Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.

1 Student Sheet

MARK’S AND PETER’S STORIES

Purpose
 To provide an overview of some symptoms and treatments of cardiovascular disease (CVD) using
personal accounts.
 To identify some risk factors for the development of CVD.
 To provide an introduction to the topic.
 To practise extracting relevant information when reading text.

Procedure
The two passages below are Mark’s and Peter’s own accounts of their experiences with CVD. As you
read each account, note down relevant information about:
a symptoms
b diagnostic tests
c treatments
d any features of each person’s lifestyle that you think might have contributed to their
development of the disease.
When identifying information in this way, try to be selective and concise in the notes you make.

Mark’s story
By Mark Tolley
I’m 34 now, but 19 years ago something momentous happened that changed my life.
On 28th July 1995, I was sitting in my bedroom playing on my computer when I started to feel dizzy
with a slight headache. Standing, I lost all balance and was feeling very poorly. I think I can remember
trying to get downstairs and into the kitchen before fainting. People say that unconscious people can
still hear. I don’t know if it’s true, but I can remember my Dad phoning for a doctor and that was it. It
took five minutes from me being an average 15-year-old to being in a coma.
I was rushed to Redditch Alexandra Hospital where they did some reaction tests on me. They asked
my parents questions about my lifestyle (did I smoke, take drugs, etc.?). Failing to respond to any
stimulus, I was transferred in an ambulance to Coventry Walsgrave Neurological Ward. Following CT
and MRI scans on my brain it was concluded that I had suffered a bleed on my brain. My parents
signed the consent form for me to have an operation lasting many hours. I was given about a 30%
chance of survival.
They stopped the bleed by clipping the blood vessels that had burst with metal clips, removing the
excess blood with a vacuum. I was then transferred to the intensive care unit to see if I would recover.
Within a couple of days I was conscious and day by day regained my sight, hearing and movement
(although walking and speech were still distorted). They had shaved all my hair off!
I had a remarkably quick recovery considering the severity of the operation. I was talking again
(although slurred and jumbled) within five days. By the end of the week, I was transferred back to
Redditch Alexandra Hospital to continue the rest of my recovery.
There I received occupational therapy, physiotherapy, and speech and language therapy to improve my
coordination, speech and strength. Within seven days I could walk aided and talk better – I was then
discharged to complete my recovery at home. I was given a wheelchair and was admitted for therapy
as an outpatient. The occupational therapy trained my ability to perform everyday tasks. They made
me make tea, do jigsaws, etc. to improve my cognitive skills.
Another effect that the haemorrhage had on me was that the whole right-hand side of my body was
weakened (the haemorrhage happened on the left side of my brain) and things that I took for granted

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.1 Student Sheet

before became a challenge. My left hand compensated for the weakness and gradually I became
stronger, albeit on my former weaker side!
Three weeks later I returned to Coventry Walsgrave for an angiogram, where an X-ray dye was
injected into my veins to show up my blood vessels on a scan. However, this showed that there was
still a bleed occurring and so I was prepared for surgery once again.
The operation was lengthy, but not an emergency. However, I was still warned of the dangers of such
surgery. The operation did not leave me with much disability this time and I woke up within a day of
being transferred back into the intensive care unit again. Speech and movement were regained quickly.
I was discharged to outpatients within three weeks, after undergoing another angiogram, and MRI and
CT scans on my brain. Embarrassingly, they had shaved only half my hair off this time!
The following Wednesday I was called back to the Coventry & Warwick Hospital where my
neurosurgeon held a clinic. He said that there was still a small bleed that needed to be clipped. So I
was transferred to Walsgrave for my third operation. This one not being as severe, I woke up minutes
after the operation with my faculties fully intact. I could talk and walk aided. Following more scans,
the next week I was discharged again to complete my recovery at home. This was now late October
1995. Things such as stair climbing became easier and I no longer required my wheelchair.
I have had no further episodes of brain haemorrhage activity apart from occasional headaches. I am on
anti-convulsant tablets (phenytoin) as I am now at a much higher risk from epileptic seizures because
of the surgery (although I have not had a fit since the operations). I completed physiotherapy in
November 1995, by doing exercises that improved my stamina, motor skills and coordination.
Although I have never been told a full reason why I suffered my stroke, I am certain that it was due to
being born with weak blood vessels in my brain that gave way after years of increasing pressure. I’m
glad I was at home when it happened: I could have been swimming or walking in the countryside with
nobody around!
Returning to school in November, I found reading, writing and walking a challenge. I was treated
differently from other students, which I found difficult as I wanted to fit back into my normal routine.
In 2001, I passed my exams, my driving test and travelled around the world. In 2004, I met my wife
whom I married in 2008. We now live together with our two cats. I have held several jobs, including
building computers and working in a wine merchants. I now repair and maintain computers at a
Further Education College, which is a challenging but enjoyable job.
Despite my stroke being some time ago, there are many residual effects that I have to deal with,
particularly my short term memory, despite my best efforts of keeping a diary (I forget to fill it in!).
My mind seems to go into ‘autopilot’; simple, day-to-day actions and processes we take for granted
suddenly became challenging and unpredictable. However, with some cognitive behavioural therapy I
have learned to live with my limitations and find my memory loss less stressful to deal with.
With social media, getting in touch with other survivors has never been easier and I made several
friends who have been through similar experiences to my own. We share our stories, advice, coping
mechanisms and companionship via a forum, which helps us all live our post-stroke lives.
I felt that in the rush to get me back to school and complete my education, my emotional recovery was
overlooked, which led to me struggling to deal with my thoughts and feelings about the stroke.
Needing an outlet for this frustration, I poured all my effort into my love of writing and music. I began
to tell my stroke story in the form of a blog that quickly became a full-sized paperback book that I
completed in the summer of 2010, called Four Minute Warning (referring to the four minutes it
approximately took for me to go from a normal teenager to falling unconscious). My book has been
well received, leading to several press and BBC Radio interviews and an opportunity to speak at the
Annual UK Stroke Forum. Keen to further my goal of becoming a full-time author, I have begun to
create a range of books about the ‘Frisson’ effect music has on the body (goosebumps, cold chills,
etc.), called ‘Shiver Project’. I am hoping to one day find a publisher and see ‘Shiver Project’ become
a success.
Thank you for reading this.
Mark xx

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.1 Student Sheet

Peter’s story
By Peter Kempson
I remember clearly the first time I held a hockey stick at school; football wasn’t on the sports
programme, so it became hockey, rugby and cricket in each of the terms.
During my time at the school I developed a keen interest in all sports, representing the school in
hockey and athletics. It did not distract me from my school work, but seemed to make me more
attentive and kept my mind more active.
After leaving school I still maintained my sporting interest, representing Bedfordshire at hockey and
taking part in the athletics team at my place of work.
In 1961, aged 23, I got the first indication of cardiovascular problems. I was told that I had high blood
pressure. I didn’t really take much notice. Well, you don’t think much about that at 23, do you? My
father had died at the age of 53 from a heart attack, but as he was about four stone overweight, had a
passion for fatty foods and smoked 60 full-strength cigarettes a day, I didn’t compare his condition to
mine.
Throughout the rest of my working life I continued to play sport, mainly hockey, and was never
overweight. I must admit that I probably drank too much at times and didn’t bother too much about
calories and cholesterol in food.
As I got older I found it more difficult to keep fit during the summer break between the hockey
seasons and so reverted to road running. I ran my first marathon in Leeds at the age of 42 and I
subsequently did another five, including two in London.
All was going well I thought, until a medical I had for a new job showed my blood pressure reading to
be 240 over 140. The doctor could not believe that I was still walking around, let alone running, and
sent me straight to my GP. Since then I have taken tablets for blood pressure and have also reviewed
my dietary intake.
I continued running and completed the Great North Run at the age of 63. A few months later, and
thinking about doing the Great North Run again, I was running eight miles a week and playing
hockey, when my eight-day holiday in Ireland became three days touring and 12 days in hospital.
At 2 o’clock in the morning on May 8th I woke up with a terrific pain in my chest. I was sweating
profusely and looking very pale. My wife rang the hotel reception and within 10 minutes a doctor had
arrived, checked me over and pronounced that I had had a heart attack. Within an hour I was in
intensive care and being closely monitored. At 5 am I had a second attack and a specialist inserted a
temporary pacemaker to keep my heart rate up as it was dropping below 40.
After five days in intensive care I was transferred to the general ward for recuperation. I gradually
increased my walks each day and was watched by the Lifestyle Nurse while I climbed stairs. The
nurse also discussed my lifestyle. Did I smoke? No. Did I eat fatty foods? Yes. Did I exercise? Yes.
Was I overweight? No. Did I have a history of cardiac problems in my family? Yes! This then
appeared to be the probable cause. I was told that it was possible that had I not looked after myself I
might have had a heart attack much earlier in life.
After 10 days I was given a stress test, which involved running on a treadmill to determine my ability
to cope with normal life. Having passed the test I was brought home by the travel insurance company,
escorted by a doctor.
On returning to Huddersfield I eventually had an angiogram and was told that I needed a triple bypass
operation, but that my heart might not be strong enough to take it. The specialist at Leeds General
Infirmary, Mr McGoldrick, gave me a detailed analysis of the situation and the operation, but the final
decision was up to me.
I found it very difficult to walk more than 100 yards without using my Nitro-spray. This was very
difficult to cope with considering that nine months earlier I had been so active. The decision was easy:
I would have the operation.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.1 Student Sheet

I have to say it was not pleasant, but I had decided that it was necessary and I would cope with
anything that happened if it would get me back to a decent lifestyle. Well, the operation, a quadruple
bypass, was a success and after eight days I was back home.
Recuperation involved plenty of walking and visits to cardiac rehabilitation. At that time I was
introduced to Heartline, which is a group of people who have suffered cardiac problems, encouraging
exercise and recuperation by being able to talk to others with similar experiences. I go swimming once
a week and have increased my distance from two lengths at first to 40 lengths after 12 weeks.
Although I feel fit enough to resume running I think I will put it on hold for a while. I don’t think I
will ever play hockey again. There again, that’s probably not a bad decision!
Peter Kempson

In about 2009, one SNAB student got a bit of a shock when he opened his biology textbook at the start
of his new A level course. His teacher was amazed when, during the introduction to Mark’s and
Peter’s story, a voice said ‘That’s my granddad’. There was no mistake and shortly afterwards
‘Granddad’ came to talk to the A-level biologists in his class.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.2 Student Sheet

DEMONSTRATING MASS FLOW

Purpose
 To calculate rate of diffusion.
 To appreciate speed of diffusion in air.
 To observe mass flow.
SAFETY
Wear eye protection. Wear disposable gloves when handling the ammonia solution.
The experiment must be undertaken in a fume cupboard.
See CLEAPSS Student Safety Sheet 30 for further details on safe handling of ammonia
and ammonium hydroxide.

YOU NEED
● Dilute ammonium hydroxide ● Forceps
● Two glass tubes ● Dropping pipette
● Bungs to fit glass tubes ● Stopclock
● 16 small pieces of litmus paper ● Clamp stand, boss and clamp or piece of
● Glass or wooden rod adhesive tack
● Two small pieces of cotton wool ● Ruler

Procedure
1 Your teacher/lecturer will set up a glass tube
with litmus paper as shown in Figure 1 and rubber bung
measure the distance between the pieces of
litmus paper.
2 In a fume cupboard add a few drops (about six)
of ammonium hydroxide solution to a small ball
litmus paper (red)
of cotton wool and then place it at one end of
the glass tube. Seal both ends of the tube with
rubber bungs. Immediately start a stopclock.
clamp stand
Ammonia is given off by the solution and
diffuses along the tube. The litmus paper
changes colour from red to blue in the presence
of ammonia gas.
3 Record how long it takes each piece of litmus Figure 1 Glass tube with litmus paper.
paper to change colour.
4 Using a second tube without rubber bungs, place the cotton wool with ammonium hydroxide at
one end.
5 Using a large syringe, blow air gently through the tube. Observe how quickly the litmus paper
changes colour when the syringe is used.

Questions
Q1 Explain how the ammonia moves along the tube with sealed ends.
Q2 Calculate the speed of diffusion along the tube and comment on your findings.
Q3 Explain how each of these factors would affect the rate of diffusion:
a higher concentration of ammonium hydroxide
b higher temperature
c larger molecules replacing ammonium hydroxide.
Q4 Explain what is happening in the tube without bungs and how the model is similar to mass
flow in a transport system, such as the mammalian circulatory system.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.3 Student Sheet

AN IDEAL TRANSPORT MEDIUM

Purpose
 To understand the importance of the dipole nature of water.
 To relate the solvent properties of water to some of the functions of water in living systems.

Properties and polarity

Water is unusual because it is a liquid at room temperature whereas other small molecules are gases.
This is because the water molecule is polar; the different ends of the molecule have different charges.
Water is a dipole. To help you understand the dipole nature of water and how it affects water’s
properties, read the Key Biological Principles box on page 8 of the Year 1 Student Book and complete
the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity. Then complete the questions below.

Questions
Q1 Complete and annotate the diagram of water molecules in Figure 1 to explain why water is a
liquid at room temperature, unlike other small molecules, such as carbon dioxide.
You should include the following words/ideas in your diagram:
hydrogen bonds
polar charges on oxygen and hydrogen atoms.

Figure 1 Why water is a liquid at room temperature.

Q2 Oil and water do not mix. They remain as two separate layers, with the less dense oil floating
on top of the water. Oil is non-polar; it is hydrophobic (water-repelling).
a Predict what will happen if some drops of water-soluble dye were added to a water-oil
mixture.
b Then try doing it, to check if you were correct. Suggest an explanation for what you
observe happening.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.3 Student Sheet

Q3 a Vitamin C is water-soluble. Vitamin A is fat-soluble. Give a possible explanation for this

difference.

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………………………………………………………………………………………………

b A celebrity chef announces on his TV show that it would be better to boil a joint of meat
rather than roast it. He says this is because the fat will dissolve out of the meat, making
the meal lower in fat and healthier. Is he correct in his explanation of what is happening
during the cooking?
Explain your answer.

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Q4 Complete the table below, to show why water is ideal as the transport medium in blood.

Property Explanation Role in blood

The positively charged end of a water
molecule is attracted to the negative ends
of surrounding molecules. Hydrogen bonds
form; these hold the water molecules
together.

Solvent for ionic and

polar substances.

Blood helps to regulate body

temperature because water
resists changes in
temperature.

Q5 Your young cousins are worried that the fish in their large garden pond will get too hot on very
sunny days in summer. What would you say to make them realise that they do not need to
worry?

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.4 Student Sheet

STRUCTURE OF THE HEART (DISSECTION)

Purpose
 To revise your knowledge of the structure of the heart.
 To relate heart structure to function.
 To locate and compare the structure of the main arteries leaving the heart with the main veins
entering the heart.
 To observe the coronary arteries.
 To develop practical dissection skills.
SAFETY
Wash your hands carefully after completing the dissection and putting all the equipment
ready to be cleaned. Hands should be washed before leaving the lab.
Take care with sharp dissecting instruments.
Wear a plastic apron to protect your clothes. Long sleeved clothing should be rolled up to prevent
contamination.

YOU NEED
● Heart ● Clamp to seal blood vessel
● Dissecting board or tray ● Access to water supply
● Dissecting instruments ● Plastic apron to protect your clothes
● Rubber tube

Procedure
1 Before starting the dissection, use the Student Book to help you label the heart diagram in
Figure 2.
2 Locate the four main blood vessels attached to the heart. The two thicker-walled vessels are the
arteries; they leave the heart at the more rounded front (ventral) side. The thinner-walled veins
enter the heart at the top of the back (dorsal) side. They are often damaged on removal of the heart
from the animal.
3 Looking at the front side of the heart, identify the following external features using Figure 1 to
help:
a right and left atria
b right and left ventricles
c coronary arteries and veins.
pulmonary artery
aorta

left atrium
right atrium
left coronary
artery
right coronary
artery
left ventricle

right ventricle

Cut along this line Cut along this line

to view inside the to view inside the
right ventricle. left ventricle.

Figure 1 Ventral (front) view of the heart. The pulmonary vein and vena cava enter the atria on the dorsal
(back) side of the heart so are not visible on this diagram.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.4 Student Sheet

4 Draw a sketch of the heart to show the position of the atria and ventricles.
Q1 Why are the right and left sides apparently on the wrong side?
Q2 a Can you distinguish coronary arteries and veins?
b What are their functions?
c Make a sketch showing how they branch across the surface of the heart.
5 If the heart is undamaged you can identify which vessel is the aorta by attaching a rubber tube to a
water supply and inserting it into the pulmonary vein. Only use the water supply designated for
this activity. Do not attach the rubber tube directly to a tap unless told to do so. Allowing water to
flow through the heart (gently!), it will emerge from the aorta. Make sure all the water flowing
out of the heart either drains down the sink or is captured in a glass bowl for proper disposal. The
same procedure can be used with the superior vena cava after clamping the inferior vena cava
shut.
Q3 In this case from which vessel will the water emerge?
Q4 What does this tell us about the internal structure of the heart?
6 To inspect the internal structure of the heart, cut through the ventricle walls, along the lines shown
in Figure 1. This is best done with a pair of sharp scissors. Be careful at this stage only to cut
through the ventricle walls, leaving the walls of the atria intact.
Q6 Q5 Look carefully inside each ventricle and answer these questions:
a Which ventricle has thicker walls?
b Estimate the ratio of the thickness of the two walls.
c Suggest why the ventricle walls are of different thicknesses.
Q6 Locate and carefully observe the atrioventricular valves between the atrium and ventricle
on each side of the heart.
a Why is the atrioventricular valve in the right ventricle also called the tricuspid valve?
b Why is the atrioventricular valve in the left ventricle also called the bicuspid valve?
Q7 Locate the semilunar valves at the entrance to the aorta and pulmonary artery. Why are
these valves called semilunar?
Q8 Identify the tendons that stretch between the atrioventricular valves and the ventricle walls.
a What is the function of these valves and what is the role of the tendons in their
operation?
b Work out how you can test your ideas about valves by inverting the heart and using
some water.
Q9 Cut open the atria and examine their internal structure. Explain the relative difference in
size between the atria and ventricles.
7 Locate the opening of the coronary vein in the wall of the right atrium.
8 Cut open the aorta and locate the opening to the coronary artery just above the semilunar valve.
Q10 Examine the openings to the vena cava and pulmonary vein. Do these entry points to the
heart contain valves? If not, why not?
Q11 Describe the safety precautions you took during the practical.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.4 Student Sheet

Vertical section of the heart

Label the diagram. Add arrows to show the route of blood flow through the heart.

Figure 2 Vertical section of the heart.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.5 Student Sheet

STRUCTURE OF THE HEART (SIMULATED

DISSECTION)

Purpose
 To revise knowledge of the structure of the heart.
 To relate heart structure to function.
 To locate and compare the structure of the main arteries leaving the heart with the main veins
entering the heart.
 To observe the coronary arteries.

Procedure
Complete the activity by referring to diagrams and photographs in textbooks, and the animation that
accompanies this activity. There are also some useful websites in the weblinks for this activity.
1 Draw a sketch of the external features of the heart viewed from the front (ventral) side. The two
thicker-walled vessels are the arteries; they leave the heart at the front (ventral) side. The thinner-
walled veins enter the heart at the top of the back (dorsal) side. You should draw and label the
following features: atria, ventricles, aorta, pulmonary artery and coronary arteries.
2 Label the vertical section diagram of the heart in Figure 1. Add arrows to show the route of blood
flow through the heart.

Questions
Q1 Why are the right and left sides apparently on the wrong side?
Q2 What are the functions of the coronary arteries and veins?
Q3 If water were poured into the vena cava, through which vessel would it emerge from the heart?
Q4 What does this tell us about the internal structure of the heart?
Q5 Which ventricle has thicker walls?
Q6 Suggest why the walls of the left and right ventricles are of different thicknesses.
Q7 Why is the atrioventricular valve in the right ventricle called the tricuspid valve and the
atrioventricular valve in the left ventricle called the bicuspid valve?
Q8 What is the function of the atrioventricular valves?
Q9 Why are the valves at the entrance to the aorta and pulmonary artery called semilunar?
Q10 What is the function of the tendons that connect the atrioventricular valves and the ventricle
walls?

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.5 Student Sheet

Vertical section of the heart

Label the diagram. Add arrows to show the route of blood flow through the heart.

Figure 1 Vertical section of the heart.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.6 Student Sheet

INVESTIGATING ARTERIES AND VEINS

Purpose
 To investigate how the structures of blood vessels relate to their functions.
 To develop practical skills.

SAFETY
Wear eye protection and plastic aprons. Long sleeves should be rolled up to prevent
contamination.
Benches should be thoroughly cleaned with 1% Virkon™ or other suitable disinfectant.
Wash your hands after handling tissue once cleaning is finished. Hands should be washed
before leaving the lab.
Place a tray under any suspended masses in case the blood vessel snaps.
Be aware of the danger of using microscopes where direct sunlight may strike the mirror.

YOU NEED
● Ring of artery and vein ● Prepared slide of artery and vein transverse
● Mass carrier section (T.S.)
● 5 × 10 g masses ● Prepared slide of lung or thyroid gland T.S. to
● Hook show capillaries
● Clamp stand, boss and clamp ● Microscope
● Metre rule ● Histology book for microscope images and notes
● Graph paper ● Drawing paper

Procedure
Before you start the practical work:
 read the practical instructions carefully
 identify the dependent and independent variables, and any others that might need to be controlled
or taken into account
 draw up a table in which to record your results.
A good table of results should have:
 an informative title
 the first column containing the independent variable (the factor that is varied by the experimenter;
in this experiment it is the mass)
 the second and subsequent columns containing the dependent variables. (The value of the
dependent variable depends on the value of the independent variable. In this case, the length of
the ring depends on how much mass is added, so ring length is the dependent variable.)
 informative column headings; each column should have a descriptive heading
 units in the heading, not next to the numerical data in the table.
 results recorded with appropriate precision, for example, if the ruler you are using to measure
lengths in this experiment has mm divisions you can probably measure to 0.5 mm, but no less, so
when recording a length of eleven millimetres you would enter 11.0 in the table; the measurement
uncertainty is ±0.5 mm.
Additional columns can be added to include calculations based on raw data such as percentage change
in length, etc. Now follow the instructions, carrying out the practical in a safe and well-organised
manner.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.6 Student Sheet

Part A: Elastic recoil in arteries and veins

1 Suspend a ring of artery from a hook on a clamp stand. Use a metre rule to record the length of
the ring once the mass carrier has been attached to the free end of the ring.
2 Attach a 10 g mass (see Figure 1) and record the length of the ring after the mass is added.
3 Remove the mass and record the length of the ring.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 using 20, 30, 40 and 50 g masses. Record the length with and without the
masses each time.

clamp stand
hook

ring of tissue
metre rule

10 g masses

Figure 1 Measuring the length of the ring.

Part B: Histology of blood vessels

5 Examine slides of artery and vein. Identify the three main regions of the vessel wall, and the
tissues in these regions:
a external, middle and inner layers of tissue
b elastic and collagen fibres
c smooth muscle.
6 Use an eyepiece graticule to measure the thickness of the walls of the artery and the vein. For
more detail on how to use a microscope and how to measure using an eyepiece graticule read
Practical Skills Support Sheet 8 – using a microscope and Sheet 9 – size and scale.
7 Sketch a plan of a cross-section across both vessels to show the amount and distribution of each
type of tissue. See Practical Skills Support Sheet 8 for guidance on biological drawing.
8 Annotate the sketch with notes on the three regions and other features of the vessel, for example,
thickness of wall, tissues in the three regions.
9 Using H.P. (high power) examine a capillary in a section of an organ, for example, lung or
thyroid. Measure the average diameter of a capillary.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.6 Student Sheet

Analysis and interpretation of data

1 Calculate percentage change in length:
(new length - original length)
% change in length =
original length
2 Enter all your results into an appropriate table.
3 Plot two appropriate graphs, one for artery and one for vein. Remember that the most appropriate
type of graph should be chosen to represent data, for example, bar chart, pie chart, histogram or
line graph.
A bar chart is used when the independent variable is non-numerical or discontinuous, for example,
the different stages of mitosis.
A pie chart can be used to display data that are proportions or percentages.
A histogram is used when the independent variable is numerical and the data are continuous, but
classified into groups, for example, mass in kg, which is divided into classes, such as 41–50 kg,
51–60 kg, etc. There are no gaps between the bars of a histogram and the area of the bar represents the
frequency.
A line graph can be used to show relationships in data that are not immediately obvious from tables.
Both the dependent and independent variables are continuous. The independent variable normally goes
on the x-axis.
Remember to include:
 an informative title
 sensible scales on each axis, if appropriate
 labels on both axes
 units on both axes, if appropriate
 a key.
(For more detail on presenting data see Cadogan A. (ed.) (2000) Biological Nomenclature: Standard
terms and expressions used in the teaching of biology, 3rd edition. London: Institute of Biology.)
In this experiment plot percentage change in length against mass.
Values for adding and removing masses should be plotted on the same graph. (You could colour-code
the points to show which are adding and which removing masses.)
4 Identify any trends or patterns in your data. Think about answering the following question: how
do the results for artery and vein compare when looking at percentage change in length on
loading, and return to the original length on unloading?

Conclusion
Bearing in mind the purpose of this practical work – to investigate how the structures of blood vessels
relate to their function – state a conclusion to your work: this should summarise what you have found
out. You should explain any trends or patterns in the data, supporting your ideas with evidence from
the data and your biological knowledge of the structure of arteries and veins.

Evaluation
1 If you made changes to the method provided, describe them and explain the reasons for the
alterations.
2 Comment on any safety issues that you had to consider when performing this experiment.
3 Describe any systematic or random errors you noticed when completing the practical work.
4 Comment on the validity of the experimental design and of your conclusion. An experimental
design is valid if the procedure used is suitable for the investigation being undertaken, measures
what is supposed to be measured and allows one to answer any question being asked.
A conclusion is valid if it is supported by data obtained from a valid experimental design, and it is
based on sound scientific reasoning.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.7 Student Sheet

HARVEY’S CIRCULATION EXPERIMENTS

Purpose
 To demonstrate the function of valves in veins.

Perform Harvey’s experiment

In 1603, Hieronymous Fabricus (1537–1619), an Italian professor of anatomy and surgery, was the
first to publish a description of the valves in veins, although he was uncertain as to their function. The
English anatomist, William Harvey, one of Fabricus’s medical students, completed some simple
experiments to solve the puzzle and demonstrate circulation. Harvey’s book, ‘De Motu Cordis’
(Concerning the Motion of the Heart and Blood), published in 1628, described the experiments, which
you can perform for yourself or get a friend to help.

The experiments
 Allow your hand to hang downwards below waist level until the veins on the back of the hand
stand out.
 Press hard on a vein close to your knuckle.
 Keep pressing and at the same time with another finger, push along the vein towards your wrist.
You will see the vein seems to disappear.
 Lift the second finger and observe what happens. Sometimes you have to repeat several times
pushing further up towards the wrist to see the effect that Harvey will have observed.
 Now lift your first finger and see what happens.
Explain how the results of this experiment provided evidence supporting Harvey’s idea that veins
contain one-way valves. You could use the questions below to help you structure your answer.
Q1 What will pressing the vein close to your knuckle do to blood in the vein?
Q2 What does pushing along the length of the vein do to blood in the vein?
Q3 What did you observe happen when you removed your second finger from the vein?
Q4 What can you conclude from this observation?
Q5 What happened when you lifted your first finger?

More evidence
DO NOT do this experiment yourself
Figure 1 is similar to the one in Harvey’s book. He pressed the vein at point H to block the flow from
the wrist. He pushed the blood out of the vein to point O, then he tried to force the blood back along
the vein; a swelling occurred at point K in the vein.

Figure 1 Illustration of Harvey’s experiment from his book on the motion of the heart and blood.

Q6 What did he conclude from this observation?

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.8 Student Sheet

THE CARDIAC CYCLE

Purpose
 To describe the sequence of events in a single heartbeat, the cardiac cycle.
Use the section on the cardiac cycle in your Student Book or the interactive tutorial that accompanies
this activity to help you complete this worksheet.

Procedure
1 Cut out the pictures from page 2 and stick these into the
correct boxes on the right to match the order of descriptions
below.
2 Complete the descriptions and make deletions as appropriate,
i.e. when you are provided with two alternatives separated
by a /.
3 Add arrows to each diagram to show blood flow.

Cardiac diastole
During diastole blood flows into the atria from the _____________
_____________ and _____________ _____________. Elastic
recoil of the atrial walls generates low pressure in the atria, helping
to draw blood into the heart.
Initially the atrioventricular valves are open/closed.
As the ventricles begin to relax, blood tends to fall back from the
aorta and pulmonary artery causing the _____________________
valves to close. This causes the second heart sound ‘dub’.

Atrial systole
As the atria fill with blood, the pressure in the atria
increases/decreases, the atrioventricular valves are pushed open
and blood flows into the relaxing ventricles. The two atria contract
simultaneously, forcing the remaining blood into the ventricles.

Ventricular systole
After a slight delay, the ventricles contract. This
increases/decreases the pressure in the ventricles so the
atrioventricular valves open/close. This causes the first heart sound
‘lub’.
Blood is forced into the _______________ and _______________.
The semilunar valves are open/closed.
Blood begins to flow into the relaxing _______________.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.9 Student Sheet

ATHEROSCLEROSIS
Purpose
 To explain the course of events that lead to atherosclerosis.
 To describe the blood-clotting process.

Effects of atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is the name given to the process that occurs within arteries, causing them to narrow.
This can lead to coronary heart disease (CHD). A patient may only be aware that they have CHD
when their blood flow is restricted, causing angina – pain associated with a lack of oxygen in the heart
muscle. Ultimately, atherosclerosis can result in thrombosis – the blockage of an artery by a blood
clot. If the blood supply to the heart muscle cells is stopped they are said to be ischaemic, i.e. without
blood. The cells will die if they are starved of oxygen and nutrients for an extended period.

Procedure
Cut up the table below to make a set of cards with key words and phrases written on them. Sort the
cards into a sequence that follows the events in the development of atherosclerosis and thrombosis.
Using the key words and phrases, create a complete description, a flow chart or an annotated diagram
of the processes of atherosclerosis and blood clotting.

