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Human–computer interaction
Human–computer interaction (HCI) studies the design and use of computer technology,
focused on the interfaces between people (users) and computers. Researchers in the field of HCI
observe the ways in which humans interact with computers and design technologies that let humans
interact with computers in novel ways. As a field of research, human–computer interaction is situated
at the intersection of computer science, behavioural sciences, design, media studies, and several other
fields of study. The term was popularized by Stuart K. Card, Allen Newell, and Thomas P. Moran in
their seminal 1983 book, The Psychology of Human–Computer Interaction, although the authors
first used the term in 1980[1] and the first known use was in 1975.[2] The term connotes that, unlike
other tools with only limited uses (such as a wooden mallet, useful for hitting things, but not much
else), a computer has many uses and this takes place as an open-ended dialog between the user and
the computer. The notion of dialog likens human–computer interaction to human-to-human
interaction, an analogy which is crucial to theoretical considerations in the field.[3][4]

Contents
Introduction
Goals for computers
Differences with related fields
Design
Principles
Methodologies
Display designs
Thirteen principles of display design
Perceptual principles
Mental model principles
Principles based on attention
Memory principles
Human–computer interface
Current research
User customization
Embedded computation
Augmented reality
Social computing
Knowledge-driven human–computer interaction
Emotions and human-computer interaction
Brain–computer interfaces
Factors of change
Scientific conferences
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See also
Footnotes
Further reading
External links

Introduction
Humans interact with computers in many ways; the interface between humans and computers is
crucial to facilitate this interaction. Desktop applications, internet browsers, handheld computers,
ERP, and computer kiosks make use of the prevalent graphical user interfaces (GUI) of today.[5] Voice
user interfaces (VUI) are used for speech recognition and synthesizing systems, and the emerging
multi-modal and Graphical user interfaces (GUI) allow humans to engage with embodied character
agents in a way that cannot be achieved with other interface paradigms. The growth in human–
computer interaction field has been in quality of interaction, and in different branching in its history.
Instead of designing regular interfaces, the different research branches have had a different focus on
the concepts of multimodality[6] rather than unimodality, intelligent adaptive interfaces rather than
command/action based ones, and finally active rather than passive interfaces.

The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) defines human–computer interaction as "a
discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing
systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them".[5] An important
facet of HCI is user satisfaction (or simply End User Computing Satisfaction). "Because human–
computer interaction studies a human and a machine in communication, it draws from supporting
knowledge on both the machine and the human side. On the machine side, techniques in computer
graphics, operating systems, programming languages, and development environments are relevant.
On the human side, communication theory, graphic and industrial design disciplines, linguistics,
social sciences, cognitive psychology, social psychology, and human factors such as computer user
satisfaction are relevant. And, of course, engineering and design methods are relevant."[5] Due to the
multidisciplinary nature of HCI, people with different backgrounds contribute to its success. HCI is
also sometimes termed human–machine interaction (HMI), man-machine interaction (MMI) or
computer-human interaction (CHI).

Poorly designed human-machine interfaces can lead to many unexpected problems. A classic example
is the Three Mile Island accident, a nuclear meltdown accident, where investigations concluded that
the design of the human-machine interface was at least partly responsible for the disaster.[7][8][9]
Similarly, accidents in aviation have resulted from manufacturers' decisions to use non-standard
flight instruments or throttle quadrant layouts: even though the new designs were proposed to be
superior in basic human-machine interaction, pilots had already ingrained the "standard" layout and
thus the conceptually good idea actually had undesirable results.

Goals for computers

Human–computer interaction studies the ways in which humans make—or do not make—use of
computational artifacts, systems and infrastructures. Much of the research in the field seeks to
improve human–computer interaction by improving the usability of computer interfaces. [10] How

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usability is to be precisely understood, how it relates to other social and cultural values and when it is,
and when it may not be a desirable property of computer interfaces is increasingly debated.[11][12]

Much of the research in the field of human–computer interaction takes an interest in:

Methods for designing new computer interfaces, thereby optimizing a design for a desired
property such as learnability, findability, efficiency of use.
Methods for implementing interfaces, e.g., by means of software libraries.
Methods for evaluating and comparing interfaces with respect to their usability and other desirable
properties.
Methods for studying human computer use and its sociocultural implications more broadly.
Methods for determining whether or not the user is human or computer.
Models and theories of human computer use as well as conceptual frameworks for the design of
computer interfaces, such as cognitivist user models, Activity Theory or ethnomethodological
accounts of human computer use.[13]
Perspectives that critically reflect upon the values that underlie computational design, computer
use and HCI research practice.[14]
Visions of what researchers in the field seek to achieve vary. When pursuing a cognitivist perspective,
researchers of HCI may seek to align computer interfaces with the mental model that humans have of
their activities. When pursuing a post-cognitivist perspective, researchers of HCI may seek to align
computer interfaces with existing social practices or existing sociocultural values.

