RESEARCH

POLICY &
Culture
in the Digital
Environment Assessing impact
in Latin America
and Spain

Octavio Kulesz

Culture in the digital environment 1

This study was conducted by Octavio Kulesz,
founder and director of Editorial Teseo.
With more than 15 years of experience in
the publishing sector, he works as a researcher
on topics related to e-books, social media and
digital culture in emerging economies.
This study covers Spain and the following
Spanish‑speaking countries in Latin America:
Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador and Mexico.

Published in 2017 by the United Nations Educational,

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© UNESCO 2017
CLT-2017/WS/11

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Cover design: Corinne Hayworth
Graphic design: Corinne Hayworth
Printed in France
This publication was supported by the Government of Spain
Table of Contents
Foreword 5
Executive summary 7
Introduction 11

1. Access to culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Case study 1. Vive Digital Plan (Colombia) 21

2. Creativity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Case Study 2. Latitud1x1 (Ecuador) 28
Case Study 3. Digital Culture Centre (Mexico) 31

3. Cultural industries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Case Study 4. Assistance for cultural and
creative industries (Spain) 38
Case Study 5. Retina Latina 39

4. Civil society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Case Study 6. Digital Culture Forum (Argentina) 43

Conclusions and recommendations 47

ANNEX 1. Main experts consulted 55

ANNEX 2. Bibliography 59
Culture in the digital environment

3
Foreword
Since the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of
the Diversity of Cultural Expressions was adopted in October
2005, tremendous technological transformations have taken
place. The digital era has significantly changed the cultural
landscape and has had a major impact on creative sectors
worldwide.
With the emergence of new players, the accelerated
expansion of social networks, the explosion of big data and
cloud computing, new models of creation, production,
distribution, access and participation have emerged. These
new models have enabled artists and cultural professional to
bypass traditional distribution channels and interact directly
with the public and potential audiences or customers.
These changes can be simultaneously advantageous and
challenging, and global systems of governance for culture
must adapt to this new reality to ensure that the diversity of
cultural expressions is protected and promoted.
Respect for human rights and artistic freedom in the digital
environment, in particular the social and economic rights of
artists, is now recognized as a new challenge for sustainable
development. This includes the empowerment of women
and girls through support for their participation in the cultural
and creative industries as creators and producers of cultural
expressions.
New questions require new answers: How can we
modernize policies for creativity in the digital environment?
How should we consider e-commerce in trade agreements?
How can we engage local digital players and protect online
remuneration for artists? How can we address digital divides
and inequalities?
Culture in the digital environment

5
 Parties to the 2005 Convention have recognized the
importance of these questions and have shown their political
commitment to working on a new “digital agenda”. New
Operational Guidelines on digital issues were included in the
text of the Convention in June 2017. Parties are also increasingly
supporting digital creativity through the International Fund
for Cultural Diversity (IFCD).
Against this background, an ongoing, systemic search for
data is indispensable to monitor key trends in policymaking
and to identify positive developments. Data from one region
and stories from another can also be extremely valuable in
determining the impact of policies and measures.
By analyzing how these changes have created both
opportunities and challenges for the creative chain in Latin
America and Spain, this study offers unique insight into a part
of the world that is witnessing rapid changes, illustrated by
the adoption of new digital plans and strategies.
The accumulation and dissemination of such information
is essential to evaluate goals, resolve strategic policy questions
and improve existing policy instruments.
I would like to sincerely thank the Government of Spain
for its financial support and for making this study possible. We
hope to conduct similar comparative work in the future, with
a broadened geographical scope, in order to foster further
cooperation and continue to rethink the key principles of the
Convention – access, openness, balance – in the digital age.

Danielle Cliche
Secretary of the 2005 Convention on the Protection and
Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions,
Chief of the Section on the Diversity of Cultural Expressions
Culture in the digital environment

6
Executive Summary
In the past two decades, digital technologies have
transformed the cultural scene profoundly. New forms of
creation, production, distribution, access and participation
have revolutionized entire industries, such as book publishing,
music and film. Changes have brought both opportunities
and challenges to the creative chain, in a process that has
affected both the Global North and South.
Within UNESCO, close attention is being paid to this
issue under the framework of the 2005 Convention on
the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural
Expressions. In addition to the various investigations that have
been carried out to date, the Parties to the 2005 Convention
are gradually including digital issues in their quadrennial
periodic reports, and in the process of approving operational
guidelines exclusively focused on this topic.
In this paper, we examine the impact of digital technologies
on the diversity of the cultural expressions in Spain and
Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America (hereinafter
“Latin America“), paying particular attention to the book,
music and film industries. We have focused on five countries:
Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico and Spain.
As we shall try to show, digital technologies are having
a significant impact on the cultural scene of Spain and
Latin America, and the landscape of opportunities, barriers
and policies associated with the protection and promotion
of the diversity of cultural expressions in the digital era is
highly complex. Following examination, new technologies
cannot be said to be either positive or negative in themselves
but instead can be regarded as both an advantage and
a challenge, depending on how they are applied in each
Culture in the digital environment

context: indeed, according to the way they are used, digital

tools can, for example, generate a rich and dynamic market
of cultural industries, or concentrate the supply in the hands
of very few players. Public policies have a decisive influence in
defining the outcome in either direction.

7
 Within this framework, when it comes to protecting
and promoting the diversity of cultural expressions in the
new environment, the progress made by some countries
could be extremely useful for others. Indeed, many of the
policies and measures we have studied in relation to access,
creativity, cultural industries and social engagement are clear
success stories that could be replicated. However, beyond
these initiatives, there are some less explored areas, which
should also be taken into account. We are mainly referring to
opportunities that are not being fully utilized, or challenges
that are not being adequately addressed.
With regard to access, the public sector has made
considerable efforts to reduce the digital divide. Nevertheless,
these projects are often part of vast national infrastructure
plans, the drafting and implementation of which usually
involve the ministries of technology, industry, communications
and education, among others, but not the ministry of culture
– and this fact can have a negative impact in terms of the
diversity of cultural expressions. Furthermore, in a context in
which large international platforms are increasing pressure
to provide infrastructure solutions, it is essential to insist that
without public policies in this area, equitable access and net
neutrality may be at risk.
From the viewpoint of creativity, countries have invested
in platforms and applications that contribute to the visibility
of local artists, training activities that help them to experiment
and create with digital technologies and various measures
to protect copyright. Nevertheless, cultural policies often
remain too anchored in the analogue creation model – in
which the message is communicated in one direction –
and lose sight somewhat of the very paradigm of the new
environment, which is characterized by interaction and
collaboration. Regarding cultural industries, support for
professional networking, training and modernization, as
well as the establishment of platforms that contribute to
the consolidation of the book, music and film industries, are
Culture in the digital environment

key initiatives. However, the challenges associated with large

global platforms and their impact on the local creative chain
are not receiving comprehensive treatment: without a firm
strategy in this area, the problems can be exacerbated, both
at the industry level and in terms of national statistics.

8
 Finally, countries have carried out numerous projects for
cultural dissemination and promotion of social engagement,
particularly through outreach platforms, communication
through social networks, public consultations, conferences
and publications on culture in the digital era. Here there
is a somewhat missed opportunity: the chance to raise
awareness among the general public about the objectives
and principles of the 2005 Convention and maintain a more
explicit discussion on the impact of digital technologies on
the diversity of cultural expressions.
At any rate, it is clear that for the culture of Spanish-
speaking countries the digital age does not represent a
possible future but rather a current reality. Although a great
deal remains to be done to achieve a deep understanding of
these processes in both quantitative and qualitative terms, we
could postulate that the digital cultural space composed of
Spain and Latin America is not something that has to be built
from scratch but instead already exists and is developing in a
highly dynamic manner.
At the same time, it is also apparent that there are marked
contrasts between countries, with regard to numerous
technological, economic and social particularities, and these
local characteristics might have increasing weight in the future.
For instance, many of the measures implemented in Spain
are usually aligned with European integration programmes
– as occurs with the Digital Single Market – while the digital
agendas of the four Latin American countries studied tend to
put the emphasis on reducing asymmetries and diversifying
an economy that is overly dependent on primary exports. In
the particular case of Colombia, new technologies take on an
even more specific meaning: they are directly linked to peace
building and the “post-conflict” period.
Culture in the digital environment

9
 In future research on the relationship between digital
and the diversity of cultural expressions in the Spanish-
speaking countries, it will certainly be necessary to maintain
this dual approach. On the one hand, we must continue to
pay attention to the universal/common aspect involving a
wide range of opportunities, challenges and policies that are
repeated throughout the region. Secondly – to the extent that
the available data permit – it will be essential to examine the
local/specific component, defined by the particular situation
and priorities of each country – unique features that might
intensify over time. In a sense, this is the same duality we find
in the idea of a shared language: the region has Spanish in
common, but there are undeniable differences in dialect that
must be taken into account. And, ultimately, if the aim is to
consolidate the Spanish-speaking digital space in such a way
as to promote and protect the diversity of cultural expressions,
it will be vital to strengthen both pillars simultaneously: the
regional exchange networks – of data, experiences, content
and artistic expressions – and the constant work on specific
local needs.
Culture in the digital environment

10
Introduction
In the past two decades, digital technologies have
transformed the cultural scene profoundly. New forms of
creation, production, distribution, access and participation
have revolutionized entire industries, such as book publishing,
music and film, in a process that has affected both the Global
North and South.
Within UNESCO, close attention is being paid to this
issue under the framework of the 2005 Convention on
the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural
Expressions (hereinafter the 2005 Convention). The fact is that
although the 2005 Convention does not explicitly mention
the question of digital – since it only alludes, more generally,
to “information and communication technologies” or “new
technologies” – the principle of technological neutrality as set
out in Article 4.1 makes it clear that its legal framework must
apply to any environment – including the digital one.
References to digital issues have multiplied since the
first quadrennial periodic reports on the implementation of
the Convention were delivered in 2012.1 An analysis of these
documents and other contemporary trends2 suggests that
digital transversally affects the 4 major objectives underlying
the 2005 Convention:3
◗◗ the new technological context has dramatically reshaped the value
chain, in a way that impacts the sustainability of the systems of
governance for culture;
◗◗ the technological disparities between North and South represent
an obvious challenge when it comes to achieving a balanced flow
of cultural goods and services;
Culture in the digital environment

1. The reports, submitted by Parties every four years, can be viewed at the following link: http://en.unesco.org/creativity/
monitoring-reporting/periodic-reports/available-reports. The new form for the periodic reports, revised in June 2015, invites
the Parties to provide details about digital technologies and the challenges they pose, in the sections entitled “Overview
of the cultural policy context” and “Transversal issues”. A PDF version of this form is available here: http://en.unesco.org/
creativity/sites/creativity/files/qpr_online_form_en_shorten.pdf
2. Among the various research studies carried out on the diversity of cultural expressions in the digital age, we could
mention Guèvremont et al. (2013), Kulesz (2014) and Lee and Lim (2015).
3. See UNESCO (2015b: 13).

11
 ◗◗ while new technologies can help strengthen the local economic and
social fabric, the emergence of large Internet platforms in the trade
of cultural goods and services may complicate matters with regard to
integrating culture into a framework of sustainable development.
◗◗ the expansion of the Web as a space for creation, access and social
participation renews the need to promote freedom of expression,
the right to privacy and human rights in general.
It is in this context, characterized by both opportunities
and challenges, that the organs of the 2005 Convention are
drafting operational guidelines specifically oriented toward
digital issues, which are in the process of being approved.4 The
text will serve as a guide for interpreting the 2005 Convention
in the digital context and will provide clear principles for
implementing new cultural policies. At the same time, the
monitoring framework proposed in the UNESCO Global
Report Re|Shaping Cultural Policies5 will help to measure
potential advances in protecting and promoting the diversity
of cultural expressions in the digital environment.6
Another aspect to consider is that the impact of technology
has global characteristics, but also displays local and regional
particularities based on variables such as infrastructure,
legislation and even language. In the latter case, it must be
recognized that those countries that share the same language
form a kind of common “digital territory”, within which
recurrent opportunities and challenges can be observed.
Now, if we bear in mind that nearly 470 million people have
Spanish as their mother tongue,7 it is clear that studying these
phenomena in the Spanish-speaking countries may prove
to be a highly fruitful exercise, especially when it comes to
devising new cultural strategies.
At this point, it must be stressed that the digital environment
is gaining increasing importance in cultural policies in the
Spanish-speaking region, although the approaches vary.
Culture in the digital environment

4. See UNESCO (2015a).

5. See Anheier (2015: 31ff.).
6. For a summary of this framework, see section below, “Monitoring digital issues for the future”.
7. See Instituto Cervantes (2015: 5).