Platelets in contact with

1 Fibrin 13
damaged artery wall

2 Hard plaque forms 14 Artery narrows

3 Tangled mesh 15 Platelet plug forms

4 Large white cells enter wall 16 Rising blood pressure

5 Platelets become sticky 17 Artery wall damaged

6 Inflammatory response 18 Wall elasticity reduced

7 Thrombin 19 Atheroma forms

8 Cholesterol accumulates 20 Blood cells trapped

9 Prothrombin 21 Fibrinogen

Calcium salts and fibrous

10 22 Atherosclerosis
tissue accumulate
Thromboplastin released from
11 Cascade of chemical changes 23
platelets/damaged tissue

12 A blood clot forms

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.10 Student Sheet

BLOOD FLOW

Purpose
 To describe what factors affect blood flow in arteries.
 To describe what has the greatest effect on blood flow.

What has the greatest effect on blood flow in arteries?

Blood flows through arteries due to a difference in pressure between one end of the vessel and the
other end. High pressure is generated at one end of the artery by the action of the heart pumping blood.
Blood entering the aorta is under pressure.
Flow in blood vessels or any tubes can be modelled using the equation:
P is pressure
P r 4
F= r is radius
8l
l is length

 is viscosity (η is the Greek letter Eta)

We are not going to do calculations of flow so don’t panic: by just looking at the equation you can tell
what factors determine flow rate, F.

What effect will these factors have on flow?

1 For each of the factors decide what impact an increase and a decrease will have on flow rate.
Draw a table to summarise your suggestions, the first row of the table is shown below. Give a
reason for each suggestion.
Thinking about the equation will help here, an increase in a factor that is on the top of the equation
will result in an increase in flow, whereas an increase in a factor that is on the bottom of the equation
will decrease the calculated value for flow.

Factor Change in factor Effect on flow Reason for effect on flow

increase/decrease
Pressure Increase
Decrease

2 Look at the equation and decide which factor you think will have the largest effect and give a
reason for your choice.
If you double viscosity or length you half the flow, the number being used to divide in the equation
has doubled. The effect of a change in radius is very different.
Blood flows through a vessel in layers, with the blood closest to the walls affected by friction. The
width of the blood vessel will affect how much blood is slowed by this resistance.
Think about a vessel with a radius of 1 mm and a flow rate of 1 arbitrary unit.
If it dilates to a give a radius of 2 mm, flow would be affected by r4, that is 24 or 16. Thus, doubling
the radius of a blood vessel increases the flow by 16 times.
3 Use the ideas above to work out how much the flow will increase if the vessel dilates further to
3 mm.
4 What implications does the relationship between radius and flow have for the effects of
atherosclerosis?

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.11 Student Sheet

ESTIMATING RISK

Purpose
 To estimate risks and investigate people’s perceptions of risk.
 To analyse and interpret quantitative data on illness and mortality rates.
 To distinguish between correlation and causation.

Estimating risks and analysing data

Q1 In the year 2012, there was a total of 499 331 deaths in England and Wales. Of these, 1754
were due to road accidents. For each of the causes of death in Table 1, estimate the number of
deaths occurring in 2012. (Note that there are causes of death other than those listed here.)

Cause of death in England Estimated number of deaths Actual number of deaths

and Wales in 2012 in 2012
Accidental falls
Appendicitis
Asthma
Cancer
Diabetes
Epilepsy
Heart disease
Huntington’s disease
Influenza
Lightning strike
Meningitis
Murder
Pregnancy
Railway accidents
Road accidents
Table 1 Causes of death in England and Wales, 2012.

Disease Incidence of disease in 2012 Number of deaths in 2012

(new cases)
All cancers 299 147 142 107
Lung cancer 38 273 30 273
Breast cancer 44 851 10 373
Prostate cancer 39 555 9 698
Chlamydia 99 086 –
Table 2 Incidence of disease and number of deaths in England and Wales, 2012.
(Source: Office for National Statistics, Health Protection Agency, and Public Health Wales.)

Q2 Your teacher/lecturer will provide you with the actual number of deaths that occurred in 2012
due to each of the causes in Table 1. The figures come from the Office of National Statistics.
Compare your estimates with these figures. If there are discrepancies between your estimates
and the official statistics, try to explain why you may have overestimated the risks.
Q3 It is not unusual for people to overestimate the risk of death from train accidents. Suggest
reasons for this overestimation.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.11 Student Sheet

Q4 It is not unusual for people to underestimate the risk to their health of smoking. Suggest
reasons for this underestimation.
Study the year 2012 incidence (number of new cases) and number of deaths data for England and
Wales in Table 2 and then answer the questions below. The 2012 population of England and Wales
was 56 567 800. The total number of deaths in England and Wales during the year 2012 was 499 331.
Q5 Calculate the percentage of total deaths in England and Wales in 2012 that resulted from each
of the five categories of disease in Table 2. (Hint: The number of deaths due to a particular
disease is divided by the total number of deaths for the year 2012 and multiplied by 100 to
give a percentage. So the percentage of total deaths in the year 2012 due to all cancers is
142 107 ÷ 499 331  100.)
Q6 a Use the 2012 data to estimate the probability of an average person in England and Wales
developing each of the diseases. Express your answers as 1 in ? values or as decimals.
The population of England and Wales in 2012 was 56 567 800. (See section 1.2 in your
Student Book, or Maths and Stats Support Sheet 8 – probability, if you need help in
getting started with the calculations.)
When completing these calculations, think about the number of significant figures you
use when presenting your answers. For information on significant figures see Maths and
Stats Support Sheet 4 – significant figures.
b Use the 2012 data to estimate the probability of an average person dying from each of the
diseases in any year.
c The probabilities you have calculated are for the population as a whole. Why is it that the
probability for each individual will typically be very different?

Risk calculator
Risk calculator models provide scientists and other medical professionals with a useful tool to analyse
information based on research data. The models can predict the interaction of biological factors and
the impact of these factors on a range of disorders. Models can be used to support decisions involving
interventions, for example, drug prescriptions, changes to lifestyle and dietary changes. There are
many examples of risk calculators to be found on the Internet.
You can create your own coronary heart disease (CHD) risk calculator or use the one in the weblinks
for this activity to compare risk factors for a certain patient with ‘normal range’ of risk. It will also
show how CHD is influenced by the complex interaction of different factors. Full details of how to
create your own risk predictor using a Microsoft Excel® spreadsheet are provided in the ICT Support
section of the resources.
The data used to develop the risk calculator model were taken from the Framingham Heart Study,
started in 1948 in the USA. For more details about this study see the Student Book page 22.

Using the risk calculator model

Use the information below and the risk calculator model to answer the questions.
PATIENT A
A 46 year old male
Height: 6 feet 0 inches
Cholesterol levels: LDL = 4.95 mmol l–1 (191 mg/dl), HDL = 1.2 mmol l–1 (46.33 mg/dl)
Blood pressure reading: systolic = 145, diastolic = 90
Diabetic
Smoker
No symptoms of CHD experienced.

Q7 What is the risk of patient A developing CHD over the next 10 years?

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Q8 Use Table 3 to describe patient A’s risk compared with that of a low risk and average risk man
of the same age.
Q9 Suggest lifestyle changes that might help patient A to reduce his risk of developing CHD.
Q10 What are the two most significant risk factors for patient A?

Comparative risk
Age (years) Average 10 year CHD risk (%) Low* 10 year CHD risk (%)
30–34 3 2
35–39 5 3
40–44 7 4
45–49 11 4
50–54 14 6
55–59 16 7
60–64 21 9
65–69 25 11
70–74 30 14
*Low risk was calculated for a man the same age, normal blood pressure, LDL cholesterol 100–129 mg/dl, HDL
cholesterol 45 mg/dl, non-smoker, no diabetes.

Table 3 Risk values for an average man and a low risk man of the same age.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.12 Student Sheet

CORRELATION AND CAUSATION

Purpose
 To distinguish between correlation and causation.

Correlation and causation

A positive correlation between two variables occurs when an increase (or a decrease) in one variable
is accompanied by an increase (or a decrease) in the other variable. For example, an increase in the
number of cigarettes smoked is positively correlated with the incidences of lung cancer and coronary
heart disease (CHD). This is a positive correlation because as the number of cigarettes smoked
increases, the incidences of these diseases also increase. Similarly, the amount of alcohol in the
bloodstream of drivers positively correlates with the likelihood that they will have a car accident. In
both of these cases there is likely to be a causal link between the two variables. In a causal
relationship, a change in one variable brings about a change in another variable. The more a person
smokes, the greater the amount of chemicals in the bloodstream that can cause damage that results in
lung cancer and CHD. The more alcohol a person consumes, the slower their reaction times and the
more likely they are to have an accident. However, a strong correlation between two variables does
not necessarily prove a causal link between them.
The strength of any correlation can be tested using Spearman’s rank correlation. For information about
this statistical test see Maths and Stats Support Sheet 12 – Spearman’s rank correlation.
Q1 Look at the data in Table 1 on the next page and then attempt the questions.
a Is there any correlation between the two sets of data? If yes, is it a positive or negative
correlation? It might help to draw a graph using the two sets of data and test statistically.
A Microsoft Excel® file of the data is available with this activity.
b It is unlikely that improving Internet access in countries with a short life expectancy
would increase people’s lifespan. Suggest a plausible explanation for the relationship
between the variables.
Q2 A World Health Organisation preliminary investigation suggested that high levels of
background noise (for example, traffic noise) can affect your risk of heart disease.
a Suggest other factors that may account for the increased incidence of heart disease in
areas with high levels of background noise.
b Suggest how noise could increase the risk of heart disease.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.12 Student Sheet

Country Healthy life Internet Country Healthy life Internet

expectancy access expectancy access
at birth* (Internet at birth* (Internet
users per 100 users per 100
people)** people)**
Argentina 76 55.8 Morocco 71 55.0
Bangladesh 70 6.3 Myanmar 66 1.1
(Burma)
Brazil 74 49.8 Pakistan 65 10.0
Canada 82 86.8 Peru 77 38.2
China 75 42.3 Philippines 69 36.2
Colombia 79 49.0 Poland 77 65.0
Egypt 71 44.1 Romania 74 50.0
Ethiopia 64 1.5 Russian 69 53.3
Federation
France 82 83.0 South Africa 59 41.0
Germany 81 84.0 Spain 82 72.0
India 66 12.6 Sudan 63 21.0
Indonesia 71 15.4 Thailand 75 26.5
Iran 74 26.0 Togo 58 4.0
Italy 83 58.0 Turkey 75 45.1
Japan 84 79.1 Ukraine 71 33.7
Kenya 61 32.1 United Kingdom 81 87.0
Korea, South 81 84.1 United States 79 81.0
Liberia 62 3.8 Venezuela 76 44.0
Mexico 76 38.4 Vietnam 76 39.5
Table 1
*Source: World Health Organisation (WHO) 2012.
**Source: The World Bank 2012.
The most recent data for each country can be downloaded from the WHO and The World Bank websites.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.13 Student Sheet

IDENTIFYING HEALTH RISKS

Purpose
 To evaluate the design of studies used to identify health risk factors.

Epidemiological studies
There are several different study designs used to look for correlations between a disease and specific
risk factors. Any study must be carefully designed to ensure that the results identify true correlations.
Cohort studies and case-control studies are two commonly used designs. Read the section in the
Student Book on the design of epidemiological studies, pages 22–25, before completing this activity
sheet.

MMR vaccination and autism

A large number of studies have investigated if the MMR (measles, mumps and rubella) vaccination is
a risk factor for the development of autism or other developmental disorders. Some of these studies are
outlined below. Read the summaries and then answer the questions that follow.
Autism is a developmental disorder. People with autism have difficulties with communications and
social interactions, displaying repetitive and rigid behaviour. In most cases, signs of abnormal
development can be recognised by the time a child is two years old. The MMR vaccination is given to
about 600 000 UK children each year, mostly when they are about two years old.

1998 Wakefield Study

In 1998 a link between the MMR vaccination and autism was suggested by Dr Andrew Wakefield and
his co-workers from the results of an uncontrolled case study of 12 children that had been referred to
the hospital’s gastroenterology group with intestinal symptoms (diarrhoea, abdominal pain, bloating
and food intolerance) and development disorder. They had been developing normally, but then lost
some of their acquired skills. Medical and developmental histories were obtained for each child,
including details of immunisations and exposure to infectious diseases. Neurological and psychiatric
assessments were completed. Clinical and laboratory investigations were completed, including
endoscope investigations of the bowels with tissue samples taken for analysis. The researchers
suggested that the chronic bowel symptoms might be linked with autism. They noted that in most
cases (eight), onset of symptoms was after MMR immunisation and further investigations were needed
to examine this syndrome and its possible relation to the MMR vaccine.

1998 Finnish Study

In the same year, 1998, the results of a long-term vaccination project to eliminate MMR diseases from
Finland were published. The project launched in 1982 saw all children vaccinated twice, at age 14–18
months and 6 years. Any children who had adverse reactions to the vaccine were reported to the
Institute. By the end of 1996 about three million vaccinations had been given to children and some
adults. Thirty-one children developed gastrointestinal symptoms after vaccination; none went on to
develop signs of autism.

1999 North Thames Study

A study in the North Thames health district of 293 children with confirmed autism in vaccinated and
non-vaccinated groups concluded that there was no evidence to support an association between autism
and MMR. The results were published in The Lancet in 1999.

2004 UK General Practice Research Database Study

Results of a matched case-control study conducted using data from the General Practice Research
Database (GPRD) were published in The Lancet in 2004. This database contains detailed information

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.13 Student Sheet

about every consultation by over 280 medical practices serving over two million people selected to be
representative of the whole UK population. 1294 children affected by autism or other developmental
disorders were identified from the database. Two child psychiatrists using 10 diagnostic criteria for
autistic disorders reviewed the medical information for each child. Some children with medical
disorders that are thought to have a causal association with autism, such as fragile X disorder,
phenylketonuria or congenital rubella, were excluded. For each of these affected children up to five
matched controls were also identified from the database, children with no record of developmental
disorders matched on age, sex and medical practice. A questionnaire to parents of all cases and
controls included questions about the family size, socioeconomic status, education of parents and
medical history. The following dates were recorded for each affected child.
 First attendance to the GP with symptoms.
 First concerns or symptoms recorded in hospital letters.
 Definitive diagnosis from hospital letters.
 Parents’ first concern about symptoms of autism collected retrospectively.
 MMR vaccination from GP records.
1294 cases and 4469 controls were included in the study. 1010 cases had MMR vaccination recorded
before diagnosis, 3671 controls had MMR vaccination before the age at which their matched case was
diagnosed. The study concluded that MMR vaccination was not associated with an increased risk of
autism or other developmental disorders.

Wakefield Study Fraud identified

The findings by Wakefield and colleagues were widely reported by the media, creating a vaccine
scare, which led to a decline in vaccinations. Over the following decade epidemiological studies found
no evidence of a link between MMR vaccine and autism. The paper was retracted by The Lancet in
2011 after a General Medical Council hearing. It had been shown that the study did not have ethical
approval and when Wakefield wrote the final version of the paper he fraudulently altered information
about patients’ medical histories to support his claims. Wakefield was struck off the Medical Register
barring him from practicing medicine in the UK. Vaccination rates have improved since the scandal
was exposed; 92.3% of two year olds were vaccinated in 2012–13. However, this coverage is below
the 95% level recommended by the World Health Organisation to ensure herd immunity and hundreds
of thousands of children are unprotected against measles, mumps and rubella.

Questions
Q1 Wakefield suggested a causal association between the MMR vaccine and a new syndrome of
chronic inflammatory bowel disease and autism. On publication in 1998, the study and its
conclusions were widely criticised. Suggest some of the weaknesses that the critics identified
in this epidemiological study. At this time they were unaware of the fraud.
Q2 Explain how the Finnish study provided more reliable results than those of the Wakefield
study.
Q3 What type of study was undertaken in the North Thames health district?
Q4 Why were children with conditions such as fragile X syndrome excluded from the GPRD
study?
Q5 Explain why the GPRD questionnaire was sent to all participants?
Q6 In the GPRD study which of the dates recorded for each affected child are more reliable for
investigating the relationship between the timing of the MMR vaccination and development of
autism?
Q7 A working party of the UK Committee on Safety of Medicines undertook a study to assess
reports of children who had developed autism or similar disorders following MMR
vaccination. The parents of all children included had sought legal advice about possible
damage as a result of vaccination. How might this method of selecting participants affect the
results of the study?
Q8 Suggest how the Wakefield MMR scandal could have been avoided.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.13 Student Sheet

Making decisions about publication of a study

All papers submitted to academic journals are peer reviewed, that is, the papers are sent to experts who
decide if they are suitable for publication. Read the description below of an epidemiological study
undertaken to investigate whether blood cholesterol concentrations can be used to predict stroke.
Decide whether or not you would publish the paper based on this study in the medical journal for
which you referee papers. Write a letter of response to the epidemiologists who undertook the study
explaining the reasons for your decision. You may conclude that a decision cannot be made unless
additional information is provided and in that case you must tell the epidemiologists what information
they need to supply.

Study outline
A prospective cohort study by the Korean National Health Service to determine risk factors for stroke
and heart attack was completed. 661 700 male and 125 742 female public servants were included in
the study. They were all between 30–64 years of age, with a mean age of about 42. They had a health
check by the Korean Medical Insurance Company, one of the main national health insurance providers
who provide medical insurance services for all public servants and their unemployed family members.
Information about exposure to risk factors came from the medical examination and a self-administered
questionnaire.
The study found that high concentrations of blood cholesterol were associated with ischaemic stroke
(associated with atherosclerosis). Low blood cholesterol was associated with haemorrhagic stroke (not
associated with atherosclerosis).

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.14 Student Sheet

ANALYSIS OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE DATA

Purpose
 To analyse quantitative data on cardiovascular disease (CVD).
 To consider the effect of age and gender on the risk of CVD.

Analysis of risk: haemorrhagic stroke

Mark had his haemorrhagic stroke in 1995 at the age of 15. In this type of stroke a blood vessel in the
brain bursts. With the correct data it is possible to calculate his risk of having a fatal stroke, and to see
how this risk is affected by age and gender. Tables 1 and 2 present data for the year that Mark had his
stroke.

Age Male Female

0–4 6 7
5–9 6 –
10–14 7 5
15–19 8 6
20–24 19 10
Table 1 Number of UK deaths from haemorrhagic stroke in 1995.

Gender
Females Males
Age group 15–19 1 682 000 1 780 000
Table 2 Population of the UK in 1995 separated by gender for the 15–19 age group.

Q1 Estimate the probability of a 15-year-old male in the UK dying from a haemorrhagic stroke
during 1995 and explain how you determined your answer.
Q2 Estimate the probability of a 15-year-old female in the UK dying from a haemorrhagic stroke
during 1995 and explain how you determined your answer.

Analysis of coronary heart disease data

Use the data on age-specific death rates from coronary heart disease (CHD) over a number of years in
Table 3 to answer the questions that follow.

Age/years 35–44 45–54 55–64 65–74

Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women
1980 56 9 270 50 733 215 1621 688
1985 43 7 221 43 687 213 1601 702
1990 37 6 159 33 536 179 1352 594
1995 26 5 117 24 408 124 1133 498
2000 19 5 92 20 291 84 823 347
2005 19 4 73 16 204 54 558 225
2010 15 4 62 14 165 40 396 148
Table 3 Death rates per 100 000 of population of the United Kingdom due to CHD.

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Q3 Comment on what happens to the average risk of death due to CHD as you get older. Give a
reason for any changes in risk.
Q4 Use the data to produce an appropriate graph to show clearly the gender differences for a
particular year. For guidance on drawing graphs see Maths and Stats Support Sheet 2 –
Presenting data – graphs.
Q5 a Describe the trend in the number of deaths per 100 000 from CHD between 1980 and
2010. Use examples from the data to quantify your answer. Estimate the percentage
decrease in each case.
b Suggest reasons for this trend.
Q6 a Compare the incidence of CHD deaths in men and women. Remember to quantify your
answers.
b Suggest reasons for any differences described.
Q7 a Has this gender difference changed over the time period shown?
b Suggest reasons for any changes observed.

Study Year Sex Age Incidence

group /100 000
4th National Study of Morbidity Statistics from 1991/92 Men 45–64 1080
General Practice
65–74 2250
75–84 2730
Royal College of General Practitioners, the Office
of Population Censuses and Surveys and the 85+ 2020
Women
Department of Health (1995) Morbidity Statistics 45–64 660
from General Practice, Fourth National Study
1991–1992. London: HMSO. 65–74 1760
75–84 2240
85+ 2150

One general practice in Oxford (Gill et al, 1999) 1989/91 Men 45–54 830
55–64 1353
65–74 930
Women
45–54 643
55–64 1257
65–74 827

Table 4 Incidence of angina per 100 000 adults determined in two UK studies.

Use the data on the incidence of angina in adults in Table 4 to answer the question that follows.
Q8 a Comment on the risk for men and women of suffering angina as they get older and on any
conflicting evidence in the two studies.
b Which of the studies is likely to have a better design? Give reasons for your answer.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.15 Student Sheet

MEASURING BLOOD PRESSURE

Purpose
 To measure blood pressure.
 To explain the significance of high blood pressure in cardiovascular disease (CVD).
 To develop practical skills.
SAFETY
Never use a sphygmomanometer or blood pressure monitor unsupervised.
Do not over-inflate the cuff or leave it inflated for longer than necessary.
Do not worry if your blood pressure seems too high or too low. This is not a definitive
medical measurement of blood pressure, just an estimate.
Do not take repeat measurements until the blood flow to the lower arm has been restored for
several minutes.
You should not use one of these monitors if:
You have a cardiac pacemaker, or you know you suffer from heart rhythm disorders, or you already
suffer from severe atherosclerosis.

YOU NEED
● A sphygmomanometer and stethoscope, or a blood pressure monitor

Blood pressure
Blood pressure is one of the easiest and quickest measures used by the medical profession to check the
health of your heart and circulation system.
If you have ever had your blood pressure taken or seen it done on one of the many TV hospital
dramas, you will know that an inflatable cuff is generally put around your upper arm and held loosely
in place with Velcro. Air is pumped into the cuff inflating it and measurements are taken as the cuff
is deflated.
‘Normal’ blood pressure is often quoted in books as 120/80 mmHg, but how many people actually
have this blood pressure? Find out by using a sphygmomanometer or digital blood pressure
monitor to determine the blood pressure of several members of your group. Are they all the same?
Are there any patterns within the values obtained? If you have time, take three or more readings each
to see if the measurements are precise.
The interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity can help you understand exactly what is
happening when blood pressure is measured. It can be used as an alternative to measuring blood
pressure with a sphygmomanometer, which is difficult to use.
But remember that taking pressure measurements can cause anxiety which may affect the
measurement. Eating, smoking, drinking alcohol and sports can all affect your blood pressure. Any
high or low measurements made in the classroom should not be regarded as indicative of a blood-
pressure problem. Even with the blood-pressure monitors that are widely available on the high street,
unusual measurements should be checked by a qualified health professional.

Procedure
1 Make yourself comfortable and try to relax before having your blood pressure taken.
2 Remove any clothing with tight sleeves: it is important that blood flow is not constricted. If you
push up your sleeve, make sure that it doesn’t become so tight that it impedes blood flow.
3 Most sphygmomanometers or digital meters have a cuff that must cover the brachial artery in the
upper arm. The cuff must be closed firmly so that the artery is well covered, as shown in Figure 1.
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4 Try to lay your arm on a surface such as your lab bench, ensuring that the cuff is at approximately
the same height as your heart. (Think why!) The palm of your hand should be facing upwards.

Figure 1 Using a sphygmomanometer and stethoscope to measure blood pressure.

Using a sphygmomanometer
5 With traditional sphygmomanometers you use a stethoscope to listen for the sound of blood flow
in the brachial artery. The stethoscope is positioned on the inside forearm below the elbow as
shown in Figure 1.
6 Pump air into the cuff, inflating it until the pulse sound disappears.
7 Deflate the cuff until the sound of blood can be heard as it starts to push through the artery.
8 Take a reading at this point. This first reading gives systolic pressure.
9 Further deflate the cuff. As the sound disappears take a second reading. This gives diastolic
pressure, a measure of the pressure in the artery when the heart is relaxed. The overall blood
pressure is given in mmHg. It is usually expressed as systolic over diastolic, for example,
120/70 mmHg.
Unless you are an experienced nurse or paramedic, it is often difficult to recognise the change in
sound of blood flow. The animation lets you see what should happen.

Using a digital blood-pressure monitor

10 Digital blood-pressure monitors have a pre-set switch. This means that when you start to inflate
the cuff, you should set this switch at a value slightly higher than your expected systolic pressure
(the upper value). For instance, if you are young and healthy, you will probably need to set the
switch at 140. If you have doubts, your teacher or lecturer will be able to advise you.
11 Press the start button to automatically inflate the cuff to the pre-selected pressure. Most models
continue to inflate past the pre-set value if you have set it too low.
12 When the monitor reaches the target inflation value, the air is automatically released and the value
in the digital display begins to count downwards.
13 When the monitor first detects your pulse, the majority of monitors will begin to ‘beep’ and a
symbol will start to flash. Here, the monitor is determining the upper value for your blood
pressure, the systolic blood pressure. Notice that the ‘beeping’ is fairly regular. What do you think
the ‘beeps’ show?
14 As the pressure in the cuff continues to drop, there comes a point when the monitor can no longer
detect your pulse. This gives the lower value for your blood pressure, the diastolic blood pressure.
Can you think what has happened to your brachial artery at this point?
15 When all the air has been released, the monitor will display both your systolic and your diastolic
blood pressures. Most machines will also show your pulse rate at the same time.
16 You may wish to store these measurements using the monitor’s memory facility, so that you can
monitor changes in your blood pressure, perhaps in accordance with exercise or possibly over a
period of time.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.15 Student Sheet

Most people’s blood pressure falls within the range of 100–140 mmHg for systolic pressure and
60–90 mmHg for diastolic pressure. Pressures below these values are considered to be low pressure;
above about 160/95 mmHg is classed as high blood pressure.
Unusual measurements should be checked by a qualified health professional.

Questions
Q1 What do you think the beeps made by a digital pressure monitor at step 13 of the procedure
represent?
Q2 What is happening to blood flow in the brachial artery at the final step of both procedures?
Q3 Comment on your results if you have taken several readings from different people within the
group.
Q4 A person has a blood-pressure reading of about 170/95 mmHg. Would this be classed as high
blood pressure?
Q5 Why can elevated blood pressure increase the risk of CVD?

Investigating blood pressure

Blood pressure can vary between individuals and can change through the day. What effect might
posture or relaxation have on blood pressure? Plan an experiment that would let you check out your
idea. Use the Developing Practical Skills sheet to help you plan the investigation: you can find this in
the Practical Skills Support section of SNAB Online.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.16 Student Sheet

BLOOD PRESSURE SUMMARY

Purpose
 To draw together all the blood pressure ideas.
 To introduce the use of concept maps.

Procedure
The concept map is one method of producing a summary of what you think you know about a
particular subject area, in this case blood pressure. The construction of the map allows you to think
through the ideas covered and clarify your understanding. A map will often highlight errors or
omissions. It can provide a useful tool in learning.
If you have never constructed a concept map you may need to read the Exam and Study Skill
Coursework Support before getting started.
Starting with the idea of blood pressure, construct your own concept map or use the template
provided.
You might include what blood pressure is and what it is the result of, then expand out from these
ideas.
If you would like a helping hand use the template below.

is Blood pressure

is the result of

cardiac output

aga inst is the result of of

blood vessel walls heart rate stroke volume blood vessels

is is that can vary in

whose elastic fibres allow amount of blood pumped

by left ventricle

changed by so that obese people have

stretching during longer blood vessels

during which we feel as a during is controlled by may may to raise

contract
arteriole walls

maintaining to reduce to raise

thus maintaining

Figure 1 Blood pressure concept map.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.17 Student Sheet

CARBOHYDRATE STRUCTURE

Purpose
 To describe condensation and hydrolysis reactions.
 To distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides, and relate their
structure to their roles in providing and storing energy.

Procedure
Complete the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity or read the section on carbohydrates in
your Student Book and then use what you have learned to complete this worksheet.

Joining sugar units

Splitting sugar units

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.17 Student Sheet

1 Complete the table below with the names of three disaccharides and their monosaccharide
components.

Name of disaccharide Sugar monosaccharides making up disaccharide

Building complex carbohydrates

2 Fill in descriptions of the molecules below; include detail about their structures and formation.

3 On the monosaccharide diagram above, label the carbons 1 to 6; start with 1 on the carbon to the
right of the oxygen in the ring.
4 On the diagram below, draw in 1,4 glycosidic bonds. Label one glucose monomer. On that
molecule, draw in a hydroxyl group and side group in the correct position.

Joining glucose molecules to form starch and glycogen

Structural formula of starch

Starch is a polymer made up of glucose monomers.
Branching glucose chains are possible when 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic links are present.
5 On the diagram below, add the 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds. Label one 1,4 glycosidic link and
one 1,6 glycosidic link.

Starch is made up of amylose and amylopectin.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.17 Student Sheet

6 Fill in the table with information about the structure of these two molecules.

Name of molecule Type of glycosidic bonds present and

structure formed

7 On page 2 of this Activity Sheet label the diagram that shows part of an amylose molecule and the
diagram that shows part of an amylopectin molecule.
8 In the box below, describe how the structure of glycogen is similar to that of amylopectin starch.

9 Use information from the interactive tutorial and Student Book to complete the table below.

Name of molecule Structure and chemical Biological role and use by

properties humans
Sweet, soluble, crystalline. Monomer of polysaccharides.
Monosaccharide. Substrate for cell respiration in all
living organisms, releasing energy.

Insoluble polysaccharide formed

from two glucose polymers:
branched amylopectin with 1,4 and
1,6 glycosidic links and helical
amylose with 1,4 glycosidic bonds
only.
Maltose

Sweet, soluble, crystalline.

Disaccharide formed by
condensation reaction between
glucose and fructose.

Glycogen

In the ICT Support there is a data logging sheet on testing for sugars using a colorimeter.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.18 Student Sheet

BIOTECHNOLOGY TO THE RESCUE

Purpose
 To reinforce the idea that disaccharides can be converted into monosaccharides by hydrolysis.
 To test for glucose using a semi-quantitative technique.
 To develop practical skills.
SAFETY
Wear eye protection. Wear a plastic apron to protect your clothes. Long sleeved clothing
should be rolled up to prevent contamination.
Take care to not splash any enzyme-containing liquids. Wash off any splashes immediately.
Lactase is a relatively safe enzyme, but contact with or inhalation of any enzyme should be
protected against to avoid allergic reaction or sensitisation.
The products from the column should not be tasted unless the experiment has been
conducted in a food preparation area with equipment for food use only using food grade reagents
(including food grade enzyme) and observing strict hygiene rules.
Do not touch the colour-producing end of the glucose test strip as the indicator chemical may be
hazardous.