Researchers in HCI are interested in developing design methodologies, experimenting with devices,
prototyping software and hardware systems, exploring interaction paradigms, and developing models
and theories of interaction.

Differences with related fields

HCI differs from human factors and ergonomics as HCI focuses more on users working specifically
with computers, rather than other kinds of machines or designed artifacts. There is also a focus in
HCI on how to implement the computer software and hardware mechanisms to support human–
computer interaction. Thus, human factors is a broader term; HCI could be described as the human
factors of computers – although some experts try to differentiate these areas.

HCI also differs from human factors in that there is less of a focus on repetitive work-oriented tasks
and procedures, and much less emphasis on physical stress and the physical form or industrial design
of the user interface, such as keyboards and mouse devices.

Three areas of study have substantial overlap with HCI even as the focus of inquiry shifts. Personal
information management (PIM) studies how people acquire and use personal information (computer
based and other) to complete tasks. In computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW), emphasis is
placed on the use of computing systems in support of the collaborative work. The principles of human
interaction management (HIM) extend the scope of CSCW to an organizational level and can be
implemented without use of computers.

Design

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Principles
The following experimental design principles are
considered, when evaluating a current user interface,
or designing a new user interface:

Early focus is placed on user(s) and task(s): How

many users are needed to perform the task(s) is
established and who the appropriate users should
be is determined (someone who has never used
the interface, and will not use the interface in the
future, is most likely not a valid user). In addition, The user interacts directly with hardware for the
the task(s) the users will be performing and how human input and output such as displays, e.g.
often the task(s) need to be performed is defined. through a graphical user interface. The user
Empirical measurement: the interface is tested interacts with the computer over this software
with real users who come in contact with the interface using the given input and output (I/O)
interface on a daily basis. The results can vary hardware.
with the performance level of the user and the Software and hardware are matched, so that the
typical human–computer interaction may not processing of the user input is fast enough, and
always be represented. Quantitative usability the latency of the computer output is not
specifics, such as the number of users performing disruptive to the workflow.
the task(s), the time to complete the task(s), and
the number of errors made during the task(s) are
determined.
Iterative design: After determining what users, tasks, and empirical measurements to include, the
following iterative design steps are performed:
1. Design the user interface
2. Test
3. Analyze results
4. Repeat
The iterative design process is repeated until a sensible, user-friendly interface is created.[15]

Methodologies
Various different strategies delineating methods for human–PC interaction design have developed
since the ascent of the field during the 1980s. Most plan philosophies come from a model for how
clients, originators, and specialized frameworks interface. Early techniques treated clients'
psychological procedures as unsurprising and quantifiable and urged plan specialists to look at
subjective science to establish zones, (for example, memory and consideration) when structuring UIs.
Present day models, in general, center around a steady input and discussion between clients, creators,
and specialists and push for specialized frameworks to be folded with the sorts of encounters clients
need to have, as opposed to wrapping user experience around a finished framework.

Activity theory: utilized in HCI to characterize and consider the setting where human cooperations
with PCs occur. Action hypothesis gives a structure for reasoning about activities in these specific
circumstances, and illuminates design of interactions from an action driven perspective.[16]
User-focused design: client focused structure (UCD) is a cutting edge, broadly rehearsed plan
theory established on the possibility that clients must become the overwhelming focus in the plan
of any PC framework. Clients, architects and specialized experts cooperate to determine the
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requirements and restrictions of the client and make a framework to support these components.
Frequently, client focused plans are informed by ethnographic investigations of situations in which
clients will associate with the framework. This training is like participatory design, which
underscores the likelihood for end-clients to contribute effectively through shared plan sessions
and workshops.

