D, at which the applied chlorine = 1 mg/L.

So, the break point dosage = 1.0 mg/L

Chlorine demand at break point = 1.0 -0.18 = 0.82 mg/L

It is observed that since the slope of curve C is 450, the chlorine demand (=0.82 mg/L) remains constant after
break point, since all additional chlorine added after point D appears as free chlorine.

Even from the data, at a dose of 1.2 mg/L, the residual chlorine = 0.38 mg/L.

Hence, residual chlorine = 1.2 – 0.38 = 0.82 mg/L.

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How to Choose a DRM Software to protect your document?

Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2018-2019

Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

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PART 1: WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Lecture 11: Special Treatments: Hardness Removal or Water Softening
Water hardness is a measure of the amount of calcium and magnesium salts in water. Calcium and
magnesium enter water mainly through the weathering of rocks. The more calcium and magnesium in
water, the harder the water. Water hardness is usually expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of dissolved
calcium and magnesium carbonate.

The formation of hardness in natural water

Infiltration

Top soil Bacterial action CO2

Sub soil CO2 + H2O H2CO3

Lime stone CaCO3 , MgCO3

Gypsum CaSO4 , MgSO4
CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2
MgCO3 + H2CO3 Mg(HCO3)2
Insoluble Soluble in water

Water with high content of hardness:

1) Leaves a deposit known as the scale when water is heated.
2) Does not lather with soap; this is due to the reaction of Ca+2 and Mg+2 with soap:
Ca+2 + 2(soap) - Ca (soap)2 scum (complex solid)

The soap will not react with the dirt but will form with hardness undesirable precipitates (scum).

So, hardness is defined as the total amount of polyvalent cations mainly Ca+2 and Mg+2 found in water. Fe, Mn,
Al and Zn may cause hardness to a lesser degree (low concentrations in nature). Hence hardness is the total
concentration of Ca+2 and Mg+2 in water expressed in mg/L as CaCO3.

Water is classified according to concentration of hardness:

Hardness in mg/L as CaCO3 Type of water
0-75 Soft
75-100 Moderately hard
100-300 Hard
More than 300 Very hard

Hard water: The water containing sulfates, chlorides and bicarbonate of calcium and magnesium dissolved in it.
These materials react with soap, causing a precipitation which appears as a scum or curd on the water surface.

Type of hardness:

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a) Temporary or carbonate hardness caused by carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium:
Ca(HCO3)2 &; Mg(HCO3)2 (Boiling the water or by adding lime);
b) Permanent or noncarbonated hardness caused by sulfate (CaSO4 & MgSO4) and chloride (CaCl2 & MgCl2).
The chlorides of magnesium and calcium are very corrosive to steam boilers and quickly cause pitting
and grooving of boiler tubes while the sulfates of calcium and magnesium also cause scale in boilers. In
steam boilers the carbonate and bicarbonate will release carbon dioxide and cause corrosion of the tube
sodium sulfate may cause foaming in boilers if present in large amounts, (Caustic soda or soda ash).

Softening Processes:
1) Heating the water.
2) Lime-Soda method: Lime CaO, Soda ash Na2CO3.
3) Caustic Soda method: NaOH.
4) Ion Exchange of Zeolite method.
The advantage of water softening: Reduction of soap consumption, lowered cost in maintains plumbing fixtures,
and improved taste of cooked food.

Ion Exchange method:

It means the reversible interchange of ions between a solid phase and a liquid phase. For water softening, water
(liquid) is passed through a filter (solid) containing the ion exchange material. This material could be a natural
material known as zeolite (green sand) Na2O: Al2O3: SiO2 (Na2X), or synthetic material could be known as resin
which is higher in the exchange capacity.
Zeolites are complex of aluminum, silica and soda, some forms of which are synthetic and others are naturally
occurring.

The Filtration Process:

Ca HCO3 Ca HCO3
Mg SO4 + Na2X Mg X + 2 Na SO4
Cl Cl
Hard water Filter bed Exhausted filter Soft water

By this process Ca and Mg (hardness) will be removed from water and replaced by an equivalent amount of Na.
When the ion exchange material or filter is saturated with the hardness ions (exhausted from its ions), then the
hardness will pass through the filter with no change. This is called as the Break through point. At this time the
filter needs to be regenerated or to remove the hardness from the filter. This process is to wash the filter with
brine water containing Na.

The Regeneration Process:

Ca Ca
Mg X +2 NaCl Na2X + Mg Cl2
Exhausted filter Brine water New Filter Industrial Wastewater Treatment

Advantages of the zeolite method:

a) A compacted unit easy to operate.
b) No sludge is formed.
c) The product is zero hardness water which is used in industry (textile) or in boilers.
d) May remove iron (Fe) from water.
The ion exchange capacity of a filter is expressed in:
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a) Kilo grain of hardness to be removed per m3 volume of the filter, kilo grain / m3.
b) Equivalent hardness/m3, eq/m3.
c) Kilo gram, kg/m3.
Where, kilo grain = equivalent hardness (kg = 2.2 lb and lb = 7 kilo grain).
Design criteria
1) Height of the filter: 0.5-2.0 m.
2) Filtration rate: 120 -240 m/day
3) Salt for regeneration: 125-150 gm/eq. hardness to be removed.
4) Brine solution: 5-10%
5) Washing time: 5-15 min
6) Capacity of zeolite: 135-250 eq hardness/m3 or 9-20 kg/m3.
7) Capacity of Resin: 275-550 eq hardness/m3 or 20-36 kg/m3

𝑄𝑇 × 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑄𝑃 × 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 + 𝑄𝑍 × 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝑄𝑃 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
= = % 𝐵𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑄𝑇 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
Break through point or time mean Ca, Mg will appear in the effluent from the zeolite filter.
𝑉 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = =
𝑄 𝑄𝑍 × 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑒𝑞. ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠)
3 × 𝑚3
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑚3 𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑒𝑞. ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠)
×
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑚3

Note: Brine solution (5%) for regeneration represent:

Salt Water
5 100
138 x

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x= Weight of water (kg) for 5% solution.

𝑥
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
𝜌𝑤

Membrane filtration:
It’s a physicochemical separation technique that used difference permeability as a separation mechanism. Water
is pumped against the membrane surface resulting in the production of product and waste streams.
Membrane is a synthetic material less than 1 mm thick, semi-permeable (highly permeable to some components
in the feed stream and less permeable to others).
Microfiltration (M.F): A membrane separation process in which particles greater than about 20 nanometers in
diameter are screened out of a liquid in which they are suspended.
Ultra-filtration (U.F): Filtration through a filter capable of removing very minute (ultramicroscopic) particles. The
filtration of a colloidal substance through a semi-permeable medium that allows only the passage of small
molecules.
Nanofiltration (N.F): Nanofiltration is a relatively recent membrane filtration process used most often with low
total dissolved solids water such as surface water and fresh groundwater, with the purpose of softening and
removal of disinfection by-product precursors such as natural organic matter and synthetic. Pressure-driven
filtration through a membrane that removes particles of about two nanometers or larger.
Reverse osmosis:
It is perhaps the best demonstrated technology for saline water conservation. If a semi-permeable membrane
separates two bodies of water with differing salt concentrations the water will flow from less to more
concentrated. The flow can be halted by applying pressure equal to the osmotic pressure of the concentrated
solution, and reversed by exceeding that pressure. In practice the pressure ranges from 5-50 times the osmotic
pressure of the water. Reverse osmosis systems include the membrane, a support structure, a pressure vessel
and a pump.
Reverse osmosis is not easily applied to seawater although development of new membrane materials and
configurations and use multistage processes. The cost of treating brackish water by this technique ranged (0.06-
0.25) $/m3.
Advantage:
1. Remove suspended with no coagulation up to a turbidly 200 NTU.
2. Very high removal in microorganisms.
3. Less space required than conventional filtration (1 m2 floor area=100 m2 membrane area).
4. High quality of filtered water.
Item Membrane filter Conventional filter
Filtration rate (vf) 0.03-0.17 m/hr 5-15 m/hr
Pressure 0.2-2 bar 0.18-0.3 bar
Filtration run 30-90 min 1-4 day
Backwash 1-5 min 5-15 min
1 bar = 14.5 psi = 100 kPa

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Solved Problem
Problem 11.1: Design a cylindrical softener to be used in a textile factory. The influent flow is 500 m 3/day with
hardness of 246 mg/L as CaCO3. The softener is supplied with zeolite of an exchange capacity of 250 kilograin/m3.
Find height (H) and diameter (D) of the softener (assume H=D)?

Solution:
Assume break through time = 1 day
The amount of hardness to be removed = Flow (Q) X Concentration = Loading rate
𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
500 × 246 𝐿 × 103 𝑘𝑔
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 6
= 123 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
10 𝑑𝑎𝑦
123 × 2.2 × 7 = 1894 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 1894 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = =
𝑍𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 250 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑚3
3
= 7.6 𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
3
3 7.6 𝑚
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝐷) = √ 𝜋 = 2.13 𝑚 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(𝐻)
4
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑚3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 250 × 7.6 = 1900 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3 𝑑𝑎𝑦
In this problem the break through time is one day (24 hours).
Different conditions may appear that will change the break through time:
1) Increasing or decreasing in influent hardness.
2) Increasing or decreasing in influent flow.
3) Increasing or decreasing the exchange capacity (Changing the zeolite material).

For the same problem above, the hardness increased from 246 to 400 mg/L as CaCO3
400 × 500 × 2.2 × 7 × 103 𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 6
= 3080 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
10 𝑑𝑎𝑦
Available volume for exchange = 7.6 X 250 =1900 k grain/day
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 1900 𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝐵𝑇) = = = 0.616 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
3080
𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 14.90 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 (𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 15 ℎ𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

If a new zeolite is used of a capacity from 250 to 480 kgrain/m3. Find break through time:
𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
500 × 246 𝐿 × 103 𝑘𝑔
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 6
= 123 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
10 𝑑𝑎𝑦
123 × 2.2 × 7 = 1894 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦

Page 6 of 10
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Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2018-2019

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 1894 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = =
𝑍𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 480 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑚3
3
= 3.945 𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
3
3 3.945 𝑚
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝐷) = √ 𝜋 = 1.713 𝑚 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(𝐻)
4
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑚3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 480 × 3.945 = 1893.6 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 480 𝑘 𝑚3 × 3.945 𝑚
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝐵𝑇) = = = 0.999 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
1894
𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 23.995 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 (𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

Problem 11.2: Design soft water softener as shown in the figure. The zeolite capacity is 235 eq. hardness/m3.
Find:
1) Surface area of the filter?
2) Amount of salt used for regeneration, assume 150 gm/eq. hardness is required?
3) Volume of water for regeneration (10% solution)?

Qin=240 m3/day, Qp Qz zeolite filter H= 2.5 m

300 mg/L asCaCO3

300 mg/L hardness zero hardness

Desired hardness 60 mg/L as CaCO3

Solution:

1) Mass Balance (Output)

𝑚𝑔 𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
60 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 × 240 = 𝑄𝑝 × 300 + 𝑄𝑧 × 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝐿 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝐿
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑚3 60 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝑄𝑝 = 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 × = 240 × = 48 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑦 300 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝑄𝑧 = 𝑄𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑄𝑝 = 240 − 48 = 192 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
192 × 300 𝐿 × 103 𝑘𝑔
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 (𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒) = = 57.7
106 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑘𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
= 57.6 × 2.2 × 7 = 887.04 = 887.04 𝑒𝑞. ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑚3
Page 7 of 10
These lectures are intended to be a guide documentation of the course held. Please, revise and check out the references if any errors or
discrepancies have occurred.
 Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2018-2019

887.04 𝑒𝑞. ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠/𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 = = 3.77 𝑚3
235 𝑒𝑞. ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠/𝑚3
3.77
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑠 = = 1.52 𝑚2
2.5
2) Amount of salt required for regeneration:
𝑒𝑞. ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑔𝑚 887.04
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 150 ×
𝑒𝑞. ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 1000
= 133.056 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦

3) Weight of water for 10% brine solution:

Water salt
100 10 x= 1330 kg For ρw = 103 kg/m3
x 133 Volume of water = 1330/103 = 1.33 m3
Problem 10.3: For water softening, a cylindrical zeolite filter is used with capacity 48 kg/m3, in a water system
designed for treating 500 m3/day. In this system 30% by-pass is used and the influent has hardness 500 mg/L
as CaCO3. Find the:
a) Number of filters need if each filter has 0.5 m diameter and 2 m height if the one-day break through
time?
b) Determine the desired effluent hardness?
c) Break through time (hr) if the hardness of the influent reach 750 mg/L as CaCO3?
Solution:
𝑄𝑇 = 500 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦 , 𝑄𝑝 = 0.3 × 500 = 150 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦 , 𝑄𝑧 = 0.7 × 500 = 350 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑍𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 48 3 = 48 3 × 2.2 × 7 = 739.2 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑚3
𝑚 𝑚
Assume break through time = 1 day
The amount of hardness (kg/day) = flow rate (m3/day) * concentration (kg/m3)
𝑚3 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 350 × 500 × 10−3 3 = 175 × 2.2 × 7 = 2695 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 2695 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = =
𝑍𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 739.2 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑚3
3
= 3.645 𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜋
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 = × 0.52 × 2 = 0.3925 𝑚3
4

3.645
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = = 9.286 ≈ 10 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
0.3925
350 × 0 + 150 × 500
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = 150 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
500

Page 8 of 10
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If the hardness increased to 750 mg/L as CaCO3

𝑚3 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 350 × 750 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 2.2 × 7 = 4042.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝐵𝑇) =
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
739.2 3 × 3.645 𝑚3
= 𝑚 = 0.666 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
4042.5
𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 15.996 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 (𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 16 ℎ𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

Problem 11.4: For water softening, a cylindrical zeolite filter is used with capacity 60 kg/m3, in a water
system designed for treating 1560 m3/day. In this system 20% by-pass is used and the influent has hardness
360 mg/L as CaCO3. Find the:
a) Effluent hardness from the softener if the final desired hardness is 75 mg/L as CaCO3?
b) Number of filters need if each filter has 0.8 m diameter and 2 m height if the one-day break through
time?
c) Break through time (hr) if the hardness of the influent reach 750 mg/L as CaCO3?
Solution:
𝑄𝑇 = 1560 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦 , 𝑄𝑝 = 0.2 × 1560 = 312 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦 , 𝑄𝑧 = 0.8 × 1560 = 1248 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
a) 𝑄𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑙 × 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑙 = 𝑄𝑝 × 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑙 + 𝑄𝑧 × 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑍 𝐸𝐹𝐹𝐿 ⟹ 1560 × 75 = 312 × 360 + 1248 ×
𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑍 𝐸𝐹𝐹𝐿
Effluent hardness from the softener = 3.75 mg/L
b) Case 1: 20% by-pass:
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
Zeolite capacity, 𝑍𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 60 𝑚3 = 60 𝑚3 × 2.2 × 7 = 924 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑚3
Assume break through time = 1 day
The amount of hardness (kg/day) = flow rate (m3/day) * concentration (kg/m3)
𝑚3 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 1248 × 360 × 10−3 3 = 499.28 = 499.28 × 2.2 × 7
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 6918.912 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦

Page 9 of 10
These lectures are intended to be a guide documentation of the course held. Please, revise and check out the references if any errors or
discrepancies have occurred.
 Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2018-2019

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 6918.912 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = =
𝑍𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 924 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑚3
3
= 7.488 𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜋
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 = × 0.82 × 2 = 1.0048 𝑚3
4

7.488
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = = 7.452 ≈ 8 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
1.0048
Case 2: 0% by-pass:
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
Zeolite capacity, 𝑍𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 60 𝑚3 = 60 𝑚3 × 2.2 × 7 = 924 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑚3
Assume break through time = 1 day
The amount of hardness (kg/day) = flow rate (m3/day) * concentration (kg/m3)
𝑚3 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 1560 × 360 × 10−3 3 = 561.6 = 561.6 × 2.2 × 7
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 8648.64 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 8648.64 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = =
𝑍𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 924 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑚3
3
= 9.36 𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜋
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 = × 0.82 × 2 = 1.0048 𝑚3
4

9.36
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = = 9.315 ≈ 10 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
1.0048

If the hardness increased to 750 mg/L as CaCO3

𝑚3 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 1248 × 750 × 10−3 3 × 2.2 × 7 = 14414.4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 924 3 × 7.488 𝑚3
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝐵𝑇) = = 𝑚
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
14414.4
𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 0.48 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 11.52 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 (𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 12 ℎ𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

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PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

Lecture 1: Introduction to Wastewater or Sewage

The liquid waste generated from various activities: residential, industrial, commercial and public areas,
due to the consumption of potable water. It is collected and transmitted in a pipe system known as the
sewer system. This wastewater contains impurities and/ or pollutants in the form of solids, liquids and
gases in concentrations harmful to the environment. The management of this wastewater require
knowing its quantity and quality.

Sewerage is applied to the art of collecting, treating, and disposing of sewage. It implies the collecting of
wastewaters from occupied areas and conveying them to some point of disposal. The liquid wastes will
require treatment before they can be discharged into a body of water or otherwise disposed of without
endangering the public health or causing offensive condition.

Sewerage works are comprehensive terms covering all structures and procedures required for collecting,
treating, and disposing of sewage.

Types of wastewater flowing in the sewer system:

1) Municipal-Sanitary-Domestic sewage: The liquid wastes conducted away from residences,

business buildings, and institutions.
2) Industrial wastewater: The liquid waste from industrial establishments.
3) Rainwater-Runoff-Storm sewage.
4) Infiltration: Groundwater entering sanitary sewers through defective pipe joints and broken
pipes. Infiltration will occur where local groundwater elevation is higher than the sewer pipe.
Gravel bedding materials in sewer pipe trenches act as a French drain. Groundwater flows parallel
to the sewer until it reaches the area of damaged pipe. In areas of low groundwater, sewage may
exfiltration into groundwater from a leaking sewer.

