 What is meant by personal and social development, peer relationships and inter-

personal understanding?
 Theory No. 1 – Basic assumptions and principles for personal development.
 Theory No. 2 - Basic assumptions and principles for social development.
 Theory No 3 – Basic assumptions of theory with a focus on peer relationships and
inter-personal understandings.
 Implications for teachers in enhancing personal and social development with a
focus on peer relationships and inter-personal understandings.

PERSONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The field of personal and social growth provides the information required for young children's
emotional and social competence. Teachers learn about children's sense of responsibility and
how they feel about their self and consider ourselves as educators — their emotional growth —
through ongoing observation, children's interactions, and family knowledge. Teachers learn
about social skills of children and learning strategies by communicating with them, watching
their interactions with other adults and peers and reflecting on how they want to address
academic and social problems.

A. SELF-CONCEPT

1. Demonstrates self-confidence
Self-confidence contributes significantly to the successes of young children in early childhood
and primary education. Early years, autonomy focuses on the true achievements of children, how
important people (e.g. parents and teachers) appreciate these achievements and how their peers
appreciate them. When children progress through early primary grades, self-assurance is often
based on children's perceptions of their own success and their desire to fulfil their own standards
(Harter & Bukowski, 2012; Thompson, 2006).

In this regard, it is important to note that pre-school children appear to take a strange view of
their capacities, which often leads them to expect them to do much more than they can actually
do (Stipek, 1984; Stipek & MacIver, 1989). It is partially due to the belief of younger children
that more effort, irrespective of limitations in skill, will yield better outcomes. As children
progress through the primary grades they gain a more mature understanding of their performance
limitations and are more objective about their own self-evaluations which may lead to reduction
of self trust (Marsh, Ellis & Craven, 2002).

2. Shows some independence and self-direction

Kids of all ages demonstrate ambition in learning environments due to their innate curiosity and
passion for mastery (Thompson, 2002). Nevertheless, improvements in the curriculum and self-
of children from pre- to early primary education are taking place. Throughout this period of
growth, young children pursue new learning situations enthusiastically and confidently, but not
necessarily persistently, especially when facing difficult problems. In comparison, older kids are
more proactive and more innovative problem solvers, offering their ideas and solving with effort
and commitment new learning experiences (Bowman, Donovan, and Burns, 2000; Renninger,
Hidi, & Krapp, 1992; Renninger and Wozniak, 1985).

Developmental self- changes often occur as a result of changes in self- development (Bronson
2001; Kopp & Wyer 1994). Developmental scientists find the growth of self- to be the creation
of three interrelated areas: inhibition (i.e., resistance to strong desire and alternative action),
working memory (i.e. maintaining knowledge in mind while mentally working), and cognitive
flexibility (i.e. being able to transfer perceptions, Together they are called executives
functions (Harvard University Center for Child Development 2011; Diamond & Lee 2011;
Zelazo, Muller, Frye & Marcovitch 2003). These three fields have been defined. Executive
function development is based on sophisticated mind systems which mature very slowly and
some are mature only at an early adulthood (Bunge & Zelazo, 2006; Diamond and Taylor, 1996).
hus, deficiencies of self-regulation and self-direction in young children are generated from the
immature brain with evolving skills as they develop and make behaviour, focus and emotion
more self-controllable. Similar brain maturity-compentencies development relationships occur in
personal and social development and related areas.

B. SELF-CONTROL

1. Follows simple classroom rules and routines with guidance

Early school performance research has found that engagement between children and school rules
and procedures is directly related to early academic achievement. For example, McClelland,
Morrison and Holmes (2000) found, after three years 'time and after checking out earlier
academic achievement (see Yen, Konold, and McDermott,2004; and Alexander, Entwistle &
Dauber, 1993) "work-related skills" (e.g. instructions; completion of research, etc.) in kindergas,
foreseeing childhood academic achievements.