Principles of UI design: these standards may be considered during the design of a client interface:
resistance, effortlessness, perceivability, affordance, consistency, structure and feedback.[17]

Value delicate design (VSD): a technique for building innovation that accounts for the individuals
who utilize the design straightforwardly, and just as well for those who the design influences,
either directly or indirectly. VSD utilizes an iterative plan process that includes three kinds of
examinations: theoretical, exact and specialized. Applied examinations target the understanding
and articulation of the different parts of the design, and its qualities or any clashes that may
emerge for the users of the design. Exact examinations are subjective or quantitative plan explore
thinks about used to advise the creators' understanding regarding the clients' qualities, needs,
and practices. Specialized examinations can include either investigation of how individuals use
related advances, or the framework plans.[18]

Display designs
Displays are human-made artifacts designed to support the perception of relevant system variables
and to facilitate further processing of that information. Before a display is designed, the task that the
display is intended to support must be defined (e.g. navigating, controlling, decision making, learning,
entertaining, etc.). A user or operator must be able to process whatever information that a system
generates and displays; therefore, the information must be displayed according to principles in a
manner that will support perception, situation awareness, and understanding.

Thirteen principles of display design

Christopher Wickens et al. defined 13 principles of display design in their book An Introduction to
Human Factors Engineering.[19]

These principles of human perception and information processing can be utilized to create an
effective display design. A reduction in errors, a reduction in required training time, an increase in
efficiency, and an increase in user satisfaction are a few of the many potential benefits that can be
achieved through utilization of these principles.

Certain principles may not be applicable to different displays or situations. Some principles may seem
to be conflicting, and there is no simple solution to say that one principle is more important than
another. The principles may be tailored to a specific design or situation. Striking a functional balance
among the principles is critical for an effective design.[20]

Perceptual principles
1. Make displays legible (or audible). A display's legibility is critical and necessary for designing a
usable display. If the characters or objects being displayed cannot be discernible, then the operator
cannot effectively make use of them.

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2. Avoid absolute judgment limits. Do not ask the user to determine the level of a variable on the basis
of a single sensory variable (e.g. color, size, loudness). These sensory variables can contain many
possible levels.

3. Top-down processing. Signals are likely perceived and interpreted in accordance with what is
expected based on a user's experience. If a signal is presented contrary to the user's expectation, more
physical evidence of that signal may need to be presented to assure that it is understood correctly.

4. Redundancy gain. If a signal is presented more than once, it is more likely that it will be
understood correctly. This can be done by presenting the signal in alternative physical forms (e.g.
color and shape, voice and print, etc.), as redundancy does not imply repetition. A traffic light is a
good example of redundancy, as color and position are redundant.

5. Similarity causes confusion: Use distinguishable elements. Signals that appear to be similar will
likely be confused. The ratio of similar features to different features causes signals to be similar. For
example, A423B9 is more similar to A423B8 than 92 is to 93. Unnecessarily similar features should
be removed and dissimilar features should be highlighted.

Mental model principles

6. Principle of pictorial realism. A display should look like the variable that it represents (e.g. high
temperature on a thermometer shown as a higher vertical level). If there are multiple elements, they
can be configured in a manner that looks like it would in the represented environment.

7. Principle of the moving part. Moving elements should move in a pattern and direction compatible
with the user's mental model of how it actually moves in the system. For example, the moving element
on an altimeter should move upward with increasing altitude.

Principles based on attention

8. Minimizing information access cost or interaction cost. When the user's attention is diverted from
one location to another to access necessary information, there is an associated cost in time or effort. A
display design should minimize this cost by allowing for frequently accessed sources to be located at
the nearest possible position. However, adequate legibility should not be sacrificed to reduce this cost.

9. Proximity compatibility principle. Divided attention between two information sources may be
necessary for the completion of one task. These sources must be mentally integrated and are defined
to have close mental proximity. Information access costs should be low, which can be achieved in
many ways (e.g. proximity, linkage by common colours, patterns, shapes, etc.). However, close display
proximity can be harmful by causing too much clutter.

10. Principle of multiple resources. A user can more easily process information across different
resources. For example, visual and auditory information can be presented simultaneously rather than
presenting all visual or all auditory information.