YOU NEED
2 cm3 lactase 3
● ● 10 cm syringe barrel
● 8 cm3 sodium alginate solution (2%) ● Clamp stand, boss and clamp
3
● 20 cm 1.5% calcium chloride solution ● Tea strainer
3
● 20–50 cm distilled water ● Two small beakers
3
● Glass rod ● 10 cm measuring cylinder
● Glucose test strips

Is there a use for lactose?

Lactose is the disaccharide found in milk. It is not actually a very useful sugar:
 It is rarely used in food products because many people are intolerant to lactose. Of the Thai,
Chinese and Afro-Caribbean populations, 97%, 90% and 73%, respectively, are reported to be
lactose-intolerant, often resulting in severe digestive problems.
 Lactose has low solubility and tends to produce crystals at concentrations above 11%. If lactose is
used in food products, the crystals can produce an unpleasant sandy texture.
 Lactose is only 20% as sweet as sucrose. If it were to be used in foods, the large amount needed to
achieve sweetness would substantially increase the calorie content of the food.
 When cheese is made, the large quantities of liquid whey produced contain lactose and protein. If
whey is disposed of into the sewage system, its high nutrient content encourages growth of
microorganisms and fines can be imposed on the industry for this pollution.

How can enzymes help?

Hydrolysis of lactose yields the monosaccharides glucose and galactose, which are much sweeter
sugars. The enzyme lactase can be used to hydrolyse lactose and this process is now used in the
production of ice cream and sweetened, flavoured and condensed milks. Syrup made from the
products of hydrolysis of the lactose-rich whey from the cheese industry can be made into a useful
product: a hygroscopic (water-retaining) toffee that has a low melting point. The toffee can be poured
into chocolate cups at relatively low temperatures, and because it is hygroscopic it can be used to coat
biscuits without making them soggy. Milk treated with lactase is suitable for lactose-intolerant people
to drink.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.18 Student Sheet

In industry hydrolysis of lactose is carried out using immobilised enzymes, as shown in Figure 1. In
the experiment that follows, lactase is used to make lactose-free milk.

Figure 1 Enzyme immobilisation.

Procedure
Immobilising the enzyme
1 Mix 2 cm3 lactase with 8 cm3 alginate gel solution. Stir gently with glass rod.
2 Pour 20 cm3 calcium chloride solution into a clean beaker.
3 Clamp a 10 cm3 plastic syringe barrel above the beaker of calcium chloride solution. Position the
syringe close to the top of the beaker taking care not to let the syringe touch the solution.
4 Pour the alginate gel into the syringe, allowing the gel to drip slowly into the calcium chloride
solution. It is best to add about 2 cm3 of gel to the syringe at a time.
5 The gel beads must be left in the calcium chloride solution for 10 minutes to harden, then strained
in a tea strainer and rinsed with distilled water.

Making a column of beads

6 Clamp a syringe barrel above a small beaker and place a small piece of nylon gauze in the bottom
of the syringe (see Figure 2 below).
7 Attach a short length of rubber tubing to the syringe outlet and screw a Hoffman clip onto this to
seal the end of the syringe. The Hoffman clip can be used to control the flow of liquid from the
syringe.
8 Pour the beads into the syringe barrel – you can use a small spoon or spatula for this.

Figure 2 Making a column of immobilised lactase.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.18 Student Sheet

Hydrolysing the lactose

9 Pour the milk into the column. Adjust the clip so that the milk slowly drips into a beaker.
10 Use a glucose test strip to test for glucose in the liquid collected from the column. Glucose test
strips are semi-quantitative; you can get a reading of glucose concentration by comparing the
colour produced with a colour scale.
If you have time, investigate the effect of the rate of flow of the milk over the beads on the production
of glucose.

How glucose test strips work

The detection of glucose using test strips (Figure 3) provides a quick and easy way for diabetics to
monitor their own blood and urine glucose levels. The advantage of this method over some chemical
methods is that it is specific for glucose; glucose can be distinguished from the presence of other
sugars.

The enzymes glucose oxidase and peroxidase

are immobilised onto a cellulose fibre pad with
chromagen dye.

Figure 3 Glucose test strip.

The test strip is dipped into the solution to be tested.

Two reactions take place:
1 catalysed by glucose oxidase
glucose + oxygen + water → hydrogen peroxide + gluconic acid
2 catalysed by peroxidase
hydrogen peroxide + colourless chromagen dye → coloured, oxidised chromagen dye + water
The amount of coloured chromagen produced is a measure of the amount of glucose that has reacted.
A colour reference card gives an indication of the concentration of glucose present in the solution.
Q1 Explain what happened to the milk as it passed through the column of beads. Use biochemical
detail and diagrams in your answer as appropriate.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.19 Student Sheet

LIPIDS

Purpose
 To describe the synthesis of a triglyceride.
 To describe the formation of ester bonds in condensation reactions between glycerol and fatty
acids.
 To explain differences between saturated and unsaturated lipids.

Procedure
Complete the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity or read the section on lipids in your
Student Book and then use what you have learned to complete this worksheet.
Fats and oils belong to a group of molecules called lipids. Lipids do not dissolve in water, but do
dissolve in non-polar solvents.

Questions
Q1 a Add the following labels to Figure 1: fatty acids, glycerol, ester bond.
b Add the name of the reaction, the total number of water molecules removed and the name
of the product.
Q2 In Figure 1, circle and label the atoms removed during the formation of an ester bond between
one fatty acid and glycerol.

Figure 1 Formation of a triglyceride.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.19 Student Sheet

Q3 Using the information about joining and splitting sugar units in the section on carbohydrates in
the Student Book and Activity 1.17, name the reaction on Figure 1 that would split an ester
bond to release a fatty acid.
Q4 What do you think are the products of lipid digestion?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Q5 Draw a simple diagram in the space below to show a monounsaturated fatty acid.

Name Formula No. of No. of double bonds in Melting

carbons hydrocarbon chain point/°C
Lauric acid C12H24COOH 12 0 44.2
Palmitic acid C16H32COOH 16 0 63.1
Stearic acid C18H36COOH 18 0 69.6
Oleic acid C18H34COOH 18 1 13.4
Linoleic acid C18H32COOH 18 2 –5.0
Arachidonic acid C20H32COOH 20 4 –49.5
Arachidic acid C20H40COOH 20 0 76.5
Table 1 Fatty acid information.

Q6 Referring to the data in Table 1, what effect does an increase in the number of double bonds
have on the melting point of a fatty acid?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Q7 What effect does an increase in the number of carbon atoms have on the melting point?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Q8 Explain why most polyunsaturated oils are liquid at room temperature.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.20 Student Sheet

YOUR ENERGY BUDGET

Purpose
 To analyse data on energy budgets and diet.

Energy budget
The calories that you need each day depend on:
 the amount of energy your body uses when completely at rest (basal metabolic rate)
 the energy used as a result of eating (specific dynamic action)
 the amount of physical activity (PA) you take part in.
To analyse your energy budget you need to calculate energy expenditure and energy intake from food.
The calculations can be completed on the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity, or by
working through the sections on this worksheet.

energy
intake
energy
requirement

weight gain

energy energy
requirement intake

weight loss

energy energy
requirement intake

no change in weight

Figure 1 If the balance between energy consumed and energy used is not equal, you will lose or gain weight.

Procedure
Calculating energy requirements
Calculating your basal metabolic rate (BMR)
There are various formulae for calculating basal metabolic rate (BMR). The formula used here is the
Harris-Benedict formula, which takes height, mass and age into account. Calculate your BMR:

Formula gives calorific requirements in kcal per day My mass in kg M = ________

Adult females 655.1 + (9.563 × M) + (1.850 × H) – (4.676 × A) My height in cm H = ________

My age in years A = ________
Adult males 66.5 + (13.75 × M) + (5.003 × H) – (6.775 × A)
My BMR = ________
H = height/cm; M = mass/kg; A = age/years

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.20 Student Sheet

Although scientists normally use kilojoules (kJ) as the unit of energy, Calories (kcal) are very widely
used by the food industry for energy content of food. A Calorie is the same as a kilocalorie.
1 kcal = 4.18 kJ.

Calculating physical activity (PA)

Calculate your total daily calorific expenditure using the formula:
Daily energy expenditure during exercise = (M × E × T)
M = mass/kg; E = energy expenditure/kcal per kg per min; T = time/min

To do this you need to:

1 Work out roughly how long you spend in minutes each day on the equivalent of the activities
below. If an activity you participate in, for example, football, is not shown, select an activity that
you think would use about the same amount of energy per minute.
2 Work out the energy used for each activity each day and then sum these values to give the total
for each day. The values are energy used per kg of your mass.
3 Multiply the energy used by your mass to give your total energy expenditure during physical
activity per day.
Activity Energy Time Energy Activity Energy Time Energy
expendi- spent on used*/ expendi- spent on used*/
ture/kcal activity/ kcal per ture/kcal activity/ kcal per
per kg min kg per kg min kg
per min per min
Running 12 0.14 Cycling 0.07
min per mile 5 mph
Running 9 0.19 Cycling 0.12
min per mile 10 mph
Running 8 0.22 Cycling 0.17
min per mile 15 mph
Running 7 0.24 Swimming 0.09
min per mile crawl 25 m
per min
Running 6 0.28 Swimming 0.18
min per mile crawl 50 m
per min
Walking 20 0.03 Standing 0.014
min per mile
Walking 15 0.06 Driving 0.029
min per mile
Walking 11 0.14 Writing/ 0.014
min per mile deskwork
Sitting 0.014 Sleeping 0.014
(watching TV)
Showering 0.06 My total energy expenditure per
kg**/kcal per kg
*Energy used = energy expenditure in kcal per kg per min × time in minutes.
**Sum of energy used in one day for all activities.

My daily energy expenditure in exercise (PA)

= total energy expenditure per kg × mass
= _________________ kcal per day

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.20 Student Sheet

Calculate specific dynamic action (SDA)

Specific dynamic action is the amount of energy needed to digest, absorb, transport and metabolise
your food. It can be assumed to be 10% of your BMR and PA. This additional 10% is added to your
daily energy expenditure on BMR and PA to give total daily energy expenditure. The easy way to do
this is by multiplying PA + BMR by 1.1, see below.

Total daily energy expenditure

Use this formula to calculate your energy needs for one day:
1.1 × (BMR + PA) =

Calorific input from food

Use tables of nutritional values to analyse your diet for a typical day. Compare the total energy input
from food with the value that you calculated above, which is your total daily energy requirement.
Do your daily energy requirements and daily energy input from food balance? If not, which is greater
and by what percentage?

Questions
Q1 Suggest how age, gender and body size may all affect BMR.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Q2 Suggest how environmental temperature may affect BMR.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Q3 When you diet, after a couple of weeks your BMR will slow down as your body attempts to
conserve energy. Use this to explain why exercise may be a more effective way of losing
weight than dieting.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Extension questions
Q4 Assume that an 80 kg person loses 1 kg of body fat for every 7700 kcal that their energy
expenditure exceeds intake. How long in minutes would they need to run at 6 min per mile in
order to lose 1 kg of body fat?
The smaller an animal, the larger their surface area compared with their volume. A mouse loses a
larger proportion of body heat through its surface than an elephant. A baby will lose body heat more
easily than an adult will.
Q5 Use the information above to suggest how the BMR of a baby per kilogram of its body mass
will compare with that of an adult.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.21 Student Sheet

OBESITY INDICATORS

Purpose
 To calculate obesity indicators and explain their significance.

The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommends the assessment of health
risks due to being overweight or obese should be based on both Body Mass Index (BMI) and waist
circumference. It recommends the use of the two measures because although BMI takes account of
height, it does not differentiate between mass due to muscle development and mass due to body fat. In
addition, BMI does not consider fat distribution, which has been identified as contributing to increased
health risk. The health risk consequences of obesity can be significant; an obese man is five times
more likely to develop type 2 diabetes and a woman is 13 times more likely. Obese men and women
are about three times more likely to develop cancer of the colon, and both have increased risk of a
number of other diseases including cardiovascular disease (CVD).

Calculate your BMI

BMI is used to classify a person’s body mass relative to their height.
It gives an indication of whether a person is underweight, normal weight, overweight or obese.
BMI is calculated using the formula:
body mass/kg
BMI =
height 2 /m 2
Calculate your BMI and decide your category of bodyweight using the table below.

BMI Classification of bodyweight

<18.5 underweight
18.5–24.9 normal
25.0–29.9 overweight
30.0–39.9 obese
>40.0 severely obese

Questions
Q1 Edgar is 165 cm tall and weighs 65 kg. Work out his BMI. What advice would you give him
regarding his weight?
Q2 A fully grown adult man has a daily energy requirement of approximately 3052 kcal, and has a
daily energy intake of about 3500 kcal. What will be the consequences for his BMI if he
maintains this energy budget?
Q3 Explain why doctors would advise patients with BMIs above 30 to reduce their weight.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.21 Student Sheet

Calculate waist-to-hip ratio

Waist-to-hip ratio has been identified as a better measure of obesity. There is a positive correlation
between waist-to-hip ratio and risk of heart attack.
Waist-to-hip ratio is calculated by dividing waist circumference by hip circumference. The waist is
measured unclothed at the narrowest point between the top of the hip bone and the rib margin. The hip
measurement is taken at the widest point around the buttocks wearing light clothing using a non-
stretchable tape measure attached to a spring scale with a tension of 750g.
Women’s waist-to-hip ratio should not be greater than 0.85, men’s should not exceed 0.90. The higher
the value above these figures, the greater the risk.
Q4 Two female friends measure their waist and hip circumferences. One has a waist measurement
of 76 cm and hips of 102 cm, the other has a waist circumference of 110 cm and hips of
138 cm. Calculate their waist-to-hip ratio and decide if either should be concerned. The two
friends are the same height, 170 cm.
Q5 Edgar has a hip measurement of 85 cm and waist of 90 cm. Would your advice remain the
same as that given in response to question 1?
Q6 Suggest why waist-to-hip ratios combined with BMI are better than BMI alone as an indicator
of obesity and heart disease risk.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.22 Student Sheet

CHOLESTEROL AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

Purpose
 To look at evidence for a correlation and a causal link between cholesterol levels and
cardiovascular disease (CVD).

Correlation or cause?
Most people have heard that cholesterol is ‘bad for you’. But this is not entirely true; cholesterol is
essential for the body in small amounts. It is needed for maintaining the correct level of fluidity in cell
membranes. Cholesterol is also needed in the manufacture of steroid hormones and some of the
components of bile (an alkaline fluid secreted by the liver, which aids digestion).
We normally obtain around 25% of our blood cholesterol from our food and our liver makes the other
75%. There are major concerns about the high levels of fat in many people’s diets and the impact this
can have on blood cholesterol levels, health and, in particular, the development of CVD, including
coronary heart disease (CHD) and stroke.
Q1 Many studies have looked in more detail at the relationship between cholesterol and CHD.
Table 1 below shows the total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and triglyceride
levels in the blood of the participants in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC)
study. In a 10 year follow-up of this US study involving 12 339 participants, 725 CHD events
occurred. The difference between the CHD and non-CHD participants was shown to be
statistically significant.
Using the data in Table 1, suggest the possible significance to health of different types of
blood cholesterol.

Women Men
CHD No CHD CHD No CHD
Number of participants 216 6691 509 4923

mean total cholesterol/ 5.96 5.59 5.72 5.40

–1
mmol l
mean LDL cholesterol/ 3.89 3.48 3.91 3.56
–1
mmol l
mean HDL cholesterol/ 1.30 1.51 1.07 1.18
mmol l–1
mean triglycerides/ 1.68 1.30 1.63 1.44
–1
mmol l
Table 1 The mean values for lipids in ARIC women and men with and without CHD.

Table 2 shows summary results of a review of 49 trials looking at the effect of lowering blood
cholesterol on CHD risk.

Time since lowering of Reduction in risk/%

cholesterol/years
1 11
2 24
3–5 33
>5 36
Table 2 The effect of lowering blood cholesterol levels by 1 mmol l–1 on CHD risk.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.22 Student Sheet

Q2 What conclusions can be drawn from the results in Table 2 about the relationship between
blood cholesterol and heart disease?
Q3 From the data shown in Figure 1, what conclusions can be made about the interaction between
HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and CVD risk? (Look carefully at the axes!)

Figure 1 The interaction between LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and CVD risk, data from the Framingham
study.

The passage below concerns the development of atherosclerotic plaques in experimental animals. This
is a modified extract from an article published in Nature on atherosclerosis.
The first observable change in the artery wall following the feeding of a high-fat, high-
cholesterol diet is the accumulation of lipoprotein particles and their aggregates in the intima.
Within days or weeks, monocytes can be observed adhering to the surface of the endothelium.
The monocytes then move across the endothelial monolayer into the intima, where they
proliferate, differentiate into macrophages and take up the lipoproteins, forming foam cells.
With time, the foam cells die, contributing their lipid-filled contents to the necrotic core of the
lesion. Some fatty streaks subsequently accumulate SMCs [smooth muscle cells], which migrate
from the medial layer. With the secretion of fibrous elements by the smooth muscle cells,
fibrous plaques develop and increase in size. Initially, the lesions grow towards the adventitia
[inner layer] until a critical point is reached, after which they begin to expand outwards and
encroach on the lumen.
Modified from Aldons J. Lusis 2000 Nature 407:233–241.

Q4 List the evidence presented on this Activity Sheet that supports:

a correlation between blood lipid levels and CVD risk, and
b a causal link between blood lipid levels and CVD risk.
Q5 The extract above only refers to a high cholesterol diet and accumulation of lipoproteins.
Suggest what additional evidence would be required to make a causal link between high LDL
cholesterol levels with the development of atherosclerosis lesions.
Q6 Explain why both the data from studies, such as those shown in Table 1 and Figures 1 and 2,
and evidence from histology and animal studies, is needed to construct a convincing theory
linking blood lipid levels and CVD.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.22 Student Sheet

A study in women looked at the relationship between LDL cholesterol/HDL cholesterol levels and the
formation of a protein that is involved in the attraction of blood cells into artery walls. Figure 2 shows
the results of the study.

Figure 2 Relationship between HDL cholesterol and formation of blood cell attracting protein in women.

Q7 Describe the effect of the different levels of LDL and HDL cholesterol on the formation of the
protein.
Q8 Suggest why these results support a beneficial effect of HDL cholesterol (for women at least).

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.23 Student Sheet

SUDDEN DEATH IN ATHLETES

Purpose
 To illustrate how the predisposition for cardiovascular disease (CVD) can be inherited.
 To apply knowledge of atherosclerosis and blood clotting.

Procedure
The article describes how possession of one gene can increase the risk of developing the disease
without the presence of other risk factors. Read the article and then answer the questions that follow.

Sudden Death in Athletes

Why do athletes who are in peak physical condition, who do not smoke or drink too much suddenly
have a heart attack?
In March 2012, 24 year old footballer Fabrice Muamba suffered a heart attack while playing for
Bolton in an FA Cup match against Tottenham Hotspur. His heart stopped for 78 minutes but
fortunately he recovered. He had an undiagnosed heart condition – hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
(HCM). In December of the same year Mitchell Cole, who played for Oxford, died at the age of 27
also due to HCM. Research suggests that this type of sudden cardiac death affects both men and
women and is two to four times more common in athletes than in non-athletes.
Researchers examining the Office for National Statistics data for causes of death and estimated that
each week about 8 people under the age of 35 die from undiagnosed cardiac conditions.
A study of 158 deaths in young athletes from 1985 to 1995, published in the Journal of the American
Medical Association found that HCM was the most common cause of death in young athletes. HCM is
recognised as the most common cause of sudden cardiac arrest in young people. Mutations in one of
several genes cause abnormal thickening of the ventricle walls particularly the left ventricle. The
contraction of the heart muscles may be disrupted causing an irregular heartbeat.
For the majority of people with HCM it does not affect the quality of their life or their life expectancy
although there is an increased risk of sudden death. There have been calls for a national screening
programme for young people. For more than 35 years in Italy, there has been screening of young
athletes before participating in competitive sport. A study published in the New England Journal of
Medicine concluded that this screening may have prevented sudden death. However, the UK screening
committee consider that the tests are not accurate enough to correctly identify the condition and it
would result in false positives.
HCM is not the only cause of sudden death in young athletes. In November, 1995, the 28 year old
Olympic and four-times World champion Russian skater, Sergei Grimke, died of a sudden cardiac
arrest while training. Tests showed that he had severe atherosclerosis in his coronary arteries which
led to the heart attack. Hearing that Grinkov’s father died at 52, researchers at Johns Hopkins
University tested samples of Grinkov’s blood. DNA analysis found that he had inherited a form of a
gene, called the platelet antigen gene. This form of the gene causes platelets to form blood clots more
readily and may increase cholesterol binding to endothelial cells lining blood vessels.
Q1 Explain in detail how possession of this form of the platelet antigen gene affects the process of
atherosclerosis and can result in sudden death.
Q2 Why might having an abnormally thick left ventricle wall create a problem? To find out more
information about cardiomyopathy you can visit the Cardiomyopathy Association website.
In most cases, CVD is not the result of inheriting a single faulty gene. Several genes can affect the risk
of developing the multifactorial disease. Reading pages 45–46 of the Student Book will help you
answer the questions that follow.
Q3 Outline how inheritance of different forms of the APOE gene can affect the chance of
inheriting CVD.
Q4 Describe what is meant by multifactorial disease.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.24 Student Sheet

ARE YOU GETTING ENOUGH ANTIOXIDANTS?

Purpose
 To highlight the importance of antioxidants in the diet.

Antioxidants
Antioxidants are chemicals that help prevent damage within cells by unstable radicals. Chemical
reactions within cells produce radicals. These are atoms or molecules with one or more unpaired
electrons. Radicals are oxidising agents – they accept electrons from other molecules that become
oxidised (oxidation is loss of electrons). The unpaired electron in the radical is restored to a pair by
pulling a hydrogen atom with its single unpaired electron from another molecule. These reactions
cause damage to DNA, proteins, lipids and other molecules in the cell. Although cells have a number
of antioxidants that help to minimise the effect of the radicals, the damage accumulates over time and
has been linked to the changes that occur with ageing and with diseases such as coronary heart disease
(CHD) and cancer. Oxidised, low-density lipoproteins are thought to be more readily taken up by the
white blood cells involved in atherosclerosis.
The cell has antioxidant defences against radical damage. For example, oxidised DNA is repaired by
enzymes and oxidised proteins are destroyed by proteases. Antioxidants in the diet, such as vitamin C,
vitamin E and beta-carotene (used by the body to make vitamin A), also help prevent the damage
caused by radicals in the cell by providing hydrogen atoms whose electrons pair up with the unpaired
electrons in the radicals.
To help reduce radical damage it is recommended that a healthy balanced diet contains at least three
portions of vegetables and two portions of fruit a day.

Some sources of radicals

Radicals are produced in many reactions within cells. Within mitochondria, respiration reactions,
which reduce oxygen to water, produce by-products with unpaired electrons, namely superoxide (O2–)
and hydroxyl radical (OH). Some of these radicals leak in to the cell’s cytoplasm.
In a rat cell about 1012 oxygen molecules per day are converted in this way and about 2% of these
molecules leak into the cell partially reduced. This is 2 × 1010 in a day.
The breakdown of fatty acids and other molecules within peroxisomes (membrane-bound organelles in
the cytoplasm that contain enzymes) produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-product. The breakdown of
this molecule is normally catalysed by the enzyme catalase within the peroxisomes. However,
occasionally some of the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is not broken down and leaks into the cytoplasm.
Reactions involving hydrogen peroxide in the cytoplasm give rise to hydroxyl radicals.
Toxic chemicals in our diet are broken down by enzymes within the cytoplasm. This avoids them
having a toxic effect, but some of the breakdown products are radicals. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) in
cigarette smoke and other pollutants also cause oxidation of molecules in cells.
It is thought that some white blood cells destroy bacteria and virus-infected cells by bombarding them
with a mixture of oxidants including hydrogen peroxide. Although this prevents infection it also
releases radicals. Other researchers suggest that it is not radicals involved in this process but enzymes.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.24 Student Sheet

Questions
Q1 a What are radicals?
b How are they formed within cells?
Q2 Will large numbers of radicals in the body increase the risk of developing CHD? Explain your
answer
Q3 Low plasma concentrations of the antioxidant vitamin C are associated with increased risk of
heart disease.
a Explain how the results shown in Figure 1 support a negative correlation between these
two factors
b What other conclusion can be drawn from the data in Figure 1?

Figure 1 Plasma vitamin C concentrations in patients with acute heart attack (n = 179) and apparently healthy
control subjects (n = 172), by smoking status.
(Source: Riemersma, R.A., Carruthers, K.F., Elton, R.A., Fox, K.A.A. (2000) Vitamin C and the risk of acute
myocardial infarction. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71(5): 1181–1186.)

Q4 Do the data support a causal link between vitamin C and CHD? Give a reason for your answer.
Q5 Explain how the Department of Health recommendation that everyone should eat five portions
of fruit and vegetables a day should help protect against:
a CHD
b cancer.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.24 Student Sheet

Q6 Check below to find out how frequently you consume foods containing these important health-
promoting vitamins and decide if you are getting enough antioxidants.

How often do you eat these? Never Seldom 1–2 3–5 Daily
times times
per week per week
Vitamin C-rich foods:
1 Grapefruits, lemons, oranges or
pineapples
2 Strawberries, kiwi fruits or honeydew
melons
3 Orange, cranberry or tomato juices
4 Green, red or chilli peppers
5 Broccoli, Chinese cabbage or
cauliflower
6 Asparagus, tomatoes or potatoes
Beta-carotene-rich foods:
7 Carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkins
8 Spinach, spring greens or chard
9 Cantaloupe melons, papayas or
mangoes
10 Nectarines, peaches or apricots
Vitamin E-rich foods:
11 Wholegrain breads, cereals or
wheatgerm
12 Crabs, shrimps or fish
13 Peanuts, almonds or sunflower seeds
14 Oil, margarine, butter, mayonnaise or
salad dressing
(Source: Brown, J.E. (1995) Nutrition Now. St Paul: West Publishing Company.)

Scoring: Several responses in the last two columns indicate adequate antioxidant vitamin
consumption. If you need to boost your intake, increase the overall amount of fruit, vegetable and
wholegrains in your diet. Although nuts, seeds, oils, mayonnaise and salad dressing all contribute
vitamin E, they are high fat and should only be consumed in moderation.
Q7 These sorts of tests are extremely popular and often found in food and other magazines.
a How valid (giving true results) do you think they are and why?
b How useful do you think they are and why?

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 Activity 1.25 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

IS HIGH C ALL IT CLAIMS TO BE?

Purpose
 To investigate the vitamin C content of fruit juice.
 To develop practical skills.

Schoolgirls expose false vitamin C claims

Fruit juice is recommended as a good source of the antioxidant vitamin C and large volumes are sold
every day. In 2004, two high school students in New Zealand conducting an experiment to determine
the vitamin C levels of their favourite fruit drinks found that the levels in one well-known blackcurrant
juice drink were much lower than those claimed by the manufacturer. The manufacturer dismissed the
concerns, saying the claim related only to the blackcurrant fruit and not the product. However, the case
was taken up by a television consumer affairs show and after further testing it was found that
statements about the levels of vitamin C had been misleading. Fifteen charges were brought under the
Fair Trading Act. In March 2007, the manufacturer pleaded guilty to all 15 charges and was fined
NZ$217,500. The manufacturer maintains that the issue only affected juice in Australia and New
Zealand.

Which juice contains the most vitamin C?

The quantity of vitamin C in food and drink can be determined using a simple colour test. Vitamin C
decolourises the blue dye DCPIP (dichlorophenolindolphenol). Vitamin C is an antioxidant and
reduces the DCPIP. DCPIP changes from blue to colourless (or slightly pink) as it becomes reduced.
Use the method described below to investigate the amount of vitamin C in fruit juice.
Read the procedure below carefully and decide if it will validly answer the question posed. Complete a
risk assessment before you start.

You need
 1% DCPIP solution
 1% vitamin C solution
 A range of fruit juices
 Test tubes
 Pipette to accurately measure 1 cm3
 Pipette or burette.

Procedure
1 Pipette 1 cm3 of 1% DCPIP solution into a test tube.
2 Record the start volume of 1% vitamin C solution in a pipette or burette. Add 1% vitamin C
solution drop by drop to the DCPIP solution. After adding each drop, shake the tube gently.
Continue to add drops of the vitamin C solution until the blue colour of the DCPIP has just
disappeared. Record the end volume. Calculate the exact volume of 1% vitamin C solution needed
to decolourise the DCPIP by subtracting the start volume from the end volume. Repeat the
procedure and average the result.
3 Repeat this procedure with the fruit juices provided. If only one or two drops of the fruit juice
decolourises the DCPIP, dilute the juice and repeat the test.
4 The 1% vitamin C solution contains 10 mg of vitamin C in 1.0 cm3. Calculate the mass of vitamin
C that is required to decolourise 1 cm3 of the DCPIP solution. Use this value to work out how
much vitamin C each of the fruit juices contain, in mg cm–3.

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 Activity 1.25 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

Analysis and interpretation of data

5 Present your results in the most appropriate way.

Conclusion and evaluation

6 Discuss your findings with reference to your question or problem. State a clear conclusion to your
work, summarising what you have found. Support your statements with evidence from your
results and relevant biological knowledge.
7 Comment on any systematic or random errors in the data.
8 Comment on the accuracy and precision of your results.
9 Propose any changes to the procedure that would improve the quality of the results.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.26 Student Sheet

REDUCING STRESS

Purpose
 To reinforce the idea that high blood pressure is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD) by
investigating how stress can affect blood pressure.
 To highlight practical skills.
SAFETY
Never use a sphygmomanometer or blood pressure monitor unsupervised.
Do not over-inflate the cuff or leave it inflated for longer than necessary.
Do not worry if your blood pressure seems too high or too low. This is not a definitive
medical measurement of blood pressure, just an estimate.
Do not take repeat measurements until the blood flow to the lower arm has been restored for
several minutes.
You should not use one of these monitors if:
You have a cardiac pacemaker, or you know you suffer from heart rhythm disorders, or you already
suffer from severe atherosclerosis.