The previous explanation of the development of self-regulation, consisting of particular skills

known as executives function, helps clarify the slow growth of young children in their ability to
obey the rules and procedures of the classrooms. Most specifically, in the early years children
find it difficult to comply with laws and rituals alone not because they are self-centered but
because their developing brains only help basic self-regulation capabilities. It is really easy to see
how one of the auto-regulation elements, or executive functions, accounts for the poor capacity
of young children to obey regulations without any memory. Secondly, low avoidance skills mean
that small children are likely not to act as a rule but to act impulsive (e.g. speak out of turn rather
than lift their hands). Second, a limited work memory means that young children do not
necessarily have an acceptable rule in mind, for example, to clean up foodstuffs after snacks.
Third, restricted cognitive flexibility means that children are usually focused in a cognitive
manner rather than a common norm (e.g., keeping all the sand in the sand table, out of the floor,
for instance) on a desired task.

In Harvard University's Developing Child Center (2011), the slow growth of self-regulation or
executive functions was described as metaphorically similar to the slow emergence of an internal
"air traffic control device" which manages competing requests for child attention, thought and
behaviour. Since children are not able to fulfill these demands in a professional and versatile way
until their air traffic controller is completely mature (which lasts for many years). In young
children, this can sometimes make them seem self-centred. However, this explanation for their
behavior is incorrect because, in other respects, the behaviour of young children is very non-
egocentric (e.g. their sensitivity to the feelings of others). In comparison, a much more accurate
and reasonable explanation of the growth of these skills is provided by the understanding of the
slow growth of children's ability to obey rules and routines (in respect of the development of
managing functions. Research has also shown that carefully planned classroom environments
and school routines can enable young children to self-regulate themselves by helping to carry out
these executive functions (Diamond & Lee, 2011).

2. Manages transitions
Classroom transitions are therefore one of the most significant self-regulation challenges faced
by young children, especially if they are provided with little preparation for transitions or little
warning of changes in routines, locations or procedures. One reason for this is the limited
cognitive flexibility discussed earlier. When they are sufficiently aware of the daily program in
order to anticipate the events, for example, young children can find it difficult to adapt their
expectations to a new activity flexibly. There will also be work memory limitations, particularly
if young children have to remember to perform sequences of activities during transition (e.g.,
stop a desired activity, clean up, go to another site, prepare and expect additional instructions).
As a result, children can go through part of the sequence before they forget about the next steps.
This facilitates transitions when children mature neurobiologically and cognitively. As the
internal air traffic controller (Harvard University Center for Developing Children 2011) is
competent to remember and understand transitional events.

C. APPROACH TO LEARNING

1. Shows eagerness and curiosity as a learner

Curiosity and an eagerness to learn can be shown to develop early and possibly to be inherent in
infants and young children (Jennings & Dietz, 2003). In order to attract children's natural
curiosity, in addition to the development of educational methods, teachers must ensure that their
classroom achievement encourages and strengthens children's self-confidence as
learners (Thompson & Raikes, 2007). In addition, it is important for children to help provide
multiple avenues for expressing their natural curiosity.   This could include exploring interests
through art, movement, construction, emerging writing,and conversation.

2. Attends briefly and seeks help when encountering a problem.

While children of all ages are aware of tasks which attract their interest, changes in the
continuity of children's education are occurring. Generally, children devote more sustained
attention to tasks of increasing age. There are a number of reasons for this. First, children
become capable of more focused and sustained attention with age due to the increase in self-
regulation skills discussed earlier (Bowman et al., 2000). In particular, inhibition growth enables
children to be less distractible and more capable of focusing their attention and thinking on
relevant tasks. Second, when faced with difficult cognitive challenges, older children are more
likely to remain at work than younger children due, in part, to cognitive flexibility that enables
them to develop more creative, novel problem-solving approaches (Renninger, Hidi, & Krapp,
1992; Renninger & Wozniak, 1985). In contrast, younger children are more likely to give up if
conventional strategy for problem solving fails. Third, changes in attention and work persistence
are also emerging due to older children's increased experience and self-confidence in addressing
cognitive challenges. Taking together, skills in cognitive engagement in a work with a focus on
challenges and frustrations are collectively described as 'learning approaches,' which develop
significantly in early and middle childs and which are vital to the success of kindergarten and all
primary schools (Alexander et al., 1993; Duncan et al., 2007).