Sewage treatment covers any process to which sewage is subjected in order to remove or alter its
objectionable constituents so as to render it less dangerous or offensive. Treatment which produces an
effluent containing not more than 20 mg/L BOD5 and 30 mg/L suspended solids (SS).
Sewage disposal applies to act of disposing of sewage by any method. It may be done with or without
previous treatment.
Note: The degree of treatment required depends upon the water quality standards applicable to the
receiving stream and the flow and quality of both the stream and waste.

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Quality-Characteristic of wastewater:

1) Physically: 99.9% water and 0.1% solids (Suspended and Dissolved).

2) Chemically: 30% inorganic and 70% organic.
3) Microbiological: Different types of bacteria, algae, fungi and protozoa.

Inorganic materials: The suspended solids are sand, silt, clay particles and grits (glass, gravel, etc.)
The dissolved solids are toxic and nontoxic material.
a) Nontoxic solids are different types of salts: cations: Ca, Mg, Mn, Al, Fe, Na, K and anion: HCO3,
CO3, SO4, Cl, PO4, and NO3.
b) Toxic minerals: Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ag, Ni, Zn.

Organic materials containing C, H, O, N, S, and P in their compounds. These compounds are suspended
and dissolved materials in wastewater, which are solids, liquids and gases. Like: carbohydrates, proteins,
fats, oil, grease, phenols, pesticides, detergents, etc.

Gases in wastewater, CO2, NH4, CH4, H2S

The main content in wastewater is the organic matter which is considered a main pollutant that is harmful
to the environment. The environment can deal with these materials by the decomposition process done
by the organisms depending on: type of the organic matter, concentration of the dissolved oxygen in the
water, type of organisms and the environment conditions.

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Decomposition or degradation of organic matter:

1) Aerobic process (with oxygen):

Organic matter + O2 + organisms New calls + CO2 + H2O + SO4 + NO3 + NH3

2) Anaerobic process (with no oxygen)

Organic matter + organisms New calls + CO2 + H2O + N2 + NH3 + CH4 + H2S

Determination of the concentration of organic matter:

1) BOD (Biochemical oxygen demand): The oxygen utilized by the microorganisms, under aerobic
conditions to stabilize (decompose) the biodegradable organic matter. The concentration of
organic matter = the amount of oxygen consumed.
2) COD (Chemical oxygen demand): The oxygen equivalent of organic matter that is oxidized by a
strong chemical oxidant. The organic matter is destroyed by a mixture of chromic and sulfuric
acids then are converted to CO2 and water.
3) TOC (Total organic carbon): To convert the organic carbon of the organic matter to carbon dioxide
CO2 by using heat, oxygen, ultraviolet radiation and chemical oxidant.

The relationships between these components are in the

Type of 𝐵𝑂𝐷 𝐵𝑂𝐷
following ratios:
If the BOD/COD ratio is 0.5 and greater for the untreated wastewater 𝐶𝑂𝐷 𝑇𝑂𝐶
𝐵𝑂𝐷 untreated 0.3 – 0.8 1.2 – 2.0
waste (𝐶𝑂𝐷 ≥ 0.5) then the waste is easily degradable by
𝐵𝑂𝐷
treated 0.1 – 0.3 0.2 – 0.5
biological means. If the ratio is less than 0.3 ( 𝐶𝑂𝐷 < 0.3),
the waste may have toxic components.

The standard BOD test:

1) Put the wastewater in 2 bottles.

2) Determine the dissolved oxygen in bottle 1 (DO1)
3) Put bottle 2 in the incubator at temperature 20 0C for 5 days. The bacterial will grow and
decompose the organic matter in the wastewater utilizing the dissolve oxygen (DO 1).
4) Determine the remaining dissolved oxygen in bottle 2 (DO2).
5) Calculate BOD in the wastewater = DO1 – DO2
Note: Dissolved oxygen is measured by a) chemical reaction – using 2 bottles b) Using an electrode – one
bottle.

The standard test is at temperature 20 0C as this is the optimum temperature for the bacteria to grow.
The carbonic organic matter needs about 20 days for complete degradation. But through the 5 days'
incubation time about 70% of this organic matter will decompose. This is explained by the following:

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The decomposition of organic matter is a 1st order reaction: y

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑡
= −𝐾1 𝑦 ⇛ 𝑦
= −𝐾1 𝑑𝑡 mg/L

By integration: L

ln 𝑦 = −𝐾1 𝑡 + 𝑐 (1) dy/dt L-y = BOD

At t = 0, y = L

So, c = ln L and eq. 1 will be: y

𝑦
ln 𝑦 = −𝐾1 𝑡 + ln 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 ln 𝐿 = −𝐾1 𝑡

𝑦
= 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝐿𝑒 −𝐾1 𝑡 5 time t (day)
𝐿

y: The non-degradable (remaining) organic matter at time t (mg/L).

L: The ultimate organic matter at time 0 = BODu (mg/L).
K1: Degradation (deoxygenation) rate (day -1).
t: Time for decomposition (day).
The oxygen utilized or organic matter decomposed through time t (day) at temperature T ( 0C) will be:
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡−𝑇 = 𝐿 − 𝑦 = 𝐿 − 𝐿𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 ), So, the standard test gives BOD 5-20:
For domestic sewage K1 = 0.23 /day at T = 20 0C
To change the rate from any temperature to 20 0C by using (𝐾1(𝑇) = 𝐾1(20) × 1.047(𝑇−20) ).
𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20
𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒 −0.23×5 ) ⇛ ≈ 0.68 ≈ 70%
𝐿

Typical domestic sewage characteristic

Parameter mg/L Weak Medium Strong

Total dissolved solids 270 500 860
Total suspended solids 120 210 400
BOD5 110 190 350
COD 250 430 800
TOC 80 140 260
Total N 20 40 70
Total P 4 7 12
Chloride 30 50 90
Sulfate 20 30 50

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Solved problems

Problem 1: The results from the laboratory show that the BOD 1-30 = 110 mg/L for a wastewater sample.
Find: 1-ultimate BOD (BODu), 2- BOD 5-20?
Solution:
𝐾1(𝑇) = 𝐾1(20) × 1.047(𝑇−20) ⟹ 𝐾1(30) = 0.23 × 1.047(30−20) = 0.364 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1
𝑚𝑔
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡−𝑇 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 ) ⟹ 𝐵𝑂𝐷1−30 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1−30𝑡 ) ⟹ 110 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒 −0.364×1 ) ⟹
𝐿
𝐿 = 360.527 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡−𝑇 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 ) ⟹ 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1−20𝑡 ) ⟹ 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 360.527 × (1 − 𝑒 −0.23×5 )

= 246.371 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

Problem 2: If the waste with ultimate BODu equal 190 mg/L and k1-20 = 0.23/day is discharge to a stream
at an average temperature 250C,
a) compute the BOD would be exerted in 3 and 5 days at temperature 20 and 25 0C, (𝐵𝑂𝐷3−20 ,
𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 , (𝐵𝑂𝐷3−25 ), 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−25 ?
b) Compute the organic loading in (kg/day) for 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 if the flowrate 50 m3/hr?

Solution:

a) 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 190 × (1 − 𝑒 −0.23×5 ) = 129.939 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

𝐵𝑂𝐷3−20 = 190 × (1 − 𝑒 −0.23×3 ) = 94.7 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

𝐾1(25) = 𝐾1(20) × 1.047(𝑇−20) = 0.23 × 1.047(25−20) = 0.289 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝐵𝑂𝐷3−25 = 190 × (1 − 𝑒 −0.289×3 ) = 110.16 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝐵𝑂𝐷5−25 = 190 × (1 − 𝑒 −0.289×5 ) = 145.208 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
b) 𝑂𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 129.939 × 10−3 𝑚3 × 50 × 24 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 155.926 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

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PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

Lecture 2: Quantity of wastewater:
The proportion of the water consumed which reach the sewer will must be decided upon after careful
consideration of local conditions. Although the sewage may vary in individual cities from 70-130 percent
of the water consumed, designers frequently assume that the average rate of sewage flow, including a
moderate allowance for infiltration, equal the average rate of water consumption.
1) Domestic: 80-90% water consumption.
2) Industrial: a) domestic as in 1; b) Water process.
3) Public: as in 1.
4) Runoff or storm sewage: Using the rational formula:

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = (70 − 130) × 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Fluctuations in Dry Weather Flow

Since dry weather flow depends on the quantity of water used, and as there are fluctuations in rate of
water consumption, there will be fluctuations in dry weather flow also. In general, it can be assumed
that:

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑀𝑎𝑥 = (1.5 − 2) × 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑛 = (0.5 − 0.67) × 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

Observation of fluctuations in various cities indicates that the peak for a small residential area is likely to
be 225 percent of the average for that day. For commercial area the peak may reach 150 percent of the
average and for industrial areas somewhat less. The flow in the outfall line of a sewer system serving a
city having a normal population and commercial and industrial activities will have a peak flow of about
150 percent of the daily average. Some designers use the following formula to estimate the maximum
rate of domestic sewage flow from small areas:

14
𝑀 =1+
4 + √𝑃

Where:

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

M: Ratio of the maximum sewage flow to the average (𝑀 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
).

P: Population served in thousands.

The maximum sewage flow will be the hourly maximum, or the peak rate of the maximum day plus the
maximum infiltration.

IMPORTANT NOTE: The minimum rates of sewage flow are useful in the design of sewage pumping
plants and occasionally to investigate the velocities in sewers during low flow periods. Generally, the
minimum flow may be taken as 50 percent of the average.

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For design purposes (minimum requirements):

Sanitary sewer type Flow (L per capita/day)

Laterals and sub main sewers 1500 including normal infiltration

950 including normal infiltration + industrial

Main, trunk, and outfall sewers
wastes if known to be in large amounts.

Amount of storm sewage:

Rational formula: Q= CiA
Q: Runoff discharge (L3/t).
A: Catchment area (L2).
C: Runoff coefficient depending on the surface type and different building areas as shown in the table
Type of surface C Description of area C
Asphalt streets 0.85-0.90 Business 0.7- 0.95
Cement streets 0.80-0.95 Residential –single family 0.30-0.50
Gravel driveways 0.15-0.30 Residential –multi units 0.40-0.75
Lawns, sandy soil 0.05-0.20 Industrial-light 0.50-0.80
Lawns, heavy soil 0.13-0.35 Industrial- heavy 0.60-0.90

i= Rainfall intensity, using intensity duration curves which are in the form of equations:
𝑎
𝑖(𝑚𝑚) =
ℎ𝑟 𝑏+𝑡
Where:
a & b are constants and t: the duration of storm (minute)

Table 13-2: Runoff coefficients for different areas.

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Time of concentration
The runoff time to reach the collection point into the desired sewer.
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑡𝑐 ) = 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡𝑖 ) + 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡𝑓 )
Inlet time (ti): Time required for rainwater to flow from the most remote distance in the catchment area
to reach the collecting point and produce the maximum discharge, from figure 13.3 page 325.
Flowing time (tf): Time required for the flowing discharge inside the sewer to reach the collecting point.

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Fig.13-1: Inlet time. Fig. 13-2: Inlet time and flow time.

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Fig. 13-3 Overland flow time.

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Design periods and use of sewage flow data:

Design period
Detail Design criteria
(year)

It is necessary to estimate maximum population densities expected in

Design of a various districts and locations of commercial and industrial districts
indefinite
sewer system together with maximum rates of sewage flow per second and maximum
infiltration per day.

Sewage Rate of flow required are average daily, peak, and minimum flow rates,
10
pumping plant including infiltration.

Sewage
15-20 Flow rate required are average and peak rates, both include infiltration.
treatment plant

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Solved problems

Problem 1: Determine the runoff coefficient for an area of 0.20 km2, 3000 m2 is covered by building, 5000
m2 by paved driveways and walks, and 2000 m2 by Portland cement street. The remaining area is flat,
heavy soil, covered by grass lawn? Compute the runoff coefficient for the whole area using the values in
Table 13-1?
Solution:
𝐴
surface runoff coefficient, C (Table Area ratio (𝐴 ) runoff coefficient for an
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴
13-1) area (𝐶 × 𝐴 )
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Roofs 0.70 – 0.95 3000 0.0105 − 0.01425
200000
Driveways and walks 0.75 – 0.85 5000 0.01875 − 0.02125
200000
Street 0.8 – 0.95 2000 0.008 − 0.0095
200000
Grass lawn 0.13 – 0.17 190000 0.1235 − 0.1615
200000
𝐶𝐴𝑣𝑔 0.16 − 0.21

Problem 2: Find the runoff discharge (m3/min) for an area 200,000 m2 where i= 95 mm/hr. The area
consists of: 30% roofs (C =0.7), 20% asphalt pavements (C=0.85), 10% paved sidewalks (C=0.75) and the
remaining are lawns (C = 0.18) of heavy soil covered with grass 5%in slope?
Solution:
The average runoff coefficient, 𝐶𝐴𝑣𝑔 = 0.3 × 0.7 + 0.2 × 0.85 + 0.1 × 0.75 + 0.4 × 0.18 = 0.527
𝑚 𝑚3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑖𝐴 = 0.527 × 0.095 × 200000 = 10013 = 166.833 𝑚 3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟

Problem 3: Find the runoff discharge (m3/sec) for the catchment region of area 100,000 m2. The remote
5230
distance= 60 m, the surface is grass of slope 4%, C= 0.35 and 𝑖 = ? Also, the diameter of the sewer
𝑡+30
pipes to carry this discharge at full flow condition; assume the flowing velocity is 1 m/sec?
Solution:
From Fig. 13-3, with distance = 60 m, C = 0.35, Slope = 4%, find the inlet time =15 minute = time of
concentration due to flow time = 0.
5230 5230
𝑖= = = 116.2 𝑚𝑚/ℎ𝑟
𝑡 + 30 15 + 30
𝑚 𝑚3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑖𝐴 = 0.35 × 0.1162 × 100000 = 4067 = 1.129 𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
𝑚 𝜋
𝑄 = 𝑣 × 𝐴 = 1.129 = 1 × × 𝐷2 ⟹ 𝐷 = 1.199 𝑚 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 1200 𝑚𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑐 4

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Problem 4: For the given plan, find the diameter of the sewer pipe 2 at full flow condition (assume flowing
5230
velocity 1m/sec). Use common intensity method if (𝑖 = 𝑡+30).
B

A D

1 sewer1 2
sewer 2
E 3
sewer 3

item Area (m2) C ti (min) pipe Flowing time (tf)

A 7000 0.5 10 1 5.5
B 8000 0.6 11 2 1.5
D 10000 0.3 16
E 15000 0.6 14

Solution:
To find t for each area where flow will reach points
Area ti (min) tf (min) for tc (min)
for roof pipe
A 10 Pipe 1: 5.5 15.5
B 11 Pipe 1: 5.5 16.5 (Controlled)
D 16 Pipe 2: 1.5 16
E 14 0 14

5230 5230
𝑖== = 108.958 𝑚𝑚/ℎ𝑟
𝑡 + 30 18 + 30
Runoff discharge reaching collecting points is from area A, B, and C, using common intensity method
𝑛

𝑄 = 𝑖 × ∑ 𝐴𝑦 × 𝐶𝑦
𝑦=1
= 0.108958
𝑛
𝑚3
× ∑(7000 × 0.5 + 8000 × 0.6 + 10000 × 0.3 + 15000 × 0.6) = 2211.847
ℎ𝑟
𝑦=1
= 0.614 𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑚 𝜋
𝑄 = 𝑣 × 𝐴 = 0.614 = 1 × × 𝐷2 ⟹ 𝐷 = 0.884 𝑚 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 900 𝑚𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑐 4

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Problem 5: An urban area has an area of 100000 m2 and a runoff coefficient of 0.45. Using duration of 25
min and the curve of Fig. 13-4 compute the runoff resulting from point rainfalls with a recurrence interval
of 5 and 15 years?

Fig. 13-4: Rainfall curves derived from storm records.

Solution:

A = 100000 m2, C = 0.45

During 25 min at interval 5 & 15 year

From Fig. (13-4), I = 81.5 mm/hr for 5 year and I = 109.375 mm/hr for 15 year

For 5 year: Q(m3 / sec) =0.278C(mm/ hr) I  A(km2 ) =0.2780.4581.25100000

6 =1.016
m3 /sec
10
For 15 year: Q(m3 /sec) =0.278C(m m/ hr) I A(km2 ) =0.2780.45109.3750.1=1.368m3 /sec

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How to Choose a DRM Software to protect your document?

Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2019-2020

Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

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PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

Lecture 3: Sewer systems

1) Separate system: Two pipes are used, one to carry DWF and another pipe to carry WWF.
2) Combined system: One pipe to carry both DWF and WWF.
DWF is the dry weather flow and WWF is the wet weather flow.

Comparison of characteristics of combined wastewater with other sources:

Combined Domestic
Parameter unit Rainwater Runoff
wastewater wastewater
Total suspended solids TSS mg/L <1 67 - 101 270 -550 120 - 370
BOD mg/L 1 -13 8 -10 60 -220 120 -380
COD mg/L 9 -16 40 - 73 260 - 480 260 -900
Coliform Bacteria MPN/100mL 103 -104 105 -106 105 -107
Nitrate mg/L 0.05 -1.0 0.43 – 0.91
Phosphorous mg/L 0.02 -0.15 0.67 -1.66 1.2 -2.8 4-12
Copper Cu µg/L 27 - 33
Lead Pb µg/L 0 - 70 30 -144 140 - 600
Zinc Zn µg/L 135 - 226
Sewer types according to its sewage type:

1) Sanitary sewers carry sanitary sewage and industrial wastes after treatment produced by the
community and only such ground, surface, and storm water as may enter through poor joints,
around manhole covers, and through deficiencies.
2) Storm sewers are designed to carry the surface and storm water which runs in the same conduits.
Sewer types according to its flow type:

3) Combined sewers carry all types of sewage in the same conduits.