Memory principles

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11. Replace memory with visual information: knowledge in the world. A user should not need to
retain important information solely in working memory or retrieve it from long-term memory. A
menu, checklist, or another display can aid the user by easing the use of their memory. However, the
use of memory may sometimes benefit the user by eliminating the need to reference some type of
knowledge in the world (e.g., an expert computer operator would rather use direct commands from
memory than refer to a manual). The use of knowledge in a user's head and knowledge in the world
must be balanced for an effective design.

12. Principle of predictive aiding. Proactive actions are usually more effective than reactive actions. A
display should attempt to eliminate resource-demanding cognitive tasks and replace them with
simpler perceptual tasks to reduce the use of the user's mental resources. This will allow the user to
focus on current conditions, and to consider possible future conditions. An example of a predictive aid
is a road sign displaying the distance to a certain destination.

13. Principle of consistency. Old habits from other displays will easily transfer to support processing
of new displays if they are designed consistently. A user's long-term memory will trigger actions that
are expected to be appropriate. A design must accept this fact and utilize consistency among different
displays.

Human–computer interface
The human–computer interface can be described as the point of communication between the human
user and the computer. The flow of information between the human and computer is defined as the
loop of interaction. The loop of interaction has several aspects to it, including:

Visual Based :The visual based human computer interaction is probably the most widespread
area in Human Computer Interaction (HCI) research.
Audio Based : The audio based interaction between a computer and a human is another
important area of in HCI systems. This area deals with information acquired by different audio
signals.
Task environment: The conditions and goals set upon the user.
Machine environment: The environment that the computer is connected to, e.g. a laptop in a
college student's dorm room.
Areas of the interface: Non-overlapping areas involve processes of the human and computer not
pertaining to their interaction. Meanwhile, the overlapping areas only concern themselves with the
processes pertaining to their interaction.
Input flow: The flow of information that begins in the task environment, when the user has some
task that requires using their computer.
Output: The flow of information that originates in the machine environment.
Feedback: Loops through the interface that evaluate, moderate, and confirm processes as they
pass from the human through the interface to the computer and back.
Fit: This is the match between the computer design, the user and the task to optimize the human
resources needed to accomplish the task.

Current research
Topics in human-computer interaction include the following:

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User customization
End-user development studies how ordinary users could routinely tailor applications to their own
needs and to invent new applications based on their understanding of their own domains. With their
deeper knowledge, users could increasingly be important sources of new applications at the expense
of generic programmers with systems expertise but low domain expertise.

Embedded computation
Computation is passing beyond computers into every object for which uses can be found. Embedded
systems make the environment alive with little computations and automated processes, from
computerized cooking appliances to lighting and plumbing fixtures to window blinds to automobile
braking systems to greeting cards. The expected difference in the future is the addition of networked
communications that will allow many of these embedded computations to coordinate with each other
and with the user. Human interfaces to these embedded devices will in many cases be disparate from
those appropriate to workstations.

Augmented reality
Augmented reality refers to the notion of layering relevant information into our vision of the world.
Existing projects show real-time statistics to users performing difficult tasks, such as manufacturing.
Future work might include augmenting our social interactions by providing additional information
about those we converse with.

Social computing
In recent years, there has been an explosion of social science research focusing on interactions as the
unit of analysis. Much of this research draws from psychology, social psychology, and sociology. For
example, one study found out that people expected a computer with a man's name to cost more than a
machine with a woman's name.[21] Other research finds that individuals perceive their interactions
with computers more positively than humans, despite behaving the same way towards these
machines.[22]

Knowledge-driven human–computer interaction

In human and computer interactions, a semantic gap usually exists between human and computer's
understandings towards mutual behaviors. Ontology, as a formal representation of domain-specific
knowledge, can be used to address this problem, through solving the semantic ambiguities between
the two parties.[23]

Emotions and human-computer interaction

In the interaction of humans and computers, research has studied how computers can detect, process
and react to human emotions to develop emotionally intelligent information systems. Researchers
have suggested several 'affect-detection channels'.[24] The potential of telling human emotions in an
automated and digital fashion lies in improvements to the effectiveness of human-computer
interaction.[25] The influence of emotions in human-computer interaction has been studied in fields

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such as financial decision making using ECG[26][27] and organisational knowledge sharing using eye
tracking and face readers as affect-detection channels.[28] In these fields it has been shown that
affect-detection channels have the potential to detect human emotions and that information systems
can incorporate the data obtained from affect-detection channels to improve decision models.