12
 The Economic Commission for Latin America and the
Caribbean (ECLAC/CEPAL),8 for example, encourages the
adoption of a digital agenda – eLAC2018 –,9 focused on
different areas of the economy, including the development of
content and applications. On the other hand, the Community
of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC) promotes the
Cultural Action Plan 2015-2020, which emphasizes the need
to ensure free expression of cultural diversity on the Internet.10
However, it is perhaps at the Ibero-American scale that the
intersection between the diversity of cultural expressions
and the digital age is expressed most concisely. The Ibero-
American Cultural Charter – an instrument created in 2006
on the initiative of the Organization of Ibero-American States
for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) to promote greater
coordination and better cooperation among the countries
of the region –11 explicitly reaffirms the principles of the 2005
Convention and makes repeated reference to the issue of
technology. In particular, the document calls for the region
to “promote the development and use of new technologies
as opportunities of creation, production, dissemination and
promotion of cultural goods and services, likewise their
contribution to the formation of new audiences and cultural
exchange among countries”. Ten years on since the adoption
of the Cultural Charter, these objectives are still valid and are
now reflected in the Digital Cultural Agenda for Ibero-America,
driven by the Ibero-American General Secretariat (SEGIB) with
support from the OEI. Indeed, Article 14 of the Declaration of
Veracruz, signed at the 24th Ibero-American Summit, in 2014,
entitled “Education, innovation and culture in a changing
world”, recommends:

“entrusting SEGIB and OEI, in coordination with the Member States

and the permanent working group established at the 17th Ibero-
American Conference of Culture Ministers, to coordinate the launch
of the Digital Cultural Agenda for Ibero-America that will contribute
to the consolidation of the Ibero-American cultural space and its
integration into the global information networks.
Culture in the digital environment

8. It should be noted that in the presentation we will refer to the situation in Ibero-America and Latin America, territories
that do not, strictly speaking, correspond exactly to the Spanish-speaking region, as they include Portuguese-speaking
countries such as Portugal and Brazil, but can prove very useful for analyzing common trends.
9. See ECLAC (2015a).
10. See CELAC (2015).
11. See “Ibero-American Cultural Charter” (2006).

13
 The Agenda will promote digitization and society’s participation in digital
culture, creative industries, the generation of local and shared content,
and preservation of cultural heritage, recognizing the differences and
asymmetries between countries, respecting national legal systems,
cultural diversity, access to content and intellectual property.” 12
The Declaration sets out a very clear programme. The text,
in line with previous documents, speaks of “consolidating”
the Ibero-American cultural space and not “creating” it, which
shows a strong commitment to integrating and improving
what has already been achieved, instead of imposing solutions
“from above”.13 In addition, the document precisely defines
the main lines of action, in a context of promoting cultural
diversity and respecting the sovereignty of each country:
(1) the expansion of access; (2) the creation of local content;
(3) the development of creative industries; (4) the participation
of society; (5) the preservation of cultural heritage.
It is within this framework that we propose to examine the
impact of digital technologies on the diversity of the cultural
expressions in Spain and Latin America, paying particular
attention to the book, music and film industries.14 We have
focused on five countries: Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador,
Mexico and Spain,15 giving priority in each case to the national
point of view, although we have also included some references
to the provincial and municipal situation.

12. See “Declaración de Veracruz” (2014).

13. See for example SEGIB (2013: 22): “Ultimately, we have many fragments of Ibero-American cultural space already
built and this is what makes it right to speak of affirming or ‘consolidating’ the space, as in the Ibero-American Cultural
Charter and the Declaration of the Ibero-American Summit in Cadiz, and not of ‘creating’ it. ‘Creating’ implies establishing
something ex novo, while ‘consolidating’ means giving impetus to something that exists already. Indeed, the space already
partly exists”.
14. Although the digital age has brought about a transformation of all the cultural industries, in this study we have
focused the analysis on those three segments, since that is where the bulk of public policy in Spanish-speaking countries
is aimed. This is particularly evident in the field of cooperation: the Ibero-American Cultural Charter, for example, seeks to
“establish mechanisms of cooperation that promote a distribution of its cultural goods and services in the Ibero-American
space and abroad, with special attention to the cinematographic and audiovisual sector, music and books”. Moreover, the
incorporation of these three sectors enables us to make a preliminary assessment and establish quantitative and qualitative
comparisons in a much more reliable manner than if we were dealing with other practices that are still emerging in the
region – such as the use of new technologies in the performing arts – or that so far have received less attention from
public policies. Nevertheless, as we will highlight in the final recommendations, one of the keys to consolidating the book,
Culture in the digital environment

music and film industries might lie in establishing synergies with other creative sectors, such as animation or videogames.
The impact of the latter on the diversity of cultural expressions should be the subject of further studies in the future.
15. This selection brings together the four countries with the largest GDP and population – Argentina, Colombia, Mexico
and Spain –, which in fact cover highly diverse geographical areas – Europe, North America, the Southern Cone, the
Andean Region, the Caribbean, the Amazon Region – and cultural contexts that – as we shall see – determine a wide
variety of public policies; the inclusion of Ecuador – the headquarters of the UNESCO office for Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador
and Venezuela – has proved particularly important for understanding the Andean reality. Inevitably, this methodological
choice leaves out many countries that could contribute important elements and should be the subject of further studies
in the future. On the other hand, in this report we have not included references to the situation of the Spanish-speaking
community in the United States, since we have concentrated only on those countries that are part of the 2005 Convention.

14
 On the other hand, given the changing nature of
technologies, policies and stakeholders,16 we have not only
consulted written sources, such as legislation, quadrennial
periodic reports, statistics, sector inquiries and newspaper
articles, among other documents,17 but have also used the
direct testimonies of 80 experts, artists, entrepreneurs and
public sector representatives, whose generous contribution
has been vital to understanding the local situation.18 To
cover the broadest possible universe of trends, we have
paid attention to the digitization of analogue cultural goods,
their online distribution and dissemination and even the
phenomena related to purely digital creation – as occurs with
digital art.
Now, it must be noted that this study does not seek to
provide a diagnosis of local digital culture or the technological
progress of each country. It rather provides analysis of the
specific way in which new technologies impact the diversity of
cultural expressions19 within the region, with a clear emphasis
on the opportunities and challenges posed and the policies
implemented in recent years.
Nevertheless, it will be important not to lose sight
of the local circumstances. Indeed, among the selected
countries there are numerous socio-economic specificities
that determine different priorities and issues. In terms of
infrastructure, for example, Spain is aligned with European
integration programmes – particularly the Digital Single
Market – and enjoys a distinct advantage over Latin America.20
At the same time, the economic crisis that began in 2008 has
forced the Spanish cultural industries to seek new markets
and become more competitive by every means possible.

16. This aspect is accentuated by the changes in the political circumstances of three of the countries analysed: Argentina
elected a new government in December 2015; Spain is currently going through an electoral process; and Mexico recently
dissolved the National Council for Culture and Arts (CONACULTA), to create the new Secretariat of Culture.
17. The quadrennial reports available to date are those of Argentina (2012 and 2016), Ecuador (2012), Spain (2012 and
2016) and Mexico (2012 and 2016). With regard to statistics, it is not always easy to locate up-to-date information about
the phenomena under analysis here, which has made it necessary to seek out a variety of sources: the public sector in
Culture in the digital environment

each country, national as well as international professional associations, regional and international bodies such as CERLALC,
CEPAL/ECLAC, ITU, UIS (among others), market research companies like eMarketer or Deloitte, along with press articles.
The sources specifically cited in this study are listed in Annex 2.
18. Annex 1 includes a list of all the main experts consulted. The interviews were carried forward between February and
April 2016, and the vast majority were conducted face to face. The testimonies included in the text without a reference
source have been extracted from these conversations.
19. It is important to note that here we are referring to the diversity of cultural expressions – in the strict sense provided in
the 2005 Convention – and not to cultural diversity in general. This leaves aside issues such as heritage – whether tangible
or intangible.
20. Throughout the report, we will provide more detailed information on all these trends.

15
 Latin American countries, meanwhile, have achieved
improvements in broadband connectivity, although the gaps in
access remain substantial and largely explain why e-commerce
still represents a relatively small portion of the economy.
Similarly, the current economic slowdown and falling prices of
raw materials reinforce the urgent need to diversify sources of
income. In the specific case of Argentina, a huge asymmetry
exists in infrastructure, which separates the capital from other
locations in that vast country. In Colombia there are intermediate
cities – like Medellin and Cali – with greater relative importance,
and the emphasis is placed especially on reducing the gaps
between town and country, as well as on using all the tools
available to consolidate peace. Disparities between urban and
rural centers also affect Ecuador – a country characterized by
a rich variety of cultures. Mexico – the most populous country
in the Spanish-speaking region – is also home to an enormous
diversity and a valuable historical legacy; its scale enables the
implementation of major projects.
To address all of these issues, we have organized the presentation
around 4 core themes, which correspond to key articles of the 2005
Convention:
1. Access to culture; 21
2. Creativity; 22
3. Cultural industries; 23
4. Participation of civil society and awareness-raising.24

As we shall try to show, there is a wide range of policies

in the region that, while not explicitly mentioning the 2005
Convention,25 contribute specifically to protecting and
promoting the diversity of cultural expressions in the digital
era. The success stories and lessons learned might serve as
inspiration to promote new projects, at either national or
regional level.

21. Articles 2.7, 4.6 and 7.1.

Culture in the digital environment

22. Articles 4.1, 4.3, 6.2, 7.2 and 10 (c).

23. Articles 4.5, 6.2 (c) and 10 (c). In terms of the cultural value chain, this section would correspond to the production and
distribution stages.
24. Articles 10 and 11. It is also worth noting that, in a context of readjustment of the creative chain, the areas examined
may overlap: for example, the field of artists (creativity) is increasingly closer to the world of cultural industries, insofar as
creators are more likely to self-publish and self-distribute their works. However, for the purposes of the study, we consider
that the distinction between creativity (i.e. the artists’ point of view) and cultural industries (i.e. the entrepreneurs’ point of
view) is still relevant.
25. In fact, references to the 2005 Convention and the diversity of cultural expressions tend to be much more present in the
field of international cooperation than in national policies. See García Leiva (2015).