4) Separate sewer: it is said to be separate sewer if storm sewage is carried separately from the
domestic and industrial wastes.
Sewer types according to its location:

1) House sewer is a pipe conveying sewage from the plumbing system of a single building to a
common sewer or point of immediate disposal.
2) Lateral sewer has no other common sewer discharging into it.
3) Submain sewer is one that receives the discharge of a number of lateral sewers.

4) Main sewer or trunk sewer receives the discharge of one or more Submain sewers.
5) Outfall sewer receives the discharge from the collecting system and conducts it to treatment
plant or point of final disposal.
6) Intercepting sewer is one that cuts transversely a number of other sewers to intercept dry-
weather flow, with or without a determined quantity of storm water, if used in combined system.
7) Relief sewer is one that has been built to relieve an existing sewer of inadequate system.

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Material types of sewers:

1) Clay sewer pipe.

2) Plain concrete sewer pipe.
3) Reinforced concrete sewer pipe.
4) Asbestos cement pipe.
5) Plastic truss pipe (PI).
6) Un-plasticized polyvinylchloride pipes (uPVC).
7) Cast iron (C.I) and Ductile iron pipe (D.I).
8) Glass reinforced plastic pipe (GRP).
9) High density polyethylene pipe (HDPE)

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Method of pipe bedding and load factors applicable to strength.

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Bedding methods for concrete pipe.

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Corrosion in sewers:

Organic matter may accumulate in the sewer pipe as the result of low flowing velocity (d/D less than 0.3) or/and
the accumulation of grease and oil on the surface of the wastewater. The organic matter will undergo anaerobic
decomposition. This will form fatty acids (low pH) and the reduction of sulfates that will produce H 2S. The
thiobacillus can oxidize H2S into sulfuric acid H2SO4 that will lead to the destruction of the crown.

How to control corrosion:

1) Control the flowing velocity where d/D should be more than 0.3.
2) Ventilation.
3) Flushing the sewer system from any depositions.
4) Chlorination.
5) Lining the crown with protective material.

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Flow in sewers:

Design requirement of sewer system:

1) Preliminary investigations.
2) The underground survey.
3) The survey and map.
4) Layout of the system.
5) Pipe profile.

For design the flowing velocity is according to Manning formula as the flow in this system is by gravity
where the pipes are laid by appropriate slopes.

1 2 1
𝑉(𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐) = × 𝑅3 × 𝑆 2
𝑛

V: Flowing velocity (m/sec)

Material of the pipe n
R: Hydraulic radius when full flow, R= D/4 (m)
ℎ Plastic 0.009
S: Slope=hydraulic gradient (𝑆 = 𝐿). Cement 0.01
𝐿
n: Roughness coefficient depending on the material of the pipe. Cast iron 0.012
Steel, Concrete, Clay 0.013
For full flow conditions Brick 0.015
1 2 1 𝜋 2
1 𝐷 0.667 𝜋 0.311
𝑄(𝑚3/𝑠𝑒𝑐) =𝑉×𝐴= ×𝑅 ×𝑆 × ×𝐷 = ×( )
3 2 × 𝑆 0.5 × × 𝐷2 = × 𝐷2.667 × 𝑆 0.5
𝑛 4 𝑛 4 4 𝑛

For n = 0.013:
2 1
𝑄(𝑚3/𝑠𝑒𝑐) = 23.385 × 𝐷2.667 × 𝑆 0.5 & 𝑉(𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐) = 30.385 × 𝐷3 × 𝑆 2

For partial flow

q: Actual flowing discharges. D

v: Actual flowing velocity. q, v d

d: Depth of flow.

The following table is used for partial flow design

Design criteria:

v = and more than 0.6 m/sec for DWF

= and more than 0.9 m/sec for WWF
vmax = 2.4 m/sec
d/D = and more than 0.3
Why is the depth of flow (d) important in designing the sewer system?
Answer: to check d/D, to determine the invert drop (branch and main sewer), and also, to reduce the
danger of back up.

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Fig. 15-5: Hydraulic elements of circular pipes.

Table Partial Flow Elements

𝑑 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

𝐷
𝑞 0.15 0.26 0.42 0.56 0.71 0.85 0.98 1.0
𝑄
𝑣 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.88 0.95 1.02 1.04 1.0
𝑉

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Solved problems

Problem 1: Find the diameter of the sewer to carry 3.4 m3/min at a slope of 0.003 (assume full flow, n=0.013).
Solution:
2
1 2 1 1 𝜋 𝐷 3 1
𝑄 = 𝑣 × 𝐴 = × 𝐴 × 𝑅3 × 𝑆 2 = × ( × 𝐷2 ) × ( ) × (0.003)2
𝑛 0.013 4 4
3.4 𝑚 3 𝑚3 8
𝑄= = 0.0567 = 1.3125 × 𝐷3 ⟹ 𝐷 = 0.307𝑚 𝑠𝑜 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐷 = 300 𝑚𝑚
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Problem 2: A sewer is to carry 25 m3/min wastewater at a slope of 0.003 (assume n=0.013)

Find 1- Standard size (mm)
2- actual flowing velocity (m/sec)
3-depth of flow
Design 100 150 200 250 300 400 450 500 600
diameter
Nominal 110 160 210 255 305 400 450 500 630
diameter
Design 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1400 1600 1800
diameter
Nominal 710 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1400 1600 1800
diameter

Solution:
𝑚3
= 0.4167 𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄 = 25
𝑚𝑖𝑛
2
1 2 1 1 𝜋 2
𝐷 3 1
𝑄 = 𝑣 × 𝐴 = × 𝐴 × 𝑅3 × 𝑆 2 = × ( × 𝐷 ) × ( ) × (0.003)2
𝑛 0.013 4 4
𝑚3 8
𝑄 = 0.4167 = 1.3125 × 𝐷3 ⟹ 𝐷 = 0.650 𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑐
Check the standard size = 700 mm:
Full Flow:
2
1 2 1 1 0.7 3 1
𝑉 = × 𝑅3 × 𝑆 2 = × ( ) × (0.003)2 = 1.318 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑛 0.013 4
𝜋
𝑄 = 𝑉 × 𝐴 = 1.318 × × 0.72 = 0.507 𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
4

Partial Flow: for 25 m3/min in pipe diameter 700 mm.

𝑞 0.4167
= = 0.821
𝑂 0.507
From hydraulic elements figure or table, find:
𝑑 𝑣 𝑚
= 0.77 > 0.3 ⟹ 𝑑 = 0.539 𝑚𝑚 & = 1.0 ⟹ 𝑣 = 1.318 > 0.6 𝑚/ sec 𝑂. 𝐾
𝐷 𝑉 𝑠𝑒𝑐

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1200
Problem 3: Find the diameter of sewer 3 in the figure given. Use the common intensity method as (𝑖 = 𝑡+86),
Assume n=0.013.
200 m 100 m
Area C Slope
A B 100 m A 0.95 0.5
B 0.55 2

Sewer D mm d/D Vfull m/sec

Sewer 1 sewer 2 1 305 0.6 2.0
sewer3 2 460 0.8 1.5
3 ? 0.5 1.53

Solution:
From Fig.13.3
Area Distance (m) ti (min) tf (min) tc (min)
A 142 8.9 0 8.9
B 224 17 0 17 (control)

1200 1200
𝑖= = = 11.65 𝑚𝑚/ℎ𝑟
𝑡 + 86 17 + 86
Runoff discharge:
𝑚3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑖𝐴 = 11.65 × 10−3 × (200 × 100 × 0.95 + 100 × 100 × 0.55) = 285.425 = 0.079 𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
ℎ𝑟
Full flow:
𝑚 𝜋
For sewer 1: 𝑄 = 𝑉 × 𝐴 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 × 4 × 0.32 = 0.1413 𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑚 𝜋
For sewer 2: 𝑄 = 𝑉 × 𝐴 = 1.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 × 4 × 0.42 = 0.1884 𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

Actual flow:
From Fig. 15-5, find the hydraulic elements of sewer:
𝑑 𝑞 𝑣
sewer 1: = 0.6 ⟹ 𝑑 = 0.18 𝑚 ⟹ = 0.56 ⟹ 𝑞 = 0.56 × 0.1413 = 0.0791 𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 & = 0.88 ⟹
𝐷 𝑄 𝑉
𝑣 = 0.88 × 2 = 1.76 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 > 0.9 𝑚/ sec 𝑂. 𝐾
𝑑 𝑞 𝑣
sewer 2: 𝐷 = 0.8 ⟹ 𝑑 = 0.8 × 0.4 = 0.32 𝑚 ⟹ 𝑄 = 0.85 ⟹ 𝑞 = 0.85 × 0.1884 = 0.16 𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 & 𝑉
=
1.00 ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑉 = 1.5 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 > 0.9 𝑚/ sec 𝑂. 𝐾
sewer 3:
𝑞3 = 𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 + 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 = 0.079 + 0.0791 + 0.16 = 0.3181 𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑 𝑞 0.3181 𝑣
= 0.5 ⟹ = 0.4 ⟹ 𝑄 = = 0.7952 𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 & = 0.8 ⟹ 𝑣 = 0.8 × 1.53 = 1.224 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐷 𝑄 0.4 𝑉
> 0.9 𝑚/ sec 𝑂. 𝐾
𝜋
𝑄 = 𝑉 × 𝐴 ⟹ 0.7917 = 1.53 × × 𝐷2 ⟹ 𝐷 = 0.811 𝑚 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐷 = 800 𝑚𝑚
4
Sewer Q (m3/sec) q (m3/sec) D (m) d (m) V (m/sec) V (m/sec)
1 0.1413 0.0791 0.3 0.18 2 1.76
2 0.1883 0.16 0.4 0.32 1.5 1.5
3 0.7952 0.3181 0.8 0.4 1.53 1.224

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Problem 4: At what height (y) above the invert of the main should the branch sewer be connected?

Main sewer
Branch sewer
Sewer D (mm) q (m3/min) Slope
Main 2130 93.5 0.0002
Branch 760 16 0.001

Solution:
For branch sewer:
Full flow
2
1 2 1 1 0.7 3 1 𝑚
𝑉 = × 𝑅3 × 𝑆 2 = × ( ) × (0.001)2 = 0.761
𝑛 0.013 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
3
𝜋 𝑚
𝑄 = 𝑉 × 𝐴 = 0.761 × × 0.72 = 0.292 = 17.563 𝑚 3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
For partial flow:
𝑞 16 𝑑 𝑣
= = 0.911 & = 0.82 ⟹ 𝑑 = 0.82 × 0.7 = 0.574 𝑚 & = 1.02 ⟹ 𝑣 = 1.02 × 0.761
𝑄 17.563 𝐷 𝑉
= 0.776 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 > 0.6 𝑚/ sec 𝑂. 𝐾
For main sewer:
Full flow
2
1 2 1 1 2 3 1 𝑚
𝑉 = × 𝑅3 × 𝑆 2 = × ( ) × (0.0002)2 = 0.685
𝑛 0.013 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
3
𝜋 𝑚
𝑄 = 𝑉 × 𝐴 = 0.685 × × 22 = 2.151 = 129.054 𝑚 3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
For partial flow:
𝑞 93.5 𝑑 𝑣
= = 0.724 & = 0.71 ⟹ 𝑑 = 0.71 × 2 = 1.42 𝑚 & = 0.95 ⟹ 𝑣 = 0.95 × 0.685
𝑄 129.054 𝐷 𝑉
= 0.65 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 > 0.6 𝑚/ sec 𝑂. 𝐾
𝑦 = 𝑑𝑚 − 𝑑𝑏 = 1.42 − 0.574 = 0.846 𝑚

Problem 5: Design the sewage network with all important information supported in figure below. Assume all
sewers are at slope 0.003 and roughness coefficient n = 0.13.the hydraulic elements as below:
sewer 𝑑
𝐷
1, 2, 3, 4 0.5
5, 6, 7 0.6
8 0.7

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a) Design the sewer network?

b) Design the profile sewer (longitudinal section)? Assume invert to invert value = 25 mm.

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a) Solution:

ASS.
q, q, 𝑞 Q CAL. V Q 𝑞 v
sewer n S 3 3 𝑑 3 D 3 𝑑 d (m) 𝑣
(m /min) (m /sec) (m /sec) D (m) (m/sec) (m /sec) (m/sec)
𝐷 𝑄 (m) 𝑄 𝐷 𝑉
1 or 3 0.013 0.003 0.800 0.013 0.500 0.410 0.033 0.250 0.25 0.663 0.0325 0.4099 0.5 0.125 0.8 0.530
2 or 4 0.013 0.003 1.600 0.027 0.500 0.410 0.065 0.324 0.3 0.749 0.0529 0.5042 0.56 0.168 0.85 0.636
5 0.013 0.003 3.200 0.053 0.600 0.560 0.095 0.374 0.4 0.907 0.1139 0.4682 0.53 0.212 0.83 0.753
6 or 7 0.013 0.003 1.200 0.020 0.600 0.560 0.036 0.259 0.25 0.663 0.0325 0.6149 0.65 0.1625 0.91 0.603
8 0.013 0.003 5.600 0.093 0.700 0.710 0.131 0.422 0.4 0.907 0.1139 0.8193 0.77 0.308 1 0.907

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

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PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

Lecture 4: Appurtenances of the sewer system

1) Manhole (MH): A chamber for inspection, cleaning and maintenance. It should be located at:
a) Change in sewer direction;
b) Change in sewer diameter;
c) Change in sewer slope;
d) Has to be located at interval of 50 – 90 m apart.

Types of manholes:
a) Shape: Rectangular, Circular.
a) Material of construction: Brick, Concrete and Plastic.
b) Size according to depth specifications:

Depth Size
Up to 0.5 m 0.45 x 0.45 m
0.5 – 1.0 m 0.6 x 0.6 m
1.0 – 2.0 m 0.6 x 0.75 m
2.0 – 3.0 m 0.9 x 1.2 m or 1.1 – 1.2 m in diameter
More than 3.0 m 1.8 m in diameter

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2) Street inlets: Openings on the street surface, through which runoff water (WWF) is admitted and
conveyed to a storm or combined sewer system. Common types: a-Curb, Vertical openings b-Gutter,
Horizontal openings.

3) Catch basin: Small settling chamber constructed below the street inlet, to allow grit, sand and
large solids to settle from the flowing wastewater.

4) Oil, grease and sand trap: Tank or basin used to remove oil, grease, sand, mud…etc., from the
sewage of industries, hotels, restaurants, kitchens and car garages. These materials are harmful
and may cause clogging in the sewer system.

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5) Pumping station: This station is to lift the level of the flowing wastewater in the sewer system
from low elevations to adequate heights. It is constructed of two parts, the wet well (pit) to
receive the flowing wastewater, and the dry pit for the installation of the pumps. The size of the
wet pit should be small to avoid anaerobic decomposition. The station should be provided with
good ventilation.

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Sewage pumps station requirements:

a) Self-cleansing velocities = 0.6 m/sec.
b) In small pump stations the pump is sized to meet peak flow and lower flows accumulate in the
wet well until sufficient liquid is present to permit the pump to run for at least (running time, tr =
2min) for sewage flow and (tr = 4min) for storm flow.
c) In standard practice, the pump will not start than ones in (filling time, tf = 5min). Peak Flow
PeakFlowD= MaximumWas w(L/ day)
tewaterFlo
6024
d) The pump running time: tr =
V , Where:
D−Q
V: Storage Volume;

D: Pump Discharge;

Q: Influent Flow (Average Wastewater Flow).

=V
e) The filling time, with the pump off: t f
Q
f) The total cycle time: tc =tr +t f =
V +V
D−Q Q
g) Minimum sewage volume when (tr = 2min), V = tr D= 2Dand Minimum storm volume when
(tr = 4min), V =tr D= 4D

h) The Volume When (tf = 5min)

V +V =5min, so take the volume covers the starting and
D−Q Q
stopping elevation which is large = VActual.

i) The actual cycle time at average flow: t = Vactual +Vactual

D−Q Q
j) Assume D = (1.5-2) Q
Total Depth = Pump Suction (200mm) + Submergence (300mm) + Free Board Level (600mm)

Wet pit details.

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𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝐻) = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 + 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝛾(𝑘𝑁/𝑚3) ×𝑄(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐) ×𝐻(𝑚)

𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑊 ) = 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ,
𝛾(𝑘𝑁/𝑚3) × 𝑄(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐) × 𝐻(𝑚)
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (ℎ𝑝 ) =
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 0.7457

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Solved problems
Problem 1: Find the volume of the wet well in a pumping station. Assume the pump stops 10 times/hr.
Solution:
𝑉 𝑉
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 + 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = +
𝐷−𝑄 𝑄
60 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Assume D = 2Q, so, 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 10 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠/ℎ𝑟 = 6 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉 𝑉 2𝑉 6𝑄
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 6 = + = ⟹𝑉= = 3𝑄
2𝑄 − 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 2
Problem 2: A small subdivision produces an average wastewater flow of 120,000 L/day, the minimum
hourly flow is estimated to be 15,000 L/day, and the maximum, 420,000 L/day. Determine the design
pumping rate and wet well capacity? Also calculate the pump pipe diameter? Assume the average sewage
velocity limitation (1-3) m/sec, use average sewage velocity 1.5 m/sec.