Measuring the effects of stress

Students were asked to investigate the idea that stress increases heart rate and blood pressure.
A rather weak plan is included below. Comment critically on the method suggested in the plan. Then
go on and plan your own investigation which addresses any concerns raised in this plan. Support your
ideas using biological knowledge.

My investigation report
I am going to investigate the effect of stress on heart rate and blood pressure. Heart rate and blood
pressure will increase when you are stressed because your heart is having to work harder.

Method
I will ask everyone in the group to take their blood pressure and their heart rate when they come into
the classroom. Everyone will then complete a set of test questions. They will be told that if they do not
get over 50% correct they will have to stay behind and do them again at lunchtime. After they have
completed the tests I will take their pulse rate again and measure their blood pressure. There will be at
least 10 people in the group so this will give enough repeated measurements. They will use a
stopclock to take their pulse rates and a digital blood pressure monitor for measuring blood pressure.

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 Activity 1.27 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

DOES CAFFEINE AFFECT HEART RATE?

Purpose
 To investigate the effect of caffeine on the heart rate of Daphnia (water fleas).
 To develop practical skills.

Caffeine
Plants produce caffeine as an insecticide. Cocoa in South America, coffee in Africa and tea in Asia
have all been used for hundreds of years to produce ‘pick me up’ drinks containing caffeine. These
days, caffeine is also used as a flavour enhancer in a wide range of soft drinks. In addition, it has
medicinal uses in painkiller preparations and is found in weight-loss drugs and as a stimulant in
students’ exam-time favourites like PRO PLUS and Red Bull.
In humans, caffeine acts as a stimulant drug, causing increased amounts of stimulatory
neurotransmitters to be released. At high levels of consumption caffeine has been linked to
restlessness, insomnia and anxiety, causing raised stress and blood pressure. This can lead to heart and
circulation problems.
The effect of caffeine on heart rate can be investigated using Daphnia (water fleas). The beating heart
of a water flea can be seen through its translucent body, by placing the flea in a few drops of water in a
cavity slide under the microscope. A mobile phone can be used to video the heart beat.
Investigating the effect of caffeine on heart rate
SAFETY
Wash your hands thoroughly after handling the Daphnia or the pond water.

1 Scientific questions and information research

 State what you are going to investigate – try to express this as a hypothesis to test. What do you
think will be the effect of caffeine on the heart rate of water fleas? Write down your ideas and a
prediction, and present relevant biological knowledge to support your suggestions.
 Research relevant information – to help you decide on what you are going to investigate and how
you will carry out the practical work, you might need to research the background science and
methods people have used to investigate similar problems. When you write up your plan
remember to give full details of any information sources you use and comment on their reliability.
2 Planning and experimental design
 Design an experiment that you can use to test your hypothesis – the Developing Practical Skills
Framework in the Practical Skills Support section of SNAB Online will help you plan your
investigation. Note: Daphnia are poikilothermic (cold blooded). Turn off the microscope lamp
when not viewing the fleas.
The following equipment will be available:
 Culture of Daphnia (water fleas)
 Cavity slides
 Dropping pipettes
 Distilled water
 Caffeine tablets
 Cotton wool
 Standard glassware (beakers, measuring cylinders, etc.)
 Stopclock
 Paper towels or filter paper
 Microscope.
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 Activity 1.27 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

Make sure your plan:

 includes the hypothesis that you are testing
 identifies the independent and dependent variables
 identifies any other variables which may affect the outcome of the experiment and, where
possible, controls or allows for them
 includes a procedure which uses suitable apparatus that will give you measurements that will
validly test your hypothesis, and explains why the apparatus is suitable and how the results will
let you test the hypothesis
 has a control, if appropriate, and this control is fully explained
 includes replicates, and an explanation of why this is necessary
 says what measurements you will make, how they will be made and the level of precision that you
can expect in your measurements
 identifies any potential sources of error (systematic or random) and how errors can be minimised
 comments on any ethical issues that arise from using invertebrates in the experiment and explains
how these will be taken into account in the practical method used
 includes a risk assessment that identifies any risks and explains any safety precautions that need
to be taken so as to reduce those risks.

3 Carrying out practical work safely and ethically

Either use the plan you have created after it has been checked by your teacher/lecturer or use a method
supplied by your teacher/lecturer. If unexpected ethical or safety issues arise, deal with them sensibly,
taking advice where needed and make a note of them. Record all measurements, including repeated
ones, as soon as they are taken; with appropriate precision (i.e. a suitable number of significant
figures) and units. Note any possible errors.

4 Analysis and interpretation of data

Present your data in an appropriate table and graph. For information on the features of a good table
and graph see the Maths and Stats Support in the SNAB Online resources. If you have lots of repeated
results, remember that you should work out mean values and present these in your report. This also
lets you comment on the significance of your results. If the results that are used to calculate the means
are very variable, any differences between the treatment means may not be significant. The range of
values can be shown on the graph using bars on each point as a measure of the variation of the data.
See Maths and Stats Support Sheet 10 – standard deviation – for details of how to work out standard
error. NB: you need to make it clear what any bars on a graph are showing.

5 Conclusion and evaluation

In the discussion of your results you should use evidence from your data to identify any trends and
patterns. You should quote some data that show the trend. You should then use biological knowledge
to explain any patterns or trends identified. You should state a clear conclusion, summarising what
you found out and comment on the validity of your conclusion. You should evaluate your
experimental apparatus and methods, commenting on the accuracy and precision of your results.
Remember that the hypothesis you suggested may not be correct. In this case, the results will not show
the patterns or trends that you expected. There may be a different trend or no trend at all. This is
perfectly OK. You may be able to suggest an alternative explanation for your results. You may still
think your hypothesis is sound, but that there are concerns about the experimental method used and
that the results obtained are not very valid, i.e. they may not be testing the hypothesis appropriately. In
this case, you cannot draw valid conclusions from the results and this should be explained in any write
up. An experiment that does not produce the expected results is often as valuable to other researchers
as a report that supports the original hypothesis. It allows other researchers to make informed
decisions about the methods they will use in the future and it may allow them to suggest alternative
ideas.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.28 Student Sheet

HEALTHY HEART QUIZ

Purpose
 To review ideas about risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD).

Questions
Identify each of the following statements as ‘true’ or ‘false’ to test your knowledge of heart disease
and its risk factors.
Q1 The risk factors for CHD that you can do something about are: high blood pressure, high blood
cholesterol, smoking, obesity and physical inactivity.
Q2 A stroke is often the first symptom of high blood pressure and a heart attack is often the
symptom of high blood cholesterol.
Q3 A blood pressure greater than or equal to 160/95 mmHg is generally considered to be high.
Q4 High blood pressure affects the same number of black people as it does white people.
Q5 The best ways to treat and control high blood pressure are to control your weight, exercise
regularly, eat less salt (sodium chloride), restrict your intake of alcohol and take any medicine
to reduce blood pressure, if prescribed by your doctor.
Q6 A low blood cholesterol is needed to prevent heart attacks in adults.
Q7 The most effective dietary way to lower the level of your blood cholesterol is to eat foods low
in cholesterol.
Q8 Lowering blood cholesterol levels can help many people who have already had a heart attack.
Q9 The only children who need to have their blood cholesterol levels checked are from families at
high risk of heart disease.
Q10 Smoking is a major risk factor for four of the five leading causes of death, including heart
attack, stroke, cancer and lung diseases such as emphysema and bronchitis.
Q11 If you have had a heart attack, quitting smoking can reduce your chances of having a second
attack.
Q12 Someone who has smoked for 30 to 40 years will not be able to quit smoking.
Q13 The best way to lose weight is to increase physical activity and eat fewer calories.
Q14 Eating five portions of fruit and vegetables a day will provide antioxidant vitamins that reduce
the risk of CHD.
Q15 Heart disease is the leading killer of men and women in the UK and in the USA.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.29 Student Sheet

MAKING DECISIONS

Purpose
 To consider how people use scientific information to reduce their risk of cardiovascular disease
(CVD).

To change or not to change

People often use scientific information to help make decisions about their lifestyle that may directly
(and deliberately) or indirectly reduce their risk of developing CVD. Answer the questions below.
Q1 The three information panels in Figure 1 below come from the front of crisp multi-packs.
Discuss how you might use the information provided to decide which pack would be the most
‘healthy’ choice, if you are concerned about your risk of heart disease.
1 2 3

Figure 1 Nutritional information panels from three different varieties of crisps. All bags contain the same mass of
crisps.

Q2 Look at the dietary information provided on two packs of chicken tikka masala below. Decide
which would be the better buy if you were trying to reduce your risk of heart disease. Give
reasons for your answer.
A

Figure 2 Nutritional information on two ready meals, each with a mass of 400 g.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.29 Student Sheet

Q3 Table 1 shows data for the sales of different types of milk over an eight-year period. Describe
any changes in market share over this period. Comment on possible reasons for any changes.

% share
Whole Semi-skimmed Skimmed
2005 28.3 61.9 9.8
2006 29.6 60.4 10.1
2007 26.7 62.3 11.0
2008 26.3 63.4 10.1
2009 26.3 63.2 10.5
2010 23.3 65.3 11.4
2011 23.6 65.3 11.1
2012 19.7 69.8 10.5
Table 1 Milk sales (average purchase per person) in Great Britain by fat content.
(Source: MDC Datum, the market information service of the Milk Development Council.)

Q4 In 2005, a dairy foods manufacturer that makes cholesterol-lowering dairy products made a
controversial agreement with a French private healthcare insurer. The insurance company will
refund up to €40 (£27) a year to customers who buy the dairy company’s cholesterol-lowering
yoghurts, margarine and milk. Suggest why the insurance company would decide to enter into
this agreement.
Q5 A leading brand of margarine added plant sterols to help reduce LDL cholesterol. In the UK,
this brand took 5% of the market share in the four weeks after its May launch; this declined to
3.2% by the middle of July. The dip was thought to coincide with the scaling back of the
advertising campaign after the launch. People have decided to try the new product based on the
health benefit information provided in the advertising, but have not continued with its use.
Suggest a reason why they may not have continued to buy the product.
Q6 A Glasgow University study published in September 2007 reported a 17% fall in heart attacks
in Scotland following the introduction of the smoking ban in public places. In the 10 months
before the ban there were 3235 admissions for heart attacks in the nine hospitals that took part
in the study. In the same period after the ban the admissions for heart attacks fell to 2684.
Blood tests were done on patients to check if they were smokers. It was found that in non-
smokers, the fall in heart attack admissions was 20%, compared with a 14% drop among
smokers.
a Discuss whether these are the findings that you would have expected in the 10 month
period following the smoking ban.
b Suggest which factors may have contributed to the decrease in heart attacks after the ban.
Q7 Which of the following is the most ‘scientifically sound’ advertising claim to help people
decide whether butter or margarine is the most healthy option? Give reasons for selecting or
rejecting each statement.
1 Butter is a natural product, so is better for your health.
2 Margarine contains less fat than butter.
3 Butter contains a higher proportion of saturated fat than soft margarine.
4 Margarine contains lots of chemicals, so can’t be good for you.
Q8 In 2006, the European Union introduced a new health claims regulation, to avoid misleading or
confusing health claims being used on foods. For example, a claim that a food is low in fat
may only be made where the product contains no more than 3 g of fat per 100 g of solid food,
or 1.5 g of fat per 100 ml of liquid (1.8 g of fat per 100 ml are permitted for semi-skimmed
milk). Suggest at least two other possible claims made by manufacturers about food where the
regulation should set guidelines to allow people to choose foods that will reduce their risk of
CVD.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.30 Student Sheet

CHECK YOUR NOTES FOR TOPIC 1:

LIFESTYLE, HEALTH AND RISK

Purpose
 To help you get your notes in order at the end of this topic.

Topic 1 summary
Make sure your notes cover the following points. The points are listed in the approximate order they
appear within the topic. All the points are covered in the Student Book, but where there is supporting
information within the activities this is indicated.
There are suggestions on making notes and on revision in the Exam and Study Skill Support.
You should:
 Understand why many animals have a heart and circulation (mass transport to overcome
limitations of diffusion in meeting the requirements of organisms). (Checkpoint question 1.1)
(Activity 1.2)
 Understand the importance of water as a solvent in transport, including its dipole nature. (Activity
1.3)
 Understand how the structures of blood vessels (capillaries, arteries and veins) relate to their
functions. (Checkpoint question 1.2) (Activities 1.6 and 1.7)
 Know the cardiac cycle (atrial systole, ventricular systole and cardiac diastole). (Checkpoint
question 1.3) (Activity 1.8)
 Relate the structure and operation of the mammalian heart to its function, including the major
blood vessels. (Activities 1.4 and 1.5)
 Know how the relationship between heart structure and function can be investigated practically.
(Activity 1.4)
 Understand the course of events that leads to atherosclerosis (endothelial dysfunction,
inflammatory response, plaque formation, raised blood pressure). (Activities 1.9 and 1.10)
 Understand the blood clotting process (thromboplastin release, conversion of prothrombin to
thrombin and fibrinogen to fibrin) and its role in cardiovascular disease (CVD). (Activity 1.9)
 Be able to analyse and interpret quantitative data on illness and mortality rates to determine health
risks (including distinguishing between correlation and causation and recognising conflicting
evidence). (Activities 1.11 and 1.12)
 Understand why people’s perceptions of risks are often different from the actual risks, including
underestimating and overestimating the risks due to diet and other lifestyle factors in the
development of heart disease. (Checkpoint question 1.4) (Activity 1.11)
 Be able to evaluate the design of studies used to determine health risk factors, including sample
selection and sample size used to collect data that is both valid and reliable. (Checkpoint question
1.5) (Activity 1.13)
 Know how factors such as genetics, diet, age, gender, high blood pressure, smoking and inactivity
increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). (Checkpoint question 1.7) (Age and gender –
Activity 1.14. Genetic inheritance – Activity 1.23. Blood pressure – Activities 1.15, 1.16 and
1.26. Diet – Activities 1.20, 1.21 and 1.24)
 Know the difference between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides, including
glycogen and starch (amylose and amylopectin) and be able to relate their structures to their roles
in providing and storing energy (β-glucose and cellulose are not required in this topic).
(Checkpoint question 1.6) (Activities 1.17)
 Know how monosaccharides join to form disaccharides (sucrose, lactose and maltose) and
polysaccharides (glycogen and amylose) through condensation reactions forming glycosidic
bonds, and how these can be split through hydrolysis reactions. (Activities 1.17 and 1.18)
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 1.30 Student Sheet

 Know how a triglyceride is synthesised by the formation of ester bonds during condensation
reactions between glycerol and three fatty acids, and know the differences between saturated and
unsaturated lipids. (Activity 1.19)
 Be able to analyse data on energy budgets and diet and understand the consequences of energy
imbalance, including weight loss, weight gain, and development of obesity. (Activities 1.20 and
1.21)
 Be able to analyse and interpret data on the possible significance for health of blood cholesterol
levels and levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) and low-density lipoproteins (LDLs).
(Activity 1.22)
 Know the evidence for a causal relationship between blood cholesterol levels (total cholesterol
and LDL cholesterol) and CVD. (Activity 1.22)
 Investigate the vitamin C content of food and drink. (Activity 1.25)
 Investigate the effect of caffeine on heart rate in Daphnia, and be able to discuss whether there are
ethical issues in the use of invertebrates in research. (Activity 1.27)
 Understand how people use scientific knowledge about the effects of diet, including obesity
indicators (BMI and waist-to-hip ratio), exercise and smoking to reduce their risk of coronary
heart disease (CHD). (Activities 1.21 and 1.29)
 Know the benefits and risks of treatments for CVD (antihypertensives, plant statins,
anticoagulants and platelet inhibitory drugs).

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.1 Student Sheet

MAKING DECISIONS

Purpose
 To provide an overview of the genetic basis of cystic fibrosis (CF) and some of the issues it
presents.

Procedure
1 Read through the play script below, either as a class or in small groups.

Making decisions
Characters
VALERIE a pale, thin woman in her forties.
MATT her husband, about the same age, a cheerful sceptic.
CLAIRE aged twenty, their daughter, whose sister Rachel has cystic fibrosis.
TOM the local vicar, a very good family friend; he and Matt enjoy teasing each other.
(A normal kitchen. CLAIRE is sitting at the table drinking a cup of coffee and reading a magazine.
Enter VALERIE, looking very tired; she is dressed very smartly and has just returned from visiting
family.)
CLAIRE Hello Mum, you look shattered. Want a coffee? The kettle’s just boiled.
VALERIE Yes please dear. (She sits down wearily. CLAIRE gets up and makes a cup of coffee
while the following conversation is taking place.) I need to sit down for a bit before
I start getting supper. Where’s Dad? He’s usually in by this time.
CLAIRE He’s gone to get an Indian take-away, to save you having to cook tonight.
VALERIE That’s nice. I’m so tired.
CLAIRE Why did you go then? Laurie is only a distant cousin isn’t he? I’ve only met him a
couple of times.
VALERIE I suppose I think that our families have things in common so want to be supportive.
CLAIRE You mean the cystic fibrosis?
VALERIE (Nodding as CLAIRE hands her a cup of coffee) Yes. Thanks dear.
CLAIRE He is a thoroughly miserable little git though, isn’t he? He doesn’t seem to do
anything except collect his disability benefit and watch television.
VALERIE (Slightly angry and becoming more so) If you’d had to have physiotherapy which
involved being thumped on the back every day of your life, had chronic diarrhoea
and other digestive problems, had one chest infection after another knowing that
the next one might very well carry you off, been in and out of hospital more times
than you could count, had to take antibiotics, digestive tablets and goodness knows
what other medication and knew that you were unlikely ever to have children and
even more unlikely to reach the age of 40. (Each time she pauses for breath
CLAIRE interrupts, but isn’t quick enough) If you’d been waiting for three years
for a heart and lung transplant that was your last hope, you might not be the chirpy,
happy, life and soul of the party type either.
CLAIRE Spare me the lecture, Mum. I know all about that stuff. Rachel has cystic fibrosis
and she’s not like that. She has to have the physiotherapy and I know she’s been
pretty ill, but she’s cheerful and happy – usually. And she’s got a good job, and
there’s all that music stuff she does.
VALERIE She’s been very lucky. We were always very sensible with her, we were careful,
but not too protective.
CLAIRE And she didn’t have a mother like Auntie Dorothy, taking Laurie to all those weird
faith healers and trying to convince him that transplants were evil. It can’t have
helped.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.1 Student Sheet

(Pause, while they both drink coffee.)

CLAIRE Cousin Laurie is a lot younger than Rachel isn’t he? Is he in a pretty bad way?
VALERIE (Exasperated) Yes, Claire, thank you very much, that cheers me up no end.
CLAIRE (Hastily) Sorry Mum. (She glances out of the window and turns back to her Mum.)
Brace yourself, Tom’s just coming in the front gate. Shall I tell him you’re not
back yet?
VALERIE (Hesitates for a moment then makes up her mind.) No, I’d like a chat with him.

(Exit CLAIRE again, a door bell rings. There is a short, indistinct offstage conversation between
CLAIRE and TOM. TOM enters.)
TOM Hello Val, I was going to ask if you could help with the Youth Club this week.
Dawn’s gone down with ʼflu but I gather you’ve had a pretty rotten day so I’ll get
someone else, it’s no problem.
VALERIE Come and sit down, Tom. I’ll help, though I don’t exactly feel full of joy at the
moment. I suppose going to see Laurie brought all the questions back.
TOM (Sitting opposite her) Questions?
VALERIE Why do things like cystic fibrosis exist?
TOM If you want a theological answer, there are nearly as many of those as there are
theologians, none of them totally convincing, I’m afraid. If you want a scientific
answer, isn’t it supposed to give protection against some disease? Typhoid,
possibly, or cholera, though that’s not terribly relevant in twenty-first century
Britain.
VALERIE (Pause) Did we really do the right thing in bringing Rachel and Claire into the
world? Rachel with cystic fibrosis and we know Claire’s got a very high chance of
being a CF carrier. And Claire and Nathan are talking about starting a family. Will
she have children or grandchildren who have CF as well. (Pause) Matt and I didn’t
think we would have more children after Rachel. Then after a couple of years I
suddenly found I was pregnant again. One doctor did suggest that we consider an
abortion, but Matt and I were both absolutely against it.
TOM And so was I. We really do not have the right to end the life of a fetus just because
it isn’t perfect or has a chance of producing children that aren’t. Besides, Rachel
and Claire are both super, a credit to you and Matt. Claire’s training to be a
biologist and isn’t she interested in research? She might be the one to find an
effective cure, perhaps nobody’s children or grandchildren will have to suffer from
cystic fibrosis in a few years’ time.
VALERIE She’s got a long way to go yet.
TOM She’ll manage. Seriously, they are quite near to a cure. They know an awful lot
about cystic fibrosis these days, don’t they?
VALERIE They know it’s caused by a mutation in a gene. They know exactly where that gene
is in a human cell. They know which chromosome it’s on. They know exactly what
the gene does. It’s to do with a protein transporting sodium and chloride ions
across cell membranes, apparently. They know that 1 in 25 people are cystic
fibrosis carriers, which means that about 1 child in 2500 will be born with the
disease. In fact, they know just about every damn thing about it except how to cure
it, or even treat it effectively.
(There is a crash as the door is kicked open, MATT enters, he half staggers, half falls into the room,
his arms full of the brown paper bags that Indian take-aways use.)
MATT Hello dear, did Claire tell you I was getting a take-away? Sorry I took so long, I
forgot the rice and had to go back for it. (He sees TOM) Hi Tom, I think I just saw
your local fan club members rushing this way. (He starts to unpack the take-away.)
TOM No, that was Doris Crane and Phyllis Bendall trotting along to bingo. And I think
perhaps I should be off.
MATT Don’t go, I was looking forward to a good argument.
VALERIE Not now, Matt. I’ve had a hard day: Laurie’s not well and I am worried about
Claire and Nathan deciding to have a baby.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.1 Student Sheet

MATT Claire will be fine, she is a sensible girl. And if Laurie’s mother hadn’t got mixed
up with a load of anti-scientific religious cranks who forbid him to have the latest
treatment, he might be much better today. (To TOM) Have an onion bhaji.
TOM Thank you. (He takes a bhaji and starts to eat it.) That’s a bit unfair: I’m a vicar
and I don’t object to using the latest drug treatments, transplants, or gene therapy.
Laurie’s mother belonged to a rather weird cult called the Divine Temple of
Incarnation. Claire would not get mixed up with them.
MATT Oh? I thought I read a letter of yours in the local paper protesting about the GM
crop trials.
TOM (Slightly pompously) Gene therapy is a rather different use of genetic engineering
and one that hopefully will benefit people in the future, although it doesn’t seem to
have helped any cystic fibrosis sufferers yet.
MATT Tom don’t forget that if Laurie receives a heart–lung transplant it would have to
come from some healthy young person who would have died in tragic
circumstances.
VALERIE Even so, she could still be a carrier and have a baby with CF.
TOM Could they have genetic screening? You need to have a chat with her and make
sure she understands. I must go, thanks for the food. See you later.
MATT Bye Tom.
VALERIE See you on Wednesday at the youth group. Bye.
(Exit TOM. MATT has finished unpacking the take-away.)
MATT That’s about ready, I’ll give Claire a call.
(CLAIRE bursts in, she is ‘dressed up’.)
CLAIRE Don’t save any for me, I’m just going out. Nathan and I are going for a meal then
we are going on to The Warehouse.
MATT Hang on, I got the prawn biryani just for you: we don’t like it.
VALERIE We wanted to have a chat with you about what you were saying the other day
about wanting to start a family.
MATT The Warehouse? Isn’t that the new nightclub in town? How are you going to get
home? Do you want me to pick you up?
CLAIRE Oh Dad, I’m not a little girl any more. Nathan will bring me back. And don’t
worry, we will do the research and make sure we have all the information we need
before we make any decisions. Bye.
(Exit CLAIRE, in a hurry)
MATT Let’s hope he’s not a CF carrier.
END
The play script contains a lot of information about cystic fibrosis and raises many issues that people
with cystic fibrosis have to think about.
2 Read through the play script again on your own and this time underline or highlight the factual
biological information about cystic fibrosis and, with another colour, highlight or underline the
issues that Valerie, Matt and Claire have to think about.
3 Using these highlighted passages, work with a friend to produce a ‘mind map’ showing how the
information you have gathered on cystic fibrosis is linked together.
One way of starting a ‘mind map’ is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 How to start a mind map.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.2 Student Sheet

PERSONAL CYSTIC FIBROSIS STORIES

Purpose
 To find out how cystic fibrosis (CF) affects individuals with the condition by reading some
accounts by people affected by CF.

Cystic fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis is not a rare disease. In fact, 1 in 25 people of European descent carry a mutation that
results in cystic fibrosis. The people carrying the mutation may not know they do so. Eighty per cent
of children with cystic fibrosis are born to parents with no prior history of the disease. People with
cystic fibrosis have a median predicted survival of 41 years, but many people live a lot longer than
that. In fact, the oldest person to be diagnosed with cystic fibrosis was 82 years old! However, most
people with cystic fibrosis are diagnosed within the first few years of life.

Procedure
Read the account and answer the questions that follow. The passage is part of an article written by
Kate, a 29-year-old who has cystic fibrosis. It was published in the Daily Mail in 2008.

Living with cystic fibrosis

By Kate Smith
I have cystic fibrosis. It’s an incurable, genetic disease, where sufferers have thick mucus clogging
their lungs.
Should both parents have the gene, there is a one-in-four chance their child will have it. I do, but
thankfully my younger brother Nick, and elder brother Alex, don’t.
When I was diagnosed at five, the average life expectancy was 17, but each case is different.
Improved medication and physiotherapy have changed my life.
Blowing out the candles on my 18th birthday cake felt very good indeed. Given my health
problems – I’ve been admitted to hospital at least a dozen times with infections, sometimes for
several months – I could have hidden away and given up.
Instead, I have lived life to the full – parties, travel and romance. I love new sports and I’ve been
whitewater-rafting, tandem sky-diving and bungee-jumping in Australia. I know I’ve got a lot to
pack in.
When I’m asked what is the worst part of my illness, I’d have to say the exhaustion. The rigorous
exercise and physiotherapy regime required to help loosen the mucus on the lungs would tire
anyone.
It includes swimming, yoga, gym and physiotherapy where the rib cage is beaten with cupped
hands. The reduced lung capacity makes it harder still to cope with everyday life, let alone a full-
time job.
The effect of absorbing a cocktail of drugs – up to 50 pills a day – plus inhalers, also saps the
energy.
The onset of infection will often bring appalling pains in my chest and either side of my spine.
Cystic fibrosis affects life in subtler ways, too. I never leave my hair wet, because the cold and
damp would make my lungs produce more mucus.
I also avoid mould, especially in fruit, which contains the staphylococcus aureus bacteria that can
grow in cystic fibrosis mucus.
Despite this, my mum Moya and dad Phil – a chemistry teacher and a BA pilot – never wrapped
me in cotton wool.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.2 Student Sheet

There were no restrictions on me. My mother always threw me into exercise – swimming, dancing,
trampolining and gymnastics – and I have continued into adulthood.
Some other parents didn’t get it. I remember one mum telling me I was not to blow up balloons at a
party: far too strenuous for a frail little thing like me, she said. Fine, I thought, I’ll sit in the corner,
chill out and eat the food.
Of course, my parents didn’t burden me with all the details about the illness immediately but I
knew I was different.
When I was 12, I used to tell each of my family before I went to bed that I loved them – just in case
I died in my sleep. This was before I understood that sufferers rarely die without warning.
My personality has been shaped by the disease, too. I’ve never taken the small things in life
seriously and I am not easily offended or jealous.
At school I was puzzled by my friends’ obsessions with trivia. You’re unhappy with your hair?
Really? Oddly, I’ve become more girly in adulthood.
As I moved from school to further education and work, I found grooming and make-up a useful
way to cope with the illness.
If I can still be bothered to do my hair and make-up, then I’m not that ill. I might feel awful, but I
don’t have to look awful as well.
There were a few times when I was too ill to go to school but I still got two A-levels and a degree
in psychology at Kingston University, in South-West London. Students treated me no differently to
anyone else, even if my housemates in Kingston could tell when I was in by my coughing.
In my early 20s I worked for the publisher Haymarket, but a severe infection brought on by my
illness forced me to quit. Abandoning my career was the hardest decision I’ve made, but there was
little choice.
I coughed constantly in the office and was so exhausted one day that I slept under my desk during
my lunch break, asking my boss to wake me when he got back.
This might sound odd, but at 23 I retrained as an aerobics teacher. The effort of keeping fit and to a
professional standard actually improved my health.
I was able to double my lung capacity – a crucial measure of my fitness – from 1.5 litres to three
litres.
I liked the physical challenge, but decided to return to Kingston to do a postgraduate diploma in
psychology, at the same time working two days a week in the prison service.
Because I wasn’t earning enough to pay rent, I moved home with my parents in Sunbury-on-
Thames, Surrey.
In a funny way, I know I have exceeded my parents’ wildest hopes. When I was diagnosed, I was
not expected to make it into my 20s. Every day since has been worthwhile and all the better for
their support.
They haven’t batted an eyelid at the extravagant things I’ve done. They even trusted me to go to
Ibiza with girlfriends at 16. I just danced the week away. My parents’ trust has made me strong.
My illness has always made me value relationships and be wary of fickle people. My early
relationships were with boys from my crowd of friends, so I never had to explain that I had cystic
fibrosis.
In my mid-20s, however, I was asked out on dates by men who didn’t know me so well. That
meant I had to choose the right moment to mention my illness and if it was an issue, I would walk
away.
One man reacted in a bizarre way. He said he felt he’d been cursed, falling for someone who was
ill. So cystic fibrosis has one advantage – it sifts out the nice guys from the idiots.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.2 Student Sheet