16
CO R E T H E M E S
1
Access
to culture

17
 1. Access to culture
“Our countries tend to be very centralist: the bulk of the exchanges
flow through the capitals. It is true that, in some cases, medium-
sized cities carry a lot of weight – as occurs in Colombia with
Medellin or Cali – but there is still much to be done throughout Latin
America in terms of decentralization. And for cultural policies aimed
in that direction, new technologies can become a valuable ally.”
Ángel Moreno
Assistant director of Cultural Practices at the Secretariat for Culture,
Recreation and Sport of the City of Bogotá – Colombia

It is clear that new technologies imply No record store could compete with the
major advantages in terms of access to catalogue of Spotify, Pandora or other
culture.26 First of all, digital distribution music streaming platforms. Moreover,
allows – at least in principle – books, thanks to the fact that the process of
music and cinema to reach every corner copying and downloading has virtually
of a country much more effectively than no cost, users can enjoy free access to
in the past. This is particularly useful thousands of public domain works.
for nations with a large territory and
rugged terrain: for example, in southern However, we must not lose sight of the
Argentina or in rural Colombia it might barriers that currently prevent citizens from
be easier to equip a small library with making full use of these advantages. To
electronic books than with physical ones. begin with, the digital divide – between
Moreover, in a time characterized by the different socioeconomic sectors; between
proliferation of increasingly powerful and urban and rural areas; between the
affordable smartphones,27 digital access to capital and the rest of the territory –
cultural goods and services is facilitated that particularly affects Latin American
considerably. countries has a negative impact on access:
despite considerable progress in the past
It is also evident that in the digital age decade,28 there are still marked disparities
there are many more cultural offerings than in the region in terms of grid connection
users were formerly accustomed to. infrastructure and equipment.29 Another
obstacle to access is the lack of cultural
expressions available online. It is clear that
26. The benefits of new technologies in terms of access to culture
are underscored in the reports of Argentina (2012: 4, 9, 15 and 16),
without a content strategy, infrastructure
Ecuador (2012: 13), Mexico (2016: 3) and Spain (2016: 31 and 66). policies are likely to be insufficient.
27. According to recent data from Deloitte (2015: 2), Spain has
a smartphone penetration rate of 88%, which ranks it above
the European average (78%) and second globally, behind only
Singapore (92%). In the case of Latin America, the number of
smartphones has increased by 740% in the past four years; if this 28. See ECLAC (2015b: 11).
trend continues, the region will become the second largest mobile 29. For a detailed account of these inequalities – both within each
phone market by 2020 (See Granados, 2015). country and between different countries –, see ECLAC (2015b: 41ff.).

18 Culture in the digital environment

In this context, some foundations and The public sector has devoted great
large global platforms have proposed free efforts to take full advantage of the
or very low cost schemes so that people opportunities and overcome many of the
in developing countries may access the barriers described above. Below, we have
Internet. An example of this is FreeBasics,30 listed some of the plans that the selected
initially called “Internet.org”, a project countries have implemented in recent
promoted by Facebook in conjunction years to improve access infrastructure:33
with several phone operators, which has
already taken its first steps to providing Argentina
mobile technology access in Colombia,
Peru and Bolivia, among other countries. ◗◗ National Telecommunications Plan
An alternative proposal, which has just “Argentina Conectada” (2010):34
begun the testing stage in Latin America, comprehensive strategy for improving
is Loon, 31 by Google: a network of balloons connectivity in national territory.
floating above the stratosphere providing
◗◗ Open Digital Television (2009):35
connectivity to remote and rural areas.
project for free universal access to
Nevertheless, these initiatives have been
over the air (OTA) broadcast TV, which
widely criticized, particularly because they
includes explicit references to the issue
can lead to disproportionate advantages
of cultural diversity.36
for content and applications distributed by
participating companies. In the “Open Letter ◗◗ Cultural Equality National Plan
to Mark Zuckerberg regarding Internet.org, (2012):37 programme aimed at
Net Neutrality, Privacy and Security”, civil promoting equal opportunities for the
society organizations from several countries, enjoyment of cultural goods and access
including Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico and to new forms of communication, under
Spain, warned of the dangers that arise the theme “inclusion in diversity”.
when the provision of access is in the hands
of large private platforms: ◗◗ Internet Federal Plan (2016):38
provision of quality broadband for
“We, the undersigned, share a common 1,200 locations, aimed at reducing
concern about the launch and expansion connectivity asymmetries. The project
of Facebook’s Internet.org platform and will be complemented by the Digital
its implications for the open Internet Country plan, to be launched shortly.39
around the world. On that open
Internet, all content, applications and
33. In the list we have not included device delivery programmes,
services are treated equally, without such as “Conectar Igualdad” (Connect Equality) (Argentina, 2010)
any discrimination. We are especially and “Tabletas para educar” (Tablets for education) (Colombia, 2014),
which, although they have an impact on access to culture, are more
concerned that access for impoverished focused on the school context.
people is construed as justification for 34. www.enacom.gob.ar/multimedia/normativas/2010/Decreto%20
1552_10.pdf
violations of net neutrality.” 32 35. http://www.tda.gob.ar/
36. http://www.tda.gob.ar/tda/141/11165/consejo-asesor.html.
37. http://www.cultura.gob.ar/acciones/plan-nacional-igualdad-
30. https://info.internet.org/en/story/free-basics-from-internet-org/ cultural/
31. http://www.google.com.ar/intl/es-419/loon/ 38. http://www.argentina.gob.ar/planfederaldeinternet
32. See “Open Letter” (2015). 39. See “Plan Federal de Internet” (2016).

Culture in the digital environment 19

Colombia Mexico
◗◗ “Vive Digital” Plan (2014):40 the second ◗◗ National Digital Strategy (2013):44
edition of the successful programme a comprehensive programme
launched in 2010 covers a very wide to modernize the country, with
range of areas; in terms of infrastructure emphasis on improving connectivity,
it aims to significantly improve access to e-commerce, education, health, security
the Internet, particularly in rural areas, and public services.
install free WiFi points and expand the
coverage of digital TV, among other ◗◗ “México Conectado” (2013):45
things.41 implementation of the policies and
actions necessary to provide access to
broadband in public spaces.
Ecuador
◗◗ Communications and Transport
◗◗ National Plan for Good Living (2013):42
Sectoral Programme (2013):46 a
a far-reaching plan, with a distinct
project aimed at optimizing the
infrastructure, access and connectivity
coverage, connectivity and accessibility
component. The plan aims to provide
of communications in the field of
public telecommunications and ICT
television, radio, telephone and data,
services, including radio and television
among other things.
broadcasting.
◗◗ National Broadband Development Spain
Plan (2011):43 deployment of
broadband infrastructure, mainly ◗◗ Digital Agenda for Spain (2013):47
between the least serviced sectors. a national strategy that integrates all
plans to develop the economy and
the digital society, along multiple
lines including, in particular, the
deployment of networks and services
to guarantee connectivity and improve
the performance of digital television.
The plan is linked with the Digital
Agenda for Europe and the European
Digital Single Market.48

40. http://www.vivedigital.gov.co/
41. The 2010-2014 edition of the programme achieved, and at times 44. http://www.gob.mx/mexicodigital/
surpassed, the goals initially set. All the quantitative and qualitative
progress can be viewed on the Colombian Ministry of Information 45. http://www.mexicoconectado.gob.mx/
and Communication Technologies’ website. See MinTIC (undated) 46. http://www.sct.gob.mx/fileadmin/banners/Programa_Sectorial_
42. http://www.buenvivir.gob.ec/ de_Comunicaciones_y_Transportes.pdf
43. http://www.telecomunicaciones.gob.ec/plan-nacional-de- 47. http://www.agendadigital.gob.es/
desarrollo-de-banda-ancha/ 48. http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/

20 Culture in the digital environment

It is worth Case Study 1
emphasizing that
policies to improve Vive Digital Plan (Colombia)
infrastructure
often include the The Ministry of Information and Communication Technologies
establishment (MinTIC) implemented its “Plan Vive Digital” in 2010, initially
of community for a four-year term. The aim of the project was to shore up
centres equipped the Colombian “digital ecosystem”, consisting of four main
with computers components: services, applications, users and infrastructure. The
and Internet programme’s success led to the launch of a second edition, for the
connection, 2014-2018 period. The multiple virtues of the Vive Digital plan
which function include most notably: a comprehensive view of the topic of digital
as spaces of social technologies – with the focus placed not only on access but
inclusion, particularly also on creativity and content industries –, the establishment
in disadvantaged of new inter-ministerial synergies – for example, between
areas. In Argentina, MinTic and the Ministry of Culture – and the possibility of
for example, there designing long-term state policies, linked to local actors,
are Centres of Access among others. The programme has repositioned
to Knowledge (Núcleos Colombia at the centre of the region’s digital scene
de Acceso al Conocimiento and has become an inescapable reference for
- NAC), that form part of the
49 other Spanish-speaking countries.
“Argentina Conectada” plan. Colombia,
meanwhile, has installed “Vive Digital”
Centres50 and Kiosks:51 these points,
located in municipal capitals and rural
towns, act as access centres, with a clear Countries have also carried out a number
focus placed on integration for peace. 52 of initiatives to facilitate citizens’ access
Since 2003, Spain has built a vast network to cultural expressions online, particularly
of telecentres,53 currently managed by through virtual libraries, museums and
the autonomous communities, providing archives.56
Internet access to rural populations.
In Ecuador, there are Community
Information Centres,54 and Mexico has 56. In the area of libraries, museums and archives, the matter of
heritage partly re-emerges, which, as we noted in the introduction,
established “México Conectado” centres.55 is not addressed by this study. For this reason, we have excluded
those digital projects that are specifically related to preservation.
We have, nonetheless, included initiatives of interest for the
protection and promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions,
to the extent that they provide access to different online content.
It is also important to note that some of the cases mentioned in
49. http://www.nac.gob.ar/ this section are related to those under section 3 (cultural industries),
50. http://www.mintic.gov.co/portal/vivedigital/612/w3- for example, those concerning video on demand. For the purpose
propertyvalue-669.html of the presentation, we have included in section 1 the initiatives
whose main objective is linked to securing access (i.e., focusing
51. http://www.mintic.gov.co/portal/vivedigital/612/w3- on the user), while in section 3 we refer to projects that, while also
propertyvalue-7059.html providing free material, aim to consolidate or give visibility to a
52. As occurs with the Peace Points programme. See Arana (2016). particular sector (i.e. focusing on the industry). A similar distinction
53. www.red.es/redes/actuaciones/5/98 could be made for the digital initiatives of museums: if the
emphasis is on access, they could be included in section 1, whereas
54. http://www.telecomunicaciones.gob.ec/infocentros-comunitarios/ if it is on promoting the participation of society, they should come
55. http://www.pmc.gob.mx/ under section 4.

Culture in the digital environment 21

In August 2014, the National Library The National Library of Spain has many
of Argentina launched Trapalanda,57 digital collections, gathered in the Digital
a platform that incorporates its digital Library.66 Readers can access the material
collections and, in addition to historical online and, for certain works, are even able
material, displays many recent publications to purchase a printed copy on demand.67 In
that are free to download. In 2012, under the area of museums, Spain has a high level
the Cultural Equality plan, Argentina of digitization, both in terms of variety and
inaugurated the Music Bank,58 a platform quality of the multimedia material available
offering free access to musical content – as well as the abundance of associated
both in the public domain and donated by metadata.68 In 2009, Hispana69 was
their creators. Argentina also has the Open established, a portal for access to Spanish
Digital Content (Contenidos Digitales digital culture consisting of digital material
Abiertos – CDA)59 and the Argentine from public and private institutions,
Bank of Universal Audiovisual Content which acts as a national aggregator for
(BACUA) portals,60 offering an assortment of the European platform. Furthermore, the
digital resources. Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport
(MECD) developed the website CER.es70
In Colombia, the National Library61 (“Colecciones en red” – “Networked
organizes virtual exhibitions on historical Collections”) which enables the public
themes as well as contemporary issues. to view and learn more about the works
Since 2015, the library has also offered a exhibited in 95 museums in Spain.
selection of e-books for free online reading,
such as the Colombian Comic Anthology.62 In Mexico, the National Library also has its
The National Museum, on the other hand, own digital space.71 Furthermore, in May
has a virtual section whose works include 2010, four cultural institutions launched
not only heritage but also contemporary the Mexican Digital Library:72 This
cultural expressions.63 portal currently centralizes the works of
13 national libraries and archives.
In the case of Ecuador, since 2014, the
Eugenio Espejo National Library64 has
undertaken various modernization
measures aiming to digitize material that
will be offered free to download.65