3. Approaches tasks with flexibility and inventiveness

As age increases, young children approach tasks with greater inventiveness and flexibility that
can contribute to more effective problem-solving approaches (Zelazo & Muller, 2004). Very
young children can certainly be creative in using materials, but typically this creativity does not
translate into better solutions to the problem. As children move through early primary grades,
they are able to address cognitive challenges with new ideas after their initial solutions have
failed and are often able to develop new solutions on this basis.

D. INTERACTION WITH OTHERS

1. Interacts with one or more children.

The ability to interact comfortably with others, including peers, is an important contributor to
children's classroom achievement. Research has shown that children who are accepted by peers
are more likely to attend school, to participate more in classroom activities, and to achieve more
in the classroom compared to children who are low in peer acceptance (Ladd, Birch, & Buhs,
1999; Ladd, Kocherderfer, & Coleman, 1996, 1997). Peer rejection, on the other hand, causes
children to withdraw from participation with peers in the classroom, express a desire to avoid
schooling, and perform more poorly on academic achievement measures (Buhs & Ladd, 2001).

Throughout the preschool years and early primary school years, peer contact and friendship have
been increasing increasingly (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006). Young children switch from
basic games with one or two classmates to more complicated experiences with a variety of other
children playing or working together. The skills that allow for better peer interaction, including
communication, emotional awareness, cooperative techniques (e.g. turning) and dispute
resolution, also increase elderly preschoolers and children's guardians. Those are significant
foundational considerations for peer interaction in the primary grades, where the group size is
typically greater and where children are likely to be actively engaged in group learning activities.
Throughout early primary school years, children develop their social welfare with a increasing
awareness of equal peer interactions (Crick & Dodge, 1994) and a broader range of social
problem solving skills (Killen, Pisacane, Lee-Kim, & Ardila-Rey, 2001), as well as an improved
emotional comprehension and senses (Denham & Weissberg, 2004).

During that time, children's friendships are also increasingly sophisticated and important (Parker
& Gottman, 1989; Rubin et al., 2006). In pre-school years, friendships with mutual assistance are
increasingly secure, exclusive and reciprocal. Older children are often more psychologically
aware of their shared bonds, including their reciprocal responsibility. In general, children play
with their friends in sophisticated ways, show more prosocial behaviour and also experience
more conflict (due to the level of interaction among friends in particular).
As the age rises, children are both cooperative and conflict-recovered (Hartup, 1996; Parker &
Gottman, 1989).

2. Interacts with familiar adults.

Classroom learning requires the ability to interact comfortably with familiar adults as well as
peers. Obviously, adults with whom a child communicates can differ in familiarity, ranging from
a regular lead instructor to sporadic meetings with a custodian, school manager, or volunteer
staff. Not surprisingly, young children communicate with the adults they know best, and the
adults with whom the child communicates most frequently have greater effect on the success of
the classroom. Such experiences with non-parental familiar adults lead to improving social skills
and learning in the classroom for children (Dunn, 1993; Howes & Spieker, 2010).

Several studies have shown that the stability and warmth of a pre-school relationship with the
teacher influences the child's conduct, attention, and social skills in kindergarten and primary-
grade classrooms (Pianta, Nimetz & Bennett, 1997; see Bowman et al., 2001 for review).
Likewise, the consistency of teacher-child relationships in kindergarten and primary grades is
critical for children's school transition and classroom progress, while child-teacher relationship
conflict predicts weaker academic achievement and greater behavioral problems (Birch & Ladd,
1997; Hamre & Pianta, 2001; La Paro & Pianta, 2000; Pianta & Stuhlman, 2004a, 2004).
Children who build moist, supportive relationships with their teachers are more excited about
learning, more optimistic about going to school, more self-confident, and more in-class. Positive
teacher-child relationship can be particularly relevant for young children who are otherwise at
risk of academic difficulties because of the support it can provide for their involvement and self-
confidence in the classroom (Pianta, Steinberg, & Rollins, 1995).