Can I see myself getting married one day? I would love to. I will try everything once but it’s
different with relationships.
I could marry only if it felt absolutely right – an extension of my happiness. I’m not ruling out
children, either, although it would be a medical decision.
Carrying a child could reduce my lung capacity, maybe permanently. By having a baby, would I
reduce my life expectancy and my ability to care for the child? Would it be fair on the child and its
father?
Cystic fibrosis is with me day and night but the right treatment may hold it at bay. Techniques have
developed rapidly in the past two decades. Medication is more tailored to the individual;
physiotherapy is more sophisticated and intensive.
In the morning I take two medications through a nebuliser, which produces a fine spray that I
inhale. I then try to cough up any mucus that has built up overnight. I take pills three times a day,
many of them antibiotics, starting at breakfast.
I use three inhalers, two to prevent tightness in the lungs and one to prevent sinusitis.
Additionally, I take Ibuprofen and paracetamol for any pain either side of my spine. When I get
home from work or university I am exhausted and generally flake out.
Then it’s more nebulisers before doing some physiotherapy, having dinner, doing some university
work and going to bed.
One of the most sophisticated drugs I use is Pulmozyme. When inhaled, it breaks down the mucus
before percussive physiotherapy – a once or twice daily beating of the ribcage lasting between 30
minutes and an hour to clear the lungs to dislodge the phlegm.
It can be administered by the patient, a therapist, a trained friend or a parent. As I say, it is tiring.
In more serious bouts of illness, I take intravenous antibiotics through a permanent tube in my arm.
Antibiotics are constantly swapped so the bugs in your body can’t build up immunities.
I swim and do yoga for an hour as many days a week as my energy levels allow to loosen the
mucus on my lungs. I also use a Power-Plate – a vibrating platform – to strengthen joints.
The right food is essential, too, to keep up my energy. Protein is important to fight infections.
Guilt and anger are always there. Guilt because you worry you are a burden and anger when you’re
not getting the treatment you need.
My experiences of the NHS have generally been good, but sometimes horrific. Fortunately, I now
attend a good cystic fibrosis clinic at Frimley Park Hospital in Surrey for monthly sessions. Dr Ron
Knight, my consultant, is a godsend.
The infection that forced me to abandon my publishing job happened during a summer heatwave.
My lung capacity went down to 30 per cent, considered high risk.
I admitted myself to hospital and had to wait six hours for a bed. I was utterly exhausted, my
energy drained from me. Then it hit me – this is what people experience when they are very old.
When I go I will feel like this. And do you know what? I didn’t give a damn – I would have been
content to slip away gently.
But it was not my time. When I awoke with a drip in my arm, I could feel my strength returning. It
was clear that I wasn’t going to die.
My fighting spirit was back. I began to get bored in hospital and when you’re well enough to be
annoyed, you’re clearly getting better. Stroppy people survive.
That day changed my life. Everyone wonders what it will be like when they die. I gained a sense of
peace and lost my fear of death.
You learn to manage people’s reactions. It’s like being in the limelight. This is why I’ve been able
to speak at charity events to raise money for cystic fibrosis research. The last one, the Liv charity
dinner, was attended by Gordon and Sarah Brown, whose son Fraser has cystic fibrosis.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.2 Student Sheet

So there I was explaining my illness in front of the Prime Minister and suddenly I got the giggles. I
couldn’t stop myself. I said how surreal it was to give such intimate details to a star-studded
audience.
With smarter treatment, sufferers are living longer. Some have made it into their 50s, depending on
the severity of their condition. But many die in childhood, so the average life expectancy can only
tell us so much.
I’m having a big fundraising party on my 31st birthday, the day I overtake my life expectancy. I
have no idea how long I will live.
Cystic fibrosis has taught me so much – including humility. I know that when I die, it will be
peaceful. In the meantime, I’m as busy as ever, making the most of my time.
Proceeds from Kate’s website (www.Ivebeenkittened.com) go to the Cystic Fibrosis Trust.
Q1 In the article Kate says that she gets very tired. Give a reason(s) why she might experience
severe tiredness.
Q2 Explain how you think chest physiotherapy will help with Kate’s condition.
Q3 The drug Pulmozyme (also known as dornase alfa) is referred to in the article. Suggest what
type of chemical may occur in this medication and how it might help to break down the mucus.
Q4 Kate was diagnosed at age five. All newborn babies in the UK are now tested for a protein that
is elevated in the blood of anyone with cystic fibrosis. Suggest why an early diagnosis will
benefit the person found to have CF.
You can read more about other people’s experiences living with cystic fibrosis and watch some
YouTube clips from the Channel 4 documentary ‘A boy called Alex’ about the 16-year-old musician
Alex Stobbs who has CF.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.3 Student Sheet

THE EFFECT OF SIZE ON UPTAKE BY DIFFUSION

Purpose
 To investigate the effect of surface area to volume ratio on uptake by diffusion.
 To show why a large surface area in the lungs, combined with a circulation system, is required to
meet the body’s demand for oxygen and need to eliminate carbon dioxide.
YOU NEED
● Block of agar jelly ● Potassium manganate (VII) solution (0.02 M) or
● White tile hydrochloric acid (0.1 M)
● Scalpel or sharp knife ● Ruler
● Paper towel or filter paper ● Rubber or plastic gloves
● Beaker (100 cm )
3 ● Graph paper

Diffusion limits size

Organisms that rely completely on diffusion for the absorption of substances and their movement
around the body rarely grow to be more than a few millimetres thick. The surface area to volume ratio
limits the size of the organism. You can investigate the effect of increasing size on uptake by diffusion
using agar jelly ‘animals’. Read the procedure carefully and correctly follow the instructions.
SAFETY
Wear eye protection, lab coats and disposable gloves.
Avoid skin contact with indicator solutions containing potassium manganate or cresol red.
If potassium manganate solution is spilt do not clean it up yourself – tell the teacher/lecturer.
Take care when using a knife.

Procedure
1 Cut the agar jelly to give three cubes with linear dimensions of 5 mm, 10 mm and 20 mm. Putting
graph paper under the dish of agar jelly is helpful when cutting the blocks. Think how you will
cut all the cubes before actually doing it.
2 Place the cubes in the beaker and cover with the potassium manganate solution. If your jelly is
green due to universal indicator then use weak acid rather than the potassium manganate (VII)
solution. Leave the cubes for three minutes.
3 While you wait, calculate the surface area, volume and surface area to volume ratio (surface area
divided by the volume) for each of the cubes. See page 60 of the Student Book for some help.
4 Pour off the solution and blot the surfaces of each cube dry with a paper towel. Cut each of the
cubes in half and measure the distance from the edge that has changed colour.

Questions
Q1 What do you notice about the increase in volume of the ‘organism’ when its length doubles?
Q2 What do you notice about the increase in surface area of the ‘organism’ when its length
doubles?
Q3 What do you notice about the surface area to volume ratio as the size of the ‘organism’
increases?
Q4 Calculate how long it would take for the solution to diffuse all the way to the centre of each
cube.
Q5 As a simplification, let us assume that the increase in volume will be directly related to a
similar increase in need for oxygen and nutrients. Explain your experimental findings in terms
of diffusion and problems the ‘organism’ would encounter if it got any larger.
Q6 A student decided to use a 5 mm cork borer to produce her agar jelly animals. She produced
cylinders of 5 mm, 10 mm and 20 mm in length. How might this affect her results?
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.4 Student Sheet

THE STRUCTURE OF ALVEOLI

Purpose
 To look at the detailed structure of the lungs and identify features that aid rapid diffusion of gases
into the bloodstream.
 To interpret structures of gas exchange surfaces and describe their properties.
 To use a microscope and eyepiece graticule to measure lung structures.
SAFETY
Never use a microscope with a daylight mirror in a place where sunlight could strike the
mirror. Your retina could be permanently damaged.

Procedure
To remind yourself how to use a microscope, refer to Practical Skills Support Sheet 8 – using a
microscope.

Looking at airways and blood vessels

The lungs contain a branching network of tubes that allow ventilation of the alveoli. The action of
breathing causes air to move into the lungs along these airways into the alveoli.
1 Examine a prepared section of lung tissue under low power. Remember that you are looking at a
thin, 2D section of the 3D lung. Scan across the slide and locate the different types of airway
tubes found within the lungs. Your section may include the trachea, a bronchus and
bronchioles.
2 Look carefully at the cells that line the airways using a higher magnification. What do you notice
about these cells? The layer of cells is called pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium –
this should give you clues as to some of the features you are looking for. See page 59 of the
Student Book for more help. Draw a simple sketch to show the structure and arrangement of cells
in the epithelium.
3 Identify the mucus-secreting goblet cells within the epithelium and label them on your diagram.
What is the function of the mucus produced by these cells?
4 Find an airway that has cartilage within the wall. Why do the airway cells contain cartilage?
5 Locate an artery and vein in your section. How can you distinguish between these blood vessels?

Looking at alveoli
6 Most of the section will be made up of the alveoli and their associated capillaries. It often
appears as if large numbers of the alveoli have broken down or are incomplete, leaving gaps on
the slide. These gaps are in fact cavities that the bronchioles open into. The alveoli themselves
open out from these cavities (see Figure 1). Locate a group of alveoli and identify the associated
capillaries. Are all the alveoli the same size?
7 Look carefully at the cells that make up the walls of an alveolus and a capillary. Describe these
cells.
8 Summarise using bullet points the observable features of the lung tissue that ensure that there is
rapid gas exchange between the alveoli and the bloodstream. Suggest what other features may aid
the diffusion of gases, but cannot be observed in a prepared cross-section.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.4 Student Sheet

Figure 1 Semi-diagrammatic section through a mammalian lung.

How far does an oxygen molecule have to diffuse to get from alveolus to
capillary?
To answer this question you need to work out the average distance an oxygen molecule would have to
travel when diffusing from the centre of an alveolus through the wall and into a capillary. Use the
Practical Skills Support Sheet 9 – size and scale to find out how to use an eyepiece graticule and stage
micrometer to make measurements with a microscope. Decide what measurements you will need to
make and plan the appropriate method you will use to make them.
Carry out your experimental work with appropriate safety precautions. Make measurements and
record data in an appropriate format using suitable precision.
Once you have completed your measurements you need to analyse the data collected and state a
conclusion giving the answer to the question.
Comment on the validity of your conclusion, and discuss the accuracy and precision of your results,
considering any error in the procedure used.
On completion of this practical work reflect on the practical skills you have been developing. You can
capture these reflections on the Developing Practical Skills Self-evaluation Sheet, which can be found
within the Practical Skills Support section of SNAB Online.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.5 Student Sheet

ALVEOLI AND LUNG SURFACE AREA

Purpose
 To work out how the surface area of the lungs is greatly increased by the presence of numerous
alveoli.
 To establish an approximate total surface area for the lungs by calculating volume and surface
area of spheres.

Procedure
Use the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity to compare the surface area of lungs with
and without alveoli. Alternatively, complete the calculations yourself using this worksheet and
remember to give your answer to the appropriate number of significant figures. See Maths and Stats
Support Sheet 4 if you need help with significant figures.
For these calculations we are assuming:
a) that the lungs are two perfect spheres
b) that each sphere has a radius of 89 mm, giving a volume of 3 dm3, or 3 ×106 mm3
c) that the diameter of an alveolus is 0.25 mm.
First, find the surface area of these two 3 dm3 spheres by working out:
1 Surface area of one sphere = 4πr2
= __________ mm2
2 Surface area of the two spheres = answer to part (1) × 2
= __________ mm2
Now calculate the volume and surface area of an alveolus by working out:
3 Diameter of one alveolus = __________ mm
diameter
4 Radius of one alveolus =
2
= __________ mm2
5 Volume of one alveolus = 4/3 πr3
= __________ mm3

6 Surface area of one alveolus = 4πr2

= __________ mm2
To find out the surface area of all the alveoli that can fit into the two ‘sphere’ lungs work out:
7 The number of alveoli that will fit into both of the lungs
volume of lungs/mm3
=
volume of one alveolus/mm 3
=
= __________ alveoli
8 Surface area of the alveoli that will fit inside the lungs
= surface area of one alveolus × number of alveoli
= __________ × __________
= __________ mm2
Comparing the two:
9 Surface area of the two 3 dm3 spheres = __________ mm2
10 Surface area of all the alveoli in the two spheres = __________ mm2
Alveoli increase the surface area of the lungs __________ times. (Divide the surface area with alveoli
by the surface area without alveoli to find the factor it has increased by.)
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.5 Student Sheet

Questions
Q1 What assumptions have you made when estimating the surface area of the lungs in this
activity?
Q2 The actual surface area of a typical pair of human lungs is 60–80 m², but can be as much as
140 m². This maximum lung surface area is closest to which of the following? Circle the
correct answer.
a a large dining table
b the floor of a small room
c a tennis court
d a football pitch.
Q3 Does your estimate give a reasonably accurate value for lung surface area? Explain your
answer.
Q4 List the features of gas exchange surfaces and describe how they increase the rate of gas
exchange.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.6 Student Sheet

PROTEINS

Purpose
 To describe the structure of an amino acid.
 To explain the formation of polypeptides and proteins.
 To explain the significance of a protein’s primary structure in determining its 3D structure.
 To describe the types of bonds involved in maintaining protein structure.

Procedure
Complete the interactive tutorial accompanying this activity and then complete this worksheet.

Amino acids
Proteins are polymers made up of different combinations of up to 20 different amino acids.

Q1 What is a polymer? ……………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

Q2 Annotate this general structure of an amino acid (see Figure 1) with the name and description
of the groups that make it up.

Figure 1 General formula of an amino acid.

Q3 Draw below the general structure of an amino acid as it would be when dissolved in water.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.6 Student Sheet

Joining amino acids

Two amino acids join to form a dipeptide. The bond joining the two amino acids is called a peptide
bond.
Q4 Draw a ring around the atoms in Figure 2 that are removed when two amino acids are joined.
Write the chemical formula of the molecule that they form in the box.

Figure 2 Formation of a dipeptide.

Q5 The reaction that joins two amino acids is called:

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……..

Q6 Label the peptide bond in Figure 2.

Splitting the peptide bond

A dipeptide bond can be broken down by the addition of water. The breaking of peptide bonds is
catalysed by protease enzymes.
Q7 Draw a dashed arrow from the water molecule in Figure 3 to show where the water is added to
break the peptide bond.

Figure 3 Splitting of a dipeptide.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.6 Student Sheet

Q8 The breaking of a bond by the addition of water is called:

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……..

Making a protein
Q9 The flowchart in Figure 4 below shows the sequence of events involved when amino acids join
to make polypeptides, which then combine to make a protein. Annotate the diagram with a
description of what happens at each stage; include the types of bonds involved at each stage.

Figure 4 Flowchart showing the making of a protein from amino acids.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.6 Student Sheet

Q10 Explain how the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain determines the three-
dimensional shape of a functional protein.

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

Q11 What is the importance of the following in protein folding:

a hydrogen bonds?

………………………………………………………………………………….………….

………………………………………………………………………………….………….

………………………………………………………………………………….………….

………………………………………………………………………………….………….

b water-repelling and water-attracting amino acid side groups?

………………………………………………………………………………….………….

………………………………………………………………………………….………….

………………………………………………………………………………….………….

………………………………………………………………………………….………….

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.7 Student Sheet

THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

Purpose
 To describe the structure and properties of cell membranes including their 3D nature.
 To explain how theoretical models of cell membrane structure are interpretations of scientific data
and are used to develop scientific explanations.
 To appreciate how these theoretical models have developed and changed over time as new data
become available.
 To appreciate that several theoretical models might co-exist.
 To create a 2D or 3D model of a membrane.

Procedure
You are going to be using resources originally developed by the University of Leeds. There are several
different sheets that you need to access in order to complete this activity successfully. These can be
printed or viewed on screen.
1 Open ‘The fluid mosaic model Resources 1’ PDF.
2 Read page 2, OHT B0.1, which outlines the aims of the lesson.
3 Read the content summary below and then work through tasks 1 and 2.
 Page 3 (Sheet B1.1) details the tasks you must complete. The tasks direct you to other sheets
in the pack, which present pieces of evidence.
 Page 4 (Sheet B1.2) describes when the scientific evidence was obtained.
 Pages 5 and 6 (Sheets B1.3 and B2.1) present scientific evidence.
 Pages 7 and 8 (B2.2 and B2.3) present the models that were suggested by various researchers.
4 Open ‘The fluid mosaic model Resources 2’ PDF and use pages 1 to 3 (B3.1, B3.2 and B3.3) to
complete task 3.
5 Read the Student Book section on ‘Cell membrane structure’, pages 65 to 69.
6 Using any suitable materials available, make your own model of a membrane. Clearly showing
the phospholipid bilayer, integral and peripheral proteins and the asymmetric nature of the
membrane. You could use modelling clay, straws, wool, foam or any other suitable materials in
your model.
Take a photo of your model and annotate this for your own notes. You may be asked to show and
describe your model to other students in your class.

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 TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE

B THEORETICAL MODELS: CELL MEMBRANES

This is a lesson aimed at helping students to develop their understanding of the

role of theoretical models in science, using models of the structure of cell
membranes as an example.

Resources for students

Downloaded from www.nuffieldfoundation.org/aboutscience
OHP B0.1 Aims of the lesson
Sheet B1.1 Structural models of cell membranes
Sheet B1.2 Time line
Sheet B1.3 Lipid layer evidence
Sheet B2.1 Electronmicrograph evidence
Sheet B2.2 Danielli and Davson model
Sheet B2.3 Robertson model
Sheet B3.1 Freeze fracture electronmicrograph evidence
Sheet B3.2 NMR and X-ray diffraction evidence
Sheet B3.3 Singer and Nicholson model
Sheet B3.4 Plasticine model

Teachers’ notes (separate download)

Download from www.nuffieldfoundation.org/aboutscience

by Andy Hind, John Leach, and Jim Ryder: University of Leeds

We have made every effort to trace ownership of copyright, and would be happy to make arrangements
with any copyright holder whom it has not been possible to contact.

COPIABLE TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE © UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS 2001

TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE OHT B0.1

B THEORETICAL MODELS: CELL MEMBRANES

Aims of the lesson

In this lesson you are learning about the following.

• When scientists produce theoretical models, they use

their imagination and creativity to think about data in new
ways. The theoretical models that they produce are
therefore more than careful descriptions of the data.

• Because the models go beyond the data, more than one

theoretical model can be supported by the available
evidence.

• In some cases new evidence is gathered which shows

one model to be better than another.

COPIABLE TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE © UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS 2001

TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE SHEET B1.1

B THEORETICAL MODELS: CELL MEMBRANES

STRUCTURAL MODELS OF MEMBRANES

In this lesson you will respond to a number of pieces of evidence which will be
provided in the sequence in which they were discovered.
The time line will help you to see the order of events as they actually happened.
You will need to respond to the questions using all the evidence you have been
provided with at each stage.

Task 1
You should have a copy of sheet B1.3 ‘Lipid layer evidence’.
1.1 From looking at the data in the table, would you agree with the conclusions
of Gorter and Grendel?
1.2 What aspects of the membrane structure is there no evidence for in this data?

Task 2
You should have been given sheet B2.1‘Electronmicrograph evidence’ and a
description of two different models.
2.1 For each of the models, state how the evidence you have supports or
undermines the model.
2.2 Describe what you think led to each model being devised.

Task 3
You should now also have sheets:
B3.1 ‘Freeze fracture electronmicrograph evidence’,
B3.2 ‘NMR and X-ray diffraction evidence’ and
B3.3 ‘Singer and Nicholson’s model’.
The time line will help you see the order these pieces of evidence and models
came in.
3.1 How is each of the models, including Singer and Nicholson’s, supported or
undermined by all the evidence now available?
3.2 Which do you think is the most useful model? Justify your answer.

COPIABLE TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE © UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS 2001

TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE SHEET B1.2

B THEORETICAL MODELS: CELL MEMBRANES

1920
TIME LINE
Gorter and Grendel publish their paper indicating the possibility of a bilayer
of lipids (1924)

1930

Danielli and Davson propose their original model of the membrane (1935)

1940 First electronmicroscope images of cell membranes produced

1950

Danielli and Davson publish a revised version of their model (1954)

J.D. Robertson proposes his model based on Danielli and Davson’s

1960 The structure of a protein (haemoglobin) was identified for the first time (1959)

Freeze etching techniques developed giving images of membrane faces

1970
Singer and Nicholson publish fluid mosaic model (1972)

NMR and X-ray diffraction techniques are developed sufficiently to provide

evidence about the movement of lipids in the membrane
1980

1990

Gunther Blobel receives a Nobel Prize for his pioneering work on the
2000
mechanisms by which proteins integrate with the membrane (1999)
????

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TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE SHEET B1.3

B THEORETICAL MODELS: CELL MEMBRANES

LIPID LAYER EVIDENCE
Data from the experiment which laid the foundations for a model of membrane
structure is summarised in the table below. Gorter and Grendel obtained the
membranes of red blood cells. They calculated the area of the red blood cell
membrane and then extracted the lipids that were present. These were dissolved in
petroleum ether and allowed to spread into a layer one molecule thick on a surface of
water and the area was measured.
Animal Total surface area of Surface area Factor
the red blood cell occupied by the B/A
membrane (A) lipids extracted (B)
Sq. µ Sq. µ
Dog 31.3 62 2
6.2 12.2 2

Sheep 2.95 6.2 2.1

2.65 5.8 2.2

Rabbit 5.46 9.9 1.8

5.46 8.8 1.6
0.27 0.54 2
0.49 0.96 2
4.9 9.8 2
4.9 9.8 2

Guinea-pig 0.52 1.02 2

0.52 0.97 1.9

Goat 0.33 0.66 2

0.33 0.69 2.1
3.34 6.1 1.8
3.34 6.8 2
0.33 0.63 1.9

Man 0.47 0.92 2

0.47 0.89 1.9

From these results they concluded:

‘It is clear that all our results fit in well with the supposition that the erythrocytes (red blood cells)
are covered by a layer of fatty substances that is two molecules thick.’
(From Gorter. E. and Grendel. F. Bimolecular layers of lipoids on the chromocytes of the blood, 1924.)

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TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE SHEET B2.1

B THEORETICAL MODELS: CELL MEMBRANES

ELECTRONMICROGRAPH EVIDENCE
During the late 1930s and early 1940s, electronmicroscopy techniques were developed
which provided much more detailed resolution of the structure of a cell. Early micrographs
were obtained by staining a very thin section of tissue with heavy metal salts. These are
absorbed in different amounts by different parts of the cell, giving contrasting degrees of
electron scattering. The parts that take up the most stain appear the darkest on the image.
Electron microscope images of the cell membrane such as this one give us clues as to its
basic structure.

Reprinted from
Gomperts, BD
(1977) The plasma
membrane: models for
structure and function.
chapter 2, page 55,
by permission of the
publisher, Academic
Press

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TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE SHEET B2.2

B THEORETICAL MODELS: CELL MEMBRANES

DANIELLI AND DAVSON MODEL

Danielli and Davson proposed their initial model in 1935 and refined it as in the
diagram below in 1954.

protein layer

lipid bilayer

The model consists of

A lipid bilayer where two layers of polar lipid molecules are arranged with their
hydrophilic heads outward.
A layer of protein covering the surfaces of the membrane. Note that the protein
layer is embedded in the layer of lipids, holding them in place.
In this model, the lipids are not free to move around.

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TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE SHEET B2.3

B THEORETICAL MODELS: CELL MEMBRANES

ROBERTSON MODEL
The model proposed by J.D. Robertson in 1959 is a development of the Danielli
and Davson model with the following exceptions.
The protein layer is formed from a monolayer of polypeptide chains rather
than whole protein molecules. (Polypeptides are the long chain molecules that
proteins are made from.)
The polypeptide layer is on the exterior of the membrane. It is not embedded
in it so the lipids are not held in place.
Robertson proposed that the inner layer could be either polypeptide or
polysaccharide (a long chain sugar molecule).

polypeptide layer

lipid bilayer

inner layer of
polysaccharide or
polypeptide

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TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE SHEET B3.1

B THEORETICAL MODELS: CELL MEMBRANES

FREEZE FRACTURE ELECTRONMICROGRAPH EVIDENCE
In the freeze fracture technique, the sample is frozen and then cut with a
microtome knife to split the cell. This exposes the membrane’s layered structure
showing the outer and inner layers.

This electron micrograph image shows a red blood cell treated in this way.
Note the presence of globular particles on the top surface of the inner
membrane layer which would be within the intact membrane.

100 nm
globular particles

inner membrane surface

outer membrane surface

The second picture shows 100 nm

a similarly treated cell that
has first had 70% of the
protein removed.
There are very few of
the globular structures
that appear in the
membrane of the
untreated cell.

Reprinted from Gomperts, BD

(1977) The plasma membrane:
models for structure and function.
chapter 2, page 55, by
permission of the publisher,
Academic Press

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TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE SHEET B3.2

B THEORETICAL MODELS: CELL MEMBRANES

NMR AND X-RAY DIFFRACTION EVIDENCE

NMR stands for Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. By exposing the molecules of the
membrane to a static and an oscillating magnetic field, scientists have been able
to show that the lipids in the membrane, which have a characteristic magnetic
‘spin’, move over distances of up to 50 nm during the duration of the
measurement (5 to 10 seconds).
X-ray diffraction has shown that, at higher temperatures, the hydrocarbon chains
of the lipids give off diffraction patterns similar to those of liquid paraffins.
However at low temperatures this movement is lost.

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TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE SHEET B3.3

B THEORETICAL MODELS: CELL MEMBRANES

SINGER AND NICHOLSON MODEL

Singer and Nicholson’s ‘fluid mosaic model’ (1972) was again a development of Danielli
and Davson’s model but with more significant differences than in the Robertson model.

protein molecule

lipid bilayer

The key differences are as follows.

The proteins do not form a structural layer holding the lipids in place so the
lipid component of the membrane is not rigid but fluid.
The proteins are not attached to the outside of the lipid layer but embedded
within it, in some cases extending through the thickness of the membrane.

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TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE TEACHERS’ RESOURCE SHEET B3.4

B THEORETICAL MODELS: CELL MEMBRANES

PLASTICINE MODEL
In pilot studies, student feedback suggested that a simple model was helpful in
understanding the evidence presented on the freeze fracture sheet.
In freeze fracture preparation, the sample is frozen and then cut with a microtome
knife in a way which exposes the interior of cell organelles.
In the electronmicrographs shown on sheet B3.1, the membrane has been
fractured in a way which exposes the interior of the membrane bilayer.

The simple model described here helps to illustrate this.

Roll out a flattened doughnut of plasticine and superimpose it on
a roughly circular sheet of a contrasting colour.

This surface represents

the outer face of the
inner layer of the
membrane.

This surface represents

the outer face of the upper
layer of the membrane

Current membrane research

Studies of cell surface protein receptors in T-cells has shown a link between
tumour necrosis factor (TNF), which attacks cancer cells, and the ageing process. (1999)
Work on molecules that bind with specific receptors on membranes is enabling
new drugs to be developed. (2000)

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 Activity 2.8 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

WHY DOES THE COLOUR LEAK OUT OF COOKED

BEETROOT?

Purpose
 To investigate the effect of temperature or alcohol concentration on membrane structure.
 To develop practical skills.

SAFETY
Wear eye protection and lab coats.
Take care using a cork borer, a knife and water baths at 60 and 70 °C.
Alcohol is highly flammable. Keep away from naked flames and ignition sources.

You need
● Raw beetroot ● 2 boiling tube racks
● Size 4 cork borer ● Crushed ice
● White tile ● Thermometers (one per water bath)
● Knife ● Colorimeter
● Ruler ● Cuvettes
● Water baths at 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 C, ● Stopclock
or alcohol ● Distilled water
3
● Plastic beaker, about 250 cm ●
3
Pipettes for measuring 2 cm and 5 cm
3

● 8 boiling tubes ● Small measuring cylinders

If alcohol concentration is investigated several water
baths and ice will not be required. Pipettes and
alcohol will be needed instead.

Beetroot pigments
If you read a recipe for cooked beetroot it will usually recommend that you do not remove the outer
skin of the beetroot and do not cut off all the stalk and root if you want to avoid getting lots of red dye
in the cooking water. Beetroot contains red pigments called betalains, located within the cell vacuole.
What happens to the membranes and pigments when beetroot is cooked or put in alcohol?
The aim of this practical is to use beetroot to examine the effect of temperature or alcohol
concentration on cell membranes and relate the effects observed to membrane structure. To function
correctly a cell needs to be able to control transport across the partially permeable cell membrane.

1 Scientific questions and information research

Before you start the experiment you should:
Research relevant information and state what you are going to investigate – decide what you think
will be the effect of temperature or alcohol on beetroot cell surface membranes and how this will
affect their permeability. Write down your idea as a hypothesis that you can test and support your idea
with biological knowledge. To help you decide on what you are going to investigate and how you will
carry out the practical work, you might need to research the background science and methods people
have used to investigate similar problems.

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 Activity 2.8 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

2 Planning and experimental design

a Go through the procedure provided for the factor you are investigating and decide if:
 all the variables have been identified and, where possible, controlled or allowed for
 the apparatus is suitable and will provide appropriate measurements that will allow you to
test your hypothesis validly
 the measurement will be precise and repeatable
 there are likely to be any systematic or random errors
 there are likely to be any safety issues and how you would minimise any risks
b Write up your decisions on each of the points above and describe any alterations to the procedure
that may be needed and any detail that might need to be added.
c Write a risk assessment for the procedure including the safety precautions you will take.

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 Activity 2.8 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

Procedure to investigate the effect of temperature

1 Cut cylindrical samples from a single beetroot using a size 4 cork borer. Cut eight 1 cm length
sections from these samples. Be careful not to spill beetroot juice on your skin or clothing as it
will stain very badly.
2 Place the sections in a beaker of distilled water. Leave overnight to wash away excess dye.
3 Next day, place eight labelled boiling tubes, each containing 5 cm3 distilled water, into water
baths at 0 C, 10 C, 20 C, 30 C, 40 C, 50 C, 60 C and 70 C. Leave for 5 minutes until the
water reaches the required temperature. Place one of the beetroot sections into each of the boiling
tubes. Leave for 30 minutes in the water baths.
4 Decant the liquid into a second boiling tube or remove beetroot sections using a technique that
does not squeeze the slice. Shake the water/solution to disperse the dye.
5 Switch on the colorimeter and set it to read percentage absorbance.
6 Set the filter dial to the blue/green filter.
7 Using a pipette, accurately measure 2 cm3 distilled water into a cuvette. Place the cuvette into the
colorimeter, making sure that the light is shining through the smooth sides.
8 Adjust the colorimeter to read 0 absorbance for clear water. Do not alter the setting again during
the experiment.
9 Place 2 cm3 of the dye solution into a colorimeter cuvette and take a reading for absorbency.
Repeat the readings for all the temperatures.
In ICT Support 3 there is a datalogging sheet on monitoring diffusion of pigment across beetroot cell
membranes.

3 Carrying out practical work safely and ethically

Use your modified plan to carry out the practical work correctly and with appropriate safety
precautions. If unexpected safety issues arise, deal with them sensibly, taking advice where needed,
and make a note of them. Record all measurements, including repeated ones, as soon as they are taken,
with appropriate precision (i.e. a suitable number of significant figures) and units. Note any possible
errors.