57. http://trapalanda.bn.gov.ar/ 66. http://www.bne.es/es/Catalogos/BibliotecaDigitalHispanica/

Colecciones/
58. www.bancodelamusica.gob.ar
67. See, for example: http://bdh.bne.es/bnesearch/Search.
59. http://cda.gob.ar/ do?destacadas1=Bubok&home=true
60. http://www.bacua.gob.ar/ 68. See for example the multimedia section of the Reina Sofia
61. http://www.bibliotecanacional.gov.co/content/biblioteca-digital Museum (http://www.museoreinasofia.es/multimedia) and that of
62. http://www.bibliotecanacional.gov.co/content/antolog%C3%AD- the Prado Museum (https://www.museodelprado.es/actualidad/
de-comic-colombiano-libro-digital videos).
63. See for example the online exhibition “Nación Rock”: 69. http://hispana.mcu.es. The project is heir to the Directory and
http://www.museonacional.gov.co/sitio/rockvirtual/swf/Menu_ Collector of Digital Resources.
principal.html 70. http://ceres.mcu.es
64. http://biblioteca.casadelacultura.gob.ec/ 71. http://catalogo.iib.unam.mx/F/-/?func=login&local_base=BNDM
65. See “Biblioteca Nacional” (2015). 72. http://bdmx.mx

22 Culture in the digital environment

 In addition, within the framework of the
Secretariat of Culture’s Digital Agenda,
73
Mexico is developing repositories for
different artistic areas, as well as audio,
audiovisual and museum collections,
among others.74
From the viewpoint of cooperation, the
Ibermuseos and Iberbibliotecas programmes
enable the countries of the region to
build a fruitful exchange in the fields of
modernization and digitization.75 Moreover,
in 2012, the Association of Ibero-American
National Libraries (ABINIA) posted on line
the Digital Library of Ibero-American
Heritage (BDPI),76 which provides
participating libraries with a point of
access to digital resources.77 We must also
highlight the Señal que nos une project:78
this Ibero-American satellite television
channel, established in 2015, in compliance
with the resolutions of the 24th Ibero-
American Summit relating to the Digital
Cultural Agenda, aims to disseminate
cultural content from the 22 countries of
the community.

73. The Mexican Digital Cultural Agenda is derived directly from the
National Digital Strategy: it is the number 13 secondary objective,
which is part of the main objective “Quality Education”.
74. In section 3, we will discuss the initiative linked with books
(“Libros México”).
75. Digital technologies hold an increasingly important role in
both programmes, as follows from the topic of the 8th Ibero-
American Meeting of Museums and the 15th session of the
Intergovernmental Committee of Ibero-Libraries.
76. http://www.iberoamericadigital.net
77. Once again, although it is clear from its name that the BDPI
deals with heritage, this case can serve as an example of a
means of cooperation in terms of access to digital content. Many
participating libraries contribute not only with historical material
but also with contemporary cultural expressions. One example is
the National Library of Argentina, which puts online concerts by
contemporary artists such as Leo Sujatovich and Ricardo Mollo,
among others.
78. http://www.ibe.tv/es/canal/iberoamericano.

Culture in the digital environment 23

 CO R E T H E M E S
2
Creativity

25
 2. Creativity

The digital age has an impact not only “Technology contributes a lot to the cultural
on access but also on creativity and on development of society. I think that digital
the status of artists. First, it is clear that artisans are being formed, people who are
local creators in general can gain greater making art and creating a new world.” 79
visibility thanks to new technologies.
Independent musicians, for example, now Furthermore, we are witnessing an intense
have a multitude of digital tools allowing transformation of forms of expression,
them to distribute and promote their which are gradually intertwining with the
albums on the Internet and communicate new tools. According to the Argentine
directly with their public. filmmaker Daniel Burman, we are going
through a profound paradigm shift:
In addition to opening up new channels for
dissemination, the digital age has brought “Technology is no longer “nice to have” but
about huge changes at the very heart of has become part of the content. Media
creation. The proliferation of connected tend to be confused with the artistic
devices and the rapid expansion of content it displays. (…) We have to start
applications for self-publishing have incorporating technology in our creative
enabled all users/consumers to become processes. Technology needs to stop being
potential artists. Here we can cite the a mere platform or a means to an end.
experience of the Colombian musician Technology is not a result but a process”. 80
Carlos Muñoz, who became famous for In this regard, we must recognize that
having recorded and edited an entire digital culture is not only linked with the
album using his mobile phone. When digitization of analogue expressions, but
asked about how technology impacts it also refers to a highly dynamic space in
creativity, he said: which multimedia modalities, crossmedia,
transmedia, augmented reality and virtual
reality all coexist.81

79. See “Colombiano produce” (2015).

80. Blanc, Lhermitte and Perrin (2015: 97).
81. See Kulesz (2014: 10).

26 Culture in the digital environment

In the region, the activities carried out According to Germán Franco – assistant
by independent festivals and various director of the Ático Centre at the Pontifical
centres that have pioneered digital art Xavierian University in Bogotá and expert
demonstrate the great potential of these on communication policy and digital
new forms of expression.82 culture –, the problem arises not only at
the national but also at the Latin American
However, the digital landscape is not level:
without risks. Although digital tools
increase dissemination possibilities, “Traditionally, it was thought that a
paradoxically, the exponential growth project developed in the field of digital
in content offerings from around the culture needed information, devices and
world sometimes has the opposite connectivity. But we should not put that
effect: it results in a glut that may detract at the core: the most important thing
attention from local artists. is people and their ability to create. The
crucial thing here is culture, collective
With regard to the production possibilities practices, representations, and deep
offered by the new context, it is important motivations. And I think that Latin
to recognize that technology alone is not America can do much more. We should
enough to foster creation. Without training, take advantage of the new tools, but to
experimentation and active utilisation of tell our story as a region.”
the digital tools by local users, the mere
provision of devices or applications not Several respondents also point out that
only adds nothing to the initial situation neither the market nor the public sector
but may even worsen it. The challenge have taken due note of the new reality.
has been clearly identified by Colombia’s In the case of digital art, it is clear that
Ministry of Culture in its Digital Culture publicity and marketing channels are
Policy document, dated 2009: still overly attached to the analogue
world. 84 Although there are many artists,
“In cultural terms, [the provision researchers and teachers working in the
of technology and connectivity] is field of digital culture in the broadest
insufficient, as their uses are not only sense, the region has not yet managed
forms of data circulation but are also to establish a common space for linking
sparking a massive cultural revolution all these actors. From the perspective of
worldwide. Experiences suggest that Felipe Londoño, rector of the University
the process of providing computers and of Caldas (Colombia) and director of the
connectivity, without respect or stimuli International Festival of the Image,85 the
for cultural processes, can fragment underlying problem is that public policies
the cultural identities of societies or have not fully assimilated the new logics
communities.”83 of creation:

82. Here we could mention several projects that have emerged

in Spain, such as Artfutura (http://www.artfutura.org) and Sónar
(https://sonar.es) festivals, and the Espacio Fundación Telefónica
(https://espacio.fundaciontelefonica.com). 84. See Waelder, P. (2016: 45 ff ).
83. Ministerio de Cultura (2009: 478). 85. See below.

Culture in the digital environment 27

 “It is essential to review the concept of Another point on which the respondents
culture from the perspective of social and agree is that the systems for registering
technological changes in today’s world. digital works are not sufficiently well
The current agenda of public policies developed. For example, in many countries
must take into account the creation of in the region, any writer who wishes to
collaborative platforms that allow people carry out the procedures for registration
to work with open data, free licenses, and the legal deposit of their e-book
electronic networks and open source has to visit the public office in person,
software that allow the empowerment of take a copy of their work on a CD or DVD
communities, resulting in the expansion and fill out various forms by hand. This
of a new participatory model in the lack of modernization has very negative
construction of knowledge and culture.” effects because copies stored on CDs
or DVDs deteriorate rapidly; moreover,
From Spain, Marcos García – director of national statistics are affected because
MediaLab Prado – offers a similar diagnosis: many authors end up preferring to ignore
“Cultural policies have usually been national procedures and directly upload
envisaged in terms of access. However, their works onto large global platforms.86
we must also think about production An equally problematic aspect – also
policies, that is to say, moving from a frequently mentioned – is piracy. 87
transmission-based approach to one In this context of opportunities and
based on creation, which makes available challenges, numerous initiatives have
places where audiences can actively take been launched to enhance creation
part in the production process”. and the situation of artists. Among the
projects designed to increase the visibility
of local creators and productions, we
could highlight the Latitud1x188 platform,
launched in March 2016 by Ecuador’s
Case Study 2 Superintendency of Information and
Communication (SUPERCOM). This portal
Latitud1x1 (Ecuador) enables Ecuadorian musicians to
promote their work and monitor its
Launched in March 2016 by Ecuador’s dissemination.
Superintendency of Information and
Communication (SUPERCOM), the Latitud1x1
platform enables Ecuadorian musicians to
promote their songs and control their dissemination
in the media. The measure not only facilitates the
circulation of Ecuadorian music but also encourages
creators to register their works and join collective
management organizations. It is an initiative that has
a favorable impact on the local cultural ecosystem, in 86. See Gil (2015).
particular on the situation of artists, in terms of both 87. In the following section we will examine
the economic dimension of this challenge.
visibility and financial remuneration.
88. http://latitud1x1ec.supercom.gob.ec

28 Culture in the digital environment

It not only facilitates the circulation of More importantly, in recent years, a number
Ecuadorian music – in compliance with of spaces have emerged – many of which
Article 103 of the Communications Law,89 also have public support – dedicated to
which states that on radio stations, at least experimentation with new technologies,
50% of the music produced, composed or operating as centres of learning and
performed in Ecuador must be represented creation. Some noteworthy examples are
in musical content broadcast at all times – as follows:
but also encourages artists to record their
work and join collective management ◗◗ ViveLabs (Colombia):93 network of
organisations. citizen innovation laboratories seeking
to promote collaborative creation and
It is interesting to observe that in Ecuador, development of digital content, under
technological solutions have been the “Vive Digital” plan. The Bogota
developed that have a positive impact on ViveLab is operated by the National
the visibility of local art, both in digital and University.
analogue environments. One interesting
example is the project “Muros Libres” ◗◗ MediaLab UIO (Ecuador):94 laboratory
(Free Walls).90 This application, launched for art, communication, culture and
by the economic development agency society, sponsored by the International
ConQuito91 and the Metropolitan District Centre of Advanced Communication
of Quito, aims to support graffiti as an Studies for Latin America (CIESPAL).
art form and to minimize vandalism. The ◗◗ MediaLab Prado (Spain):95 established
city offers specific walls in public areas for on the initiative of Madrid City Council,
artists to paint; then, the digital platform this laboratory of citizen production,
helps to coordinate action and facilitate research and dissemination of cultural
meetings between owners of private walls projects promotes different forms of
and artists.92 experimentation and collaborative
In the field of training, it should be noted learning stemming from digital
that in the community access centres networks.
mentioned in section 1, courses are ◗◗ LABoral (Spain):96 this multidisciplinary
generally offered – mostly free of charge institution, established in Gijón,
– to train users in digital arts and crafts, produces and disseminates new
such as 3D animation, digital photography, cultural forms arising from the use
applications and visual effects. of information and communication
technologies.