Solution:
15000
The minimum pump delivers: 𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1440
= 10.416 𝐿/𝑚𝑖𝑛

420000
The maximum pump delivers: 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1440
= 292 𝐿/𝑚𝑖𝑛
120000
The average flow: 𝑄 = = 83.333 𝐿/𝑚𝑖𝑛
1440

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
The pump running time, 𝑡𝑟 = 𝐷−𝑄 , the filling time, 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑄, and 𝑡𝑐 = 𝐷−𝑄 + 𝑄

𝐿
To assure 2 min running time, the minimum volume: 𝑉 = 𝑡𝑟 × 𝐷 = 2𝑚𝑖𝑛 × 292 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 548 𝐿

To assure a 5 min cycle, at average flow:

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 292𝑉
𝑡𝑐 = 𝐷−𝑄 + 𝑄 ⟹ 5 = 292−83.33 + 83.333 = 208.667 + 83.333 = 17388.847 ⟹ 𝑉 = 297.754 𝐿 ≈ 298 𝐿

Therefore, the running time governs, the volume between starting and stopping elevations will be about
600 L (approximate volume).

The actual cycle time at average flow:

600 600
𝑡𝑐 = 𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑓 = + = 2.875 + 7.2 = 10.075 𝑚𝑖𝑛
292 − 83.333 83.333

The minimum depth of water below the suction pipe of about 200 mm.

At an intake velocity 0.6 m/sec a submergence of about 300 mm.

Freeboard about anticipated maximum water level = 600 mm

Total minimum depth of the pump station: =200

mm+300mm+500mm+600mm=1600
mm
420 𝜋 2
𝑄 =𝑣×𝐴 ⟹ = 1.5 × × 𝐷𝑃𝑈𝑀𝑃 ⟹ 𝐷 = 0.064 𝑚
24 × 3600 4

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If use, 𝐷 = 50 𝑚𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 2.47 𝑚/ sec 𝑂. 𝐾

So, use, 𝐷 = 65 𝑚𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1.46 𝑚/ sec 𝑂. 𝐾

Problem 3: Determine the total head and the power of the sewage pump according to the information
(Sewage flow =100 m3/hr, static head =15.4 m, total head losses = 7 m, pressure required at the end of
the pipe =15 m, dynamic head = 10 m, and overall efficiency of the pump = 64%)? Also calculate the pump
pipe diameter? Assume the average sewage velocity limitation (1-3) m/sec, use average sewage velocity
2 m/sec.

Solution:

100 𝑚 3 /ℎ𝑟
𝑄= = 0.0278 𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
3600

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝐻) = 15.4 + 10 + 15 + 7 = 47.4 𝑚

𝑘𝑁 0.0278𝑚3
9.81 3× ×47.4𝑚
𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 0.64
= 20.198 𝑘𝑊 ≈ 27 ℎ𝑝,
100 𝜋 2
𝑄 =𝑣×𝐴⟹ = 2 × × 𝐷𝑃𝑈𝑀𝑃 ⟹ 𝐷 = 0.133 𝑚
3600 4

So, 𝐷 = 150 𝑚𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1.57 𝑚/ sec 𝑂. 𝐾

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

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PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

Lecture 5: Sewage Disposal
Sewage disposal to water bodies such as rivers will be described by Streeter-Phelps equation.
This equation calculates the amount of the oxygen deficit in the river due to the degradation of
the organic matter that is dumped into it. This equation describes a process known as the self-
purification process, where the river can deal with certain amounts (concentrations) of organic
matter that are aerobically decomposed and not cause pollution. This equation can give the
following information:

1) The critical oxygen deficit (minimum concentration of the dissolved oxygen) in the river.
2) The allowable amount (concentration) of organic matter to be dumped into the river.
3) The location downstream for other waste disposal sites.
4) Drawing the variation of the dissolved oxygen with time or distance after the disposal of
the sewage into the river. This curve is known as the oxygen sag curve.

Application of formulas:

The Streeter-Phelps equation may be used to predict:

1) The effect of a particular waste load upon a receiving stream;

2) Determine the waste load which can be discharged without reducing the dissolved oxygen
below some prescribed level.

Effect of stream discharge:

1) Organic matter which enters the stream is broken down by bacteria to ammonia, nitrates,
sulfates, carbon dioxide, etc., which are utilized by plants and algae to produce
carbohydrates and oxygen.
2) Excessive quantities of waste materials can upset the cycle by causing rapid bacterial
growth and resulting depletion of dissolved oxygen in the stream.
3) Self-purification process defines as the stabilization of the excess organic matter through
the normal cycle will be re-established.
4) Water quality standards are often based upon maintenance of some minimum dissolved
oxygen concentration which will protect the natural cycle in the stream while taking
advantage of its natural assimilative capacity.

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Streeter-Phelps mathematical model:

Oxygen sag curve and BOD removal

𝐾1 𝐿
𝐷𝑡 = (𝑒 −𝐾1 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝐾2 𝑡 ) + 𝐷𝑖 𝑒 −𝐾2 𝑡
𝐾2 − 𝐾1

𝐾1 𝐿𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡𝑐
𝐷𝑐 =
𝐾2

1 𝐾2 (𝐾2 − 𝐾1 )𝐷𝑖
𝑡𝑐 = 𝑙𝑛 [ {1 − }]
𝐾2 − 𝐾1 𝐾1 𝐾1 𝐿

D = Oxygen deficit (mg/L) at any time or distance after sewage disposal.

K1 = Deoxygenation rate (day -1) at Temperature of the mix (𝐾1𝑇 = 𝐾120 × (1.047)𝑇−20 ).

K2 = Aeration rate (day -1) at Temperature of the mix (𝐾2𝑇 = 𝐾220 × (1.025)𝑇−20 ).

L = Ultimate BOD (mg/L) of the mix.

t = Time for degradation (day).

Di = Initial oxygen deficit (mg/L).

Dc = Critical oxygen deficit (mg/L).

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tc = Critical time for the critical oxygen deficit (day).

Characteristics of the mix:

𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 = 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑄𝑤

𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑟 × 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑤 × 𝑄𝑤
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑀𝑖𝑥 =
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥

𝐿𝑟 × 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐿𝑤 × 𝑄𝑤
𝐿𝑀𝑖𝑥 =
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥

𝐷𝑂𝑟 × 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐷𝑂𝑤 × 𝑄𝑤
𝐷𝑂𝑀𝑖𝑥 =
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥

𝑇𝑟 × 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑇𝑤 × 𝑄𝑤
𝑇𝑀𝑖𝑥 =
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥

r = river, w = wastewater (sewage), Q = discharge flow, DO = dissolved oxygen, T = temperature,

BOD = concentration of organic matter.

Zones of the self-purification process mg/L DOsat

1- Zone of degradation DOmix Dc

2- Zone active decomposition 1 2 3 4
3- Zone of recovery
4- Zone of clear water DOmin

tc Time or distance

Factors affecting the self-purification process:

1- Dilution with a large amount containing substantial dissolved oxygen will reduce of
significant pollution effects.
2- Currents assist in dispersion of the wastewater in the stream, preventing locally high
concentrations of pollutants.
3- Sedimentation, suspended solids, which may contribute to oxygen demand, are removed
by settling if the stream velocity is less than the scour velocity of the particles.
4- Bottom deposits and runoff: organic material which has settled or been adsorbed may be
re-released or the products of its decomposition may be released.
5- Sunlight acts as a disinfectant and stimulates the growth of algae. The algae produce
oxygen during daylight, but utilize oxygen at night. Waters containing heavy algal growths
may be supersaturated with dissolved oxygen during daylight hours and be anaerobic at
night.
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6- Temperature affects the solubility of oxygen in water, the rate of bacterial action, and the
rate of re-aeration. The critical condition is generally in warm weather when utilization
rates are high and availability.

The effect of K1 and K2 on the self- purification process

1) Increasing K1 will increase Dc and displace Dc upstream. Decreasing K1 will decrease Dc

and displace Dc downstream.
2) Increasing K2 will decrease Dc and displace Dc upstream. Decreasing K2 will increase Dc
and displace Dc downstream.

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General requirements:

−(K1+K3) x L −(K1+K3) x
1. The BOD at distance x: L(X) = L0e u + a
(1−e u),
K1 +K3
Where: LO = the BOD in the stream at x = 0
−K2 x K1  La  −(K1+K3)ux −K2 ux   SR KL 
D(X) = DOe + L0 − −e  + + 1 a 
K2 −(K1 + K3 ) K1 + K3 
 
  K2 K2 (K1 + K3 )
u
e
2.
 −K2 ux 
1−e .
Where: DO = the deficit in the stream at x = 0

3. The critical deficit:

ln K2 + K2 −(K1 + K3)  La − K2Do −SR 

u   
Xc =
K2 −(K1 + K3) K1 + K3 (K1 + K3)Lo − La K1 + K3 K1 
K1: Deoxygenation Constant
1
 D U 2
K2: Reaeration constant =  M3  DM =2.03710−s cm/secat 200C
 H 
K2(T) = K2(20c) (1.025)T−20
4. If BOD decreases along a reach and BOD X is less than predicted by:
−K x −(K +K )x
Lx = Loe 1u , So La = 0, Lx = LOe 1 3 u
5. If BOD increases with (x) or decreases less than predicted by:
−K1 x −K1 x  −k x 
Lx = Loe u So K3 =0 Lx = LOe u + La 1−e 1u 
K1  
6. In absence of values (K3, La, SR) may be reduced to Classic Streeter- Phelps Formulation:
K−K2 x −K1ux −K2 ux 
D(x) = Doe + 1 L e −e 
K2 −K1 o
u

 
xc = u ln K2 1− K2 − K1 (Do ) , t = x
K2 −k1 K1  K1Lo  u

(
D(t) = D(o)e−K2t +Lo e−K1t −e−K2t )
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tc = 1 ln K2 1− K2 −K1 (D )
K2 −K1 K1  K1Lo o 
DO(Qs +Qw) = DOs Qs +DOw Qw

5(Qs +Qw) = BOD

BOD 5s Qs + BOD
5w Qw

Solved problems

Problem 1: A waste effluent of 560 L/s with BOD5 = 50 mg/L, DO = 3 mg/L and T = 23 0C is to be
discharged into a river of 2.8 m3/s flow, BOD5 = 4mg/L, DO = 8.2mg/L and T= 17 0C. K1 for the
waste is 0.23 day -1 at 20 0C. The average velocity of the river is 0.18 m/s with aeration rate of
0.43 day -1 at 20 0C. 1) Is DO min within the environmental limitations? 2) At what distance is the
maximum deficit located. 3) Draw the oxygen sag curve?

Solution:

Characteristics of the mix:

𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 = 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑄𝑤 = 2.8 + 0.56 = 3.36 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑟 × 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑤 × 𝑄𝑤 4 × 2.8 + 50 × 0.56

𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑀𝑖𝑥 = = = 11.67 ≈ 11.7 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 3.36

𝐷𝑂𝑟 × 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐷𝑂𝑤 × 𝑄𝑤 8.2 × 2.8 + 3 × 0.56

𝐷𝑂𝑀𝑖𝑥 = = = 7.33 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 3.36

𝑇𝑟 × 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑇𝑤 × 𝑄𝑤 17 × 2.8 + 23 × 0.56
𝑇𝑀𝑖𝑥 = = = 180 𝐶
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 3.36

𝐾1(18) = 𝐾1(20) × 1.047(𝑇−20) = 0.23 × 1.047(18−20) ≈ 0.21 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1

𝐾2(18) = 𝐾2(20) × 1.025(𝑇−20) = 0.43 × 1.025(18−20) ≈ 0.41 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1

𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡−𝑇 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 ) ⇛ 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−18 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒 −0.21×5 ) ⇛ 11.7 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒 −0.21×5 ) ⇛ 𝐿𝑀𝑖𝑥 = 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑢
= 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐵𝑂𝐷 = 17.998 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

DO saturation from table, at Tmix = 18 0C = 9.54 mg/L

𝐷𝑖 = 𝐷𝑂𝑆𝑎𝑡.𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑥 − 𝐷𝑂𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 9.54 − 7.33 = 2.21 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

1 𝑘2 𝑘2 − 𝑘1 1 0.41 0.41 − 0.21
𝑡𝑐 = 𝑙𝑛 [1 − × 𝐷0 ] = 𝑙𝑛 [1 − × 2.21] = 2.69 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑘2 − 𝑘1 𝑘1 𝑘1 × 𝐿0 0.41 − 0.21 0.21 0.21 × 17.1

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𝐾1 𝐿𝑒 −𝐾1 𝑡𝑐 0.21 × 17.1 × 𝑒 −0.21×2.69

𝐷𝑐 = = = 4.96 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝐾2 0.41
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐷𝑂𝑆𝑎𝑡.𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑥 − 𝐷𝑐 = 9.54 − 4.98 = 4.58 >4 𝑂. 𝐾
𝐿 𝐿
2.95 × 24 × 3600
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.18 𝑚/ sec× = 45.878 𝑘𝑚
1000

Problem 2: A city discharges 1.25 m3/sec of wastewater onto a stream whose minimum rate of flow is 8
m3/sec. The velocity of stream is 0.8 m/sec. The temperature of the wastewater is 20 0C and that of the
stream is 15 0C. The BOD5 of the wastewater is 183 mg/L, and that of the stream is 2 mg/L. The wastewater
contains no dissolved oxygen but the stream is 90 percent saturated upstream of the discharge. At 20 0C,
deoxygenation coefficient (K1 ) is estimated to be 0.3 per day and reaeration coefficient (K2 ) is 0.9 per
day. Determine the critical-oxygen deficit and its location. Also, estimate the 20 0C BOD5 of the sample
taken at the critical point. Use temperature coefficient of 1.135 for deoxygenation coefficient (K 1 ) and
1.024 for reaeration coefficient (K2 ). Also, plot the dissolved-oxygen sag curve? Given the saturation
concentration at 15 0C and at mixed temperature = 10.15 mg/L

Solution:

1. Characteristics of the mix:

𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 = 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑄𝑤 = 8 + 1.25 = 9.25 𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

DO of the stream, 𝐷𝑂𝑟 = 0.9 × 10.15 = 9.14 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

𝐷𝑂𝑟 × 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐷𝑂𝑤 × 𝑄𝑤 9.14 × 8 + 0 × 1.25

𝐷𝑂𝑀𝑖𝑥 = = = 7.9 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 9.25

𝑇𝑟 × 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑇𝑤 × 𝑄𝑤 15 × 8 + 20 × 1.25
𝑇𝑀𝑖𝑥 = = = 15.6750 𝐶
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 9.25

𝐾1(15.675) = 0.3 × 1.135(15.675−20) ≈ 0.173 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1

𝐾2(15.675) = 0.9 × 1.024(15.675−20) ≈ 0.812 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1

𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑟 × 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑤 × 𝑄𝑤 2 × 8 + 183 × 1.25

𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑀𝑖𝑥 = = = 26.46 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 9.25

𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡−𝑇 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 ) ⇛ 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−15.675 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −0.173×5 ) ⇛ 26.46 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒 −0.173×5 ) ⇛ 𝐿𝑀𝑖𝑥

𝑚𝑔
= 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑢 = 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐵𝑂𝐷 = 45.702 = 𝐿𝑀𝑖𝑥
𝐿

2. Initial dissolved oxygen deficit at mixed temperature (T Mix = 15.675 0C)

From table, DO saturation concentration at 15.675 0C = 10.15 mg/L

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Initial deficit: 𝐷0 = 𝐷𝑂𝑆𝑎𝑡.𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑥 − 𝐷𝑂𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 10.15 − 7.9 = 2.25 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

3. Determination of tc and xc:

tc = 1 ln K2 1− K2 − K1 (D ) = 1 ln0.8121− 0.812−0.1732.25 = 2.105day


K2 − K1 K1  K1Lo o 
 0.812−0.173 0.173 0.17345.702 
3600 × 24
𝑥𝑐 = 𝑣 × 𝑡𝑐 = 0.8 × ( ) × 2.105 = 145.497 𝑘𝑚
1000

4. Determination of Dc and DO at xc:

𝐾1 𝐿0𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡𝑐 0.173 × 45.702 × 𝑒 −0.173×2.105

𝐷𝑐 = = = 6.765 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝐾2 0.812
𝑚𝑔
𝐷𝑂 𝑎𝑡 𝑥𝑐 = 10.15 − 6.765 = 3.385 𝐿
> 𝐷𝑂𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 2 𝑚𝑔/𝐿 O.K

5. Determination of BOD5 of a sample taken at xc:

𝐿𝑡 = 𝐿0𝑀𝑖𝑥 × 𝑒 −𝐾1×𝑡𝑐 = 45.702 × 𝑒 −0.173×2.105 = 31.752 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 31.752 × (1 − 𝑒 −0.3×5 ) = 24.667 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

6. Computation of additional points on the oxygen sag curve:

𝐾1 𝐿0𝑀𝑖𝑥 −𝐾 𝑡
𝐷𝑡 = (𝑒 1 − 𝑒 −𝐾2 𝑡 ) + 𝐷𝑖 𝑒 −𝐾2 𝑡
𝐾2 − 𝐾1
0.173 × 45.702 −0.173×𝑡
= (𝑒 − 𝑒 −0.812×𝑡 ) + 2.25𝑒 −0.812×𝑡
0.812 − 0.173
𝐷𝑂𝑡 = 𝐷𝑂𝑆𝑎𝑡 − 𝐷𝑡 = 10.15 − 𝐷𝑡

DISTANCE (km) 0 50 100 120 140 150 200 250

Time (day) 0.000 0.723 1.447 1.736 2.025 2.170 2.894 3.617
Dt (mg/L) 2.250 5.291 6.506 6.691 6.761 6.762 6.534 6.081
DOsat (mg/L) 10.15 10.15 10.15 10.15 10.15 10.15 10.15 10.15
DO (mg/L) 7.900 4.859 3.644 3.459 3.389 3.388 3.616 4.069

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12

10
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

8
D
6 O…

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (km)

Oxygen sag curve

Problem 3: The domestic sewage of a town is to be discharged into a stream after treatment.
Determine the maximum permissible effluent BOD and the percentage purification required in
the treatment given the following particulars:

Population of town: 50000 capita, DWF of sewage: 150 liters per capita, BOD contribution per
capita: 0.075 kg/day, Minimum flow of stream: 0.20 m 3/sec, BOD of stream: 3 mg/L, Maximum
BOD of stream on downstream: 5 mg/L.