4 Analysis and interpretation of data

 Present your results in an appropriate way.
 Identify any trends or patterns in your results.

5 Conclusion and evaluation

 Explain any trends or patterns, supporting your statements with evidence from your data, using
biological knowledge.
 State a clear conclusion, summarising what you found out and comment on the validity of your
conclusion.
 Evaluate your experimental apparatus and methods, commenting on the accuracy and precision of
your results.
 Describe how you could have improved this experiment.

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 Activity 2.8 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

Procedure to investigate the effect of alcohol

1 Cut cylindrical samples from a single beetroot using a size 4 cork borer. Cut eight 1 cm length
sections from these samples. Be careful not to spill beetroot juice on your skin or clothing as it
will stain very badly.
2 Place the sections in a beaker of distilled water. Leave overnight to wash away excess dye.
3 Next day, place one of the beetroot sections into a boiling tube containing 5 cm3 distilled water.
This is 0% alcohol concentration. Repeat with seven test tubes containing 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%,
50%, 60% and 70% alcohol. Leave boiling tubes for 30 minutes.
4 Decant the liquid into a second boiling tube or remove beetroot sections using a technique that
does not squeeze the slice. Shake the water/solution to disperse the dye.
5 Switch on the colorimeter and set it to read percentage absorbance.
6 Set the filter dial to the blue/green filter.
7 Using a pipette accurately, measure 2 cm3 distilled water into a cuvette. Place the cuvette into the
colorimeter, making sure that the light is shining through the smooth sides.
8 Adjust the colorimeter to read 0 absorbance for clear water. Do not alter the setting again during
the experiment.
9 Place 2 cm3 of the dye solution into a colorimeter cuvette and take a reading for absorbency.
Repeat the readings for all the alcohol concentrations.
In ICT Support 3 there is a datalogging sheet on monitoring diffusion of pigment across beetroot cell
membranes.

3 Carrying out practical work safely and ethically

Use your modified plan to carry out the practical work correctly and with appropriate safety
precautions. If unexpected safety issues arise, deal with them sensibly, taking advice where needed,
and make a note of them. Record all measurements, including repeated ones, as soon as they are taken,
with appropriate precision (i.e. a suitable number of significant figures) and units. Note any possible
errors.

4 Analysis and interpretation of data

 Present your results in an appropriate way.
 Identify any trends or patterns in your results.

5 Conclusion and evaluation

 Explain any trends or patterns, supporting your statements with evidence from your data, using
biological knowledge.
 State a clear conclusion, summarising what you found out and comment on the validity of your
conclusion.
 Evaluate your experimental apparatus and methods, commenting on the accuracy and precision of
your results.
 Describe how you could have improved this experiment.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.9 Student Sheet

METHODS OF TRANSPORT WITHIN AND BETWEEN

CELLS

Purpose
 To demonstrate some methods of transport within and between cells.
 To develop scientific explanations using ideas about transport across membranes and membrane
structures.
SAFETY
Wear eye protection.
Avoid skin contact with the iodine solution (see Hazcard 54B for further safety information).

Procedure
Complete the experiments or look at the demonstrations provided and then try to explain your
observations as you answer the questions associated with each experiment. Remember that plant cells
have both a cell wall and a cell membrane.

Experiment 1
YOU NEED
● About 20 cm3 thick starch solution ● Medium sized (200–300 cm3) beaker
● Warm water ● Clear plastic bag (the thin ones used for
● Iodine (dissolved in KI) vegetables at the supermarket work well)

Procedure
1 Examine the bag to make sure it has no holes. Pour in the starch solution and seal tightly with a
knot or elastic band. (If the bag has a hole, cut a large square from it, avoiding any holes. Support
the square of plastic over the top of the empty beaker to form a pouch. Pour in the starch solution.
Hold the sides of the plastic together to form a bag and secure tightly.)
2 Half-fill the beaker with warm water. Add enough iodine to make a light yellow-brown solution.
3 Place the plastic bag of starch solution into the iodine and observe for about 15 minutes.
Q1 Describe and explain any changes that you saw using appropriate scientific knowledge to
support your conclusions.
Q2 Suggest why warm water was used.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.9 Student Sheet

Experiment 2
YOU NEED
● 4 grapes of similar size ● 50 cm3 strong sugar solution
3
● 50 cm water ● 2 small beakers

SAFETY
Do not eat the grapes – hygiene cannot be guaranteed in the laboratory.
If there is any sign of fungal growth, do not handle the plant material and report it to your teacher.

Procedure
1 Pour approximately 50 cm3 of strong sugar solution into a small beaker.
2 Pour approximately 50 cm3 of water into another small beaker.
3 Label the beakers clearly.
4 Peel two of the grapes and add one peeled and one unpeeled grape to each beaker.
5 Leave for at least 24 hours. These stages (1–5) might already have been done for you.
6 Observe and feel the fruit.
Q3 Write a description and explanation of the changes or lack of changes in each piece of fruit.
Q4 What limits the change in size of:
a the unpeeled fruit
b the peeled fruit?

Experiment 3
YOU NEED
● 2 thin slices of potato (about 0.5 cm wide) ● Saturated salt solution
● 2 thin slices of cucumber (about 0.5 cm wide) ● 2 Petri dishes
● Water

SAFETY
Do not eat the potato or cucumber.

Procedure
1 Place a slice of cucumber and a slice of potato in each Petri dish.
2 Fill one Petri dish with water and the other with saturated salt solution, being careful to cover the
slices and making a note of which is which.
3 Remove and examine the slices after 10 minutes.
Q5 Describe and explain the changes observed.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.9 Student Sheet

Experiment 4
YOU NEED
● 3 cm3 of mammalian blood ● 2 pipettes
3
● 10 cm of distilled water ● 3 microscope slides and coverings
3
● 10 cm isotonic saline ● Microscope
3
● 10 cm 1 M saline solution ● Marker pen
● 3 test tubes

SAFETY
Mammalian blood is a source of possible infection. Wear eye protection, cover any cuts in
your skin with waterproof plasters and avoid all skin contact. If spilt, inform your teacher.
Do not pour down the sink. Wash your hands thoroughly after use.
Prepare all the solutions and slides within a tray to contain any spillages. Clean and disinfect the
tray afterwards.
Never use a microscope with a daylight mirror in a place where sunlight could strike the mirror.
Your retina could be permanently damaged.

Procedure
1 Label your test tubes – water, isotonic, 1 M salt.
2 Put 1 cm3 blood in each test tube.
3 To each tube add 10 cm3 of the solution indicated on the label.
4 Leave the test tubes for 5 minutes.
5 After 5 minutes compare the turbidity (cloudiness) of the tubes either with a colorimeter or by
trying to see a page of printed text held behind each tube.
6 Take a drop of the liquid from the isotonic blood tube and put it on a microscope slide. Cover the
drop with a coverslip and observe under a microscope.
7 Repeat for the other two tubes.
Q6 Describe the effect of each of the solutions on the blood cells. Explain what happened to the
cells in each case and how this affected the turbidity.
Q7 Bearing in mind your results from Experiment 2, what would you expect to observe in plant
cells placed in the solutions used in Experiment 4? Give reasons for your answer.
In ICT Support 3 there is a datalogging sheet on studying diffusion using Visking tubing.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.10 Student Sheet

CFTR PROTEIN AND MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

Purpose
 To explain the function of the CFTR protein and how the expression of a cystic fibrosis (CF) gene
mutation impairs the functioning of the gaseous exchange, digestive and reproductive systems.

Procedure
This worksheet can be used with the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity. You should
also read the account of regulation of ions in the cells lining the airways in the Student Book (pages
74–75) before attempting the questions that follow.

Questions
Q1 Label the structures shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Cells in the airway of the lung.

Q2 Draw labelled arrows on the diagram to show the ‘normal’ situation in the lungs. This is where
there is excess water in the mucus and water is absorbed by osmosis into cells lining the
airway.
You need to include arrows for:
a the movement of Na+ ions in and out of the cell
b osmosis between the cell and its surroundings.
Q3 Write a commentary for the three animations in Interactive tutorial 2.10.
a Animation 1: the normal situation (excess water in the mucus).
b Animation 2: the situation with dehydrated mucus.
c Animation 3: the CF situation.
The commentaries should describe the movement of ions and water in the cells lining the
airways of the lungs. They should also describe any change in the structures involved (for
example, channel proteins).
Q4 The movement of Cl– ions is not shown in animation 1: explain how the animator should
modify the sequence to show the role of Cl– ions.
Q5 Watch the video clip of the movement of cilia in the airways of the lungs. Explain how the
absence of a functional CFTR channel in people with CF can lead to accumulation of sticky
mucus in the lungs.
Q6 Suggest how the absence of a functional CFTR channel can lead to digestive and reproductive
problems.
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 Activity 2.11 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

ENZYME CONCENTRATIONS AND ENZYME

ACTIVITY: PLANNING SHEET
Purpose
 To investigate how enzyme concentration can affect the initial rate of reaction.
 To develop practical skills.
SAFETY
Wear eye protection, lab coats and disposable gloves.
All enzymes are potential allergens and skin contact should be avoided. Any spillages onto
the skin should be washed off immediately. Asthma sufferers may be particularly sensitive,
so alert your teacher.
Hydrogen peroxide is corrosive. Use with great care avoiding contact with eyes, skin and
clothing. Any spillages onto the skin should be washed off immediately.
Use the knife with care, cutting on a secure surface.

Reducing concentration
If someone’s pancreatic duct becomes blocked it reduces or prevents the release of pancreatic
enzymes into the small intestine. The aim of this activity is to investigate the effect of a reduction in
enzyme concentration on the initial rate of reaction. The pancreas releases several enzymes, including
proteases, which could be used to investigate the effect of enzyme concentration on initial rate of
reaction. Other enzymes, including catalase, could be used to investigate the effect of enzyme
concentration on initial rate of reaction. Catalase is not released by the pancreas: it occurs in most cells
to break down toxic hydrogen peroxide, the by-product of various biochemical reactions.

Why do we measure the initial rate of reaction?

At the start of an enzyme experiment in the lab there will be a fixed amount of substrate in the test
tube and no product. As the reaction proceeds, the amount of substrate decreases and the amount of
product increases. Therefore the chance of a substrate molecule colliding with an enzyme goes down,
so the rate of reaction is slower than at the start. For this reason, when carrying out enzyme catalysed
reactions, it is the initial rate of the reaction that is the most valid measurement to take; it will give the
rate of the reaction under the desired conditions.

1 Scientific questions and information research

Milk powder contains a white protein called casein. A white suspension of milk powder clears on the
addition of the enzyme trypsin. Hydrogen peroxide is broken down by the enzyme catalase, forming
water and oxygen gas.
Research relevant information and decide what you think the relationship will be between the enzyme
concentration and the initial rate of reaction. Make sure that you understand and explain why we are
only interested in the initial breakdown of the substrate. Write down your idea as a hypothesis that you
can test. Use scientific ideas to support your prediction.

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 Activity 2.11 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

2 Planning and experimental design

You are provided with the following equipment:
● Standard acidified protease solution or a cylinder of potato tissue (a source of catalase).
● Milk powder or hydrogen peroxide solution (the substrate).
● Standard laboratory glassware and apparatus including a ruler, stopclock and thermometer.
● A colorimeter and cuvette.

NB: Casein will hydrolyse in acid conditions without addition of the enzyme.
Plan an experiment that will test your hypothesis. Make sure your plan:
 includes a hypothesis about enzyme concentration and the breakdown of substrate, with a
scientific explanation to support your ideas
 includes a procedure that uses suitable apparatus to produce measurements that will validly test
your hypothesis
 includes a method that allows you to assess the initial rate of reaction
 identifies the dependent and independent variables and, where possible, controls or allows for
other variables
 has a control and replicates, and that you have explained why these are necessary
 says exactly what measurements you will make and how they will be made
 says how you will make sure the results are valid, accurate, precise and repeatable
 identifies any possible sources of error
 includes a risk assessment with any safety precautions you will take.
Refer to the Developing Practical Skills Framework in Practical Skills Support for guidance on
planning an experiment.
Have your plan checked by your teacher/lecturer before starting the experiment.
On completion of the experiment make sure you have presented your results in the most appropriate
way, and identified and explained any trends or patterns in your results, supporting your statements
with evidence from your data. Also, using biological knowledge, you should have commented on any
variation and possible errors within the data, and proposed changes to your procedure that would
improve the experimental results.

The effect of substrate concentration

Having successfully completed the practical work to determine the effect of enzyme concentration,
modify your experimental procedure to show how you would investigate the effect of substrate
concentration on initial rate of enzyme reaction.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.12 Student Sheet

DNA MODEL

Purpose
 To show complementary base pairing and the hydrogen bonding involved in the
formation of the DNA double helix.

Procedure
Follow the instructions very carefully to make a 3D model of DNA following base pairing rules.
1 Cut out the two molecules in Figure 1 on page 2. These are effectively the sugar phosphate
backbones of the DNA molecule.
2 Cut out all 28 bases along the double lines in Figure 2 on page 2.
3 Decide how many different types of bases there are.
4 Divide the bases into 14 pairs. Each of the pairs must be the same width and the hydrogen
bonding must match. Each pair will provide one ‘rung’ of the DNA molecule.
5 Stick the pairs together using the central tab as shown in Figure 3. Using sticky tape is easier than
glue.

Stick the end flap of

the base pair to the
backbone here.

Figure 3 Figure 4

6 Use the section on the structure of DNA in the Student Book to help you label each base with an
appropriate letter. Colour each base if you wish: adenine – red; thymine – green; guanine – blue
and cytosine – yellow.
7 Bend the end flaps under and attach the base pairs to the backbone (Figure 4). Make sure that the
sugar-phosphate backbones are running in opposite directions; that is, antiparallel. If put together
correctly, the model will wind into a double helix.

Questions
Q1 Which molecules make up the DNA ‘backbone’?
Q2 What do you notice about the base pairing?
Q3 What do you notice about the hydrogen bonding between the base pairs?
Q4 In what ways is your model similar to a molecule of DNA?
Q5 In what ways is your model different from a DNA molecule?

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.12 Student Sheet

Figure 1 Figure 2

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.13 Student Sheet

EXTRACTION OF DNA

Purpose
 To extract nucleic acids from onion or pea tissue.
YOU NEED
● Small onion or frozen peas (50 g of thawed peas) ● Coffee filter papers
● 3 g table salt ● Sharp knife and chopping board
● 10 cm3 washing up liquid ● Large plastic funnel
3 3
● 90 cm distilled water ● 2 x 250 cm beakers
3
● 9 cm very cold ethanol ● Boiling tube
● 2–3 drops protease enzyme ● Glass rod
● Blender ● Water bath at 60 °C
● Ice and water in a beaker or bowl

SAFETY
Wear eye protection and lab coats.
Ethanol is highly flammable – no naked flames are allowed in the lab while using ethanol.
Take care with the knife.
Avoid skin contact with protease enzyme. Any spillages onto the skin should be washed off
immediately.

Procedure
1 Dissolve 3 g of salt in 90 cm3 of distilled water, in a 250 cm3 beaker. Add 10 cm3 of detergent
(washing up liquid). Stir gently.
2 Chop up a small onion into pieces, roughly 5 mm by 5 mm, or mash peas with a glass rod or
spoon. Add the onion or peas to the salt and washing up liquid solution.
3 Stand the beaker in hot water at 60 °C for exactly 15 minutes.
4 Cool the mixture by placing the beaker in a bowl of ice for a few minutes. Stir the mixture
frequently.
5 Pour the mixture into a blender and blend for no more than 5 seconds.
6 Filter the mixture into a clean beaker, separating the chopped tissue from the liquid using a funnel
and coffee filter paper.
7 Pour about 10 cm3 of the liquid filtrate into a boiling tube and add 2–3 drops of protease enzyme.
Mix well.
8 Very carefully pour the ice-cold ethanol down the side of the boiling tube. It should form a layer
on top of the tissue extract.
9 Leave the tube to stand for a few minutes. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) will precipitate into the
upper (ethanol) layer. Air bubbles carry the nucleic acids up into the ethanol.

Questions
Q1 Suggest what the washing up liquid does to the cell membranes.
Q2 The hot conditions in the water bath help to destroy deoxyribonucleases that might break down
the DNA. What might happen if the DNA is left in the hot conditions for more than 15
minutes?
Q3 Why must you only blend the onion or pea mixture for 5 seconds?
Q4 Why is protease added to the onion or pea extract?

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.14 Student Sheet

WORKING OUT THE DNA CODE

Purpose
 To explain the nature of the genetic code.

What is the genetic code?

Once the structure of DNA was known, Watson and Crick suggested that the base sequence on the
DNA contained the genetic information passed from one generation to the next. But in what code were
the instructions written?
Francis Crick and colleagues at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge realised that the four bases,
A, T, C and G, had to be the alphabet creating ‘words’ that were coding for the amino acids. Knowing
that there are 20 amino acids and four bases they probably asked some simple questions and did some
simple maths to come up with a hypothesis for the nature of the genetic code.
Answer their questions for yourself.
Q1 Is it one letter for one amino acid?
Q2 If pairs of bases, for example, AA, AG, AT, provided the code, how many amino acids could
proteins contain?
Q3 Explain whether or not sequences of three bases providing a triplet code would give sufficient
combinations to code for all the 20 amino acids commonly found in proteins.

Evidence for a triplet code

Crick and his colleagues suspected that there was a triplet code. They completed a series of
experiments on the T4 bacteriophage, a virus that infects bacteria, to determine if they were right. By
adding or deleting bases from the virus’ DNA for a particular gene, they created viruses which were
either mutants that could not produce a functioning protein and could not grow, or normal type that
could produce the protein and could grow.
Q4 For each of the four results shown in Table 1 describe what changes have been made to the
DNA. There may be additions or deletions. Relate these changes to the observed phenotype.
Q5 Explain what can be concluded about the nature of the genetic code from these results.
Q6 Suggest what the phenotype will be if there was a base added at position 4 and one was deleted
at position 6. Give a reason for your answer.
Q7 Suggest why normal phenotypes are produced in example 3 even though there are changes to
the DNA.
Normal triple code sequence Phenotype
G A T G A T G A T G A T G A T G A T G A T G A T Normal type
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

1) G A T C G A T G A T G A T G A T G A T G A T G A Mutant type
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

2) G A T C G A T G C A T G A T G A T G A T G A T G Mutant type
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

3) G A T C G A T G C C A T G A T G A T G A T G A T Normal type
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

4) G A T C G A T C C C G A T G A T G A T G A T G A Mutant type
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

Table 1 The type of results Crick and his colleagues produced. The normal phenotype can produce an active
protein, the mutant phenotype produces a non-functioning protein.

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Which mRNA codons code for which amino acid?

In 1965, after years of work, Marshall Nirenberg and his colleagues cracked the code and worked out
which nucleotide base triplets on mRNA coded for which amino acids.
They made mRNA containing only uracil bases. When this RNA was translated the polypeptides
formed only contained the amino acid phenylalanine. They concluded a mRNA sequence UUU must
code for phenylalanine. Painstaking work revealed the whole genetic code.
They discovered that the code was non-overlapping and degenerate. This means that each base is only
part of one triplet code and in a number of cases a single amino acid is coded for by more than one
triplet code.
Watch the animation ‘DNA words are three letters long’ that can be found on the DNA Learning
Center website to see exactly how they crack the genetic code. You can also watch some video clips of
Marshal Nirenberg talking about his discovery.
You can explore Francis Crick’s papers at the Wellcome Trust Human Genome website. See the
weblinks for this activity. Photographs of his handwritten notes and much else can be found by
entering ‘Crick papers’ in the search facility.
You can read all about Nirenberg’s ‘Deciphering the genetic code’ work on the US National Institutes
of Health history website.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.15 Student Sheet

NUCLEIC ACIDS AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Purpose
 To describe the structure of DNA and complementary base pairing involving hydrogen bonding.
 To explain the process of protein synthesis.
 To explain the nature of the genetic code.

Procedure
Use section 2.4 ‘How is the CFTR protein made?’ in the Student Book and the interactive tutorial that
accompanies this activity to complete the questions below.

DNA structure
The basic unit of DNA is a nucleotide.

Questions
Q1 Circle and label one nucleotide on the diagram of a DNA molecule (Figure 1) and label the
sugar, phosphate group and base that make up this nucleotide.
Q2 Label the hydrogen bonds between the DNA strands.
Q3 a Nucleotides are linked together in ………………………reactions.
b Label the phosphodiester bonds, which join the nucleotides.

Figure 1 Diagram of a DNA molecule.

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Complementary base pairing in DNA

The bases on the two DNA strands pair with each other in a specific way. Adenine always pairs with
thymine, and cytosine and guanine go together. The bases pair in this way because together they need
to be exactly the correct size and shape to form one of the ‘rungs’ of the DNA double helix. Adenine
and thymine are joined with two hydrogen bonds; guanine and cytosine by three.

A molecule of DNA
Q4 Fill in the letters representing the bases of strand 2, making sure that you enter the correct
complementary base each time.
Strand 1 C C T G A A T C C G A T
Strand 2

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Q5 During protein synthesis, the sequence of bases on the DNA is copied by complementary base-

pairing of mRNA nucleotides in a process called …………………………… . This process is

catalysed by enzymes including ………………………………… .

Q6 mRNA is another polynucleotide. Fill in the table below to show how mRNA differs in
structure from DNA.

DNA mRNA
Sugar present in nucleotides Deoxyribose
Number of strands in molecules 2
Bases presents in nucleotides AGCT
Relative length of molecule Very long

Complementary base-pairing in transcription

Q7 Fill in the correct letters on the mRNA strand in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2 Complementary base pairing.

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The genetic code

The table of the genetic code below gives:
 the three-letter base code for all mRNA codons
 the corresponding three-letter abbreviation for the amino acid coded by the codon. You can look
up the full amino acid names on page 86 of the Student Book. You do not need to learn the
genetic code or any of the abbreviations.

Table of the genetic code for mRNA

2nd base in codon
U C A G
U Phe Ser Tyr Cys U
Phe Ser Tyr Cys C
Leu Ser STOP STOP A
Leu Ser STOP Trp G

C Leu Pro His Arg U

Leu Pro His Arg C

3rd base in codon

1st base in codon

Leu Pro Gin Arg A

Leu Pro Gin Arg G

A Ile Thr Asm Ser U

Ile Thr Asn Ser C
Ile Thr Lys Arg A
Met Thr Lys Arg G

G Val Ala Asp Gly U

Val Ala Asp Gly C
Val Ala Glu Gly A
Val Ala Glu Gly G

Q8 Write in the amino acids that will be coded for by this mRNA sequence:
Codons G U C C A C U U A A C A C C G
Amino acid

Q9 The genetic code is described as a non-overlapping, degenerate, triplet code. Explain the
meaning of each of these terms:
a non-overlapping ……………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

b degenerate ….………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

c triplet .………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Translation
Q10 a In Figure 3, colour the dots in the key and, using the same colours, shade in the parts of
the diagram referred to by the key.
b Describe the process of protein synthesis in your own words, referring to the diagram.

Figure 3 Translation.

Q11 The base sequence in the section of mRNA that codes for one of the amino acids in
haemoglobin has the codon GAA.
a What is the DNA triplet that will have coded for this RNA codon?
In individuals who have sickle cell anaemia, this codon is changed from GAA to GUA.
b Using the table of the genetic code on page 3, how will this alter the primary structure of
amino acids in the polypeptide chain?
c Suggest why individuals with this mutation have haemoglobin that has a different 3D
structure to ‘normal’ haemoglobin.
d If this disease is passed on by inheritance, suggest which of the following is more likely
to be true, and explain your answer:
i There has been a mistake during transcription, where the DNA code is copied to form
mRNA.
ii The mistake was made during DNA replication where DNA is copied to form new
DNA molecules before cell division.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.16 Student Sheet

MESELSON AND STAHL’S EXPERIMENT ON DNA

REPLICATION

Purpose
 To explain the method of DNA replication by considering the different theories originally
proposed to explain the process and the evidence which supports the theory that is now accepted.

Procedure
Complete the interactive tutorial associated with the activity and then complete this worksheet.
Matthew Meselson and Frank Stahl worked at the California Institute of Technology. In 1958 they
grew bacteria in growth medium containing ammonium ions (NH4+) as the source of nitrogen. The
type of DNA made by the cells depended on the type of nitrogen present in the bacteria’s growth
medium. They used two isotopes of nitrogen – 14N and 15N. 14N is the common, light form (isotope) of
nitrogen. 15N is the heavier form. They then extracted DNA from the bacterial cells and centrifuged
the resulting solution to isolate the DNA. The DNA made with 14N and the DNA made with 15N
accumulated at different levels in the centrifuged solutions, according to the DNA’s density.

Questions
Q1 In each of the label boxes in Figure 1 below, fill in the number to show the type of nitrogen
present in each band.
Q2 In each magnified circle in Figure 1, colour in the sections of the DNA molecules found in
each band to show the type of DNA present. Use your own colour code, selecting one colour
for DNA made with 14N and another colour for DNA made with 15N. You will need an
intermediate colour for medium DNA later, so choose colours carefully.

Figure 1 Position of labelled nitrogen bands in the centrifuge tubes.

Q3 How did Meselson and Stahl produce bacterial cells containing only DNA made with 15N?
Bacteria containing DNA made with 15N were allowed to replicate once in a solution containing only
14
N. Any new DNA made would contain 14N. After a single replication the DNA was extracted and
centrifuged.
Q4 Colour in the band(s) in the centrifuge tube in Figure 2
to show the density of the DNA that Meselson and Stahl
found after this first replication. Use your colour codes
for heavy, medium and light DNA.

Figure 2 DNA after the

first replication.

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Q5 Figure 3 shows DNA replication according to the theory of conservative replication. Explain
why the bands found by Meselson and Stahl after one replication (shown in Figure 2) refute
(do not support) the theory of conservative replication.

Figure 3 Conservative replication.

Bacteria containing DNA made with 15N were allowed to replicate twice in a solution containing only 14N.
Any new DNA made would contain 14N. After two replications the DNA was extracted and centrifuged.
Q6 a Figure 4 shows DNA replication according to the ‘dispersive’ theory, where new (14N) and
original (15N) DNA are dispersed throughout any new DNA molecules synthesised. This is
theory 1 in the interactive tutorial. Colour in the DNA and DNA nucleotides to show the
distribution of DNA with 15N and DNA with 14N. Use your colour code from question 2.

Figure 4 The dispersive theory of replication.

b Draw bands on the centrifuge tubes in Figure 5 to show the DNA present after the first
and second ‘dispersive’ replications.

Figure 5 Bands that would occur after dispersive replication.

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Q7 a Figure 6 shows the semi-conservative theory of replication where new DNA molecules
have one strand of the original (15N) DNA and one strand of the (14N) DNA. This is
theory 2 in the interactive tutorial. Colour in the DNA and DNA nucleotides using your
colour code from question 2.

Figure 6 The semi-conservative theory of replication.

b Draw bands on the centrifuge tubes in Figure 7 to show the DNA present after each
replication.

Figure 7 Bands that would occur after each replication.

Q8 Meselson and Stahl found equal amounts of light and intermediate density (medium) DNA
present after two DNA replications. Explain which of these three theories for DNA replication
is supported by this evidence and which is refuted. Use a separate sheet of paper if you need
more space for your answer.

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.17 Student Sheet

REEBOPS

Purpose
 To examine how characteristics are inherited.
 To illustrate one of the ways in which meiosis is responsible for the tremendous variation that
exists in every sexual species.
 To confirm some key genetic terms.
SAFETY
Do not eat the Reebops – hygiene cannot be guaranteed in the laboratory.

Breeding Reebops
‘Reebops’ are imaginary animals, made out of marshmallows, pins and cocktail sticks.
They have 16 chromosomes (eight homologous pairs) in their body cells.
Have a look at the parent Reebops. Note their characteristics, such as number of body segments,
antennae, etc. Both parents show the same features, except of course one is male and the other is
female.
You are going to carry out a breeding programme, using the same procedures as in a breeding
programme with real organisms and applying the same rules that are found in genetics.
Read the information sheets before you start. It is important for this activity that you have a basic
understanding of how gametes, or sex cells, are formed.

Procedure
1 You are provided with two envelopes. One contains Reebop Mum chromosomes and the other
contains Reebop Dad chromosomes. There are 16 chromosomes (eight homologous pairs) in each
envelope. Open the envelope and take out the pack of cards. Ensure you have 16 of each colour.
2 Turn the chromosome cards face down, so that you cannot see the genotypes (letters) on them.
Keep the Mum and Dad chromosomes separate, so that you have two groups of cards.
3 In each group of cards sort them into pairs of the same length.
4 Now randomly take one chromosome of each paired length from the Mum chromosomes and
place in the ‘female gamete’ pile. Repeat for each pair of Dad chromosomes and place them in the
‘male gamete’ pile.
5 Now carry out ‘fertilisation’ by mixing the female gamete and male gamete piles to form a ‘baby
gene’ pile.
6 Put the remaining chromosomes back into the envelopes.
You have now carried out sexual reproduction, whereby one of each of the homologous pairs of
chromosomes from one parent have been randomly mixed with one of each of the homologous
pairs from the other parent to make a unique combination. Note that each parent donated half the
chromosome number (eight) that the adult cells contain; that is, 16. Meiosis is responsible for
halving the chromosome number in gametes so that when gametes combine at fertilisation, the
correct number is present in the new individual. The new individual now has its own unique set of
homologous pairs of chromosomes.
7 Now, write in the phenotype table (Table 1) the alleles (letters) that you have obtained in your
‘baby genes’. For example, if you have one card with the letter A and another one with the letter
a, put Aa in the box for antennae, etc. When you have completed all the features in the grid, you
are ready to assemble your baby Reebop. Refer to the genotype decoding key (Table 2) to check
what characteristics your baby has inherited. Collect all the necessary body parts that your baby
possesses. For example, if it has the genes BB, you will need three marshmallow body parts. Join
them together with two cocktail sticks.

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Characteristic Allele from Mum Allele from Dad Phenotype

Antennae
Body segments
Tail
Nose
Legs
Sex
Eyes
Humps
Table 1 Record your baby Reebop genotype and phenotype in this phenotype table.