89. http://www.presidencia.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/
downloads/2013/08/LeyDeComunicacion-espaniol.pdf
90. https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.neptuno. 93. http://www.mintic.gov.co/portal/vivedigital/612/w3-article-4055.html
ml&hl=en 94. http://www.medialabuio.org/
91. http://www.conquito.org.ec/ 95. http://medialab-prado.es/
92. See “150 artistas urbanos” (2014). 96. http://www.laboralcentrodearte.org/

Culture in the digital environment 29

◗◗ Laboratorio Arte Alameda (Mexico):97 With an approach fully in line with the
space belonging to the National principles of the abovementioned Digital
Institute of Fine Arts (INBA), dedicated Culture Policy document, “Crea Digital”
to the production of and research has provided funding to creators of
into artistic practices that establish a digital content interested in developing
dialogue between art and technology. projects promoting culture, literacy and
experimentation with ICTs. As highlighted
◗◗ Centro de Cultura Digital (Digital by several of the Colombians interviewed,
Culture Center) (Mexico):98 this this programme has had many virtues,
multifunctional and multidisciplinary including a strong commitment to inter-
centre, founded on the initiative of ministerial synergy. In addition to supporting
the Secretariat of Culture, conducts initiatives related to e-books, animation
numerous advocacy and training and videogames, in its 2016 edition,102 Crea
activities that are vital for creation in the Digital has included a new category –
digital environment. 99 “content for a culture of peace” – in order to
◗◗ Centro Multimedia (Mexico):100 project provide incentives for any creators of digital
sponsored by the National Arts Centre content who are interested in contributing
(CENART) supporting the training of to the consolidation of a culture of peaceful
artists and audiences interested in coexistence and participation.
electronic art. As we pointed out in the analysis of
◗◗ Laboratorio de ciudadanía digital opportunities, numerous festivals and
(Mexico and Spain): space for training, exhibitions dedicated to digital art have
developed by the Spanish Cultural sprung up in the region. Several of these
Centre in Mexico, the Telefónica events have been supported by public
Foundation and the Ateneo Español de institutions. Here we could mention the
México, in order to stimulate, among following examples:
other things, the application of new ◗◗ Electronic November (Argentina):103
technologies in art and culture. meeting dedicated to art, technology
In terms of stimulating digital creativity, one and digital culture, held by the San
noteworthy programme is “Crea Digital”,101 Martín Cultural Centre in Buenos Aires.
sponsored since 2012 by the Ministry of ◗◗ International Image Festival
Culture and the Ministry of Information (Colombia):104 event organized by
and Communication Technologies (ICTs) of the Department of Visual Design of
Colombia under the “Vive Digital” plan. the University of Caldas, which has
established itself as a major reference
for the whole of Latin America in the
field of electronic arts.
97. http://www.artealameda.bellasartes.gob.mx
98. http://www.centroculturadigital.mx
99. See “Brinda el Centro de Cultura Digital talleres” (2016). 102. http://www.mincultura.gov.co/areas/comunicaciones/cultura-
100. http://cmm.cenart.gob.mx/ digital/creadigital/convocatoria2016/Paginas/default.aspx
101. http://www.mincultura.gov.co/areas/comunicaciones/ 103. http://www.noviembreelectronico.elculturalsanmartin.org/
convocatorias/Documents/CREADIGITAL2015.pdf 104. http://www.festivaldelaimagen.com/

30 Culture in the digital environment

◗◗ Electronic Arts Festival/Video Spain, meanwhile, has changed the revised
Transitio_MX (Mexico):105 this event – text on intellectual property and amended
sponsored by the CENART – is devoted the Civil Procedure Law 1/2000, thus
to the expression and analysis of speeding up the request for withdrawal
contemporary artistic practices linked of links to illegal content, cancellation of
to technology. .es domain names and blocking of foreign
websites that infringe rights. In addition,
◗◗ Digital Writers’ Festival (Mexico): in 2011, the MECD inaugurated the
meeting organized by the Secretariat programme “Cultura en positivo”,110 which
of Culture – through the National promotes, through a quality web
Coordination of Literature – which seal, the enforcement of
explores forms of literary creation on intellectual property
digital platforms such as Twitter.106 rights.111
Regarding the protection of copyright,
countries have launched various initiatives.
Case Study 3
Colombia’s National Copyright Directorate Digital Culture
(DNDA)107 has developed a set of virtual
courses for copyright holders and users of Centre (Mexico)
related rights, artistic and cultural training
centres, private and public organizations, Inaugurated in September 2012 on
collective management societies, the initiative of the Mexican Secretariat
universities and colleges interested in the of Culture, the Digital Culture Centre
subject. So far, more than 115,000 people focuses on researching the cultural,
have participated in the courses.108 In social and economic implications of
terms of online registration of unpublished digital technology use. The centre seeks,
works, Colombia’s DNDA is a pioneer in among other aims, to: promote the
Latin America. In late 2015, the Directorate conscious adoption of digital tools that
launched an application called “Protege tus encourage the exchange of knowledge
obras” (Protect your works)109 – a mobile and information, critical reading,
service that enables users to register videos self-management, the production of
and photographs taken on a mobile phone quality content and network creation.
or tablet. Furthermore, also in Colombia, This is a pioneering initiative in the
the National Library offers digital legal region, which will no doubt prove
deposit for texts, images, videos, audio, to be fundamental for stimulating
digital maps and websites. creativity and exploring the
forms of expression that
characterize the digital age.

105. http://transitiomx.net/inicio.html
106. See “Creación literaria en redes sociales” (2016). 110. http://www.culturaenpositivo.
mecd.gob.es/es/index.html
107. http://derechodeautor.gov.co/
111. A more complete list of anti-piracy initiatives
108. See “Programa de difusión de derecho de autor” (2016). carried out by the Ministry can be found here:
109. https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/protege-tus-obras/ http://www.mecd.gob.es/cultura-mecd/areas-cultura/
id1055375729?l=es&mt=8 propiedadintelectual/lucha-contra-la-pirateria.html

Culture in the digital environment 31

CO R E T H E M E S
3
Cultural
industries

33
 3. Cultural industries
“In the digital age, physical borders are no longer as significant as
languages. In that sense, we have a clear advantage over other
countries whose language is less widely spoken – for example,
the Dutch. And Spanish is no longer the exclusive patrimony of
Spain. For example, the most visited website in Spain is YouTube,
especially for content in Spanish or dubbed into Spanish that is
not from Spain but from other Spanish-speaking regions.”
Borja Adsuara
Lawyer, university lecturer and expert consultant
on law and digital strategy – Spain

The advantages of new technologies in the works, both classical and contemporary,
field of cultural industries are undeniable. which are resurfacing thanks to the long tail
The digital age makes it possible to effect. 114 With regard to music, in the specific
reduce distribution costs – leading to case of Latin America, digital revenues
considerable savings for companies –, increased by 44.5% in 2015, and within this
implement innovative financing methods group, the proportion corresponding to
such as crowdfunding or micro-patronage streaming grew by no less than 80.4%.115
and develop new business models, while In the publishing industry, although the
providing the potential to reach a global proportion of e-book sales is still not
market. Indeed, the “digital territory” made dominant, it is continuing to rise in the
up of Spanish-speaking countries offers production and registration figures.116
enormous potential in terms of commercial
and professional exchange.112 Within this framework, it is important to
recognize that the economic situation of
In the region, cultural industries are taking the region itself turns new technologies
advantage of all these opportunities and into a potential ally for the cultural
in many cases are actively incorporating industries. Indeed, at a time characterized
new technologies. Cinemas are gradually by weak domestic demand – in Spain,
migrating to digital technology, although as a result of the crisis affecting many
at different rates in each country,113 and European economies since 2008, and in
the explosion of video on demand (VOD) Latin America, due to the drop in the price
services is giving new life to many niche of raw materials and the recession –117
it is essential to find new markets.
112. A good summary of the economic weight of the Spanish
language can be found in Instituto Cervantes (2015: 20 ff ).
113. Spain leads the region, with 95.1% of digitized cinemas (see
AIMC, 2016). In Latin America, the situation is rather uneven (for 114. See Anderson (undated).
statistics on the proportion of digital cinemas out of the total number 115. See IFPI (2016: 11).
of cinemas data is available from the Ibero-American Audiovisual
Observatory: http://www.oia-caci.org/es/estadisticas/cines/ and http:// 116. See CERLALC (2016: 8).
www.oia-caci.org/es/estadisticas/teatro-digital-incluyendo-3d/). 117. See IMF (2016).

34 Culture in the digital environment

For the cultural sector, exports of goods “To date, decision-making centres of Latin
and services in digital format could American governments have focused
represent a source of additional income. on network development, broadband
deployment and access prices. Without
However, there are also considerable losing sight of the fact that there is
barriers. First of all, as is the case for artists, still work to be done in these areas,
cultural industries, especially small and especially with regard to the digital
medium-sized enterprises, often lack the inclusion of vulnerable sectors, the fact
necessary digital tools and skills. Moreover, is that governments and companies,
while it is true that in many cases the new researchers and scholars must begin to
environment enables costs to be brought define a vision for the future, based on an
down, migration from analogue to digital is integrated vision of the digital ecosystem.
often very expensive: for example, scanning Otherwise, we run the risk of becoming
the entire backlist of a publishing house can consumers of products, applications and
incur a great expense that small companies content generated outside the continent
find difficult to bear. Furthermore, consumer – a process that supports the transfer of
practices of the new environment break income outside Latin America.” 120
with traditional modes of distribution and
require the permanent readjustment of This phenomenon may lead to a
business models.118 particularly negative result in terms of
employment and local capacities. Indeed,
In the specific case of Latin America, the most talented in each industry often
many analysts warn that the digital receive more tempting job offers from
economy has not developed to the same abroad and choose to emigrate, which
extent as connectivity. In many of these further weakens the national ecosystem.
countries, the digital industry lacks local
development.119 In line with the principles On the other hand, although it is true that
established by Colombia’s Ministry the digital age allows the monetization of
of Culture in its Digital Culture Policy long-tail and niche sales, it is not sure that
document, the Argentine researcher Raúl all companies can survive thanks to those
Katz warns about the problems that arise trade patterns. In fact, there is a danger that
whenever we lose sight of the domestic large platforms may be the only ones –
digital industry: thanks to their unique ability to accumulate
millions of different products and process
big data – that will benefit from the long
tail of products consumed by a relatively
small number of users but which, in total,
result in considerable economic returns.

118. For more detailed consideration of how new technologies

impact reading, writing and the book value chain, see CERLALC
(2013).
119. See Katz (2015: 232). E-commerce in the region accounts for a
mere 2% of the total economy – a much lower proportion than that
found in Europe or the United States (see ECLAC, 2015b: 68). 120. Katz (2015: 333).

Culture in the digital environment 35

Thus, although the region has a multitude “In the new digital networks and supports,
of VOD platforms, Netflix accounts for there is a process of re-mediation by
around 70% of Mexico’s users in this new agents – such as Google, YouTube,
sector;121 meanwhile, the group of global Facebook, Spotify etc. The alliances
players comprising Amazon, Apple, Google between these agents and traditional
and Kobo accounts for 77.2% of the media and cultural conglomerates
Spanish e-book market.122 question the diversity of the digital
networks (…). It is necessary to do further
Many testimonials agree that the research about the strategies developed
concentration of supply in the hands by these intermediaries within the digital
of a few platforms could pose a landscape in sensitive topics such as
serious risk to the sustainability of local the alliances between the large culture-
industries, and therefore to the diversity communication groups, the labelling
of cultural expressions. Indeed, it must of contents or the secret algorithms
be acknowledged that the giants of the deployed in the search engines that guide
Internet do not represent a simple link the visibility of contents.” 123
in the creative chain, but are gradually
becoming markets that are closed in on The predominance of the Internet giants
themselves, something that is clearly seen in the cultural scene is so strong that it
in the field of applications, where Google may result in an additional danger: the
and Apple are literally marketplaces. inability to produce reliable national
Since each platform can choose specific statistics on the economy of digital
file and metadata formats, there is a risk culture. Since exchanges of information
that interoperability may be weakened between the user and the cloud – that
and fragmentation intensified. Moreover, is to say, the platform – are conducted
to the extent that they manage their electronically and are generally encrypted,
own recommendation algorithms, large States do not always have the means to
platforms can also control the visibility establish which and how many goods
of the various products that they offer and services have been consumed or
for sale. As warned by the “Statement on produced by local users. So, as noted
the protection and promotion of cultural in section 2, just as it is becoming
diversity in the digital era”: increasingly complex to determine how
many e-books by local authors have been
published in a given period, the same
problem exists concerning how many
copies have been sold.