Brain–computer interfaces
A brain–computer interface (BCI), is a direct communication pathway between an enhanced or wired
brain and an external device. BCI differs from neuromodulation in that it allows for bidirectional
information flow. BCIs are often directed at researching, mapping, assisting, augmenting, or repairing
human cognitive or sensory-motor functions.[29]

Factors of change
Traditionally, computer use was modeled as a human–computer dyad in which the two were
connected by a narrow explicit communication channel, such as text-based terminals. Much work has
been done to make the interaction between a computing system and a human more reflective of the
multidimensional nature of everyday communication. Because of potential issues, human–computer
interaction shifted focus beyond the interface to respond to observations as articulated by D.
Engelbart: "If ease of use was the only valid criterion, people would stick to tricycles and never try
bicycles."[30]

The means by which humans interact with computers continues to evolve rapidly. Human–computer
interaction is affected by developments in computing. These forces include:

Decreasing hardware costs leading to larger memory and faster systems

Miniaturization of hardware leading to portability
Reduction in power requirements leading to portability
New display technologies leading to the packaging of computational devices in new forms
Specialized hardware leading to new functions
Increased development of network communication and distributed computing
Increasingly widespread use of computers, especially by people who are outside of the computing
profession
Increasing innovation in input techniques (e.g., voice, gesture, pen), combined with lowering cost,
leading to rapid computerization by people formerly left out of the computer revolution.
Wider social concerns leading to improved access to computers by currently disadvantaged
groups
As of 2010 the future for HCI is expected[31] to include the following characteristics:

Ubiquitous computing and communication. Computers are expected to communicate through high
speed local networks, nationally over wide-area networks, and portably via infrared, ultrasonic,
cellular, and other technologies. Data and computational services will be portably accessible from
many if not most locations to which a user travels.
High-functionality systems. Systems can have large numbers of functions associated with them.
There are so many systems that most users, technical or non-technical, do not have time to learn
about in the traditional way (e.g., through thick user manuals).
Mass availability of computer graphics. Computer graphics capabilities such as image processing,
graphics transformations, rendering, and interactive animation are becoming widespread as
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inexpensive chips become available for inclusion in general workstations and mobile devices.
Mixed media. Commercial systems can handle images, voice, sounds, video, text, formatted data.
These are exchangeable over communication links among users. The separate fields of
consumer electronics (e.g., stereo sets, DVD players, televisions) and computers are beginning to
merge. Computer and print fields are expected to cross-assimilate.
High-bandwidth interaction. The rate at which humans and machines interact is expected to
increase substantially due to the changes in speed, computer graphics, new media, and new
input/output devices. This can lead to some qualitatively different interfaces, such as virtual reality
or computational video.
Large and thin displays. New display technologies are maturing, enabling very large displays and
displays that are thin, lightweight, and low in power use. This is having large effects on portability
and will likely enable developing paper-like, pen-based computer interaction systems very
different in feel from present desktop workstations.
Information utilities. Public information utilities (such as home banking and shopping) and
specialized industry services (e.g., weather for pilots) are expected to proliferate. The rate of
proliferation can accelerate with the introduction of high-bandwidth interaction and the
improvement in quality of interfaces.

Scientific conferences
One of the main conferences for new research in human–computer interaction is the annually held
Association for Computing Machinery's (ACM) Conference on Human Factors in Computing
Systems, usually referred to by its short name CHI (pronounced kai, or khai). CHI is organized by
ACM Special Interest Group on Computer–Human Interaction (SIGCHI). CHI is a large conference,
with thousands of attendants, and is quite broad in scope. It is attended by academics, practitioners
and industry people, with company sponsors such as Google, Microsoft, and PayPal.