Antennae AA = 2 antennae Aa = 2 antennae aa = no antennae

Body segments BB = 3 body segments Bb = 3 body segments bb = 2 body segments
Tail TT = curly Tt = curly tt = straight
Nose NN = red nose Nn = orange nose nn = yellow nose
Legs LL = blue legs Ll = blue legs ll = red legs
Sex XX = female (pink body XY = male (white body
segments) segments)
Eyes EE = 2 eyes Ee = 2 eyes ee = one eye
Humps HH = 1 hump Hh = 1 hump hh = no humps
Table 2 Genotype decoding key.

8 Assemble all the features that your baby possesses and check that you have not made a mistake
(mutated a part!). You may wish to photograph your Reebop for posterity.
Now place your baby in the nursery provided. Have a look at the other babies present.
Remember that all the Mum Reebops had the same chromosomes as one another and that each
Dad Reebop had the same chromosomes as the other Dads.

Questions
Q1 What do you notice about the features that the babies have?
Q2 Are there any babies that are identical?
Q3 How many are the same as their parents?
Q4 How much genetic material does each parent provide?
Q5 Where is this genetic material in the parent?

Extension
You may wish to extend this exercise further by choosing two babies, which then grow up rather
rapidly and are themselves used as parents for the next generation of Reebops.
Draw up a family tree to show how some of the original features are inherited. If you photograph
Mum, Dad and siblings you could illustrate the family tree.
Another idea would be to introduce a recessive mutation for some feature and see how that is passed
on in subsequent generations.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.17 Student Sheet

Genetics information sheet

All cells contain hereditary information that is encoded by a chemical called DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid). DNA is an extremely long molecule, with up to a metre in every cell (Figure 1). The DNA
molecule is coiled and packaged, together with a type of protein called histones, to form a
chromosome. Just before the cell divides, the chromosomes become even more tightly packaged and
they can be seen under a microscope.

Figure 1 DNA is coiled up.

Each chromosome has a separate molecule of DNA, so a cell with eight chromosomes has eight
different molecules of DNA. The DNA molecule in each of the chromosomes in Figure 1 has
replicated to form two chromatids and these are packaged ready for cell division. A gene is a segment
on a DNA molecule. Different genes may be very different lengths. Each gene codes for a certain
protein molecule, which is then made in the cell cytoplasm. The proteins produced by the genes can
generally be sorted into two different types: ones that run the chemical reactions in the organism and
ones that will be the structural components of the organism. How an organism looks and functions are
a result of the cumulative effect of all of these proteins.
Organisms produced by reproduction from two parents have an even number of chromosomes (unless
an error has occurred), because one half of the chromosomes come from the father and the other half
from the mother. The male and female sex cells, that is the gametes, contain the father's or mother's
contribution. These two cells combine to make a single cell, which grows into the offspring. Humans
have 23 pairs of chromosomes, giving a total of 46 chromosomes. One chromosome in each of the 23
homologous pairs is from the person’s father, the other from the person’s mother. Other organisms
have different numbers of pairs.
Since chromosomes come in pairs, genes do too. One gene is located on one member of a
chromosome pair; the other gene is in the same location on the matching chromosome. The precise
location where the gene is found on the chromosome is referred to as its locus.
A gene can consist of a variety of different forms known as alleles. Normally two alleles are present.
The two alleles on the pair of chromosomes may be identical or different. Both members of the pair
contribute to the same feature, such as having hair on the middle segment of your fingers.
For example, in the Reebops activity the gene for tail shape has a T form and a t form. T and t are
alleles for the tail shape gene. If both chromosomes have a T form, or if both have a t form, the gene is
said to be homozygous (two of the same form). If one chromosome has a T form and the other has a t
form, the gene is said to be heterozygous (two different forms).
If you look at the Key to Reebop features, you will notice that two Ts (TT) or a T and a t (Tt) code
for the same thing: a curly tail. If the Reebop has a small t on each chromosome, he or she will have a
straight tail. Because both the heterozygous (Tt) form and one of the homozygous (TT) forms code
for the same variation of tail shape, curly tail is said to be the dominant variation and straight tail the
recessive. Occasionally, incomplete dominance occurs, when neither allele is dominant and an
intermediate form presents. Reebop nose colour displays incomplete dominance.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.18 Student Sheet

INHERITANCE PROBLEMS

Purpose
 To provide practice in using appropriate methods to answer questions and solve problems about
monohybrid inheritance.

Questions
Q1 Some forms of albinism, a genetic disorder, may be due to a single gene mutation. The allele
for albinism is recessive to the allele for no albinism. A woman is heterozygous for albinism.
Her male partner is homozygous for the ‘normal’ allele.
a Does the woman suffer from the condition?
b What percentage of their children are likely to be carriers?
c Explain what is meant by the term ‘symptomless carrier’.
Q2 If parents are aware of a genetic disease within the family they may consult a genetic
counsellor. If the method of inheritance for the disease is understood, then examination of the
genetic family tree, called a pedigree diagram, will let the counsellor advise on the likelihood
of any children inheriting the disease. The family tree in Figure 1 shows the occurrence of
sickle cell anaemia within one family.

Figure 1 A pedigree diagram showing the occurrence of sickle cell anaemia within one family.

a Look at the family tree in Figure 1 above and using suitable symbols suggest what the
genotype of individual 6 might be. Give a reason for your answer.
b If individuals 7 and 8 have children, state what proportion of their children would be
expected to be carriers of the sickle cell anaemia allele.
Q3 Huntington’s disease (HD) causes cells in the brain to degenerate. A person with the disease
gradually loses control of his/her physical movements and mental abilities. The HD gene codes
for a protein that occurs in the brain. The HD allele produces a non-functioning protein and is
dominant to the allele for the functioning protein.
a What is the chance of a mother who is heterozygous for the condition passing it on to a
child?
b A couple who both have the condition would like to have children. Explain what
proportion of their children are likely to inherit the disease.
Q4 In peas, spherical seeds are dominant to wrinkled seeds. Two pure-breeding (homozygous) pea
plants are crossed: one that produces spherical seeds and one that produces wrinkled seeds.
a What would be the phenotypes of the seeds produced by this cross, the F1 plants?
b If these F1 plants were self-fertilised, what is the expected ratio of spherical to wrinkled
seeds that would be produced?
c Plants with unknown genotypes were crossed and the seeds they produced collected and
counted. From the results below suggest what the genotypes of the parents are in each
case. (Use R for spherical and r for wrinkled – R and r are easier to distinguish than S
and s.)

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Parent phenotypes Offspring phenotypes

Male Female Spherical Wrinkled
A Spherical Wrinkled 63 58
B Spherical Spherical 87 29
C Wrinkled Wrinkled 0 40
D Spherical Wrinkled 75 0
E Spherical Spherical 94 0

Q5 A white patch of hair at the front of the head, known as a white forelock, is caused by a
dominant allele. A student draws the genetic family tree in Figure 2 to show the occurrence of
this feature in one family.

Figure 2 Pedigree diagram for the occurrence of a white forelock in one family.

a Explain what the genotype of Maggie is.

b What is the chance of Mike and Sarah’s next child having a white forelock?
c Catherine marries a man with a white forelock and all their five children have a white
forelock. What does this suggest about the possible genotype of Catherine’s husband?

Going further
Some genes do not have a dominant allele. The heterozygotes have phenotypes influenced by both the
alleles they possess. There are also genes that only occur on the X chromosome; these are said to be
sex-linked. Female mammals have two X chromosomes whereas males have one X and one Y.
A boy’s Y chromosome is always inherited from his father and his X chromosome from his mother, so
males can only inherit X-linked conditions from their mothers.
Q6 A gardener crossed some red-flowered snapdragons with some white-flowered snapdragons.
He grew the seeds produced and found that all the F1 plants were a lovely pink colour.
Deciding that he wanted more of these pink flowers he self-pollinated the pink flowers
thinking that this would only produce pink flowers. Can you explain to this disappointed
gardener why not all the offspring were pink?
Q7 The gene that causes Duchenne muscular dystrophy occurs on the X chromosome and is
therefore described as being sex-linked. It does not occur on the Y chromosome. Duchenne
muscular dystrophy is an example of a recessive inheritance. Explain why fathers cannot pass
the condition on to their sons.
Q8 The inheritance of vitamin D-resistant rickets is determined by an X-linked dominant allele.
Explain:
a why any child of a heterozygous female has a 50% chance of being affected, assuming
the father is unaffected
b why all daughters, but no sons of affected fathers will have the disease, assuming the
mother is unaffected.
(Use the symbols XV, X and Y in your answers, where XV is the allele for vitamin D-
resistant rickets.)
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.19 Student Sheet

GENETIC SCREENING

Purpose
 To consider the ethical issues raised by genetic screening.

Procedure
Read the section on genetic screening in your Student Book, then carefully read the articles below and
answer the questions.

Scientists unravel genetic causes of prostate, breast and ovarian

cancer
Ian Sample, science correspondent
The Guardian Wednesday 27 March 2013 17.19 GMT
Research involving 1,000 scientists finds scores of genetic markers that identify people most likely to
develop diseases

A prostate cancer cell. More than 40,000 men a year are diagnosed with prostate cancer in Britain and nearly
11,000 die from the disease. Photograph: Steve Gschmeissner/Getty.

A national screening programme for prostate cancer could be introduced by the NHS following an
international effort by more than 1,000 scientists to unravel the genetic causes of prostate, breast and
ovarian cancer.
The study, the largest to look for the faulty DNA that drives the cancers, revealed scores of genetic
markers that can identify people most likely to develop the diseases.
Doctors said a simple £5 saliva test based on the markers could give patients a personalised ‘risk
profile’ for the diseases and pave the way for individually tailored screening, with those most at risk
having more regular health checks.
The findings have major implications for the treatment of prostate cancer. A test based on markers for
the disease could identify men whose lifetime risk was 50%, nearly five times the national average.
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Ros Eeles, professor of cancer genetics at the Institute of Cancer Research in London, described the
results as “the single biggest leap forward” in understanding the genetics of the disease.
A screening service could be offered within five years and would transform treatment for the most
common cancer among British men. More than 40,000 men a year are diagnosed with prostate cancer
in the UK and nearly 11,000 die from the disease. If the disease is picked up early, the chance of
survival is 95%, but that falls to 60% if the disease is spotted later.
Britain has never introduced a national prostate screening programme as existing tests are not precise
enough. For every life saved by screening based on the common PSA blood test, 12 to 48 men would
be treated unnecessarily for a disease that would never cause them problems.
“Genetic profiling will be able to refine the risks in the population so that we can target screening to
those at higher risk,” Eeles said. “We hope that, within five years, we will be able to use this type of
technology in the NHS to target screening to those who are most likely to benefit.”
Genetic markers are like spelling mistakes in a person’s DNA that raise the risk of disease. To find
markers for prostate cancer, scientists compared the genetic makeup of 25,000 prostate cancer patients
with a similar number of healthy men. They found 23 new faults in DNA that increase the risk of
developing prostate cancer. Importantly, 16 of these drive the most aggressive and life-threatening
forms of the disease.
While most men carry a small number of the genetic markers for prostate cancer, the 1% with the most
genetic faults face nearly a five-fold increased risk of the disease. These men have a one in two chance
of developing the disease.
Alan Ashworth, chief executive of the Institute of Cancer Research, said the research “changes the
game” for applying genetics to the management of prostate cancer. “Screening for different levels of
risk becomes a real possibility,” he said.
A similar investigation into breast cancer found 49 new genetic faults that appear to drive the disease.
Women who inherit most of these have a 30% chance of developing the disease, more than three times
the national average. Some of the faults were only predictive of the most aggressive, and dangerous,
form of the cancer, called oestrogen receptor negative breast cancer.
Women who carry mutations in genes called BRCA are already known to have a substantially higher
risk of breast cancer, at around 65%. But the latest study shows that women who have a BRCA
mutation, and carry many of the newly-discovered gene defects, are 80% more likely to develop the
disease.
In the third part of the project, which involved 130 institutions from around the world, scientists
compared the genetic makeup of ovarian cancer patients with healthy women. The study found eight
new gene regions that raise the risk of the disease, bringing the known total to 12. Together, these had
a marginal effect on cancer risk, raising the chance of disease from 1.8% to 4%.
Eeles said a simple test at a GP surgery could be read by a computer to give each patient a
personalised risk profile for the disease. Once the tests are available, doctors could improve their
accuracy by adding lifestyle factors into the risk assessment. For example, the risk of breast cancer is
raised by alcohol and a high-fat diet, but lowered by childbearing and breastfeeding.
Trials are taking place to work out the best way to use the tests and how any screening programmes
might work or be modified where screening already exists.
In the case of prostate cancer, it is not clear at what age men should be tested to determine their risk of
the disease. Since prostate cancer usually only develops after the age of 40, an earlier test might cause
unnecessary and prolonged anxiety. It is not clear whether men who are found to be at high risk should
have blood tests or MRI scans and when doctors should take biopsies.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.19 Student Sheet

Tests for breast cancer risk pose similar problems, though screening procedures, such as
mammograms, and interventions, from early use of preventative drugs to a precautionary operation to
remove the breasts, are more established.
The work, led by the Institute of Cancer Research and Cambridge University, was funded by Cancer
Research UK and the Wellcome Trust and published as a series of papers in Nature Genetics and
several other science journals.
While the studies transform what is known about the genetics underpinning the three cancers, in each
case they account for only 40% of the gene faults that must be involved. To discover the rest, which
could be many thousands, scientists will need even larger studies that would involve sequencing a
person’s entire genetic makeup.
"Hundreds if not thousands of genes are likely to play a role in how cancers start. But by
understanding why some people seem to be at a greater risk, we can look towards an era where we can
identify them and take steps to reduce their chances of getting cancer, or pick up the disease in its
earliest stages," said Harpal Kumar, chief executive of Cancer Research UK.
Q1 Compose a letter to The Guardian either supporting or opposing the establishment of national
genetic screening programmes for prostate, breast and ovarian cancer. Your letter should
concentrate on the social and ethical issues raised in the article and be no longer than 500
words. When presenting your ideas on the ethical issues you can refer to the ethical
frameworks presented in the Student Book.

She may never get breast cancer – but girl’s birth raises new
doubts over designer babies
 Embryo screened because of family history.
 Mother and daughter doing well in hospital.

Ben Quinn
The Guardian Saturday 10 January 2009 00.01 GMT
The birth of the first British baby genetically screened before conception to be free of a breast cancer
gene was hailed yesterday as a breakthrough by doctors, but raised fresh questions about the ethics of
creating so-called designer babies.
The baby girl grew from an embryo screened to ensure that it did not contain the faulty BRCA1 gene,
which would have meant she had a 50%–85% chance of developing breast cancer.
While mother and daughter were said by a spokesman at University College hospital, London, to be
doing “very well” following the birth this week, medical experts and those involved in cancer research
were considering the implications.
Paul Serhal, medical director of the assisted conception unit at the hospital, said: “This little girl will
not face the spectre of developing this genetic form of breast cancer or ovarian cancer in her adult
life.”
“The parents will have been spared the risk of inflicting this disease on their daughter. The lasting
legacy is the eradication of the transmission of this form of cancer that has blighted these families for
generations.”
In June the mother, then 27, told how she decided to undergo the screening process after seeing all her
husband’s female relatives suffer the disease. The woman, who wanted to remain anonymous, said at
the time: “We felt that, if there was a possibility of eliminating this for our children, then that was a
route we had to go down.”
The technique, pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), has already been used in the UK to free
babies of inherited disorders such as cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease. But breast cancer is
different because it does not inevitably affect a child from birth and may or may not develop later in
life. There is also a chance it can be cured, if caught early enough.

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Permission to carry out PGD for breast cancer had to be obtained from the Human Fertilisation and
Embryology Authority by the London clinic that performed the procedure.
Dr Sarah Cant, policy manager at Breakthrough Breast Cancer, said the decision to screen embryos to
see whether or not they have a faulty breast cancer gene was a complex and very personal issue.
“Women with a family history of breast cancer tell us that what might be right for one person may not
be right for another. It’s important for anyone affected to have appropriate information and support so
they can make the right choice for them.”
Kath McLachlan, a clinical nurse specialist at the charity Breast Cancer Care, said it would give those
carrying the faulty BRCA1 gene “another option” to consider when starting a family.
She said: “However, there are many complex issues to take into account and the decision will finally
come down to an individual’s personal ethics. While the selection of an embryo through PGD can
reduce a person’s risk of developing breast cancer, the procedure cannot prevent a non-genetic form of
the disease in later life. It is essential that anyone considering using the technique is offered
comprehensive information, high-quality support and advice.”
Doctors at the private clinic at University College hospital conducted tests on 11 embryos by
removing just one cell from each when they were three days old. Six embryos were found to carry the
defective BRCA1 gene. Two embryos which were free of the gene were implanted, resulting in a
single pregnancy.
Faulty genes are responsible for between 5% and 10% of the 44,000 cases of breast cancer that occur
in the UK each year. BRCA1 and its sister gene BRCA2 are the two most commonly involved.
Women with a defective BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene are up to seven times more likely to develop breast
cancer than those without the mutations.
As the debate about the ethics involved in the procedure was renewed, the main objection from critics
remains the charge that it opens the door to the creation of babies for parents who may want their
offspring to be top of the class, excel in sport, and have hair, eyes and other physical characteristics
that is on a particular family’s wish list.
Alternatively, deaf or blind couples might want their disabilities passed on to their child. Some
members of the deaf community who claim they belong to a “linguistic minority” are campaigning for
the right to have hearing-impaired children.
Q2 a Summarise the role of the HFEA.
b It took two years for the HFEA to approve this type of screening for breast cancer risk.
Suggest why the HFEA may have taken this length of time to reach a decision.
c Use the article and your own knowledge to list possible reasons for and against screening
out human embryos with this particular mutation for a high risk of breast cancer.
Visit the HFEA website to find out if the screening for high-risk cancer is now permitted.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.20 Student Sheet

PASSING IT ON

Purpose
 To review the ideas covered in Topic 2 using role play (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Procedure
In this activity you are asked to prepare for a TV programme hosted by the well-known TV presenter,
Nikki Pond. Nikki hosts a regular programme, always tackling controversial ‘human interest’ issues
and inviting a response from the audience. You may be asked to take on the role of one of the people
appearing in the programme. In preparing for the role, use as much information as you can from what
you have studied in this topic. Remember that the other participants will be asking you searching
questions, and you need to come up with some clear and sensible answers if you are to make your case
convincing.
The current programme poses the question:
‘Should people with serious genetic conditions be allowed to have children?’
Appearing on the show will be:
 Nikki Pond, a well-known TV presenter
 Mrs Jane Hewitt, a mother who has cystic fibrosis (CF)
 Mr John Hewitt, Jane’s husband
 Dr Sam Healham, a doctor who works in a hospital treating patients with CF
 Alex G Gnome, a genetic counsellor
 Dr Pat Swapham, a doctor researching gene therapy
 Chris Morrall, a member of a pressure group called Kids Have Rights.

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You are Nikki Pond, a well-known TV presenter. You are running a series of discussion
programmes dealing with controversial issues. The discussion needs to be lively and challenging to
maintain the high viewing figures the programme is currently attracting. Your task is to chair the
discussion and introduce the topic to the audience. You will need to think of how you are going to
introduce the topic to the TV audience in a way that will engage their interest. Next, you should
introduce the people on the panel. You need to think about the order in which the people will appear
on your programme. You will need to give each expert a chance to speak and then you should ask
them questions.
To do this, you will need to prepare a list of questions carefully and think about who should answer
the questions. The invited family and experts may wish to ask each other questions as well and you
need to co-ordinate this. Finally, you should give the members of the audience an opportunity to ask
questions and express their own views.
At the end of the programme, ask the members of the audience to vote, by a show of hands, whether
they believe that this woman was right to have children, knowing she suffers from cystic fibrosis, once
they have heard all the arguments.
You are Mrs Jane Hewitt, a mother of two and has cystic fibrosis. You are now 30 years old, with
two children aged 5 and 8. Cystic fibrosis has certainly affected your life: you have had daily
physiotherapy since you were a baby and you have had to make a very conscious effort to keep as fit
as possible. On top of that, you have had to spend periods of time in hospital and you are unable to do
many of the things that normal people can do. You also had to have IVF to enable you to have
children. However, you think people are too negative about cystic fibrosis. You feel that it is right for
you to be able to choose whether or not to have a family. You don’t feel that cystic fibrosis has
affected your ability to be a good mother. If you do have to have a period in hospital then your
husband is able to look after the children. Fortunately, you are in good health so this does not happen
very often. There is also the hope that gene therapy will become available to treat your condition and
if this is successful there is no reason why you should not live a full and healthy life.
You are Mr John Hewitt, Jane’s husband. You are 32 years old, and have a well-paid job
developing computer software. This means that you are able to work from home a lot of the time,
which is very useful if Jane has a bad day or has to go into hospital. When you got married, you didn’t
put Jane under any pressure to have children. It was something you both discussed, and you both felt
that you wanted to go ahead and start a family even if it meant using IVF. Both of you realise that Jane
could die before the children reach adulthood, but then no parent can ever be certain that this won’t
happen to them. Furthermore, you have a very happy and stable marriage. Many children at school
with your own children come from single parent families. If the worst were to happen, you would be
in a good position to raise the children yourself. You understand that although your children do not
have CF, they both carry the CF allele and could pass it on to their children. This is something that
you and Jane talked about before having children. However, you know that prenatal testing would be
available and medical advances are being made in CF treatment, so when the time comes for your
children to think about having children themselves, the situation could be much better.
You are Dr Sam Healham, a doctor who works in a hospital treating patients with cystic
fibrosis. You have been invited on to the TV programme to tell the audience about cystic fibrosis.
You need to prepare a short presentation to tell people, in clear and simple terms, what cystic fibrosis
is and what symptoms it causes. Explain how the life of someone with CF will be different from
normal people. You should mention physiotherapy and the medication needed by CF patients,
including antibiotics and the new drug Ivacaftor, which is effective in CF patients with a particular
mutation.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.20 Student Sheet

You are Alex G Gnome, a genetic counsellor. Your job is to talk to people who may have genetic
conditions in their family. You always explain to the people you see how a condition is inherited, how
it affects an individual and what treatment is available for the condition. However, you never express
opinions about whether they should or should not go ahead and have children, as that is a decision for
the individual. You really believe that there are no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers, just decisions that are
right or wrong for particular individuals. Over the years, you have seen people in similar
circumstances make very different decisions for themselves.
You have been invited onto this TV programme to explain how cystic fibrosis is inherited. You need
to explain that two people with no family history of CF at all can have a cystic fibrosis child, since 1
person in 25 in the Caucasian (white) population of Britain is a carrier of the CF allele. You should
also be prepared to talk about how embryos can be screened for the presence of the CF allele, so that
people who carry CF can be enabled to have a child that does not suffer from CF.
You are Dr Pat Swapham, a doctor researching gene therapy. The main treatment currently
available for CF patients, apart from physiotherapy, antibiotics and a few other drugs, is a heart–lung
transplant. In the hospital where you work, you have seen far too many CF patients who have died
waiting for a transplant, because so few are available. This is what is driving your team to research an
effective method of gene therapy. You are working on putting copies of the normal allele into
liposomes which are inhaled by CF sufferers, rather like an asthma inhaler. In early trials, this has not
yet been very effective, but you are working on ways to improve it. You are also in touch with a team
in the United States who are researching gene therapy. They are using a disabled virus to get the
normal allele into cells. You need to be able to explain, in simple terms, how heart–lung transplants
can be used to treat CF patients and what gene therapy is.
You are Chris Morrall, a member of a pressure group called Kids Have Rights. You think it is
very wrong for the Hewitts to have had two children, knowing that Mrs Hewitt has a potentially life-
threatening condition. You believe that children need two parents and that the mother is particularly
important. It will be very traumatic for the children if they have to watch her getting worse and then
dying. As they get older, they may have to take on a caring role and this is unfair at a time in their
lives when they should be enjoying themselves. You also feel that by passing a copy of the CF allele
onto each of her children Mrs Hewitt has put them in a very difficult position. If they want to have
children one day, they will have the dilemma of knowing that they could pass the allele on to these
children. They could opt for embryo- or gamete-screening, but many people find embryo-screening
ethically unacceptable, since embryos are created that are destroyed if they carry the CF allele. You
think that the Hewitts have been very selfish in choosing to have children. If they had put the
children’s interests first, they would certainly have decided to remain childless or to adopt children.

Useful websites
You can find out more about cystic fibrosis on the websites listed in the weblinks for this activity.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.21 Student Sheet

GENE MUTATION: A PERSONAL STORY

Purpose
 To revisit some of the ideas covered in the topic using a new context.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Phenylketonuria was the first genetic disorder in humans to be shown to be due to a missing enzyme.
As a result of the missing, or sometimes defective, enzyme the amino acid phenylalanine (phe) cannot
be converted to another amino acid, tyrosine (tyr). The formation of tyrosine is needed to make the
pigment melanin. With the metabolic pathway phe  tyr blocked, melanin is reduced or absent.
Affected children therefore often have blond hair and blue eyes. The build up of phenylalanine can
have serious effects if not treated, such as severe mental retardation and convulsions. If PKU is treated
from birth, these serious effects can be minimised. PKU affects approximately 1 in 10 000 persons of
Western European origin.
Read Anna’s account and answer the questions that follow.
Anna was 17 when she wrote this account of how having PKU has affected her life.

Anna’s story
Every fiftieth person is a carrier of PKU and two of them are my parents. My chances of having PKU
were 25%. I have a sister who is a carrier, but she does not have PKU.
I have to check how much phe is in my food because I cannot get rid of excess phe. I use a data table
to look up how much phe is in specific foods. Many foods contain protein and therefore phe. I cannot
eat any type of meat, fish, milk products, bread, eggs, beans, rice, nuts, chocolate or cereal. My diet
has more restrictions than a vegetarian!
Everyone with PKU has to take P-AM (phenylalanine amino acid mixture). This has no phenylalanine,
but contains other essential amino acids, non-essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals and trace
elements.
If P-AM is not taken or if a ‘normal’ diet is eaten, people with PKU will develop brain damage. The
powder is very expensive (1 tin costs 200 Euros), but the health services have to provide it as a lot of
people could not afford it for their children. If a PKU patient takes in too much phe over a long time,
they will get irreversible physical and mental damage. That is the reason why every newborn in
Germany (my home country) and the UK is tested for PKU on about the fifth day of their life. In the
UK parents are referred to a metabolism clinic if the test is positive.
A usual day for a PKU patient starts with special bread or cereal. Milk is made from a special powder.
Other products have to come from specialist firms that produce products for people with PKU. You
cannot buy them in a supermarket. This food is very expensive, just like the P-AM, so my parents
have to spend a lot of money every year for my special food. A typical lunch could be noodles with
tomato sauce or potatoes with vegetable sauce. In the evening, pasta, bread or potatoes are possible,
but with every meal the P-AM powder must be taken. Everyone has their own way of taking the
powder. Some, like me, drink it with apple juice. Coca-cola or rice milk are also possible, but no one
who takes P-AM likes it.
When you have PKU you have to be very strict with yourself because you always have to check if you
can eat a certain food or not, but you get used to it and I do not know how it is to eat ‘normal’ foods.
Sometimes people who do not know that you have PKU want to offer food that you can’t eat and so
your amount of phe rises because it is difficult to say ‘no’. Also, normal food smells very nice and you
are jealous of friends who can eat it.
People who eat a normal diet do not realise how difficult it is to drink P-AM three times a day every
day, but drink P-AM, which tastes awful, your whole life, three times a day and then you would
understand why sometimes I do not want to drink it. Sometimes it is really hard and I want to be
‘normal’!
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Questions
Q1 Draw a pedigree diagram for Anna’s family showing inheritance of the PKU gene.
Q2 Anna writes that her ‘chances of having PKU were 25%’, explain if she is correct, using a
genetic diagram.
Q3 If Anna’s parents had gone on to have more than two children, what would be the chances of
them having:
a a child that neither had PKU nor was a carrier
b a brother for Anna who had PKU
c another sister for Anna who was a carrier?
Q4 Write a short account of any issues including ethical issues that may arise for Anna during her
lifetime.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 2.22 Student Sheet

CHECK YOUR NOTES FOR TOPIC 2:

GENES AND HEALTH

Purpose
 To help you get your notes in order at the end of this topic.

Topic 2 summary
Make sure your notes cover the following points. The points are listed in the order they appear within
the topic. All the points are covered in the Student Book, but where there is supporting information
within the activities this is indicated.
There are suggestions on making notes and on revision in the Exam and Study Skills Support.
You should:
 Know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume
ratio, thickness of surface, differences in concentration), understand how diffusion is dependent
on these properties and can be calculated using Fick’s law, and how the structure of the
mammalian lung is adapted for rapid gas exchange. (Activities 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5) (Checkpoint
question 2.1)
 Know the structure of an amino acid (structure of specific amino acids is not required). (Activity
2.6)
 Understand the formation of polypeptides and proteins (as amino acid monomers linked by
peptide bonds in condensation reactions). (Activity 2.6)
 Understand the significance of the protein’s primary structure in determining its 3D structure and
properties (globular and fibrous proteins, and types of bonds involved in 3D structure). (Activity
2.6) (Checkpoint question 2.2)
 Know the molecular structure of a globular protein and a fibrous protein and understand how their
structures relate to their functions (including haemoglobin and collagen).
 Know the structure and properties of cell membranes and understand how models, such as the
fluid mosaic model of cell membranes, are interpretations of data used to develop scientific
explanations of the structure and properties of cell membranes. (Activity 2.7)
 Investigate membrane structure practically, including the effect of alcohol concentration or
temperature on membrane permeability. (Activity 2.8)
 Understand what is meant by osmosis in terms of the movement of free water molecules through a
partially permeable membrane (consideration of water potential is not required). (Activity 2.9)
 Understand what is meant by passive transport (diffusion, facilitated diffusion), active transport
(including the role of ATP as an immediate source of energy), endocytosis and exocytosis, and
understand the involvement of carriers and channel proteins in membrane transport. (Activity 2.9)
 Understand how the expression of a gene mutation in people with cystic fibrosis impairs the
functioning of the gas exchange, digestive and reproductive systems. (Activity 2.10)
 Understand the mechanism of action and specificity of enzymes in terms of their 3D structure;
understand that enzymes are biological catalysts that reduce activation energy; know that there are
intracellular enzymes catalysing reactions inside cells and extracellular enzymes produced by
cells catalysing reactions outside cells. (Checkpoint question 2.3 and 2.4)
 Investigate the effect of enzyme and substrate concentrations on the initial rate of reaction.
(Activity 2.11)
 Know the basic structure of mononucleotides (deoxyribose or ribose linked to a phosphate and a
base, including thymine, uracil, cytosine, adenine or guanine). (Activities 2.12 and 2.15)
 Know the structure of DNA and RNA (polynucleotides composed of mononucleotides linked
through condensation reactions). (Activities 2.12 and 2.15)

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 Know how complementary base pairing and the hydrogen bonding between two complementary
strands are involved in the formation of the DNA double helix. (Activities 2.12, 2.14 and 2.15)
 Understand the nature of the genetic code as a non-overlapping, degenerate, triplet code. (Activity
2.14)
 Know that a gene is a sequence of bases on a DNA molecule coding for a sequence of amino
acids in a polypeptide chain.
 Understand the process of protein synthesis, including the role of RNA polymerase, transcription,
translation, messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosomes and the role of start and stop codons.
 Understand the role of DNA template (antisense) strand in transcription, codons on messenger
RNA and anticodons on transfer RNA. (Activity 2.15)
 Understand the process of DNA replication, including the role of DNA polymerase. (Activity
2.16)
 Understand how Meselson and Stahl’s classic experiment provided new data that supported the
accepted theory of replication and refuted competing theories. (Activity 2.16)
 Understand how errors in DNA replication can give rise to mutations and how cystic fibrosis
results from one of a number of possible gene mutations.
 Know the meanings of the terms: gene, allele, genotype, phenotype, recessive, dominant,
incomplete dominance, homozygote and heterozygote. (Activity 2.17) (Checkpoint question 2.6)
 Understand patterns of inheritance, including the interpretation of genetic pedigree diagrams in
the context of monohybrid inheritance. (Activities 2.17 and 2.18)
 Understand the uses of genetic screening, including the identification of carriers, pre-implantation
genetic diagnosis (PGD) and prenatal testing, including amniocentesis and chorionic villus
sampling. (Activity 2.19)
 Be able to identify and discuss the social and ethical issues related to genetic screening from a
range of ethical viewpoints. (Activity 2.19) (Checkpoint question 2.7)

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.1 Student Sheet

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Purpose
 To describe the ultrastructure of a typical eukaryotic animal cell.
 To recognise organelles from electron micrograph images.
 To make measurements from electron micrograph images.