123. “Statement” (2013: 3). The text was drawn up in the framework
of the seminar “Protection and promotion of audiovisual diversity
121. See Castañares (2016). in the digital era”, organized in October 2013 in Getafe by the
122. Libranda (2016: 7). Audiovisual Diversity project (see below, section 4).

36 Culture in the digital environment

Moreover, in addition to the progress of ◗◗ Programa Polos y Nodos
large platforms, another challenge that has Audiovisuales (Argentina):129 promoted
been identified is piracy and unauthorized by the Ministry of Federal Planning,
downloads.124 This phenomenon concerns Public Investment and Services, this
not only Latin America125 but also Europe: project aims to consolidate the local
according to Spain’s Coalition of Content audiovisual industry through assistance
Creators and Industries, 87.48% of in equipment, training and research
content consumed in Spain in 2015 was and development, focusing on the
illegal, representing a loss in profits of production of content for digital TV.
€1,669 million.126
◗◗ Colombia 3.0 (Colombia):130 training
Furthermore, changes in consumer habits and exchange event for digital content
can negatively affect cultural circuits that industries, conducted under the “Vive
typically use analogue technology, such as Digital” plan.
physical book shops. In Spain, for example,
an average of two bookshops per day ◗◗ Apps.co (Colombia):131 also
closed down in 2014.127 Although there are implemented under the “Vive Digital”
major differences between the ecosystems plan, this initiative seeks to strengthen
of bookshops in Spain and Latin America, local capacities and generate business
one might wonder whether the situation in the field of mobile applications,
in Spain is perhaps foretelling what might Internet platforms and digital content.
happen in the future in Argentina, Mexico, ◗◗ C3+D (Colombia):132 laboratory of digital
Colombia and Ecuador, as digitization content enterprises, organized by the
progresses. Ministry of Culture and the Centre of
Against this backdrop of opportunities Science and Technology of Antioquia
and challenges affecting cultural (CTA).
industries, countries have implemented ◗◗ Assistance for cultural and creative
a wide range of policies and measures. industries (Spain):133 support
One group of initiatives taken relates to programme implemented by the
training, professional networking and MECD, aimed at increasing the
modernization,128 such as the following: legitimate supply of digital cultural
content on the Internet and promoting
the modernization and innovation of
cultural and creative industries.
124. It is perhaps in the 2016 periodic report of Spain (“Executive
Summary” section) that this problem is most clearly underlined.
125. See Alianza (2016).
126. See Observatorio (2016). However, it should be noted that
the calculations used to estimate the loss of earnings have been
challenged repeatedly (see Corroto, 2015).
127. See Manrique Sabogal (2015).
128. In this list, we have only included those policies and measures 129. http://www.tda.gob.ar/tda/141/11162/polos.html
that specifically focus on the digital environment. However, 130. http://col30.co
there are many initiatives that target the industry in general and 131. https://apps.co
incorporate some categories dedicated to new technologies, as in
the case of the Argentine Cultural Industries Market (MICA), and its 132. http://laboratorioc3masd.co
international equivalent, the Cultural Industries Market of the South 133. http://www.mecd.gob.es/cultura-mecd/areas-cultura/
(MICSUR). industriasculturales/ayudas/ayudas_inversio.html

Culture in the digital environment 37

Case Study 4
Assistance for cultural and creative industries (Spain)
The Secretariat of State for Culture of Spain’s Ministry of Education, Culture and
Sport offers economic assistance for the modernization and innovation of the
cultural and creative industries through digital and technological projects. These
projects must increase the legal supply of digital cultural content on the Internet.
A fundamental aspect of this aid is that it not only aims to strengthen the
industries’ ecosystem – in sectors like the performing arts, visual arts,
cinema, television, radio, advertising, videogames and interactive
arts, design, music, and books – but also has a positive
effect on access, since it promotes a higher quality
of cultural offerings available online.

◗◗ FICOD (Spain):134 In the specific case of micro-

the international forum patronage, it is worth mentioning that in
on digital content, organized through 2015, Spain announced a tax reform that
Red.es by the Ministry of Industry, regulates this instrument and offers tax
Energy and Tourism, is one of the deductions on financial contributions to
instruments of the Digital Agenda for cultural productions.137
Spain.
Moreover, there are several app
◗◗ Emprendelibro (Spain):135 assistance projects and online platforms up and
programme for digital publishing running, usually created by public
ventures, carried out by the Germán institutions, which aim to streamline
Sánchez Ruipérez Foundation and and strengthen certain cultural
Factoría Cultural, with the support of industries. For example, in 2015, Mexico’s
the MECD. Secretariat of Culture launched “Libros
México”, 138 a multifunctional virtual
◗◗ Appuesta Digital (Mexico):136 space that offers technological tools
assistance offered by the Digital Culture for local book publishers, importers,
Centre for the development of Internet distributors, librarians, booksellers and
or mobile phone applications that readers. Another interesting initiative is
help to improve the productivity and libreriasdeviejomexico.org, a portal
sustainability of cultural enterprises. developed by Mexico’s Metropolitan
Autonomous University (UAM) which
provides an interactive map with the
location of dozens of Mexican old book
shops – a market that is considered to be
threatened with extinction.
134. https://ficod.es
135. http://emprendelibro.com/
136. http://semana-emprendedor.centroculturadigital.mx/appuesta. 137. See “El micromecenazgo” (2015).
html 138. https://librosmexico.mx/

38 Culture in the digital environment

The application Ibermúsicas, 139 developed There are also film platforms emerging
in early 2016 by the homonymous Ibero- from international cooperation. The
american programme, ultimately aims to Retina Latina144 portal, supported by
promote the presence and knowledge of six Latin American film institutes – from
musical diversity, encourage the formation Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico
of new audiences in the region and expand and Uruguay – and backed by the Inter-
the labour market for professionals in the American Development Bank (IDB)
sector, with the support of 10 countries and the Conference of Ibero-American
– Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cinematographic Authorities (CACI),
Chile, Cuba, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru and proposes a variety of online movies in
Uruguay. order to bring local film output to new
audiences in the region.
It is perhaps in the film segment that most
platforms have emerged from public-sector
initiatives. In 2015, Argentina’s National
Institute of Cinema and Audiovisual
Arts (INCAA) launched Odeón,140 a VOD Case Study 5
portal offering national films, series,
documentaries and shorts. In late 2014,
Retina Latina
Ecuador’s National Telecommunications Backed by cinematographic
Corporation launched the system CNT organizations in six Latin
Play,141 which provides content on demand, American countries – Bolivia,
with special emphasis on local productions. Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico
Meanwhile, Spain’s MECD operates the and Uruguay – and supported by the
service Ver películas online,142 a search Inter‑American Development Bank
engine that allows viewers to follow the (IDB) and the Conference of Ibero-
complete legitimate online offer of films. American Cinematographic Authorities
The Mexican Film Institute (IMCINE) – with (CACI), since March 2016 the Retina
support from the Secretariat of Culture and Latina portal has been offering movies
in partnership with the Spanish company online in order to introduce local film
Filmin – is responsible for the VOD portal output to new audiences. In the long
Filmin Latino,143 which offers fiction films, term, the project aims to strengthen
documentaries, animation, shorts and the Latin American film market
series made by both local and international and facilitate the international
filmmakers. IMCINE also manages the distribution of its works.
digital platform Cinema México, which Experiences like Retina Latina are
delivers more than 200 films produced by extremely important when it
the Institute. comes to consolidating the
digital cultural market at
139. https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com. the level of the region
theamalgama.ibermusicasapp as a whole.
140. https://www.odeon.com.ar
141. http://www.cntplay.com/
142. http://verpeliculasonline.mecd.gob.es/mc
143. https://www.filminlatino.mx/ 144. http://retinalatina.org/

Culture in the digital environment 39

Moreover, under the impetus of CACI
and the digital platform Cinema México,
the Pantalla CACI145 project has been
established – an Ibero-American film
portal consisting of three areas: Ibermedia
Digital for films, DOCTV Latinoamérica
for documentaries and Aula for lectures
organized in the form of reports and
interviews with directors, technicians
and actors.
Lastly, also in the field of cooperation, it is
worth noting the project entitled Network
of Digital Cinemas from MERCOSUR.146
The structure comes under the
Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR)
Audiovisual Programme, an initiative of the
Specialized Meeting of MERCOSUR Film
and Audiovisual Authorities (RECAM), in
collaboration with the European Union.
Its main objective is to strengthen the
circulation of local audiovisual content,
within the regional bloc. The network
currently comprises 30 cinemas: 10 in
Argentina, 10 in Brazil, 5 in Paraguay
and 5 in Uruguay (in a second stage
cinemas will also be added in Venezuela,
along with new projection venues in the
aforementioned countries).147

145. http://pantallacaci.com/
146. http://www.recam.org/pma/categorias/red-de-salas/contenidos/
red-de-salas
147. The list of cinemas as well as the film catalogue and schedule
in each country can be found at the site
http://mercosuraudiovisual.org/

40 Culture in the digital environment

 CO R E T H E M E S
4
Civil society

41
 4. Civil society

Digital tools can be clear allies in ◗◗ Americanosfera:150 a digital

promoting the participation of civil society collaboration platform, created by
and raising awareness about the diversity Casa de América (Spain), which invites
of cultural expressions. It is evident that cultural centres and think-tanks in Latin
Internet has a unique ability to deliver America to showcase their activities,
information instantly and economically to a work and projects.
huge number of users, making a clear case
for building cultural dissemination portals. ◗◗ México es cultura:151 website that
Here are some examples of such platforms operates as the national billboard of
that have public-sector support: Mexico’s Secretariat of Culture. Visitors
can find a list of the most important
◗◗ España es cultura:148 portal developed activities in the field of music, film,
by Spain’s MECD, for the dissemination dance, exhibitions and even in the
and promotion of local cultures. “digital culture” category. The portal is
Among other materials, it has a listing also very active on social networks and
with the highlights of the current has a mobile application that has been
culture offering. hailed as one of the best in the world.152
◗◗ Hipermédula:149 digital platform for ◗◗ WikiMexico:153 website for interaction
cultural dissemination that encourages and dissemination of Mexican culture,
the linking of different actors, creators both historical and contemporary.
and audiences of the Ibero-American
culture; it is an independent project
that has the support of the Spanish
Agency for International Development
Cooperation (AECID) and the Centro
Cultural de España/Córdoba (Argentina).