Developmental improvements in young children's relationships with familiar adults are

consistent with their cognitive and emotional awareness and increasing social skills (Dunn,
1993). A preschooler displays comfort in communicating with familiar adults. Kids of this age
may demonstrate their accomplishments, seek assistance from the adult, and respond to
initiatives or requests from the adult with increased self-confidence. Older preschoolers are able
to take greater initiative and participate in more frequent interactions with an adult, such as
engaging in an extended discussion on morning activities where the child contributes new and
relevant knowledge. By primary school, children should understand the responsibilities of the
different adults they encounter at school and engage these adults appropriately. Adult
experiences are also important acceptance and validation outlets.

3. Participates in the group life of the class

Starting in pre-school and progressing into primary school, children will engage in
developmentally appropriate classroom activities. This involves understanding and engaging
with the role and duties of a group leader, such as helping to plan and clean up after-task
assignments, participating in group and project events, knowing what to do during day routs (e.g.
time or recess), handling changes in classroom activity, meeting teacher demands and interacting
with other children Most of these skills require that children take into account the interests of
other people and this is an vital foundation for the social skills the classroom requires.
The engagement in class community life is an important aspect of the performance of the school
and an integral part of the dynamics of the classroom.

Young children are beginners not because they are ego-centered, but because they only begin to
develop skills needed to participate in group engagement in these areas of classroom learning.
Fortunately, pre-school and early primary school years are periods when these component
competencies grow dramatically, as mentioned above. First of all, improving working memory
and event awareness helps children to recall their everyday activities and planned actions
gradually (Hudson 1993; Nelson 1993). This helps kids to predict changes, know what to do
during everyday tasks and prepare for future events. Secondly, the increase in self-control and in
particular in executive functions enables children to remain on the job, to adapt behavioral norms
to their own actions, and to sustain obedience spontaneously (Bronson, 2001; Kopp & Wyer,
1994). In particular, the development of inhibitory behavior gradually helps children to focus on
the task at hand (not realizing the distractions), to control desires and feelings, to sit still for
longer periods and to take part in activities in the classroom that may entail an end to a more
desired behavior. Thirdly, having an understanding of culture and emotion better helps children
to consider and balance the experiences and needs of others with their own interests, in particular
with the development of cognitive flexibility (Harris, 2006; Thompson, 2006). It establishes the
basis for collaboration and agreement in the event of inconsistencies. Fourth, the children often
grow morally, which means that they want to fulfill their demands for parents and gain the
approval of parents, in order to be compatible with the impression that they have of a decent
person who wants to do the right thing (Thompson, Meyer & McGinley, 2006). Fourthly, they
often grow morally. Such internal motivators for responsible actions are important basis for
group involvement.

When these community engagement skills grow during pre-school and early primary school
years, children become more responsible in the classroom. In addition, their good interactions
with teachers and other adults all through this time provide further opportunities for cooperation
with classroutines and for adult requests to be fulfilled.