Problem 4: A stream, saturated with DO, has a flow of 1.2 m3/sec, BOD of 4 mg/L and oxygenation
rate constant of 0.3 per day (based 10). It receives an effluent discharge of 0.25 m 3/sec having
BOD 20 mg/L, DO 5 mg/L and deoxygenation rate constant 0.13 per day (based 10). The average
velocity of flow of the stream is 0.18 m/sec. Calculate the DO deficit at point 20 km and 40 km
downstream? Assume that the temperature is 200C throughout and BOD is measured at 5 days.
Take saturated DO at 200C as 9.17 mg/L.

Problem 5: A city discharge at the rate of 1200 liters per second, into a stream whose minimum
flow is 5000 liters per second, the temperature of both being 200C. The 5-day BOD at 200C for
sewage is 160 mg/L and that of river water is 2 mg/L. The DO content of sewage is zero while
that of stream is 90% of the saturation DO. Find out the degree of treatment required if the
minimum DO to be maintained in the stream is 4 mg/L? Assume deoxygenation coefficient as 0.1
(based 10) and reoxygenation coefficient as 0.3 (based 10). Given saturation DO at 20 0C as 9.17
mg/L.

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

 Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2016-2017

PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

Lecture 6: Flow Diagram for a Wastewater or Sewage Treatment Plant (WWTP)
Primary Treatment Secondary or Biological Treatment

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1-LLP low lift pump: to raise the level of the flowing sewage 9 10 11
2-Screen: to remove large solids
3-Flotation Tank: to remove oil and grease
4-Girt Chamber: to remove grits and sand For the removal of inorganic matter Sludge Treatment
5-Primary Sedimentation Tank: to remove suspended solids

6-Biological Tank: for the decomposition of organic matter

7-Secondary Sedimentation Tank: for the settlement of the For the removal of organic matter Liquid
Flocculent biological mass
8-Chlorination Contact Tank: to kill harmful organisms

9-Thickner: to reduce the moisture content for sludge

10-Digester: for the decomposition of the organic matter Sludge Treatment Sludge
11-Drying Beds: to dry the sludge
Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2017-2018

Wastewater treatment plant:

First: Primary treatment: a treatment process for wastewater (or sewage) is employed to remove
inorganic material that floats or will settle, and pathogens that account for about 30 percent of biological
oxygen demand (BOD). It involves:

1. Low lift station

2. Parshall flume.
3. Racks, screens and comminutors.
4. Floatation tank.
5. Grit removal.
6. Primary sedimentation tanks.

Second: secondary or biological treatment: is a treatment process for wastewater (or sewage) to remove
organic matter and achieve a certain degree of effluent quality by using a sewage treatment plant with
physical phase separation to remove settleable solids and a biological process to remove dissolved and
suspended organic compounds.
1. Biological process.
2. Secondary sedimentation tank.
3. Chlorine contact tank (effluent disposal).
Biological process:
Attached growth process:
a) Intermittent sand filter.
b) Trickling filters.
c) Rotating biological contactors.
Suspended growth process:
a) Conventional process.
b) Tapered aeration process.
c) Step aeration process.
d) Completely mixed process.
e) Extended aeration process.
f) Contact stabilization process.
Sludge treatment and disposal:
a) Thickener tank.
b) Digester tanks.
c) Dewatering process (drying beds, vacuum filter, pressure filter, centrifuges, pressed filters,
drying and combustion).

Third: Tertiary treatment is the final cleaning process that improves wastewater quality before it is
reused, recycled or discharged to the environment. The treatment removes remaining inorganic
compounds, and substances, such as the nitrogen and phosphorus.

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Microbiology of sewage treatment:

Domestic sewage contains enormous quantities of microorganisms which depending upon its age and the
quantity of dilution water, bacterial counts in raw sewage may be expected to range (0.5 × 105 →
5 × 106 ) /mL. Viruses, protozoans, worms, etc., are also present but their concentration is seldom
important enough to require measurement.
Bacteria are single-celled plants which metabolize soluble food and reproduce by binary fission.

Growth pattern based on number of organisms.

Growth pattern based on mass of organisms.

The declining growth phase is generally used for biological treatment systems.

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

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PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

Lecture 7: Preliminary and Primary Treatment
Note:

a) The headwork of wastewater plants usually incorporates a flow measurement device as a Parshall
flume and mechanical or physic-chemical system designed for removal of large floating solids, grit
and perhaps grease (preliminary treatment systems).
b) Primary treatment has traditionally implied a sedimentation process intended to remove
suspended organic solids. Chemicals are sometimes added in primary clarifiers to assist in removal
of finely divided and colloidal solids or to precipitate.

1. Low lift sewage pump station:

2. Screen: A protective device used to remove large and coarse materials from the wastewater, which
may damage equipment.

a) Types: rack, mesh

b) Openings: Coarse more than 50 mm, medium 25-50 mm, fine less than 25 mm.

c) Flowing velocity through the openings: vf= 0.6-1.2 m/sec

3. Flotation or Skimming tank: To separate solid and liquid particles (grease and oil) from the
wastewater by the introduction of air bubbles. The particles are attached to the bubbles and by the
buoyancy forces, the particles are raised to the water surface. The floating particles are removed by
skimming.

Types: Dissolved air flotation, Dispersed air flotation

Dissolved air flotation (DAF): Air bubbles are introduced by injection of air to the water under pressure.
Air is dissolved under 250-450 kPa in the pressure tank, where the water is held for several minutes.

The components of this tank:

1-pressurizing pump 2-pressure tank 3-flotation tank

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The performance of this system depends on:

𝐴 (𝑓×𝑃−1)
𝑆
= 1.3 × 𝑆𝑎 × 𝐶𝑖

𝐴
: Air to solid ratio (mL of air/ mg solids) Temperature oC 0 10 20 30
𝑆
Sa: Solubility of air depending on temperature (mL/L) Sa mL/L 29.2 22.8 18.7 15.7
ρ air= 1.3 mg /mL
f = Fraction of dissolved air at pressure (P) = 0.5
𝑃 +101.35
P = Pressure, atm (𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝑘𝑃𝑎 ).
101.35
Ci = Concentration of suspended solids in the influent (mg/L)

Design criteria:
Detention time = 3-30 min
Flowing velocity = 50-250 mm/sec
𝐴
𝑆
= 0.005-0.6 mL/mg
𝑄
Surface loading rate = velocity to rise the suspended solids = 8-160 L/m2.min (𝑆𝐿𝑅 = 𝐴 ).
𝑆
The quantities of float skimming = (3-7) % of incoming flow.

Dispersed air flotation: Air bobbles are formed by aeration at atmospheric pressure using revolving
impellers or turbine aerators. The advantages of a dispersed-air flotation system are:
a) Compact size,
b) Lower capital cost, and
c) Capacities to remove relatively free oil and suspended solids.
The disadvantages of induced-air floatation:
a) Higher connected power requirements than the pressurized system,
b) Performance is dependent on strict hydraulic control, and
c) Less flocculation flexibility.

4. Grit Chamber: A sedimentation tank designed mainly for the removal of grits: sand, gravel, glass and
other heavy solids from wastewater. The separation of inorganic and organic solids takes place due
to the difference in the specific gravity of these particles. This parameter affects the settling velocity
vs and the scouring velocity vh for these particles where they are used for design requirements.
As the flow in this tank is turbulent:
4𝑔×(𝐺𝑠−1)×𝑑
All particles are assumed to settle in according with Newton Law: 𝑣𝑠 = √ 3𝐶𝐷
& for sedimentation:
𝑄 𝑄
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑆𝑂𝑅 = 𝐴 = 𝑊×𝐿
𝑠
𝛽 𝑄 𝑄
To be scour at velocity:𝑣ℎ = √8 ( 𝑓 ) × 𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑 & 𝑣ℎ = 𝐴 = 𝑊×𝐻
𝐶

vh should be more than vf (flowing velocity)

For design:
SOR = vs for inorganic particles:
vs for organic particles ˂ vf ˂ vs for inorganic particles
Types: Aerated grit chambers, Horizontal flow grit chambers.

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Aerated grit chamber: The separation of different types of solids is done by producing a rolling flow similar
to the spiral flow by using air. The velocity of the flow v f is to be below vs for inorganic particles and above
vs organic particles.
vs for organic particles ˂ vf ˂ vs for inorganic particles
Design criteria:
1- Detention time= 2-4 min
2- Dimensions for a rectangular tank:
L = 8-20 m, W = 2-5 m, H = 2-7 m
W/H = 1:1 – 5:1
L/H = 3:1 – 5:1
3- Air flow rate = 0.015-0.5 m3/min/ m length

Horizontal flow grit chamber: It is designed to provide sufficient time for inorganic particles to settle and
the flowing velocity will carry out the organic particles. The velocities for design (v s and vh) are being
controlled for the variation of the wastewater flow.
To control the velocities;
1- Using the proportional weir;
2- Using the parabolic cross section.

Design criteria:
1- Detention time= 30 -90 min
2- vf = 0.2-0.4 m/sec
3- Dimensions:
L = 3 -25 m, H = 1-2 m
L/H less than 12
𝑚3
4- Quantity of grit = 2.5 × 10−6 − 1.8 × 10−4 𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

NOTE: To assure removal of grit (inorganic matter), while permitting such organic matter as might settle
to be re-suspended by scour, the necessary condition may be calculated as follow:
For particles of grit (inorganic matter), with diameter of 0.2 mm and specific gravity = 2.65,
4𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑 4 × 980 × (2.65 − 1) × 0.02
𝑣𝑠 = √ =√ = 2.1 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
3𝐶𝐷 3 × 10
The scour velocity of inorganic particles is given by:
𝛽 0.06
𝑣ℎ = √8 ( ) × 𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑 = √8 ( ) × 980 × (2.65 − 1) × 0.02 = 23 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓 0.03
For particles of organic matter, with diameter of 0.2 mm and specific gravity = 1.1,
4𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑 4 × 980 × (1.1 − 1) × 0.02
𝑣𝑠 = √ =√ = 0.511 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
3𝐶𝐷 3 × 10
The scour velocity of organic particles is given by:
𝛽 0.06
𝑣ℎ = √8 ( ) × 𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑 = √8 ( ) × 980 × (1.1 − 1) × 0.02 = 5.6 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓 0.03

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Thus, if the basin is designed to have a surface overflow rate of 0.021 m/sec and a horizontal velocity
greater than 0.056 m/sec and less than 0.23 m/sec will remove grit (inorganic material) without removing
organic material. To assure that the grit is reasonable clean, the horizontal velocity is generally close to
the scour velocity of the grit.

5. Primary sedimentation tank: To remove settleable solids mainly inorganic. It is designed to remove
50 -70% inorganic particles and 25-40% organic particles. Removal curves for suspended solids (SS)
indicating inorganic, and BOD indicating organic particles with SOR of the tank are used for design,
(Fig. 23-1 page 470 and Fig. 23-2 page 471) or the readings from these curves are given in the table
below.

Fig. 23-1: Suspended solids removal in primary clarifiers.

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Fig. 23-2: BOD removal in primary clarifiers.

SOR m/d 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
% SS removal 70 65 58 53 48 45 40
% BOD removal 36 34 32.8 30 27.5 25 22.5

Design criteria:
1- Detention time = 1 -4 hr
2- SOR = Average flow 30-50 m/d & maximum flow 80 – 120 m/d
3- vf = 0.6-3.6 m/min
4- Weir loading rate = 125-600 m3/m/d
5- Dimensions:
Rectangular L = 15-100 m, H = 3 -5 m, W = 3 -30m
Circular D less than 60m
𝑚3
6- Scum removed average about = 7.5 × 10−6 𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

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Solved problems

𝐴
Problem 1: A flotation tank is used for thickening suspended solids (oil) of 3000 mg/L, knowing that: 𝑆 =
0.008 mL/mg, temperature =20oC, surface loading rate = 8 L/m2.min, Q= 400 m3/d. Find: 1-required
pressure P (kPa) inside pressure tank, 2- Surface area of the flotation tank (m2) & 3) The quantities of float
skimming if (7)% of incoming flow?
?
Solution:
1) From table at T = 20oC, air solubility Sa = 18.7 mL/L
𝐴 (𝑓×𝑃−1) (0.5×𝑃−1)
𝑆
= 1.3 × 𝑆𝑎 × ⇛ 0.008 = 1.3 × 18.7 × 3000
𝐶𝑖
⇛ 𝑃 = 3.98 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 101.35
∴ 𝑃 = 3.98 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = ⇛ 𝑃 = 302 𝑘𝑃𝑎
101.35 3
𝑄 400×10 𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦
2) 𝐴𝑠 = 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 8 ×24×60 𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 34.7 𝑚 2
𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑚3
3) = 3000 × 10−3 × 400 × 0.07 = 84 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝐿 𝑑𝑎𝑦

Problem 2: Design a horizontal flow girt chamber (rectangular) of a parabolic section. Knowing that Q max
= 18,000 m3/d, Qavg = 15,000 m3/d ,Qmin = 10,000 m3/d, Gs inorganic particles = 2.65, Gs organic particles
= 1.1, CD =10, β/f = 2, detention time = 1 min, particles to be removed = 0.2 mm in diameter?
Solution:
For inorganic particles, Gs = 2.65:

4𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑𝑠 4 × 980 × (2.65 − 1) × 0.02

𝑣𝑠 = √ =√ = 2.076 ≈ 2.1 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
3𝐶𝐷 3 × 10
𝑄
𝑣𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑆𝑂𝑅 =
𝐴𝑆
Surface area of grit chamber:
18000
𝐴𝑠 = 0.021×24×60×60 = 9.921 𝑚 2 = 𝐿 × 𝑊 (1)

𝛽 0.06
𝑣ℎ = √8 ( ) × 𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑𝑠 = √8 ( ) × 980 × (2.65 − 1) × 0.02 = 23 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓 0.03
For organic particles, Gs = 1.1:
𝛽 0.06
𝑣ℎ = √8 ( ) × 𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑𝑠 = √8 ( ) × 980 × (1.1 − 1) × 0.02 = 5.6 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓 0.03
For design Ac:
𝑣ℎ 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 < 𝑣ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 < 𝑣ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐
Assume 𝑣ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 0.2 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄 18000
∴ 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑣 = 0.2×24×60×60 = 1.042 𝑚 2 = 𝐻 × 𝑊 (2)
ℎ
18000×1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉 = 𝑄 × 𝑡 = 24×60 = 12.5 𝑚 3 = 𝐿 × 𝑊 × 𝐻 (3)
Solving eq. 1, 2, & 3 and find: 𝐿 = 12 𝑚 , 𝑊 = 0.827 𝑚, & 𝐻 = 1.26 𝑚
2
Assume use area of parabolic section = 3 𝑊𝑍, Where:
W: Width at the design level.
Z: Height at the design level.
𝑍 = 𝐶 × 𝑊2
2 2
So, for AC , 𝐴𝐶 = 3 𝑊𝑍 → 1.042 = 3 × 0.827 × 𝑍 → 𝑍 = 1.889 𝑚
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𝑍 = 𝐶 × 𝑊 2 → 1.889 = 𝐶 × 0.8272 → 𝐶 = 2.763

Q (m3/day) AC (m2) W (m) Z (m)
18000 1.042 0.827 1.889
15000 0.868 0.78 1.68
10000 0.579 0.68 1.289

Problem 3: Design a primary sedimentation tank for 60% SS removal. The influent flow is 10,000 m3/d, and
assume the detention time = 2hr? Also find the SS settling and effluent sludge if the influent SS concentration
2000 mg/L?
Solution:
From Fig. 23-1 or Table for 60% SS removal, SOR = 37 m/day and from Fig. 23-2 or Table 33% BOD removal.
𝑄 𝑄 10000
𝑆𝑂𝑅 = → 𝐴𝑠 = = = 270 𝑚 2
𝐴𝑠 𝑆𝑂𝑅 37
𝜋 𝜋
If circular tank: 𝐴 = 4 𝐷2 → 270 = 4 𝐷2 → 𝐷 = 18.5 𝑚
10000
𝑉 = 𝑄 × 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠 × 𝐻 → × 2 ℎ𝑟 = 270 × 𝐻 → 𝐻 = 3.1 𝑚
24
𝑄 10000
Weir loading rate, 𝑊𝐿𝑅 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝜋×18.5 = 172 𝑚 3 /(𝑚. 𝑑𝑎𝑦) O.K
If rectangular tank: Assume W = 10 m, so, 𝐴 = 𝐿 × 𝑊 → 270 = 𝐿 × 10 → 𝐿 = 27 𝑚
𝑄 10000
Weir loading rate, 𝑊𝐿𝑅 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 10 = 1000 𝑚 3 /(𝑚. 𝑑𝑎𝑦) not O.K
Assume weir loading rate = 600 m3/(m.day) & weir length = 17 m
𝑘𝑔
The influent sewage SS, 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 2000 × 10−3 × 10000 = 20000 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑘𝑔
The influent SS settling sludge, 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 2000 × 10−3 × 10000 × 0.6 = 12000 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑘𝑔
The effluent SS, = 2000 × 10−3 × 10000 × 0.4 = 8000 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑎𝑦
Problem 4: A raw wastewater containing 250 mg/L SS and 200 mg/L BOD passes through a clarifier with a surface
area of 500 m2. The flow ranges from 10000 m3/day to 30000 m3/day. Estimate the effluent BOD and SS at
maximum and minimum flow, and the maximum and minimum rate of sludge production? Assume the sludge is
95 percent water.
Problem 5: Design a primary clarifier system for a community with population of 50000 persons. Size the clarifiers
so that the SOR will be not more than 40 m/day at peak flow with one unit out of service and not more than 25
m/day at average flow? The minimum retention time is to be 1 hour and maximum weir loading rate 370
m3/m.day. Also estimate the quantity of sludge which must be removed? If the sludge pumping cycle is 15
min/hour at maximum, what flow must the pump be sized to handle?