150. http://americanosfera.org
151. http://www.mexicoescultura.com/
148. http://www.españaescultura.es 152. See “Multiplataforma de Conaculta” (2015).
149. http://hipermedula.org/ 153. http://wikimexico.com/

42 Culture in the digital environment

◗◗ Alas y raíces:154 portal of Mexico’s Numerous festivals, museums and art
Secretariat of Culture, which aims centres use social networks to disseminate
to awaken the artistic sensibility in information and interact with their
children and adolescents. It offers a line- public directly.160
up of cultural information and a section
of mobile applications specifically Furthermore, the region’s ministries of
designed for young audiences. culture have a considerable number of
followers. It is worth noting the enormous
However, the power of the digital is impact on social networks of Mexico’s
expressed not only through information Secretariat of Culture, whose
platforms, but also – and in particular Twitter account,161 for
– through the interactivity of social example, has nearly
networks. In this field, Latin America 1.5 million
and Spain have the world’s highest user followers.162
Case Study 6
rates,155 which provides an extraordinary
opportunity for awareness-raising and Digital Culture
outreach initiatives at the regional level.
Indeed, global networks and portals Forum (Argentina)
such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and
In 2013, Argentina organized the
even local websites like Taringa!156 have
first national forums geared toward
become very powerful channels for cultural
a digital cultural agenda, which
exchange. One example is the BookTubers
converged in October 2015 to create
phenomenon: these are users – generally
a larger-scale event: the Digital Culture
teenagers or young adults – who comment
Forum. This space brought together
on books through YouTube and have
cultural producers, academics, digital
thousands of followers.157 In addition, book
entrepreneurs, activists, programmers,
recommendation portals in the region –
artists and users with the aim of
such as Entrelecturas158 and Lecturalia159 –
reflecting on the opportunities and
enable readers to share information.
challenges facing Argentine cultural
The potential of new forms of industries in the digital age. Activities
communication is being used by public of this kind can prove highly useful
institutions in different ways. in terms of promoting increased
involvement by civil society
in raising awareness about
current problems as well as
developing new policies
for culture.
154. http://www.alasyraices.gob.mx/
155. Latin America is home to more than 217 million users of
Facebook (see eMarketer, 2015a and 2015b); Twitter, on the other 160. For a good overview of
hand, has recorded a growth rate in the region that is among the the use of new technologies in the
highest in the world. For data concerning Spain, see VIU (2015). field of museums and festivals in Spain,
see Cano Coca, Vázquez Aldecoa and Celaya
156. http://www.taringa.net/ (2015) and Roselló and Celaya (2016), respectively.
157. See Perazo (2014). 161. https://twitter.com/cultura_mx
158. http://www.entrelectores.com/ 162. May 2016. For a detailed list of the networks of the Secretariat,
159. http://www.lecturalia.com/ see “Las redes sociales” (2015).

Culture in the digital environment 43

On the other hand, if the key to digital Meanwhile, in 2015 Argentina organized
communication is interaction, it should be the Digital Culture Forum – a space
noted that the same logic is influencing for reflection, bringing together
the way that policies are developed. For cultural producers, academics, digital
example, to reach the final version of its entrepreneurs, legislators and artists, in
Digital Culture Policy document, Colombia’s order to reflect on the challenges and
Ministry of Culture submitted the first draft needs of the current era.167
to a discussion in which there were more
than 300 participants, including experts, Finally, it is worth noting the various
communicators, institutions and members editions of books relating to this subject
of civil society.163 This process was crucial to that have been promoted by public-sector
validate the proposed lines of action and to entities. For example, the work “En la ruta
gather new ideas. digital”, compiled in 2012 by Argentina’s
National Directorate of Creative Industries168
Countries have also contributed to the and the “Anuario AC/E”, published by Spain’s
implementation of congresses and Public Agency for Cultural Action (Acción
research spaces relating to digital culture Cultural Española – AC/E), which examines
in a broad sense. In 2013, the fifth Ibero- the evolution of digital trends in the world
American Culture Congress164 – entitled: of culture.169
“Digital Culture, Networked Culture” and
organised by the SEGIB, the MECD and
other entities – took place in Zaragoza.
In 2015, the international conference on
“Digital Culture, Communication and
Society” was also held in Zaragoza, with
the support of MECD. 165 The Audiovisual
Diversity project 166 – based at the Carlos III
University in Madrid – has since 2012 been
carrying out a wide range of research and
exchange activities related to diversity in
the cultural industries in general, and the
digital audiovisual sector in particular, with
support from the Ministry of Economy and
Competitiveness.

163. See “Política Cultura Digital” (undated). 167. http://digital.cultura.gob.ar/

164. http://www.culturaiberoamerica.org/en/ 168. http://digital.cultura.gob.ar/en-la-ruta-digital/
165. http://www.congresoculturadigital.es 169. http://www.accioncultural.es/en/ac_e_digital_culture_annual_
166. http://diversidadaudiovisual.org/ report

44 Culture in the digital environment

Monitoring digital issues for the future
How do we measure the progress made by countries in terms of the protection and
promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions in the digital age? The monitoring
framework presented in the UNESCO Global Report Re|Shaping Cultural Policies proposes
3 main indicators in this area, with their respective means of verification:170

Indicator 1 Indicator 3
Legislative base for universal access to Policies and measures to support dynamic
the internet is a) established b) evaluated and diverse digital cultural industry
and c) functioning markets are a) established, b) evaluated
and c) functioning
Means of verification
Means of verification
• E vidence of relevant laws to establish
universal access to the internet • P olicies and measures to support the
• Evidence of universal access to mobile modernization of the cultural industries
internet connections (by gender, age, (e.g. technological infrastructure and
income level) and to social networks training for digital cinema/filmmaking,
e-publishing/writing)
• Evaluation reports on the impact of laws
on universal access to the internet • Number of e-players participating in
the market, by cultural industry (e.g. music,
publishing, film, etc.) and levels of digital
Indicator 2 literacy among consumers (by gender, age,
Policies and measures to encourage digital income level)
creativity and civil society participation in • Share of digital income for small and
the digital environment are a) established, medium-sized companies, by cultural
b) evaluated and c) functioning industry
Means of verification • Evaluation reports on the impact of policies
to support dynamic and diverse digital
• P olicies and measures to support digital cultural industry markets
arts, incubators for electronic art and
experimentation, training for artists
• Measures to promote the production and
consumption of e-content (paid and free,
international and local)
• Measures to encourage civil society
participation via digital media
• Evaluation reports on the impact of
policies to encourage digital creativity
and civil society participation in the
digital environment 170. See Kulesz (2015: 86).

Culture in the digital environment 45

As can be observed, the indicators
presented above reflect the 4 core
themes that we have chosen to structure
this report. On the other hand, it must
be recognized that in some cases –
particularly for indicators 2 and 3 – it is not
easy to find the corresponding data. Now,
since the health of the cultural ecosystem
largely depends on the amount and quality
of information available to the stakeholders
– public sector, private enterprise, civil
society – all efforts geared toward bridging
these gaps could prove highly beneficial.

46 Culture in the digital environment

Conclusions and
recommendations
As we have tried to show in this study, digital technologies
are having a significant impact on the cultural scene of Spain
and Latin America, and the landscape of opportunities, barriers
and policies associated with the protection and promotion of
the diversity of cultural expressions in the digital era is highly
complex. Now, following examination, new technologies
cannot be said to be either positive or negative in themselves
but instead can be regarded as both an advantage and
a challenge, depending on how they are applied in each
context: indeed, according to the way they are used, digital
tools can, for example, generate a rich and dynamic market
of cultural industries, or concentrate the supply in the hands
of very few players. Public policies have a decisive influence in
defining the outcome in either direction.
Within this framework, when it comes to protecting and
promoting the diversity of cultural expressions in the new
environment, the progress made by some countries could be
extremely useful for others. Indeed, many of the initiatives we
have studied in relation to access, creativity, cultural industries
and social engagement are clear success stories that could be
replicated.
However, beyond the actions that have been described,
there are some less explored areas, which would be worth
examining. We are mainly referring to opportunities that
are not being fully utilized, or challenges that are not being
adequately addressed. Below, we shall develop some of these
issues, which could also be useful when preparing a list of
recommendations and best practices.
Culture in the digital environment

47
 With regard to access, the public sector has made
considerable efforts to reduce the digital divide. Nevertheless,
these projects are often part of vast national infrastructure
plans, the drafting and implementation of which usually
involve the ministries of technology, industry, communications
and education, among others, but not the ministry of culture
– and this fact can have a negative impact in terms of the
diversity of cultural expressions. Furthermore, in a context in
which large international platforms are increasing pressure
to provide infrastructure solutions, it is essential to insist that
without public policies in this area, equitable access and net
neutrality may be at risk.
From the viewpoint of creativity, countries have invested
in platforms and applications that contribute to the visibility
of local artists, training activities that help them to experiment
and create with digital technologies and various measures to
protect copyright. Nevertheless, cultural policies often remain
too anchored in the analogue creation model – in which the
message is communicated in one direction – and lose sight
somewhat of the very paradigm of the new environment,
which is characterized by interaction and collaboration.
Regarding cultural industries, support for professional
networking, training and modernization, as well as
the establishment of platforms that contribute to the
consolidation of the book, music and film industries, are key
initiatives. However, the challenges associated with large
global platforms and their impact on the local creative chain
are not receiving comprehensive treatment: without a firm
strategy in this area, the problems can be exacerbated, both
at the industry level and in terms of national statistics.
Finally, countries have carried out numerous projects for
cultural dissemination and promotion of social engagement,
particularly through outreach platforms, communication
through social networks, public consultations, conferences
and publications on culture in the digital era. Here there
is a somewhat missed opportunity: the chance to raise
Culture in the digital environment

awareness among the general public about the objectives

and principles of the 2005 Convention and maintain a more
explicit discussion on the impact of digital technologies on
the diversity of cultural expressions.

48
 Drawing from the policies and measures described in
sections 1 to 4 above, as well as the new areas that could
be explored in the future, we propose the following
50 recommendations, organized around seven themes – four
specific areas and three crosscutting fields:

Access
1. Involve the Ministry of Culture in the drafting and
implementation of major national plans on technological
infrastructure and digital inclusion, as they often cover
areas that are directly or indirectly linked to the diversity of
cultural expressions.
2. Include cultural clauses and references to the 2005
Convention in those national digital plans and agendas.
3. Simplify online access to cultural expressions housed
in public institutions such as museums, libraries and
archives, either through the digitization of materials or
the consolidation of catalogues available on the Internet.
4. Step up efforts to ensure the accessibility, universality and
neutrality of the Internet.

Creativity
5. Multiply training opportunities for artists working with
digital tools.
6. Give greater visibility to creators who experiment with
new technologies.
7. Provide more incentives for digital creation.
8. Offer support to professional centres, festivals and events
that promote electronic art.
9. Modernize processes of registration and legal deposit of art
works, particularly those created with digital media.
10. Promote equitable remuneration of artists within
the framework of the new creative chain.
Culture in the digital environment

11. Protect digital creation, for example, through the

development of a guide of good practices for compliance
with copyright.
12. Support new forms of micro-patronage or crowdfunding
that help sustain the activity of artists.

49
 Cultural industries
13. Accompany the book, music and film industries in their
digitization and modernization efforts.
14. Provide more training opportunities for cultural industries
that need to hone their digital skills.
15. Help to strengthen the digital cultural market at the national
level.
16. Adapt mechanisms for electronic transactions in order to
facilitate online trade in goods and services.
17. Take measures to prevent the concentration of supply and
to promote the coexistence of multiple commercial players,
both national and international.
18. As in the field of creativity, support crowdfunding, in this
case for the online production and distribution of cultural
goods and services that have a slower commercial outlet.
19. Contribute to closer linking between culture professionals
and the digital world, such as programmers, web designers,
and videogame developers, among others.
20. Encourage digital co-production and co-distribution within
the region.
21. Foster meetings of entrepreneurs working in digital content.
22. Step up efforts to create a legal supply of online goods and
services.
23. Rethink public procurement of cultural goods and services
based on the new forms of creation, production and
distribution.
24. Contribute to greater interoperability and standardization of
formats and metadata.
25. Achieve greater transparency in the way in which online
supply is presented, particularly on large platforms, to ensure
adequate visibility of local cultural goods and services.
26. Evaluate the need for changes in legislation linked to
Culture in the digital environment

the distribution of online cultural goods and services, as

in the case of fixed price for e-books.
27. Pay attention to the cultural circuits that may be threatened
by technological changes, as in the case of physical
bookshops.

50
Participation of civil society and
awareness‑raising
28. Harness the potential of social networks and other digital
tools, as a means to encourage social engagement and
raise awareness about the diversity of cultural expressions in
the new environment.
29. Take advantage of regional exchange forums such as the
Cultural Industries Market of the South (MICSUR), to advance
discussion about these issues.
30. Make public policies more interactive and open new spaces
to involve civil society in the development of national plans.