There are also dozens of other smaller, regional or specialized HCI-related conferences held around
the world each year, including:[32]

ASSETS: ACM International Conference on Computers and Accessibility

CSCW: ACM conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work
CC: Aarhus decennial conference on Critical Computing
DIS: ACM conference on Designing Interactive Systems
ECSCW: European Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
GROUP: ACM conference on supporting group work
HRI: ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human–robot interaction
HCII: Human–Computer Interaction International
ICMI: International Conference on Multimodal Interfaces
ITS: ACM conference on Interactive Tabletops and Surfaces
MobileHCI: International Conference on Human–Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and
Services
NIME: International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression
OzCHI: Australian Conference on Human–Computer Interaction
TEI: International Conference on Tangible, Embedded and Embodied Interaction
Ubicomp: International Conference on Ubiquitous computing
UIST: ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology
i-USEr: International Conference on User Science and Engineering
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INTERACT: IFIP TC13 Conference on Human–Computer Interaction

See also
Human–computer interaction portal
Outline of human–computer interaction
Information design
Information architecture
Physiological interaction
User experience design
Mindfulness and technology
CAPTCHA
Turing test
HCI Bibliography, a web-based project to provide a bibliography of Human Computer Interaction
literature

Footnotes
1. Card, Stuart K.; Thomas P. Moran; Allen Newell (July 1980). "The keystroke-level model for user
performance time with interactive systems" (https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/82f8fbc66004
ac438ac742c1ad6016d07d1ae037). Communications of the ACM. 23 (7): 396–410.
doi:10.1145/358886.358895 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F358886.358895).
2. Carlisle, James H. (June 1976). "Evaluating the impact of office automation on top management
communication" (https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7a864fc9cfbb01306cb2a75ceef1ed2467
27f1f0). Proceedings of the June 7-10, 1976, national computer conference and exposition on -
AFIPS '76. Proceedings of the June 7–10, 1976, National Computer Conference and Exposition.
pp. 611–616. doi:10.1145/1499799.1499885 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1499799.1499885). "Use
of 'human–computer interaction' appears in references"
3. Suchman, Lucy (1987). Plans and Situated Action. The Problem of Human–Machine
Communication (https://books.google.com/?id=AJ_eBJtHxmsC&pg=PR7&dq=suchman+situated+
action#v=onepage&q=suchman%20situated%20action&f=false). New York, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521337397. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
4. Dourish, Paul (2001). Where the Action Is: The Foundations of Embodied Interaction (https://book
s.google.com/?id=DCIy2zxrCqcC&pg=PR7&dq=Dourish+where+the+action+is#v=onepage&q=Do
urish%20where%20the%20action%20is&f=false). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
ISBN 9780262541787.
5. Hewett; Baecker; Card; Carey; Gasen; Mantei; Perlman; Strong; Verplank. "ACM SIGCHI
Curricula for Human–Computer Interaction" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140817165957/http://o
ld.sigchi.org/cdg/cdg2.html#2_1). ACM SIGCHI. Archived from the original (http://old.sigchi.org/cd
g/cdg2.html#2_1) on 17 August 2014. Retrieved 15 July 2014.
6. "Multimodality" (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multimodality&oldid=876504380),
Wikipedia, 2019-01-02, retrieved 2019-01-03
7. Ergoweb. "What is Cognitive Ergonomics?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110928150026/http://w
ww.ergoweb.com/news/detail.cfm?id=352). Ergoweb.com. Archived from the original (http://www.e
rgoweb.com/news/detail.cfm?id=352) on September 28, 2011. Retrieved August 29, 2011.
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Further reading
Academic overviews of the field

Julie A. Jacko (Ed.). (2012). Human–Computer Interaction Handbook (3rd Edition). CRC Press.
ISBN 1-4398-2943-8
Andrew Sears and Julie A. Jacko (Eds.). (2007). Human–Computer Interaction Handbook (2nd
Edition). CRC Press. ISBN 0-8058-5870-9
Julie A. Jacko and Andrew Sears (Eds.). (2003). Human–Computer Interaction Handbook.
Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates. ISBN 0-8058-4468-6

Historically important classic

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3/13/2020 Human–computer interaction - Wikipedia

Stuart K. Card, Thomas P. Moran, Allen Newell (1983): The Psychology of Human–Computer
Interaction. Erlbaum, Hillsdale 1983 ISBN 0-89859-243-7

Overviews of history of the field

Jonathan Grudin: A moving target: The evolution of human–computer interaction. In Andrew