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Problem 6: Design a primary clarifier system for a community with population of 50000 persons with a
water supply demand 180 L/capita.day, and assuming that 80% of water supplied to the community is
converted into sewage. Size the clarifiers so that the SOR will be not more than 40 m/day at peak flow
(case 1) and not more than 25 m/day at average flow (case 2) with one unit out of service? The minimum
retention time is to be 1 hour and maximum weir loading rate 370 m3/m.day. Also, find the percent
removal SS and BOD for each SOR?

SOR m/d 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
% SS removal 70 65 58 53 48 45 40
% BOD removal 36 34 32.8 30 27.5 25 22.5
Solution:
𝐿
Average sewage flow: 𝑄𝐴𝑣𝑔 = 0.8 × 180 × 50000 = 7200000 = 7200 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝐿
Peak sewage flow: 𝑄𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 0.8 × 1.8 × 180 × 50000 = 12960000 𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 12960 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

Case 1: SOR = 40 m/day at peak flow:

𝑄 12960 𝑉 1 𝑉
𝑆𝑂𝑅 = 𝐴 → 𝐴𝑠 = = 324 𝑚2 → 𝐷 = 20.32 𝑚 use D = 20 m & 𝑄 = → 𝑉 = 12960 × 24 = 540 𝑚3 , 𝐻 = 𝐴 =
𝑠 40 𝑡 𝑠
540
= 1.667 𝑚
324

𝑄 12960 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑊𝐿𝑅 = 𝐿
= 𝜋×20
= 206.369 𝑚.𝑑𝑎𝑦
< 370 𝑚.𝑑𝑎𝑦
O.K

From table at SOR = 40 m/day: SS% removal = 58% and BOD% removal = 32.8%

Case 2: SOR = 25 m/day at average flow:

𝑄 7200 𝑉 1 𝑉
𝑆𝑂𝑅 = 𝐴 → 𝐴𝑠 = = 288 𝑚2 → 𝐷 = 19.15 𝑚 use D= 19 m & 𝑄 = → 𝑉 = 7200 × 24 = 300 𝑚3 , 𝐻 = 𝐴 =
𝑠 25 𝑡 𝑠
300
= 1.041 𝑚
288

𝑄 7200 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑊𝐿𝑅 = 𝐿
= 𝜋×19 = 120.683 𝑚.𝑑𝑎𝑦
< 370 𝑚.𝑑𝑎𝑦
O.K

From table at SOR = 25 m/day: SS% removal = 67.5% and BOD% removal = 35%

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Population equivalent or unit per capita loading, (PE), in waste-water treatment is the number expressing
the ratio of the sum of the pollution load produced during 24 hours by industrial facilities and services to
the individual pollution load in household sewage produced by one person in the same time.

The population equivalent (P.E.) of a waste may be determined by divided the total mass per day by the
per mass loadings. Population equivalent has been used as a technique for determining industrial waste
treatment costs. PE may be determined on the basis of flow, BOD5, COD, TSS, P, N, etc.

Example: An industrial waste of 1000 m3/day and having a BOD5 of 500 mg/L, calculate the population
equivalent in terms of BOD5 if the domestic BOD loading = 95 gm/(cap.day)?

Solution:
𝑔𝑚
0.5 × 103 × 1000 𝑚 3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚3 = 5263 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
95 𝑔𝑚/(𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎. 𝑑𝑎𝑦)

Example: A waste with a BOD of 300 mg/L and a flow of 1000 m 3/day L, calculate the population
equivalent in terms of BOD5 if the domestic BOD loading = 80 gm/(cap.day)?

Solution:
𝑔𝑚
0.3 × 103 × 1000 𝑚 3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚3 = 3750 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
80 𝑔𝑚/(𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎. 𝑑𝑎𝑦)

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How to Choose a DRM Software to protect your document?

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Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

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PART 2: WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

Lecture 8: Secondary Treatment or the Biological treatment
Biological treatment systems are intended to remove soluble and colloidal organic matter from the
wastewater which remains after primary treatment. This removal is accomplished biologically using a
variety of microorganisms principally bacteria. In this treatment the active microbial growth is in contact
with the wastewater so that they may consume the organic matter as food. Biological treatment systems
are designed to maintain a large active mass of bacteria within the system confines.

Basic requirements:
a) Mixed population of active microorganisms.
b) Good contact between the microorganisms and the waste (organic matter).
c) Availability of oxygen (for aerobic decomposition).
d) Availability of nutrients (N = 0.05 mg/BOD, P = 0.016 mg/BOD, also S, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe).
e) Favorable environmental conditions for microbial activity such as temperature and pH.

Bacterial Growth Pattern (Food-Biomass curve):

Bacteria are single-celled plants which metabolize soluble food and reproduce by binary fission. Bacteria are
capable of solubilizing food particles outside the cell mean of extracellular enzymes, and hence can remove
soluble, colloidal and solid organic matter from wastewater.

1) Lag phase: Time required for the microorganisms to acclimate with the environment.
2) Log phase (exponential): The microorganism growth will be at a maximum rate with a rapid
consumption of food (organic matter).
3) Stationary or declining growth phase: The biomass concentration remains relatively constant
where the growth is offset by the death of cells and the lack of food.
4) Death or endogenous respiration phase: No growth due to any food.

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Summary:
a) The stationary phase is generally used for biological system since the bacteria in the log growth phase of
development have a great deal with energy available, have limited accumulation of waste products.
b) The extended aeration and sludge digestion are operated in death phase.

Techniques used in the biological treatment: Attached growth process, Suspended growth process
First: Attached Growth Process:
It is utilizing a solid medium upon which bacteria solids are accumulated in order to maintain a high population.
The area available for such growth is an important design parameter, and a number of processes have been
developed which attempt to maximize area as well as other limiting factors.
The microorganisms are attached to an inert packing material such as: rocks, gravel, sand, wood and plastic. The
organic matter and nutrients are removed from the wastewater flowing through the packed material by the
attached growth of microorganisms on the solid material known as the biofilm or slime layer. This illustrated in
the figure:

BOD O2
Solid material
Oxidized CO2
matter

Anaerobic aerobic Wastewater

Slime layer

Schematic diagram of attached growth process

Second: Suspended Growth Process:

The microorganisms are maintained in suspension within the wastewater reactor by appropriate mixing
methods (natural or mechanical methods). The microorganisms are mixed with the organic matter so they
can grow to form an active mass of microbial flocs (biomass). In most processes the required volume is
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reduced by returning bacteria from the secondary clarifier in order to maintain a high solids
concentration. It includes activated sludge and its various modifications, oxidation ponds and sludge
digestion systems.

Attached Growth Process

Surface growth process include intermittent sand filter, trickling filters, rotating biological contactors, and
a variety of similar proprietary devices. One of the treatment units designed by this technique is the
Trickling Filter.
Trickling filters utilize a relative porous bacteria growth medium such as rock or formed plastic shapes.

Types of Trickling Filters: Low rate, High rate

Item Low Rate High Rate

Depth (m) 1.5-3.0 1.0-2.0
Hydraulic loading (m3/m2/d) 1.0 – 4.0 10-40
Organic loading (kg BODu/m3/d) 0.08 – 1.5 1.5-18.7
Recirculation ratio 0 1.0-3.0
BOD removal (%) 74 -80 80-85
Filter files many few

Advantages of recirculation:
a) Increase the biomass in the system;
b) Maintain uniform hydraulic and organic loadings;
c) Dilution of the influent with water of a better quality;
d) Thinning of the slime layer (biofilm).

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Techniques of recirculation used in the operation process may vary widely. The different configurations
being used are listed in Fig. 24-6 page 483. The basic forms depending on the flow pattern are:
1- Single stage, one Trickling filter is used.
2- Two stages, two filers are used in series.

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Flow diagram of one- and two-stage trickling filter plants.

Mathematical model of Trickling filter system:
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The design of Trickling filter is based on empirical formulas. One of these formulas is the National Research
Council of USA (NRC) formula (based on collected data at military bases in USA during World War 2):
For the design of the single stage filter and the 1st stage of the two-stage system:
𝐶𝑖 − 𝐶𝑒 1
=
𝐶𝑖 𝑄×𝐶
1 + 0.532√ 𝑉 × 𝐹𝑖
Where:
Ci = BOD5 of the influent (mg/L).
Ce = BOD5 of the effluent (mg/L).
Q = Wastewater flow rate (m3/min).
V = Volume of the filter (m3).
1+𝑟
F = Recirculation factor (𝐹 = (1+0.1𝑟)2 ).
𝑄𝑟
r = Recirculation ratio (𝑟 = 𝑄
).
Qr = Recirculation flow rate.

For the second stage of the two stages filter the formula becomes:
𝐶𝑒 − 𝐶𝑒` 1
=
𝐶𝑒 0.532 𝑄 × 𝐶𝑒
1+ √
𝐶𝑖 − 𝐶𝑒 × 𝑉 ` × 𝐹 `
1−( 𝐶 )
𝑖

𝐶𝑒` = BOD5 of the effluent from the 2nd filter (mg/L).

𝑉 ` = Volume of the 2nd filter (m3).
𝐹 ` = Recirculation factor of the 2nd filter.

Operating problems:
1. In cold weather a reduction in the efficiency removal is noticed. About 3% for each 1oC decrease in
temperature. In such climates fiberglass covers are used to prevent ice formation and also to contain odors
that may be produced in the filter.
2. Filter files accumulation breed in low rate filters but are less troublesome in high rate where the high
hydraulic rates carry the larvae before they can mature. This problem is solved by flooding the filter for 24
hr with the addition of insecticide.

Solved problems
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Problem 1: Calculate the effluent BOD5 of a two-stage trickling filter with the following flows, BOD5 and
dimensions:
Q =3.15 m3/min, BOD5 = 290 mg/L
Volume of filter NO.1 = 830 m3
Volume of filter NO.2 = 830 m3
Filter depth = 2 m
Recirculation (filter NO.1) = 125 percent Q & r1 = 125%
Recirculation (filter NO.2) = 100 percent Q & r2 = 100%
Solution:
By using NRC formula:
Ci −Ce = 1
Ci
1+0.532 QCi
For the first stage: VF
F1 = 1+r1 2 = 1+1.252 =1.78
(1+0.1r1) (1.125)
290−Ce = 1
290
1+0.532 3.15(290) , So, Ce= 85.5 mg/L

830(1.78)
For the second stage:
F2 = 1+r2 2 = 2 =1.65
(1+0.1r2) 1.21
Ce −Ce =
/
1
Ce
1+ 0.532 QCe
(Ci −Ce )  V/ F/
1− 
 Ci i 
85.5−Ce/ = 1
85.5
1+ 0.532 3.15(85.5)
1−(290−85.5)/ 290 8301.65
Ce =38mg/ L
If the effluent BOD5, from the first stage is assumed to about 100 mg/L, the organic loading rate, including
recirculation is:
𝑂𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑄𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 + (𝑄𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝑄𝑟 ) × 𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑚3 𝑚𝑔 𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
𝑂𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 3.15 × 290 × 10−3 + 3.15 × 1.25 × 100 × 10−3
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐿
= 1.307 𝑘𝑔/ min = 1882.44 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦

1882 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑘𝑔
The organic loading rate for each filter: 𝑂𝐿𝑅 = 830 𝑚 3
= 2.27 𝑚3 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐶𝑖−𝐶𝑒 290−85.5
First stage efficiency:= 𝐶𝑖
= 290
× 100 = 70.517%
𝐶𝑒 −𝐶𝑒′ 85.5−38
Second stage efficiency:= = × 100 = 55.55%
𝐶𝑒 85.5

𝐶𝑖−𝐶𝑒′ 290−38
Overall stage efficiency:= = × 100 = 86.89%
𝐶𝑖 290

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By using Velz formula:

Ci = Ci +rCe e−KD

 1+r  , where:
K = 0.49 for high rate filters & 0.57 for low rate system.
D = filter depth (m)
For first stage:

Ce = 290+1.25Ce e−0.492

 1+1.25  Ce =61.1mg/ l
For second stage:

Ce = 61.1+1.0Ce e−0.492
 1+1.0  Ce =14.1mg/ l
The Velz equation is valid for BOD removals of 90 percent or less.

Problem 2: Calculate the effluent BOD5 of a two-stage trickling filter with the following flows, BOD5 and
dimensions, NRC formula? Q = 5000 m3/day, influent BOD5 = 280 mg/L, volume of first filter = 1000 m 3,
volume of second filter = 800 m3, filter depth = 2 m, recirculation rate for first filter = 1.5, recirculation
rate for second filter = 1.25. Also, calculate organic loading rate (BOD5 kg/day) and Hydraulic loading
(m3/m2/d) for raw, primary and secondary filter, efficiency of each stage and overall removal efficiency?

Solution:

𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄 = 5000 = 3.472
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
Organic loading rate for raw sewage: 𝑂𝐿𝑅 = 5000 𝑑𝑎𝑦
× 280 𝐿
× 10−3 = 1400 𝑘𝑔 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

1+𝑟 1+1.5
First stage filter: 𝐹1 = (1+0.1𝑟)2 = (1+0.1×1.5)2 = 1.89

𝐶𝑖 − 𝐶𝑒 1
=
𝐶𝑖 𝑄 × 𝐶𝑖
1 + 0.532√
𝑉×𝐹
280 − 𝐶𝑒 1
= → 𝐶𝑒 = 77.328 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
280 3.472 × 280
1 + 0.532√1000 × 1.89

280 − 77.324
% 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙 = × 100 = 72.384%
280
𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
Organic loading rate for filter 1: 𝑂𝐿𝑅 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 × 𝐶𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄𝑟 × 𝐶𝑟 = 5000 𝑑𝑎𝑦
× 280 𝐿
× 10−3 +
𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
5000 𝑑𝑎𝑦
× 1.5 × 77.328 𝐿
× 10−3 = 1400 + 579.96 = 1979.96 𝑘𝑔 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑄+𝑄𝑟 5000×2.5 𝑚3
Hydraulic loading rate: 𝐻𝐿𝑅 = 𝐴𝑠
= 1000 = 25 𝑚2 .𝑑𝑎𝑦
2

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𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
If need, Organic loading rate for effluent sewage from filter1: 𝑂𝐿𝑅 = 5000 × 77.328 × 10−3 =
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝐿
386.64 𝑘𝑔 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
1+𝑟 1+1.25
Second stage filter: 𝐹1 = (1+0.1𝑟)2 = (1+0.1×1.25)2 = 1.777

𝐶𝑒 − 𝐶𝑒` 1
=
𝐶𝑒 0.532 𝑄 × 𝐶𝑒
1+ √
𝐶𝑖 − 𝐶𝑒 × 𝑉 ` × 𝐹 `
1−( )
𝐶𝑖

77.328 − 𝐶𝑒` 1
= → 𝐶𝑒` = 35.237 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
77.328 0.532
1+ √3.472 × 77.328
280 − 77.324 × 800 × 1.777
1−( 280
)

77.328 − 35.237
% 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙 = × 100 = 54.431%
77.328
𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
Organic loading rate for filter 2: 𝑂𝐿𝑅 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 × 𝐶𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄𝑟 × 𝐶𝑟 = 5000 𝑑𝑎𝑦
× 77.328 𝐿
× 10−3 +
𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
5000 𝑑𝑎𝑦
× 1.25 × 35.237 𝐿
× 10−3 = 386.64 + 220.231 = 606.871 𝑘𝑔 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑄+𝑄𝑟 5000×2.25 𝑚3
Hydraulic loading rate: 𝐻𝐿𝑅 = = 800 = 28.125
𝐴𝑠 𝑚 2.𝑑𝑎𝑦
2

𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
If need, Organic loading rate for effluent sewage from filter2: 𝑂𝐿𝑅 = 5000 𝑑𝑎𝑦
× 35.237 𝐿
× 10−3 =
176.185 𝑘𝑔 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
280−35.237
Overall Removal Efficiency: % 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙 = 280
× 100 = 87.415%

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Suspended Growth Process

Suspended growth processes maintain an adequate biological mass in suspension within the reactor by
employing either natural or mechanical mixing. In most processes the required volume is reduced by
returning bacteria from the secondary clarifier in order to maintain a high solids concentration. Suspended
growth processes include, Activated sludge and its various modifications, Oxidation ponds and Sludge
digestion system.
One of the treatment units designed by this technique is the Activated Sludge Process. The flow diagram of
this unit is: air

Q, So Q, Xe Effluent

Reactor X,S Secondary Sedimentation Tank

Qr,Xr Qw, Xr sludge to the digester

Solid return line

Where:
Q = Wastewater flow rate (Influent).
Qr = Return (recycle) sludge flow.
Qw = Waste sludge flow.
X = Mixed liquor suspended solids concentration (MLSS).
Xr = underflow suspended solids concentration.
Xe = Effluent suspended solids concentration.
So = Influent BOD5.
S = Effluent soluble BOD5.

This unit consists of:

1. Reactor or the aeration basin, in which the microorganisms are kept in suspension by mixing or
aerating the influent wastewater. The microorganisms grow in this tank to form the biomass which is
known as the activated sludge.
2. Secondary sedimentation tank (clarifier) in which the biomass (activated sludge) is settled by gravity.
3. Solid return (recycle) system which is to return a portion of the settled sludge from the bottom of the
secondary sedimentation tank back to the reactor as (Qr).
Note: All the settled sludge is returned but a portion is wasted (Qw). The effluent from the secondary
sedimentation tank is usually disposed into the river after disinfection but within environmental limits. This
effluent could be reused in irrigation or industrial purposes.