Cooperation
31. Introduce cultural clauses and references in the 2005
Convention on digital plans and agendas for international
cooperation.
32. Also introduce cultural clauses and references in the 2005
Convention on free trade agreements – whether bilateral
or multilateral – paying particular attention to the status of
e-commerce in cultural goods and services.
33. Update cultural cooperation – such as the Ibero-American
Cultural Charter – so as to include reflection on the
opportunities and challenges of digital technologies. This
work can follow closely the discussions within UNESCO
regarding the operational guidelines on the implementation
of the 2005 Convention in the digital environment.
34. Establish close coordination between regional agencies and
the bodies of the 2005 Convention, to coordinate efforts and
unify strategies for the protection and promotion of cultural
expressions in the digital environment.
35. Contribute with the International Fund on Cultural
Diversity for the implementation of projects relating to
the incorporation of new technologies in local culture.
Culture in the digital environment

36. Foster greater exchange between ministries of culture from

the region, on issues relating to new technologies.

51
 Exchange of information and data collection
37. Conduct further studies on the impact of the digital era on
the diversity of cultural expressions, particularly in other
Spanish-speaking countries.
38. In addition to books, music and film, incorporate within the
research the problems specific to other industries, such as
videogames and animation.
39. Conduct new mappings of digital culture, in line with that
developed by the SEGIB around citizen innovation – while
focusing specifically on the issue of the diversity of cultural
expressions.
40. Include the digital variable in the satellite accounts and
observatories of culture in order to measure more accurately
the consumption and production of digital content broken
down by industry, origin (local/international), media, format
and so forth.
41. Exchange experiences with countries in other language
areas, in order to share best practices and lessons learned.
42. Study the effect of the integration of digital markets on the
diversity of cultural expressions, both in terms of opportunities
and challenges, for example in the EU Digital Single Market.
43. Provide information on opportunities, challenges and policies
implemented in the digital environment, upon submission of
the quadrennial periodic reports for the 2005 Convention.

Strategic issues
44. Understanding digital as another dimension of human culture,
which is constructed “by everyone together” – rather than
“from the top down” – and which not only solves technical
problems but also expresses values, meaning and identity.
45. When defining digital culture programmes, adopt a
comprehensive approach, which does not exclude any of
the 4 areas described above – access, creativity, cultural
industries and civil society.
Culture in the digital environment

46. In each of the four areas, always place people, not the tool –
whether a device, a platform or an application – at the centre.
47. In designing national digital platforms, consider synergies
with existing local platforms, rather than starting from
scratch, so as to collaborate with industry and ensure the
sustainability of the initiative.

52
48. Establish a synchronization of national projects relating
to digital culture with plans made at the provincial and
municipal level.
49. Launch new public-private partnerships.
50. Foster inter-ministerial synergies, particularly between the
Ministry of Culture and the Ministry of Technology.

It is clear that for the culture of Spanish-speaking countries,

the digital age does not represent a possible future but rather
a current reality. Although a great deal remains to be done
to achieve a deep understanding of these processes in both
quantitative and qualitative terms, we could postulate, in line
with the Declaration of Veracruz, that the digital cultural space
composed of Spain and Latin America is not something that
has to be built from scratch but instead already exists and is
developing in a highly dynamic manner. It is also apparent that
there are marked contrasts between countries, with regard to
numerous technological, economic and social particularities,
and these features might intensify over time.
In future research on the relationship between digital
technologies and the diversity of cultural expressions in
Spanish-speaking countries, it will certainly be necessary to
maintain a dual approach. On the one hand, we must continue
to pay attention to the universal/common aspect of the
digital environment, involving a wide range of opportunities,
challenges and policies that are repeated throughout the
region. Secondly – to the extent that the available data permit
– it will be essential to examine the local/specific component,
defined by the particular situation and priorities of each
country. In a sense, this is the same duality we find in the idea
of a shared language: the region has Spanish in common, but
there are undeniable differences in dialect that must be taken
into account. And, ultimately, if the aim is to consolidate the
Spanish-speaking digital space in such a way as to promote
and protect the diversity of cultural expressions, it will be
vital to strengthen both pillars simultaneously: the regional
Culture in the digital environment

exchange networks – of data, experiences, content and artistic

expressions – and the constant work on specific local needs.

53
ANNEX 1
Main experts consulted
Adsuara, Borja: lawyer, university lecturer and expert consultant on law and
digital strategy (Spain)
Albornoz, Luis: researcher, university lecturer and expert on audiovisual
communication (Argentina and Spain)
Amatriain, Ignacio: sociologist, university lecturer and expert on cultural
industries (Argentina)
Arrieta, Pablo: university lecturer and expert on new media (Colombia)
Astudillo Borja, Lisset: director of International Relations and Cultural
Cooperation at the Ministry of Culture and Heritage (Ecuador)
Bello, Mónica: researcher and art critic specializing in emerging cultural
practices (Spain)
Bercovich, Fernando: researcher, head of the digital department of the
Ministry of Culture’s Cultural Information System (SIncA) (Argentina)
Boland, Philippe: president of Internauta – Colombian Internet users’
association – and expert on new media (Colombia)
Buitrago, Felipe: consultant and expert on creative economy (Colombia)
Bultynch, Daniela: Secretariat of Public Media – Federal System of Public
Media and Content (Argentina)
Cárdenas Castillo, Jonathan: Department of Regulation and Control at the
Ministry of Culture and Heritage’s Sub-secretariat of Cultural Enterprises and
Industries (Ecuador)
Carrasco, Diego: technician in the field of popular and solidarity-based
economics and coordinator of the Textures and Colours Fair organized by
the economic promotion agency ConQuito (Ecuador)
Castellanos, Alfonso: anthropologist, consultant on creative economy-related
topics and expert on cultural indicators (Mexico)
Culture in the digital environment

Castillo, Carlos: writer and literary agent (Colombia)

Colagiovanni, Vanina: writer and co-coordinator of the Editorial Department of
the Ministry of Culture’s Argentine Cultural Industries Market (Argentina)
Correa, Iván: director of the digital publishing house eLibros (Colombia)

55
 D’Elia, Alejandrina: director of Cultural Innovation at the Ministry of Culture’s
Sub-secretariat of Creative Economy (Argentina)
De la Peña Aznar, José: consultant specializing in digital technologies and
telecommunications (Spain)
Del Corral, Milagros: expert on book policy, libraries, copyright and new
publishing technologies (Spain)
Di Paola, Virginia: head of the strategic alliance department at the British
Council (Argentina)
Escobar Guevara, Raúl: rector of the National Conservatory of Music (Ecuador)
Fernández Orgaz, Laura: director of Collections and Exhibitions at the
Telefónica Foundation (Spain)
Flores Cevallos, José Daniel: Department of Regulation and Control at the
Ministry of Culture and Heritage’s Sub-secretariat of Cultural Enterprises and
Industries (Ecuador)
Franco, Germán: assistant director of the Ático Centre at the Pontifical Xavierian
University and expert on communication policy and digital culture (Colombia)
Gaitán, Juan Carlos: director of Prana – incubator for cultural enterprises and
creative industries (Colombia)
García Leiva, Trinidad: researcher, university lecturer and expert on the
development of the digital audiovisual sector (Spain)
García, Marcos: director of MediaLab Prado (Spain)
González, Luis: director general of the Germán Sánchez Ruipérez Foundation
(Spain)
Gribnicow, Andrés: under secretary for Creative Economy at the Ministry of
Culture (Argentina)
Holguín, Catalina: editorial director of the digital enterprise Manuvo (Colombia)
Holtz, Deborah: publisher, director of the publishing house Trilce and
president of the Alliance of Independent Mexican Publishers (AEMI)
(Mexico)
Jaramillo, Alejandra: writer, university lecturer and director of the Masters in
creative writing at the National University (Colombia)
Jaramillo, Bernardo: assistant director of Reading, Writing and Libraries at
Culture in the digital environment

CERLALC (Colombia)
Klinkovich, Vanina: illustrator (Argentina)
Londoño, Felipe César: rector of the University of Caldas and Director of the
International Festival of the Image (Colombia)

56
Manjarres, Daniel: director of the Bogotá Museum and advisor to the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs’ Cultural Affairs Department (Colombia)
Monak Salinas, Lenin: assistant director of the Research and Statistics Unit at
CERLALC (Colombia)
Monteros, Ricardo: composer and director of the symphonic orchestra of the
National Conservatory of Music (Ecuador)
Moreno, Ángel: assistant director of Cultural Practices at the Secretariat for
Culture, Recreation and Sport of the City of Bogotá (Colombia)
Navarro, Blanca: expert on communication and director of the cultural
promotion agency Disueño (Spain)
Noejovich, Sebastián: general coordinator for Arts and Literature at the
Ministry of Culture (Argentina)
Nongo, Néstor: technical advisor to the Ministry of Education, Culture and
Sport’s Secretariat of State for Culture (Spain)
Orosa, Iván: under secretary for Cultural Enterprises at the Ministry of Culture
and Heritage (Ecuador)
Pascual, Javier: Office for the Promotion of Books, Reading and Spanish
Literature of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport (Spain)
Pedrosa, Fernando: Secretariat of Public Media – Federal System of Public
Media and Content (Argentina)
Piedras, Ernesto: expert on creative economy and General Manager of The
Competitive Intelligence Unit (Mexico)
Pis Diez, Ethel: university lecturer and researcher on content industry-related
topics (Argentina)
Ponsford, Marianne: director of CERLALC (Colombia)
Ramírez Hernández, Ricardo: coordinator of the Management and
Implementation Group belonging to the Communications Department of
the Ministry of Culture (Colombia)
Restrepo, Jorge: founder of the company Hypercubus – focused on projects
combing education and technology – and expert on the digital content
industry (Colombia)
Restrepo, Natalia: coordinator of the Digital Culture project run by the Ministry
Culture in the digital environment

of Culture’s Communications Department (Colombia)

Riera, Verónica: publisher and co-coordinator of the Editorial Department at
the Ministry of Culture’s Argentine Cultural Industries Market (Argentina)
Rocca, Luis: director of the publishing house Taller de Edición (Colombia)

57
 Rodríguez Las Heras, Antonio: university lecturer, researcher and director of the
Culture and Technology Institute of the University Carlos III in Madrid (Spain)
Romero, Carolina: technical assistant director of Training, Research and
Development at the National Copyright Department (Colombia)
Salazar Lara, Lorna: consultant and expert on digital content (Colombia)
Salazar, Mauricio: entrepreneur, consultant and organizer of TEDxBogotá
(Colombia)
Sandoval Ruiz, Alcira: specialist in charge of the Culture Department of the
UNESCO office in Quito and Representation for Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador
and Venezuela (Ecuador)
Sborovsky, Carolina: writer (Argentina)
Schargorodsky, Héctor: university lecturer and expert on cultural industries, in
particular in the field of the performing arts (Argentina)
Scheinig, Matías: expert on social communication, documentary maker and
photographer (Argentina)
Seiguer, Hernán: director of the Ministry of Culture’s Cultural Information
System (Argentina)
Sierra, Danny: innovation manager at ViveLab Bogotá (Colombia)
Sierra, Edith: expert on digital communication and transmedia projects
(Colombia)
Sigal, Jorge: Secretary of Public Media at the Federal System of Public Media
and Content (Argentina)
Silva, Paula: head of Arts and Creative Industries at the British Council (Colombia)
Solano, Víctor: journalist, expert on communication and digital technologies
(Colombia)
Torre Villaverde, Pilar: technical advisor at the General Secretariat for Overseas
Cultural Promotion – Secretariat of State for Culture of the Ministry of
Education, Culture and Sport (Spain)
Ubertone, Pedro: writer and scriptwriter (Argentina)
Vargas, Enrique: coordinator of the Ibero-American Cultural Space at
the Ibero-American General Secretariat (SEGIB) (Mexico)
Culture in the digital environment

Vivas, Camilo: consultant on creative industry-related topics, particularly for

digital tool development (Colombia)
Zabala, Rubén: project coordinator at MediaLab UIO (Ecuador)
Zamparolo, Valeria: head of Arts at the British Council (Argentina)

58
ANNEX 2
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