Sears and Julie A. Jacko (Eds.). (2007). Human–Computer Interaction Handbook (2nd Edition).
CRC Press. ISBN 0-8058-5870-9
Myers, Brad (1998). "A brief history of human–computer interaction technology". Interactions. 5
(2): 44–54. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.23.2422 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.
23.2422). doi:10.1145/274430.274436 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F274430.274436).
John M. Carroll: Human Computer Interaction: History and Status. (http://www.interaction-design.
org/encyclopedia/human_computer_interaction_hci.html) Encyclopedia Entry at Interaction-
Design.org
Carroll, John M. (2010). "Conceptualizing a possible discipline of human–computer interaction".
Interacting with Computers. 22 (1): 3–12. doi:10.1016/j.intcom.2009.11.008 (https://doi.org/10.101
6%2Fj.intcom.2009.11.008).
Sara Candeias, S. and A. Veiga The dialogue between man and machine: the role of language
theory and technology, Sandra M. Aluísio & Stella E. O. Tagnin, New Language Technologies and
Linguistic Research, A Two-Way Road: cap. 11. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. (ISBN 978-1-
4438-5377-4)

Social science and HCI

Nass, Clifford; Fogg, B. J.; Moon, Youngme (1996). "Can computers be teammates?".
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies. 45 (6): 669–678. doi:10.1006/ijhc.1996.0073 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1006%2Fijhc.1996.0073).
Nass, Clifford; Moon, Youngme (2000). "Machines and mindlessness: Social responses to
computers" (https://semanticscholar.org/paper/56ccf17dced2d3bb73f66a18afa20caf5a429c21).
Journal of Social Issues. 56 (1): 81–103. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00153 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2
F0022-4537.00153).
Posard, Marek N (2014). "Status processes in human–computer interactions: Does gender
matter?". Computers in Human Behavior. 37: 189–195. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.025 (https://doi.
org/10.1016%2Fj.chb.2014.04.025).
Posard, Marek N.; Rinderknecht, R. Gordon (2015). "Do people like working with computers more
than human beings?". Computers in Human Behavior. 51: 232–238.
doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.057 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chb.2015.04.057).

Academic journals

ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction

Behaviour & Information Technology [1] (http://www.informaworld.com/bit)
Interacting with Computers
International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction
International Journal of Human–Computer Studies
Human–Computer Interaction [2] (http://hci-journal.com/) [3] (http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/
07370024.asp)

Collection of papers

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3/13/2020 Human–computer interaction - Wikipedia

Ronald M. Baecker, Jonathan Grudin, William A. S. Buxton, Saul Greenberg (Eds.) (1995):
Readings in human–computer interaction. Toward the Year 2000. 2. ed. Morgan Kaufmann, San
Francisco 1995 ISBN 1-55860-246-1
Mithun Ahamed, Developing a Message Interface Architecture for Android Operating Systems,
(2015). [4] (http://asrjetsjournal.org/index.php/American_Scientific_Journal/article/view/1067/622)

Treatments by one or few authors, often aimed at a more general audience

Jakob Nielsen: Usability Engineering. Academic Press, Boston 1993 ISBN 0-12-518405-0
Donald A. Norman: The Psychology of Everyday Things. Basic Books, New York 1988 ISBN 0-
465-06709-3
Jef Raskin: The Humane Interface. New directions for designing interactive systems. Addison-
Wesley, Boston 2000 ISBN 0-201-37937-6
Bruce Tognazzini: Tog on Interface. Addison-Wesley, Reading 1991 ISBN 0-201-60842-1

Textbooks

Alan Dix, Janet Finlay, Gregory Abowd, and Russell Beale (2003): Human–Computer Interaction.
3rd Edition. Prentice Hall, 2003. http://hcibook.com/e3/ ISBN 0-13-046109-1
Yvonne Rogers, Helen Sharp & Jenny Preece: Interaction Design: Beyond Human–Computer
Interaction, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2011 ISBN 0-470-66576-9
Helen Sharp, Yvonne Rogers & Jenny Preece: Interaction Design: Beyond Human–Computer
Interaction, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2007 ISBN 0-470-01866-6
Matt Jones (interaction designer) and Gary Marsden (2006). Mobile Interaction Design, John
Wiley and Sons Ltd.

External links
Bad Human Factors Designs (http://www.baddesigns.com)
The HCI Wiki Bibliography (http://www.interaction-design.org/references/) with over 100,000
publications.
The HCI Bibliography (http://hcibib.org/) Over 100,000 publications about HCI.
Human–Centered Computing Education Digital Library (https://web.archive.org/web/20110817181
257/http://hccedl.cc.gatech.edu/)
HCI Webliography (http://hcibib.org/hci-sites/organizations)

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