Types of activated sludge processes:

a) Conventional process, the return sludge is mixed with the influent at the head of the reactor. Air is
provided uniformly along the reactor.
b) Tapered aeration process, as in 1 but matching of the oxygen supply with the demand is done by
introducing more air at the end of the reactor.
c) Step aeration process, distributing the influent flow to a number of inputs along the reactor. This is
done to avoid high oxygen demand.
d) Complete mixed process, the influent flow, return sludge and air are applied uniformly at several
input points throughout the reactor.

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Activated sludge configuration and effect upon oxygen supply

Operating problems of activated sludge systems:

1. Floating sludge: Air bubbles of nitrogen gas will raise the sludge to the surface of the reactor. This is
caused by high retention time where the sludge remains too long in the reactor. Here the bacteria will
reduce the nitrate to nitrogen gas (denitrification process). This problem is solved by increasing Qr to
reduce the detention time or by increasing Qw to reduce the sludge age.
2. Bulking sludge: Presences of microorganisms which will enter large amounts of water in their cells due
to the lack in nutrients or low pH. This problem is solved by providing the lack in nutrients and a neutral
pH. The require nutrients are shown in the table.
Elements N P S Na K Ca Mg Fe other
Concentration mg/L 0.05 0.016 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.001 trace

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Mathematical model of activated sludge systems:

The basic factor in design, control, and operation of suspended growth systems is the mean cell
residence time or sludge age (𝜃𝑐 ), which define by:
𝑋
𝜃𝑐 =
∆𝑋
( )
∆𝑡
Where:
X: Total microbial mass in the reactor.
∆𝑋
∆𝑡
: Total quantity of solids withdrawn daily.
𝑚
𝜃𝑐 : The lowest value of sludge age (𝜃𝑐 ) at which operation is possible.
At retention times 𝜃 less than 𝜃𝑐𝑚 organisms are removed more quickly than they are synthesized, the
failure will occur 𝜃 < 𝜃𝑐𝑚 .
𝜃𝑐𝑑 : The design value of sludge age (𝜃𝑐 ) and must be significant greater than (𝜃𝑐 ),(𝜃𝑐𝑑 > 𝜃𝑐 )
𝜃𝑐𝑑
𝜃𝑐𝑚
: The safety factor of the system should be at least 4. In standard process, the safety factor of 20 or
more.
For equilibrium system, the quantity of solids produced must equal that lost, and quantity produced per
day given by:
𝜇̂ × 𝑆
𝜇= − 𝑘𝑑
𝐾𝑠 + 𝑆
Where:
𝜇: Net specific growth rate or growth per unit mass per unit time.
𝜇̂ : Maximum rate of growth.
S: Concentration of substrate surrounding the microorganisms.
𝐾𝑠 : Half velocity constant, and
𝑘𝑑 : Microorganisms decay coefficient (mass/unit mass/time) reflecting the endogenous burn-up of cell
mass.
Completely mixed process with solids recycle:
All waste utilization occurs in the biological reactor and that the total biological mass in the system is
equal to the biological mass in the reactor (mass balance).

Completely mixed biological reactor with solids recycle.

The mean cell residence time, or sludge age:
1) If solids are wasted from the clarifier as shown in the solid line, rather than from the reactor:
𝑋 𝑥𝑉
𝜃𝑐 = =
∆𝑋
( ) 𝑄𝑤 × 𝑥𝑟 + (𝑄 − 𝑄𝑤 )𝑥𝑒
∆𝑡

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Where:
Q: Waste flow rate,
x: Mixed liquor suspended solid concentration (MLSS).
xr: Clarifier underflow suspended solids concentration.
xe: Effluent suspended solids concentration.
Qw: Waste sludge flow rate, and
Qr: Return sludge flow rate.
2) If solids are wasted from the reactor as shown in the dashed line, rather than from the clarifier:
𝑥𝑉
𝜃𝑐 =
𝑄𝑤 × 𝑥 + (𝑄 − 𝑄𝑤 )𝑥𝑒
Lawrence and McCarty have shown the total microbial mass in the reactor is given by:
𝑌×𝑄×(𝑆0−𝑆)×𝜃𝑐 𝜃𝑐 𝑌×(𝑆0−𝑆)
𝑥𝑉 = 1+𝑘𝑑 ×𝜃𝑐
&𝑥= 𝜃
× 1+𝑘𝑑 ×𝜃𝑐
Where:
Y: Growth yield coefficient relating cell yield to the material metabolized.
S0: Influent BOD5.
S: Effluent soluble BOD5
𝑉
𝜃: Liquid retention time in the reactor, 𝜃 = 𝑄

Secondary Sedimentation Tank

a) In trickling filters: is used to remove large particles of sloughed slime layer. Its design is similar
to Primary Sedimentation tanks. For design requirements:
SOR 25 – 33 m/d and not to exceed 50 m/d at peak flow.
b) In activated sludge process: is used to contribute BOD of the effluent and for thickening the
sludge to maintain the required sludge age. For design requirements:
Solid loading rate = 2.5 -6.2 kg/m2/hr at average flow and not to exceed 10.2 kg/m 2/hr at peak
flow
SOR = 16 – 32 m/d at average flow and 40 – 64 m/d at peak flow
Weir loading 125 – 375 m3/m /d
Depth = 2.5 – 6 m

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Solved problems

Problem 1: Design an activated sludge process to yield an effluent of BOD5 20 mg/L and suspended solids
25 mg/L. The influent BOD5 after primary treatment is 160 mg/L. The wastewater flow is 10 m 3/min, MLSS
=2500 mg/L, underflow SS concentration = 1.5%, yield coefficient (Y) = 0.65, sludge age, 𝜃𝑐 = 10 𝑑𝑎𝑦, decay
coefficient (kd) = 0.05/day, BOD5 of SS effluent = 63% of SS effluent and the solids are 80% volatile.
Solution:
1. The BOD5 of the effluent solids can be estimated to be 0.63 (SSEffluent),
The soluble effluent BOD5 must thus be reduced to (20-0.63*25 = 4 mg/L)

2. The total biological mass in the reactor is calculated from Eq. (24-11):
xV= YQc(So −S)
1+kdc
Where:
xV: Microbial mass (mg).
V: Volume of the reactor (m3).
x = Mixed liquor suspended solids concentration (MLSS).
𝑔𝑚 𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
Y: Growth yield coefficient ( ).
𝑔𝑚 𝐵𝑂𝐷 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑂𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑
𝜃𝑐 : Sludge age or mean cell residence time (day).
kd: Decay coefficient (day-1).
𝑆 = 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡.
𝑉
𝜃: Liquid retention time in the reactor (𝜃 = ).
𝑄

xV= YQc (So −S) = 0.65(1010001440

)L/ day(10)(160−4)mg/ L =9.734109mg
1+kdc 1+0.05(10)

V = 9.7310 =3.894106 L =3894

9
m3
2500
3. The rate of sludge (biological solids) production is obtained from Eq. (24-6) and is:

:
dX = xV = 9.73109mg=9.73108mg/ day=973.5kg/ day
dt c 10day
The solids are 80 percent volatile (organic),

Total production = 973.5 =1217

kg/ day
0.8
4. The waste sludge flow rate:
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
Note: (1% 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 10000 𝐿 & 1.5% 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 15000 𝐿 )
The underflow solids concentration is unlikely to exceed 15,000 mg/L and could be less. Assume xr = 15000
mg/L,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑄𝑤 =
𝑥𝑟

Qw =1217103 mg/ day=121710

6 6
mg/ day=81.1m3 / day
1510 mg/ L 1510 mg/ m3
6

5. The recirculation flow can be calculated from equation (24-10):

Qr xr =(Q+Qr )x Qr = Q  x = 10m3

/ min(2500)mg/ L = 2m3 / min
xr − x (15000 −2500 )mg/ L
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r = Qr = 2 =0.2
Q 10
6. The hydraulic retention time in the reactor:

 =t = V = 3.894103L =0.27days=6.5hours
Q 1010001440L/ day
7. The oxygen demand required:
The required amount of oxygen which must be provided in suspended growth process is equal to the
difference between the ultimate BOD of the waste which is removed and the ultimate BOD of the solids
which are wasted.
For ordinary domestic sewage this may be taken as equal to:
=1.47(SO −S)Q−1.14xrQw
O2 demand
𝑂2 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.47 × (160 − 4) × (14.4 × 106 ) − 1.14 × 15000 × 81100 = 1.915 × 109
= 1915 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
The volume of air required at STP in m3 may be calculated from:
Assume 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 3 and if O2=23.2% in air

Flow rate of air, Qair = O2 demand = O2 demand

= 1915=6856
m3 / day
0.2321.2 0.278 0.278
If the actual efficiency of oxygen transfer is 7% (7% O2 mass transfer in water)

Volume of air required or Actual Air Required =

6856m3 / day=97943
m3 / day=68m3 / min
0.07
The air volume required per unit of BOD5 removed equal:
97943m3 / day = 43.6m3 / kg
(160−4)10 kg/ m (101440)m / day
−3 3 3

8. Compressor Power requirements to provid airflow:

𝑤 × 𝑅 × 𝑇1 𝑃2 0.283
𝑃= × [( ) − 1]
8.41 × 𝑒 𝑃1
P: the power required (kW),
w: the air mass flow (kg/sec),
R: the gas constant (8.314),
T: the inlet temperature (0 K),
P1: the absolute inlet pressure in atm,
P2: the absolute outlet pressure in atm,
e: the efficiency of the machine (70-80%).
1915 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = = 117918.72 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
0.07 × 0.232
Assume inlet air temperature = 30 0C=303 0K
Assume P1 =1atm & P2=1.58 atm

𝑤 × 𝑅 × 𝑇1 𝑃2 0.283 0.71 × 8.314 × 303 1.58 0.283

𝑃= × [( ) − 1] = × [( ) − 1] = 39.189 𝑘𝑊
8.41 × 𝑒 𝑃1 8.41 × 0.75 1

9. Organic loading rate:

𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 160 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑢 = −𝑘 ×𝑡
= ≈ 235 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
1−𝑒 1 1 − 𝑒 −0.23×5
−3 𝑘𝑔 3
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑢 × 𝑄 235 × 10 𝑚 3 × 10 × 1440𝑚 /𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑘𝑔
𝑂𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = 3
≈ 0.87 3
𝑉 3894 𝑚 𝑚 . 𝑑𝑎𝑦
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Problem 2: Design a circular secondary sedimentation tank for the reactor of the active sludge process
in the last example. Assume depth of the tank = 2.5 m and solid loading rate = 4 kg/m 2/hr?
Solution:
1. Total solids flowing into the secondary sedimentation tank is calculate from equation:
𝑚𝑔 10(1 + 0.2) 𝑚 3 10−3 𝑘𝑔 60 𝑚 3
𝑥 × (𝑄 + 𝑄𝑟 ) = 2500 × = 2500 × × 12 ×
𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚3 ℎ𝑟
= 1800 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
2. Surface area of SST:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 1800 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝐴𝑠 = = = 450 𝑚 2
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 4 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 2 . ℎ𝑟
SST diameter,
2
𝜋 2
𝐴𝑠 = 450 𝑚 = 𝐷 ⇛ 𝐷 ≈ 24 𝑚
4
3. Surface overflow rate of SST (SOR):
𝑄 10 × 1440 𝑚 3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑆𝑂𝑅 = = = 32 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐴𝑠 450 𝑚 2
4. Weir loading rate of SST (WLR):
𝑄 10 × 1440 𝑚 3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑊𝐿𝑅 = = = 191 𝑚 3 /𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝜋𝐷 𝜋 × 24 𝑚
5. Detention time:
𝑉 450 × 2.5𝑚 3
𝑡=𝜃= = = 1.875 ℎ𝑟
𝑄 10 × 60 𝑚 3 /ℎ𝑟

Problem 3: An activated sludge plant treats a wastewater flow of 5000 m3/day with a BOD5 of 180 mg/L.
the organic loading rate is 0.3 kg BOD5 per kg MLSS and the hydraulic retention time is 5 hours.
Determine the concentration of MLSS in mg/L?
Problem 4: If the reactor in problem 17.8 is operated at sludge age of 10 days determine the sludge
production rate. If the sludge is concentrated in the clarifier underflow to 1.5 percent solids content,
what will be the waste sludge flow?
Problem 5: Design an activated sludge process to treat a waste flow of 15000 m3/day with a BOD5 of
180 mg/L following primary treatment. The effluent BOD5 and SS are to be less than 20 mg/L. Assume xr
= 15000 mg/L, x = 2500 mg/L, 𝜃𝑐 = 10 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 , Y = 0.60, kd = 0.05. determine the reactor volume, the
sludge production rate, the circulation rate, the hydraulic retention time, and the oxygen required?
Problem 6: A wastewater has an average BOD5 of 250 mg/L. The average flow is 8000 m3/day, the
minimum 3000 m3/day, and the maximum 13500 m3/day. Design a complete activated sludge system,
including primary and secondary clarifiers, to yield an effluent BOD5 and SS of 30 mg/L at peak flow.
What do you estimate the effluent BOD5 will be at average flow? Assume xr = 1percent (min), MLSS =
3000 mg/L, 𝜃𝑐 = 7.5 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 (min), Y = 0.65, and kd = 0.04.

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How to Choose a DRM Software to protect your document?

Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2019-2020

Sanitary and Environmental

Engineering

SANITARY LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

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SANITARY LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 1: Turbidity

Turbidity is the water property containing suspended solids (SS) that prevents light from
moving in straight lines through the sample.

Sources of turbidity

1) Living or dead organisms (algae, fungi, bacteria).

2) Silt and clay.
3) Organic matter from the disposal wastewater into water bodies.
Method of determination: Nephelometric

Turbidity is directly proportional to the intensity of the scattered light

Light source Sample

Detector Processer Display

The result is recorded in the display in NTU units (Nephelometric turbidity unit).

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Experiment 2: pH

pH is an expression to identify the intensity of the acid or base in a solution which represents
the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydrogen activity.

The ionization reaction of water: H2O H + + OH -

Where the equilibrium is: Kw = (H+) (OH -) / (H2O) eq 1 ( ) = chemical activity, (H2O) = 1

Kw = equilibrium constant = 10 -14 mole/L at 25 oC

The activity ( ) is also expressed as concentration [ ] so eq 1 is written as

[H+] [OH -] = 10 -14

log[H+] + log [OH -] = log10 -14 = -14

-log[H+] - log [OH -] = 14

Let –log = p 0 acid 7 neutral 14 base

pH + pOH = 14

Methods of determination:

1. Colemetric method by using indicators:

Indicator: organic acid or base compounds which undergo color changes in solutions of
different pH.
2. Photometric:
A reagent (chemical compound) is added to the sample where it takes a degree of color
that is proportional to the concentration of the parameter to be measured.

The light energy passing through the colored sample with a specific wave length will be
absorbed by the tested substance (measured parameter). The photometer determines the
coloration by measuring the absorption or transmission of the light by the detector and then
through the processer which will calculate the concentration. The result is then recorded in
the display.

Light source Sample Detector Processer Display

3. Electrometric method: By using an electrode sensitive to H+ ions in the pH meter

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Experiment 3: Color

Sources of color: present of some ions (Fe, Mg, Mn), organic material, soil particles and
industrial and domestic sewage.

Types: 1-True color caused by dissolved matter which can be removed by chemical processes.

2- Apparent color caused by suspended colloidal matter and could be removed by

sedimentation and/ or filtration.

Methods of determination

1- Color comparison with standard colors of potassium chloro platinum K2PtCl6 , using the lavibond
device.

Put 50 mL of the sample in the nessler tube.

Put the tube on the right side in the device.

Put an empty tube on the left side in the device.

Compare the color of the sample with the color on the hazen disc (K2PtCl6 colors) and read the
result which is expressed as unit color.

Note: if the reading is more than 70 then the sample should be diluted with distilled water.

Color = reading x dilution factor

2- Photometric method, using the wave length for color determination.

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Experiment 4: Total Solids, Total Suspended Solids, and Total Dissolved Solids

Is the matter (suspended and dissolved solids) that remain as residue upon evaporating and
drying of a known volume of a water sample, at 103 -105 oC for 24 hrs. It is expressed as TS
and reported in mg/L.

Methods of determination:

1. Weight a clean pan (A1) gm.

2. Put a measured volume of sample (Vs) mL.

3. Put the pan in the drying oven at 103-105 oC for 24 hrs .

4. Weight the pan and residues after drying (A2) gm.

(𝐴2−𝐴1)
5. Calculate concentration of total solids mg/L, 𝑇𝑆 = × 106
𝑉𝑠

Total solids (TS) = Total dissolved solids (TDS) + Total suspended solids (TSS)

Total dissolved solids (Filterable): Consist mainly of inorganic salts present in water and any
amounts of dissolved organic matter. It is expressed as TDS and reported as mg/L. It refers to the
material that passes through filter paper (no.1) and the filtrated water is dried at 103 -105 oC for
24 hrs .

Total suspended solids (nonfilterable): The non-dissolved matter such as silt, clay and
microorganisms resent in water. It is expressed as TSS and reported as mg/L. It refers to the
material that remains on the filter paper and after drying at 103 -105 oC for 24 hrs .

Methods of determination

1. Weight a clean pan (B1) gm and a clean dry filter paper (no.1) (C1) gm.
2. Filter a measured volume of sample (Vs) mL through the filter paper.
3. Put the pan and filter paper in the drying oven at 103-105 oC for 24 hrs .
4. Weight the pan and residues after drying (B2) gm.
5. Weight the filter paper and residues after drying (C2) gm.
(𝐵2−𝐵1)
6. Calculate concentration of total dissolved solids mg/L, 𝑇𝐷𝑆 = × 106
𝑉𝑠
(𝐶2−𝐶1)
7. Calculate concentration of total suspended solids mg/L, 𝑇𝑆𝑆 = × 106
𝑉𝑠

Note: The hot pans and filter papers should be kept in a desiccator to cool out before
weighing.