4. Begins to describe emotions and addresses others 'emotions.

The ability to empathize and display empathy for others is two of the main social skills important
to child engagement in the classroom. These skills must be differentiated, particularly in the case
of young children (Thompson, 1998). Empathy involves the emotional reaction of a person to
other people's suffering and can be seen also in kids and babies. Caring is the desire of a person
to support someone else that can (but not always) derive from empathy. Distinguishing empathy
and care is crucial because a young child may feel concerned about another's suffering but can
not or may not be capable of responding in a supportive, caring manner. Understanding how to
assist an adult or peer is a difficult challenge for a young child and so, even though the child is
compassionate to the person in distress, there may be no effective response. In this case, a young
child can, for instance, pay close attention to a troubled friend, but failure to support it can cause
an adult observer to see the child as self-centered. We are not inherently self-centered, but their
limited knowledge of how to improve can constrain them. When children grow older, they
become more trustworthy helpers when others are depressed.
Kids of all ages need to improve social awareness and empathy. Young children with more
understanding of the feelings of others have been shown, for example, to be more successful in
primary school, possibly because of their more successful peer and adult relationships (Izard,
2002; Izard et al., 2001). Most socially and emotionally active children are better playmates and
get along with adults, ranging from pre-school to early (Denham, 2006, Denham & Weissberg,
2004). Emotional awareness begins at an early age and grows rapidly as young children are able
to specifically recognize feelings of others, understand the causes and consequences of those
feelings, and connect emotions with the interests, needs, aspirations and thoughts of others
(Denham 1998; Harris 2006; Thompson & Lagattuta 2006). It offers a foundation for learning
how to support those who are struggling and this awareness is growing as children go through
primary grades.

5. Begins to use basic dispute resolution techniques.

If there are unavoidable disagreements between children and others (specially peers), cognitive
and emotional development is reflected in their growing ability to flexibly and competently solve
social problems. To do this many of the skills discussed previously include self-regulation (in
particular executive functions of inhibition and cognitive flexibility), social and emotional
comprehension, and knowledge of alternative approaches that are likely to help. Each of these
skills increases rapidly in pre-school and early primary school years (Howes 1987, 1988). As a
result, while young pre-school children may not be able to settle disputes alone, but need
assistance from adults, the primary school children demonstrate greater skill in bargaining,
bargaining, compromiseing and enlisting other basic problem-solving strategies on their own.

While young children's self-regulatory deficiencies (not self-centeredness) contribute to

understanding their challenges with resolving social conflict, it is also important to remember
that social problem-solving complexity is a challenge for young children too. As Crick and
Dodge (1994) have explained, effective approaches to social problems require several phases,
among them (a) the analysis of social problems by other children or adults (is the individual
hostile? upset?), (b) the formulation of social goals (eg., avoidance of a difficult conflict? self-
defense?) (c) the development of alternative problem-solving strategies (eg. compromise?
aggression) Growing tension in social issues is much more difficult to address social problems
(Lemerise & Arsenio, 2000). Research has shown that primary school children who have
difficulty with peers sometimes fail in one or more of such social problem solving steps, often
interpret social questions in a aggressive way, often develop restricted or inappropriate goals for
the situation (e.g. beating another person), and often take a low numbness into account In this
context, the slow growth of social problem-solving skills is properly understood to reflect the
nature of the process and the information structures needed for successful social decisions in
situations of conflict with another person.

PEER RELATIONSHIP

A peer is a person of equal status and who is part of a certain social group and shares distinctive
characteristics with that group (Doull, M, O’Connor, A, Robinson, V, Tugwell, P & Wells, G
2005).When a child progresses to teenage years, parenting appears to be less relevant, whereas
young people establish closer relationships with friends and peers. Much of your free time is
spent in collaboration with your peers, judging them highly because they are people you young
people believe you can trust, understand and exchange beliefs, attitudes and interests with
(Quane, J & Rankin, 2006).

Therefore, peer relationships represent a crucial source of emotional support for young people
and have a profound impact on their behaviour, attitudes, and awareness (Stanton-Salazar, R. D.,
& Spina, S. U., 2005). Peer relationships have the ability to foster positive or negative health
habits and growth that an individual may not be able to promote, based on the attitudes and role
models of fellow peers.

During this lifetime, these forms of habits are often expressed and can have a direct effect on a
person's future health in later life. Particularly peers considered highly common influence other
like-minded young people. Consequently, peer relationships lead to the acquisition of general
social skills and competencies and the creation of autonomy and self-identity during an
adolescent's developmental period; these are necessary to effectively overcome problems that
occur when transitioning into adulthood.

INTER-PERSONAL UNDERSTANDING

Reference for peer relationship

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Stanton-Salazar, R. D., & Spina, S. U. (2005). Adolescent Peer Networks as a Context for Social
and Emotional Support. Youth & Society, 36(4), 379–417.

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