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Example: Total solids (TS)

A1 = 60.05 gm, A2 = 60.0773 gm, Vs = 50 ml

(𝐴2 − 𝐴1) (60.0773 − 60.05)

𝑇𝑆 = × 106 = × 106 = 546 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝑉𝑠 50

Example: Total dissolved and suspended solids (TDS, TSS)

B1 = 60.065 gm, B2 = 60.0894 gm

C1 = 1.005 gm, C2 = 1.0081 gm

Vs = 50 mL

(𝐵2 − 𝐵1) (60.0894 − 60.065)

𝑇𝐷𝑆 = × 106 = × 106 = 488 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝑉𝑠 50
(𝐶2 − 𝐶1) (1.0081 − 1.005)
𝑇𝑆𝑆 = × 106 = × 106 = 62 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝑉𝑠 50

𝑇𝑆 = 𝑇𝐷𝑆 + 𝑇𝑆𝑆 = 488 + 62 = 550 𝑚𝑔/𝐿

Experiment 5: Electrical Conductivity

It is a numerical expression to represent the ability of a water sample to carry an electrical

current. It depends on the concentration and type of the ions existing in the water (TDS).
Temperature of water affects the movement and direction flow of the ions, as 1 oC increase
causes 2% increase in conductivity.

The standard unit of electrical resistance is ohms (Ω), and the conductivity is the reciprocal of
the resistivity. It is expressed as 1/ ohms. cm or mhos/cm. in practical the unit used is
µmhos/cm (mhos/cm = 106 µmhos/cm). Fresh distilled water has 0.5 – 2 µmhos/cm
conductivity.

This measurement is used as a rapid estimation of TDS in a water sample:

TDS mg/L= f x conductivity µmhos/cm

Where f is a factor that depends on the ionic component in the solution and on temperature,

f = 0.55 – 0.9.

Methods of determination

Conductivity is measured by an electrical meter, using an electrode sensitive to the ionic

concentration of the water.

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Experiment 6: Alkalinity

Is the quantitative capacity required to neutralize a strong acid to a normal pH and is

expressed in concentration mg/L as CaCO3.

Sources of alkalinity

1. The presences of bicarbonate (HCO3) and carbonate (CO3) in water from natural
weathering of soil.
2. The presences of silicate and phosphate salts.
3. The addition of lime (CaO), soda ash (Na2CO3) in water treatment plant.
4. The action of algae in consuming (CO2) by photolysis which will increase the pH.

pH range of alkalinity is more than 7

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

HCO3 CO3 OH
Method of determination:

By titration with a standard solution (acid) like (HCl or H2SO4 ), 0.02 N using two indicators,
phenolphthalein (ph) and methyl orange (mo).

Titration is the process to determine the amount of the substance to be measured which will
completely react with a standard solution. The reaction will end at an equivalent point which
is indicated by the indicator added that changes it color at this point.

Standard solution: Whose strength or reacting value per unit volume is known, such as: Molar
solution (M) which contains one molecular weight of a substance in one liter of water
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
(𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ).
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Normal solution (N) which contains one equivalent weight of the substance in one liter of
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
water (𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ).
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

1. Take 10 mL sample (volume of sample Vs).

2. Add 2 drops ph indicator.
3. Titrate with 0.02 N acid read volume used to reach end point (from pink to colorless) Vph.
4. Add 2 drops mo indicator.
5. Titrate with 0.02 N acid read volume used to reach end point (from yellow to orange)
Vmo.

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Calculate alkalinity
vph ×N×Equivalent weight of CaCO3 ×103
Alkalinity ph as mg/L CaCO3, p =
Vs
(vph +vmo )×N×Equivalent weight of CaCO3 ×103
Total alkalinity as mg/L CaCO3, T =
Vs
Table to identify alkalinity in water to the titration results:
OH alkalinity mg/L CO3 alkalinity mg/L HCO3 alkalinity mg/L
Titration result
CaCO3 CaCO3 CaCO3
P = zero 0 0 T
P less than T/2 0 2P T-2P
P = T/2 0 2P 0
P more than T/2 2P-T 2(T-P) 0
P=T T 0 0

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Experiment 7: Jar Test

The jar test is a common laboratory procedure used to determine the optimum operating
conditions for water or wastewater treatment. This method allows adjustments in pH, variations
in coagulant or polymer dose, alternating mixing speeds, or testing of different coagulant or
polymer types, on a small scale in order to predict the functioning of a large-scale treatment
operation.

Jar Testing Apparatus

The jar testing apparatus consists of six paddles which stir the contents of six 1 liter containers.
One container acts as a control while the operating conditions can be varied among the remaining
five containers. A rpm gage at the top-center of the device allows for the uniform control of the
mixing speed in all of the containers.

Jar Test Procedure

The jar test procedure involves the following steps:

1. Fill the jar testing apparatus containers with sample water. One container will be used as a
control while the other 5 containers can be adjusted depending on what conditions are being
tested. For example, the pH of the jars can be adjusted or variations of coagulant dosages can
be added to determine optimum operating conditions.
2. Add the coagulant to each container and stir at approximately 100 rpm for 1 minute. The rapid
mix stage helps to disperse the coagulant throughout each container.
3. Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 35 rpm and continue mixing for 15 to 20 minutes. This
slower mixing speed helps promote floc formation by enhancing particle collisions which lead
to larger flocs.
4. Turn off the mixers and allow the containers to settle for 30 to 45 minutes. Then measure the
final turbidity in each container.

Residual turbidity vs. coagulant dose is then plotted and optimal conditions are determined. The
values that are obtained through the experiment are correlated and adjusted in order to account
for the actual treatment system.

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Experiment 8: Hardness

Methods of determination:

1-The calculation method

Based on water analysis for cations concentrations causing Element equivalent wt.
hardness (which could be determined by the photometric method). CaCO3 50
The hardness is calculated by summing the concentrations of these M+
cations after multiplying each cation by a factor. The result is Ca 20
recorded as: Mg 12
Fe 26
Total hardness mg/Las CaCO3 = ∑M+ X Factor Mn 27
Al 9
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 Zn 32
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑀+

2-Titration with EDTA

Take 10 mL sample (volume of sample Vs).

Add 10 drops of buffer solution (to make the pH about 10 for the reaction).

Add 2 drops indicator (Eriochrom black T).

Titrate with 0.01 M EDTA read volume (V) used to reach end point (from red to blue).

𝑚𝑔 𝑉 × 𝐵 × 103
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 =
𝐿 𝑉𝑠

B = mg CaCO3 which is equivalent to 1 ml EDTA =1

Relationship between hardness and alkalinity

1-If total hardness ˃ total alkalinity

Then carbonate hardness = total alkalinity (alkalinity is HCO3 and CO3)

Non-carbonate hardness = total hardness – total alkalinity

2-If total hardness ˂ total alkalinity

Then total hardness = carbonate hardness (due to HCO3)

Alkalinity due to HCO3 and CO3 = total hardness

Alkalinity due to OH = total alkalinity - total hardness

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Water Quality analysis

The analytical measurements for inorganic elements in a water sample, should qualify the
following equation:

The sum of the positive ions (cations) must equal the sum of the negative ions (anions) in the
solution:

∑ cations = ∑ anions

Check the accuracy of the chemical analysis of the sample is done by calculating the
percentage difference which is determined by:

(∑ 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 − ∑ 𝐴𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × 100
(∑ 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 + ∑ 𝐴𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)

Where the cations and anions in the sample should be in meq / L

The acceptance criteria is given as ∑ anions meq/L Percentage difference %

0 -3.0 +- 0.2
3.0 -10.0 +- 2
10 -800 +- 5

Problem: The following analysis has been completed for a water sample. Check the accuracy
of the analysis.

Cation Concentration Anion Concentration

mg/L mg/L
Ca 42 HCO3 115
Mg 8.6 SO4 29
Na 10 Cl 26
K 1.3 NO3 1.0
Solution:

Cation Concentration Eq.wt. meq/L

Anion Concentration Eq.wt. meq/L
mg/L mg/meq mg/L mg/meq
Ca 42 2.1 20HCO3 115 61 1.89
Mg 8.6 0.72 12 SO4 29 48 0.6
Na 10 0.43 23 Cl 26 35.5 0.73
K 1.3 0.03 39 NO3 1.0 62 0.02
∑ cations 3.28 ∑ anions 3.24
(∑ 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 − ∑ 𝐴𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠) (3.28 − 3.24)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = = = 0.46%
(∑ 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 + ∑ 𝐴𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠) (3.28 + 3.24)

The analysis is acceptable as ∑ anions is in the range 3 -10 and % difference is less than 2.

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Experiment 9: Chlorine (Residual)

The determination of chlorine is to ensure the activity of the chlorination process and to
determine the residual chlorine concentration in the treated water which is supplied to the
consumer.

Methods of determination:

Photometric:

A reagent (DPD) is added to the sample where it takes a degree of color which is proportional
to the concentration of the chlorine to be measured. Put the colored sample in the device.
Set the device on chlorine and wait for the sign. The result is recorded in the display as mg/L
chlorine.

Add DPD1 + DPD2 to the sample to determine the residual as free chlorine. Then add DPD3 to
the same sample to determine total residual chlorine. So,

Combined chlorine = Total chlorine – Free chlorine.

Experiment 10: Chloride

Chloride in the form of Cl-1 ion is the major anion in water and wastewater. This ion is
considered one of the pollution indicators, as one person may produce 15 mg/L chloride in
domestic sewage.

Methods of determination

Argentometric method: titration with silver nitrate (AgNO3)

Take 10 ml water sample(Vs)

Add 2 drops potassium chromate indicator K2CrO4 indicator

Titrate with standard solution, (0.0141 N) AgNO3to reach end point yellow to reddish brown
read the volume required (V)

Calculate chloride concentration as Cl mg/L= V x N x eq. wt of Cl x103/ Vs

= V x 0.0141 x 35.5 x103/ Vs

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Experiment 11: Microbiology of water

Water is a good environment for different types of microorganisms to live, as it supplies the
nutrients they require. But potable water should be safe to drink which does not contain
microorganisms that cause diseases. By disinfection these microorganisms are killed. To
determine the efficiency of the disinfection process and the degree of water pollution,
microbiology tests are required.

Laboratory equipment:

1) Glass wares, pipettes, test tubes, bottles, Petri-dishes… etc.

2) Auto clave, for the sterilization of all the glass wares, liquid… etc, this is performed at
121 0C and 1 bar pressure for 15 minute.
3) Incubator, for providing the proper environment of temperature (desirable and
constant) for the growth of the microorganisms.

Samples:

1) Water samples are collected in clean and sterilized bottles.

2) The samples are to be tested immediately. If not they should be stored at 4oC (to stop
the microbial activity).
3) Samples should be diluted: river, lake, wastewater and any polluted water.

Dilution procedure:

1) Prepare a number of clean test tubes.

2) Put 9 mL of distilled water in each tube.
3) Cover each tube with cotton.
4) Sterilize the tubes in the auto clave.
5) Dilution proportions.

a) Put 1ml sample to one test tube of 9mL distilled water = 0.1 dilution(1:10).
b) Put 1ml from (a) to another test tube of 9ml distilled water = 0.01 dilution (1:100).
c) Put 1ml from (b) to another test tube of 9ml distilled water = 0,001 dilution and so on
(1:1000).

Methods used to determine the microorganisms living in water (bacteria):

1) Total Plate count

This procedure is to determine the density of microorganisms (bacteria) in water. It is an

empirical measurement because bacteria grow in pairs, chains and colonies. Also no single
media (nutrient) will satisfy all types of bacteria. In this procedure, counting the number of
bacteria that will grow on a solid media (ager) is performed.

a) Put 1 mL of the collected sample (or diluted) in a sterilized Petri-dish.

b) Pure a suitable amount of warm and sterilized media (nutrient agar) in the Petri-
dish.
c) Put the Petri-dish in the incubator at 35 oC.

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errors or discrepancies have occurred.
Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2019-2020

d) After 24-48 hr count the number of colonies that have grown on the agar.

Record the result as CFU/mL (colony forming unit per mL) = reading X dilution factor

Note: neglect the result if the reading is 300 CFU/mL or more

Problem:

Proportion of dilution 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001

Dilution factor 1 10 100 1000 10000
reading ˃300 ˃300 40 5 zero
CFU/ml - - 4000 5000 -

The average reading could be recorded = (4000 + 5000)/2 = 4500 CFU/ml

2) Multiple tube fermentation

A large number of fecal and pathogenic bacteria grow and are transmitted in water. Many of
these pathogens are detected by complicated producers. So an indicator organism is used as
an index of possible pathogenic pollution. A coliform bacterium is used as the indicator
organism. By the determination of this indicator, pollution may be measured and the degree
of disinfection is evaluated.

a) Prepare a number of clean test tubes: For drinking water tests, 5 tubes are required
with no dilution, for any other water a set of 3 tubes is required for each dilution
used.
b) Put 10 mL of a liquid media (MacConky broth) in each test tube. Insert a small tube
(Durham) in each tube as invert which should be filled with the liquid media.
c) Cover each tube with cotton.
d) Sterilize the tubes in the autoclave.
e) Inoculate each tube with 1 mL of the water sample (or diluted). Return the cotton on
the tube.
f) Put the tubes in the incubator at 35oC.
g) After 24-48 hr record the results:
i. Positive result (+) indicating bacterial growth, by the change in the color of the
media and the appearance of gas in the durham tube.
ii. Negative result (-) indicating no growth, no change in color or gas formation.
h) The positive results are taken only. The following table is used to record the results
as MPN/100mL (most probable number).

Problem: Raw Water

Using 4 sets of tubes (3 tubes in each set)

Dilution proportion 1 0.1 0.01 0.001

Dilution factor 1 10 100 1000
(+) tubes in one set 3 3 2 0

Page 14 of 17
These lectures are intended to be a guide documentation of the course held. Please, revise and check out the references if any
errors or discrepancies have occurred.
Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2019-2020

Select the last 3 dilutions for recording the results: 320 and from the table read: 93
MPN/100mL.

The raw water contains: the reading X dilution factor (the middle of the 3 dilutions used)

=93 X 100= 9300 MPN/100mL

Problem: Drinking Water Test

Using 5 tubes inoculated with 1mL of the treated water in each tube.
No (+) result: less than 2.2 MPN/100mL
One (+) results: 2.2 MPN/100mL
Two and more (+) results: 5.1 and more MPN/100mL

Page 15 of 17
These lectures are intended to be a guide documentation of the course held. Please, revise and check out the references if any
errors or discrepancies have occurred.
Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2019-2020

Experiment 12: Dissolved oxygen (DO)

The amount of oxygen gas dissolved in water, rivers, potable water, sewage …etc depends mainly on
temperature and salt content of the water. In water bodies this amount will vary with: flowing
velocity, surface area and depth. The main source of oxygen in water is from the atmosphere.

Methods of determination:

1) DO meter: By using an electrode sensitive to oxygen molecules in water.

2) Azide modification method.
a) Put the sample in a BOD bottle (250 or 300 mL)
b) Add 2mL MnSO4 solution
c) Add 2 mL alkaline –azide solution (NaOH. NaI. NaN3)
d) Shake the bottle for complete mixing:
i. IF a- a white color appears- there is no DO in the sample, then stop the
test.
ii. b-a yellow or brown color appears – there is DO in the sample , continue
the test.
e) Leave the sample to settle for 10 to 15 minutes.
f) Add 2mL H2SO4 and shake the bottle to dissolve the settle matter.
g) Take 203 mL from the bottle in a flask.
h) Add 1 mL starch as an indicator, a black color will appear.
i) Titrate with 0.025 N sodium thiosulfate Na2S2O3.

The reaction will give a blue color and the end point will be a colorless solution. Read the
volume used for titration A mL.

The concentration of DO in the sample is calculated from:

DO (mg/L)= A x N x eq.wt of O2 x 103 / volume of sample(with no additions)

= A x 0.025 x 8 x 103 / 200 = A

So DO (mg/L)= A(mL)= volume of sodium thiosulfate used for titration.

Why is a volume of 203 mL of the sample used in the titration process:

300x200/(300-4) = 202.7mL OR 250x200/(250-4) = 203.3mL

Where 250 or 300 mL =Volume of the BOD bottle used in the test

4mL = the amount of chemicals added for reaction (2mL MnSO4 = 2mL azide solution)

203mL represents the volume required for titration which is equivalent to the original
sample 200mL that satisfies the equation above.

Page 16 of 17
These lectures are intended to be a guide documentation of the course held. Please, revise and check out the references if any
errors or discrepancies have occurred.
 Dr. Awatif Soaded & Dr. Basim H. Sanitary and Environmental Engineering 2019-2020

Experiment 13: Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

For the determination of organic matter concentrations in different types of water samples.
If high amounts of organic matter exist in the sample, the sample should be diluted to provide
enough dissolved oxygen for biodegradation.

Dilution water:

1) Take one liter of distilled water.

2) Add 2ml FeCl3 + 2ml CaCl2 + 2mL MgSO4 as nutrients.
3) Aerate the water by shaking or using an air compressor to saturate the water with
dissolve oxygen.

Dilute the water sample according to:

a) Put the diluted sample into 2 BOD bottles.

b) Determine the existing dissolved oxygen in bottle 1(by the azide method) DO2.
c) Put the 2nd bottle in the incubator for 5 days at 20oC temperature, for the
biodegradation of the organic matter in the sample.
d) Determine the remaining dissolved oxygen in the 2nd bottle DO2.
e) Calculate BOD5-20 = (DO1 –DO2) x dilution factor (Dilution factor = 1/ proportion of
dilution).

Proportion of
Sample
Dilution
River water 1:3
Low strength sewage 1:5 – 1:10
High strength sewage 1:50 – 1:100

Page 17 of 17
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errors or discrepancies have occurred.

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