3D cell structure
In this activity you will look at the 3D structure of cells and at how structures in cells are related to
their functions. Use the Student Book and the interactive cell to help you complete this activity.

Questions
Q1 For each of the 2D shapes in Figure 1 below, decide which of the 3D shapes could be
sectioned (cut through) to produce that 2D shape. Write the letters of the appropriate 3D
shapes beside the 2D shapes. You may find you have more than one letter for some of the
shapes.

Figure 1 2D and 3D shapes.

Q2 Look at the three electron micrographs of mitochondria in the interactive cell. Describe and
explain any differences that you observe between these three micrographs.
Q3 Here are five features associated with membranes in cells:
(1) contains pores
(2) selective permeability
(3) may be stacked or folded
(4) fluid
(5) may surround organelles.
a Write the appropriate number (1–5) beside each characteristic below to show which of
the characteristics are associated with the features above.
Provides large surface area for attachment of enzymes
Determines which molecules enter or leave the cell
Allows passage of large molecules through the membrane
Can fuse with itself
Can change shape and fold
Forms an extensive channel system
Forms a separate compartment within a cell

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b Which of the features 1–5 above are associated with the following functions of cell
membranes?
The balance of ions inside and outside a cell can be controlled
Membrane can pinch off sections and reseal itself
Enzymes can be isolated for specific chemical reactions at a particular
location in the cell
mRNA can pass out of the nucleus
Large molecules can be directed and transported quickly about the cell
Components of ribosomes can pass to the cytoplasm from the
nucleolus
c Which of the features 1–5 above are important for the following components and
activities of cells? (More than one feature may be important for each.)
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Vesicle formation
Exocytosis and endocytosis
Endoplasmic reticulum
Cell surface membrane

Look at the microscope images of organelles in the interactive cell before trying to identify the
organelles in the electron micrograph photographs shown in Figures 2, 3 and 4.
Q4 Identify the organelles A to E in the frog white blood cell (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Electron micrograph of a frog white blood cell. Magnification ×12 300.

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Q5 Figure 3 shows a bat pancreas cell. Identify the organelles A to C. A colour version of this
figure is available in the mediabank on SNAB Online.

Figure 3 Electron micrograph of bat pancreas cell. Magnification ×12 300.

Q6 Identify the organelles labelled A to C. A colour version of this figure is available in the
mediabank on SNAB Online.

Figure 4 Electron micrograph of part of a cell.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.1 Student Sheet

Calculating the size of electron micrograph images

To calculate the size of an electron micrograph image, you need to:
 measure the length of the image in mm
 convert this length to µm (×1000)
 calculate the actual size of the image by dividing the length of image in µm by the magnification.
To calculate the magnification of an electron micrograph image using a scale bar, you need to:
 measure the length of the scale bar in mm
 convert the length into µm
 Work out the magnification by dividing the measured length of the scale bar by the number
written on the scale bar.
Q7 Calculate:
a the width of the nucleus in Figure 2 (horizontally across the centre)
b the mean width of the mitochondria in Figure 2.
Q8 Calculate the length of the mitochondrion shown in Figure 3.
Q9 a Work out the magnification of Figure 4.
b Using the scale bar, work out the length of the organelle labelled B in Figure 4.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.2 Student Sheet

PROTEIN TRANSPORT WITHIN CELLS

Purpose
 To explain the role of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER) and the Golgi apparatus in
moving proteins around cells.

Moving proteins through the cell

In Topic 2 we saw how mRNA made it possible to
transfer the DNA code from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm where the instructions are used to make
polypeptides. In this activity you find out what
happens after a protein is made. You will see how the
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus are
involved in processing and moving proteins through
the cell to where they are needed.

Procedure
Use the interactive tutorial or read the Student Book
(pages 109–110) before completing the tasks that
follow.
1 The flowchart shows the sequence of events that
occur when a digestive enzyme is made,
processed and released from a cell. Answer the
questions in the flowchart to complete the details
of the sequence.
2 Indicate where each event in the sequence occurs
by adding arrows and the letters used in the
flowchart to the diagram below.

Q1 What other proteins might be secreted from the cell?

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.3 Student Sheet

GAMETES AND FERTILISATION

Purpose
 To explain how mammalian gametes are specialised for their functions.
 To describe the acrosome and cortical reactions.
Use the Student Book and the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity to complete this
worksheet.

Questions
Q1 Label and annotate in detail both the structures and the events in Figure 1 below that show the
acrosome and cortical reactions.

Figure 1 The acrosome reaction and fertilisation.

Q2 Put scale bars onto Figure 1 for the egg and the sperm.
Q3 The egg and sperm are not drawn to scale, by what factor is the sperm drawn out of scale?
Q4 In a woman, where does fertilisation normally take place?
Q5 Suggest reasons for the different sizes of egg and sperm cells.
Q6 What is the function of the middle section of a sperm?
Q7 In humans the sperm have to travel from the top of the vagina, where they are deposited during
intercourse, to the top of the fallopian tube – a distance of about 15 cm. If the journey takes
2 hours, what is the average speed of the sperm’s journey in cm per hour and metres per
second?
Q8 The acrosome is a modified lysosome. Compare an acrosome with a lysosome in a normal
body cell.
Q9 Explain why sperm do not approach and attempt to enter any cells apart from the egg cell.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.4 Student Sheet

FERTILISATION IN A MARINE WORM

Purpose
 To observe sperm, eggs and fertilisation.

YOU NEED
● Microscope ● Coverslips
● Blunt seeker ● Fine pipette
● 6 Petri dishes ● Sea water at 10 °C
● 2 cavity slides ● Live Pomatoceros on stones

SAFETY
Do not use a daylight illuminated microscope where direct sunlight may strike the mirror
as this could damage your eyes.
Cover any cuts in your skin with waterproof plasters. Wash your hands thoroughly after handling
Pomatoceros and associated equipment.

Where to look
Pomatoceros is a marine worm found on rocky shores around the UK coast. The worm lives within a
curved, white case, which is triangular in cross-section. This distinctive casing is attached to rocks –
see Figure 1.
You can watch the video clip that accompanies this activity on SNAB Online or undertake the
experiment yourself to complete the tasks within the procedure.

5 mm

Figure 1 The worm’s triangular case is attached to rocks.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.4 Student Sheet

Procedure
Observing the production of gametes
1 Find a pebble or piece of rock with one or more Pomatoceros worms attached. Using a pair of
forceps, break off the posterior (narrow) end of the tube of one of the worms, taking care not to
damage the animal.
2 Insert a blunt seeker into the anterior (front) end of the tube and gently push the worm out of the
broken end of its tube into a Petri dish of sea water at approximately 10 °C.
3 Identify whether the worm is male or female. Adult males are yellow at their rear ends, adult
females almost violet.
4 Repeat steps 1–3, using separate Petri dishes of sea water, until you have one adult male and one
adult female. Put to one side any worms of uncertain sex.
5 Observe the dishes at frequent intervals. Gametes will probably be shed very quickly and almost
certainly within 40 minutes.
6 Remove a few eggs with a pipette and examine them on a cavity slide with a coverslip under low
power and high power.
7 Estimate approximately how many eggs were released by the female.
8 Make an annotated sketch of a single egg, showing the position of the pigmented area and the
nucleus.
9 Remove some sperm with a pipette and examine them on a cavity slide with a coverslip under
high power and low power. Do the sperm stick together? How do they move?
10 Estimate approximately how many sperm were released by the male.
11 Make a sketch of a single sperm as best you can.

Observing fertilisation
Fertilisation usually occurs rapidly, so you will need to have everything ready in position before
adding the sperm in step 2 below.
1 By means of a fine pipette put some sea water containing one or two unfertilised eggs on a cavity
slide.
2 Add some water containing sperm. Put on a coverslip and examine under high power and low
power.
3 Make annotated sketches at intervals after fertilisation. Note particularly the behaviour of the
pigmented region of the egg and any changes that can be seen in the nuclei.
4 Compare fertilised eggs with others shed at the same time that remain unfertilised. Interpret your
findings as far as you are able.

This procedure is modified from Roberts, M.B.V. and King, T.J. (1987) Biology: A Functional
Approach, Student Manual, 2nd edition, Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.5 Student Sheet

CHROMOSOME ASSORTMENT

Purpose
 To model how chromosomes behave during meiosis.
 To explain how meiosis introduces variation through independent assortment and crossing over.

YOU NEED
● A length of string (approximately 60 cm long) ● 6 paperclips
● 12 ‘chromosome’ strands (cards, straws, pipe cleaners or
string) – four of each size, small, medium and large. Your
teacher/lecturer will give you ‘chromosomes’ of the right
colour – depending on whether you start with a cell from
an ovary or from a testis.

Procedure
1 Make an ovary or testis cell by laying out the string to represent the cell surface membrane. (Half
the group should be making ovary cells while the other half are making testis cells. All the cells
come from two individuals – one male and one female.)
2 Place two ‘chromosome’ strands of each of the three sizes randomly inside the cell.
3 Replicate all chromosomes in the cell by placing an additional strand alongside each. Link the two
strands with a paperclip to represent two chromatids joined at the centromere.
4 Pair up chromosomes of the same size so they lie next to each other across the centre of the cell
(called the equator).
5 Separate each pair of chromosomes with one chromosome going to opposite ends of the cell,
making a cluster of chromosomes at each end. Think of a way to ensure that which of the pair
goes to each end is completely random, for example, by one person putting the pair behind their
back, one in each hand, and another person selecting one hand at random.
6 Draw the string together across the centre of the cell so that two cells are formed.
7 In each of the two new cells line the chromosomes up across the centre of the cell at right angles
to the line of the previous cell division.
8 Remove the paperclips and separate the two strands making up each chromosome. Move the
strands to opposite ends of the new cells.
9 Pinch the cells to create four cells in total.
10 Now each person randomly selects one of these four egg or sperm cells. Then randomly find
another person who has the opposite type of cell – sperm or egg – needed for fertilisation.
11 Together make a fertilised egg and place in one central ‘maternity unit’ (the front bench or
equivalent). The group should view all cells created and answer the following questions.

Questions
Q1 How many different combinations of chromosomes are possible in the fertilised egg cells you
have produced?
Q2 Do any of the fertilised egg cells contain the same combination of chromosomes?
Q3 Is it likely that two of the fertilised egg cells that your class produced have the same
combination of chromosomes?
Q4 What would be the chances of two fertilised egg cells having the same combination if there were:
a four chromosomes in the cell
b 23 chromosomes in the cell?
Q5 Suggest how you would modify this model to illustrate the effect of crossing over.
Q6 Comment on the biological importance of variation caused by independent assortment and
crossing over.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.6 Student Sheet

FRUIT FLIES, LINKAGE AND CROSSING OVER

Purpose
 To explain linkage of genes.
 To explain how crossing over introduces variation.

Fruit flies reveal linkage of genes

Work through the questions below to discover for yourself the evidence about gene location revealed
by fruit fly mating experiments. As you go along you can perform some of the experiments for
yourself using the virtual fruit flies labs available via the weblinks, or work though the animation
available on the DNA from the Beginning website (concept 10 and 11 in classical genetics), which
describes this research.

Fruit fly mating experiments

Thomas Morgan and his colleagues at Colombia University studying the inheritance of characteristics
in fruit flies found a male fly with an unusual white-eye mutation. They mated this white-eyed male
with a wild-type red-eyed female (homozygous for the characteristic).
Q1 The observed outcome was that all the offspring had red eyes. What would you conclude from
this finding?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Q2 The researchers went on to mate two of the first generation (F1) red-eyed offspring together.
Predict the outcome of this cross.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Q3 The red eyes did appear in the 3:1 ratio that would be expected if parents are heterozygous and
red eyes was a dominant allele. However, they found that only white eyed males were
produced, no white-eyed females were ever produced. What would you conclude from these
observations?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.6 Student Sheet

Q4 Morgan and his colleagues concluded that the gene for eye colour must occur on the X
chromosome, now known as sex-linked. They drew out a Punnett square to show how a cross
between two F1 red-eyed flies results in only white-eyed males if the gene is sex-linked.
Complete the Punnett square below as they would have done to show the inheritance of the
sex-linked gene. They used XR to represent the dominant X-linked red-eyes allele, Xw to
represent the recessive X-linked white-eyes allele and Y, which does not have a locus for the
eye-colour gene.

Parent flies F1 Male F1 Female

Parent phenotypes red-eyed red-eyed
Parent genotype ………… …………
(remember sex-linked)
Offspring genotypes
Female gametes from red-eyed offspring

…………… ……………

……
Male gametes Offspring phenotypes
from red-eyed ……………………
offspring
……………………
……

Q5 The researchers went on to cross the white-eyed males and red-eyed females from this second
generation to check their idea that the gene is sex-linked.
Work out what the outcome of this cross will be, both in terms of the fly genotypes and
phenotypes produced. Draw out Punnett squares for yourself.

Q6 Explain whether this evidence supports or refutes the idea that the gene for eye-colour is
sex-linked.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.6 Student Sheet

Linkage groups
Morgan and his colleagues also noticed that certain combinations of characteristics occurred together
and suggested that the genes for these features were linked. They found that there were four groups of
characteristics, which matched the number of chromosomes found in fruit flies, suggesting that the
linked characteristics occur on separate chromosomes. These are now known as linkage groups.
They bred female flies that were heterozygous for body colour, eye colour and wing size: all three genes
are located on the X chromosome, that is they are X-linked. The recessive alleles produce yellow
bodies, white eyes and small wings; the dominant alleles produce brown bodies, red eyes and large
wings. The flies were mated with a male recessive for all these characteristics on their X chromosome.
Q7 If the genes are part of a linkage group what would be the outcome of the cross described
above?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

The researchers examined 10 495 offspring, the results are shown in Table 1.

Combination of characteristics Number of flies

Brown body Yellow body 6972
Red eyes or White eyes
Large wings Small wings
Brown body Yellow body 3454
Red eyes or White eyes
Small wings Large wings
Yellow body Brown body 60
Red eyes or White eyes
Large wings Small wings
Yellow body Brown body 9
Red eyes or White eyes
Small wings Large wings
Table 1 The number of flies with each combination of features, 6972 of the flies having either all the dominant
characteristics or all the recessive characteristics.

Q8 What can be concluded from the presence of the offspring with combinations of dominant and
recessive phenotypes?
Try to explain what the frequency of the different combinations tells you about the location of
genes on the chromosome.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.7 Student Sheet

MITOSIS FLICK BOOK

Purpose
 To understand that mitosis is a continuous process followed by cytoplasmic division.
 To understand how it can be separated into a series of distinct stages.

Procedure
You will be provided with a set of chromosome cards that make up a flick book showing the
chromosomes moving around the cell. The cell contains only four chromosomes. Ensure your cards
are fully shuffled before you start.
1 Place the cards in the correct order so that when the pack is ‘flicked’ the moving picture created
shows the chromosomes going through the process of mitosis and cytoplasmic division to form
two new cells, each containing the same number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. The
cards can be held together with a large bulldog clip to make ‘flicking’ easier.
2 Flick the cards several times and then identify five stages in the sequence. Divide the cards into
these five groups that represent the four stages of mitosis plus cytoplasmic division.
3 Draw an annotated cell or write a short description of what appears to happen in each of the
stages.
4 Use the Student Book (section 3.2 ‘From one to many: the cell cycle’) and the interactive tutorial
for Activity 3.8 to check if your stages are the same as the ones traditionally identified by
biologists.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.8 Student Sheet

THE CELL CYCLE

Purpose
 To understand the role of DNA replication
and mitosis in the cell cycle.

Procedure
Watch the cell cycle interactive tutorial that
accompanies this activity or read the Student
Book (section 3.2 ‘From one to many: the cell
cycle’) before attempting the following tasks.
1 Draw on the graph a plot of the quantity of
DNA in a cell during the cell cycle. Assume
that a cell contains two arbitrary units of
DNA just after cell division.
2 Cut out the pictures of the cells below and
stick them in the correct boxes in the graph
on the right or use a number key.

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 Activity 3.9 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

OBSERVING MITOSIS

Purpose
 To prepare some slides of actively dividing plant tissue.
 To observe the stages of the cell cycle in living tissue.
 To determine the duration of the stages of mitosis in relation to the whole cell cycle.
 To develop practical skills.

Preparing the cells

To see mitosis in action you need to look at living cells. Garlic bulbs grow roots that have actively
dividing cells in their tips. Each cell has only eight chromosomes so it is relatively easy to see the
chromosomes once they have condensed.
In order to see the chromosomes inside the cells, the cells must be separated and spread out into a
layer that is ideally just one cell thick. Plant cells are glued together by a middle lamella of pectins.
Hydrochloric acid will break down these pectins allowing the cells to be separated. Follow the
procedure in Methods 1 or 2 to stain chromosomes. Your teacher will guide you on which method to
use. Before you start, read the method carefully and consider any safety issues and how you will
minimise any risks.

Interpreting what you see on your cell preparation

Examine your preparation carefully for cells undergoing different stages of mitosis. Identify the
different stages by comparison with labelled pictures or photographs of cells during mitosis. Bear in
mind that mitosis is a dynamic process so cells may have been fixed in transition from one stage to the
next – you will have to interpret what you see. Follow the steps below to help you record and interpret
your results.
1 Identify cells in the following stages of mitosis: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase. Draw one cell to illustrate each stage. Your drawings will be simple outlines of the
cells and the groups of chromosomes in them as few other structures will be visible. Aim to show
the relative sizes and positions of the chromosomes in the cell accurately. Annotate to describe
what is happening. See Practical Skills Support Sheet 8 – using a microscope – for guidance on
biological drawing.
2 Count the number of cells in the area visible under the microscope when viewed at ×400 (the field
of view). Count the number of cells in each stage of mitosis. Record your results in an appropriate
table.
3 Calculate the percentage of the cells in each stage of mitosis. Rank these values from highest to
lowest. Given that your preparation freezes the process of mitosis at one point of time, what do
these values suggest to you about the length of time a cell spends in each stage of mitosis?
Explain how you arrive at your conclusion.
4 If a group of cells is dividing rapidly, a high proportion of the cells will be undergoing mitosis. A
group of cells that is not dividing will have all cells in interphase of the cell cycle. The amount of
cell division occurring in a tissue can be quantified using the mitotic index. Using the formula
below, calculate the mitotic index for your root tip. If you have time, compare this value with the
mitotic index of an area of cells away from the tip and comment on your findings.
number of cells containing visible chromosomes
Mitotic index =
total number of cells in the field of view
The mitotic index is useful in studies of cell division in many different types of tissues, for
example in examining tumour growth in cancer patients.
5 Using a stage micrometer and eyepiece graticule, make appropriate measurements to allow you to
compare the size of interphase cells with those that are undergoing cytoplasmic division. See
Practical Skills Support Sheet 9 – size and scale – for information on the use of a stage
micrometer and eyepiece graticule. Comment on your findings.
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 Activity 3.9 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

Evaluation
After completing the practical work, evaluate the method used and results obtained. In this evaluation
you should:
 comment on the suitability of the procedure
 describe and explain any changes you made to the method provided
 explain the safety precautions taken during this practical
 discuss the quality of your results, including comments on the validity of the results, and the
repeatability, accuracy and precision of any measurements made
 discuss any limitation of the method and apparatus, and suggest what modifications could
reasonably be made to the procedure or apparatus to improve your findings.

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 Activity 3.9 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

Method 1 Using toluidine blue stain

SAFETY
1 M hydrochloric acid is an irritant. Wear eye protection, lab coats and disposable gloves.
Toluidine blue is harmful if ingested and will also stain skin and clothes.
Wear lab coats and disposable gloves.
Always use the fine forceps to move the root tip sample to/from solutions.
Be aware of the risk of using microscopes where direct sunlight may strike the mirror.

YOU NEED
● Garlic roots ● Microscope slides and coverslips
● 1 M hydrochloric acid ● Pair of fine forceps
● Toluidine blue stain ● Filter paper or soft tissue paper
● Cold distilled water ● Microscope with magnifications of 100 and
● 2 watch glasses or small sample tubes 400
● Hollow glass block or small sample tube ● Fine scissors
● Pipettes (and pipette fillers) or small measuring
cylinders

Procedure
1 Cut off about 5 mm from several root tips of some growing garlic roots using fine scissors.
Choose root tips that are white and have a firm, rounded end; tips that are turning brown will give
poor results.
2 Put the root tips into a hollow glass block or small sample tube containing 2 cm3 1 M
hydrochloric acid for exactly 5 minutes.
3 Put the root tips in a watch glass containing approximately 5 cm3 cold water. Leave the root tips
for 4–5 minutes, then dry them on filter paper. Take care – the root tips will be very fragile.
4 Transfer one of the root tips to a clean microscope slide.
5 Gently break up the root tip with a mounted needle (this is called maceration). Add one small
drop of toluidine blue and leave to stain for 2 minutes.
6 Cover with a coverslip and blot firmly with several layers of tissue or filter paper. Press gently to
spread the root tip, or tap gently on the coverslip with the end of a pencil.
7 View under the microscope (400 magnification) and look for cells with visible chromosomes. If
cells are overlapping, squash the slide again between two wads of filter paper. Avoid lateral
movement of the coverslip.
8 Look for regularly shaped, actively dividing cells. DNA stains dark blue with toluidine blue stain
so you should be able to see blue groups of chromosomes against a paler background.
9 If your preparation is not very successful, repeat with some of the other root tips from step 3. Try
to adjust your procedure to remedy the problem; for example, if your cells are over- or under-
stained, adjust the time they are left in the stain.

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 Activity 3.9 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

Method 2 Using orcein ethanoic stain

SAFETY
Wear eye protection, lab coats and disposable gloves throughout.
1 M hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
Orcein ethanoic stain is corrosive, irritant, causes burns, has an irritating vapour and stains.
Avoid contact with skin. If contact does occur, wash the area thoroughly with water for
10 minutes. Mop up spillages immediately.
Acetic alcohol is both corrosive and highly flammable. Avoid skin contact.
Always use the fine forceps to move the root tip sample to/from solutions.
Be aware of the risk of using microscopes where direct sunlight may strike the mirror.

YOU NEED
● Garlic roots ● 2 pipettes (and pipette fillers) or small
● 1 M hydrochloric acid measuring cylinders
● Acetic alcohol (ethanoic alcohol) ● Microscope slides and coverslips
● Orcein ethanoic stain (acetic orcein) ● Pair of fine forceps
● Ice-cold distilled water ● Filter paper or soft tissue paper
● Water bath at 60 °C ● Microscope with magnifications of 100 and
● 2 watch glasses or small sample glasses 400
● Test tube ● Fine scissors

Procedure
1 Put a test tube containing 2 cm3 1 M hydrochloric acid into a water bath at 60 °C.
2 Cut off about 5 mm from several root tips of some growing garlic roots using fine scissors.
Choose root tips that are white and have a firm, rounded end; tips that are turning brown will give
poor results.
3 Put the root tips in a watch glass containing approximately 2 cm3 of acetic alcohol for a minimum
of 10 minutes.
4 Remove the root tips and place them in a second watch glass with approximately 5 cm3 ice-cold
water. Leave for 4–5 minutes, then dry the root tips on filter paper. It is important to blot the tips
well to remove the water at this stage or a precipitate may form when staining.
5 Put the root tips into the pre-heated hydrochloric acid for exactly 5 minutes.
6 Repeat step 3. Take care – the root tips will be very fragile.
7 Transfer one of the root tips to a clean microscope slide.
8 Gently break up the root tip cells with a mounted needle (this is called maceration). Add one
small drop of acetic orcein stain and leave to stain for 2 minutes.
9 Cover with a coverslip, and blot firmly with several layers of tissue or filter paper. Press gently to
spread the root tip, or tap gently on the coverslip with the end of a pencil.
10 View under the microscope (×400 magnification) and look for cells with visible chromosomes.
11 Look for regularly shaped, actively dividing cells. DNA stains dark red/black with acetic orcein
stain so you should be able to see red/purple groups of chromosomes against a paler pink
background.
12 If your preparation is not very successful, repeat with some of the other root tips from stage 6. Try
to adjust your procedure to remedy the problem; for example, if your cells are over- or under-
stained, adjust the quantity of stain added.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.10 Student Sheet

MITOSIS CELL COUNT IN A ROOT TIP

Purpose
 To determine the length of time each stage of mitosis lasts in a root tip.
In this activity you will investigate the dynamic nature of mitosis by looking at cells in a root tip. The
root tip is a meristem, part of a plant where cells are actively dividing.

Preparing for the activity

Counting the number of cells in one phase, for example, telophase, and dividing this number by the
total number of cells will give the proportion of cells in that phase. This allows the length of each
phase to be calculated if we assume that the proportion of cells in each phase of the cell cycle
represents the proportion of time spent by individual cells in each phase.
The cell counts you will need to complete the calculation can come from practical work completed in
Activity 3.9, or from the first part of the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity. In the
second part of the interactive tutorial a spreadsheet is used to analyse the data. If you do not have
access to a spreadsheet, the exercise can be done without one.

Questions
Q1 Explain how the cells in a root tip photomicrograph (see the interactive tutorial that
accompanies this activity or the Student Book, page 124, for an example) or in a root tip
squash that you have prepared suggest that there is a sequence of phases to mitosis.
Q2 Why is it fair to assume that the proportion of cells in each phase of the cell cycle represents
the proportion of time spent by individual cells in each phase?
Q3 Enter the figures for your cell count into a spreadsheet. Use the spreadsheet to answer the
following:
a Calculate the % time spent by cells in each phase (cells in one phase divided by total
number of cells, multiplied by 100).
b Assume the cell cycle is completed in 15 hours. Calculate the actual time spent in each
phase and produce a pie chart to show this.
Q4 In which phase of the cell cycle do the cells appear to spend most time? Suggest a reason for
this.
Q5 Compare your recorded frequencies of the different stages of the cell cycle with the data below
that show the observed occurrence in representative microscopic fields. How are these results
similar/different from your own cell count?

Phase Number of cells % of total cells

Interphase 2250 83
Prophase 268 10
Metaphase 76 3
Anaphase 51 2
Telophase 79 3

Q6 Suggest a reason for any differences between the two sets of data.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.11 Student Sheet

PLANT TISSUE CULTURE

Purpose
 To investigate the totipotency of plant cells.
 To develop practical skills.
SAFETY
If there is any sign of fungal growth, do not handle the plant material and report it to your teacher.
Wash your hands thoroughly after handling plant material.

Complete plants from cells

Plant tissue culture refers to the growth of individual cells or organs on an artificial medium. Plant
tissue culture is used in industry to develop improved plants for food or other uses, reduce infection
with disease such as viruses and produce phytochemicals for use in drugs.
In this practical you will investigate whether or not the tops of plant seedlings can be removed and
grown into complete plants on agar in the school laboratory. With most plant species, growth of
seedlings could take many weeks, but you will use ‘rapid-cycling’ plants. These are plants that grow
and complete their life cycles quickly; nothing to do with being speedy on a bike!

Procedure
Some of these steps may have previously been done for you. In this case start where your teacher
indicates.
Read the procedure carefully, make adjustments if you think any are necessary and complete a risk
assessment before you follow the instructions to complete the practical work.
1 Sprinkle some seeds of white mustard (Sinapis alba) or rapid cycling brassica (Brassica rapa)
onto a damp sponge placed in a plastic tray. Cover with transparent cling film and place in a
warm, light place to germinate. When the seedlings have just started to unfold their cotyledons
(seed leaves), they are ready to culture.
2 Measure out 2.5 g of agar powder and add to 250 cm3 of distilled water. Heat and stir gently until
the agar dissolves.
3 Whilst the agar is still molten, pour about 2 cm depth into several short-necked test tubes or
McCartney bottles. Allow to cool and solidify.
4 With a sharp pair of scissors cut the tops off the seedlings just below the shoot apex (growing tip).
These are the explants. Leave the hypocotyls (the early stem) and roots behind on the sponge.
5 Carefully push the cut end of each explant into the agar. Put one explant into each test tube or
bottle. Make sure the cotyledons do not touch the agar.
6 Cover the tubes with cling film or a clear lid. On each tube or bottle write your name or initials,
and the date. Place the tubes in a rack under a light bank or on a sunny windowsill. Do not open
the tubes again.
7 Observe the progress of your explants daily and record when anything of note develops,
presenting observations or measurements made in an appropriate format. If you have a mobile
phone and can use it at your school or college, set the alarm to remind you to visit your explants
every day at break or lunchtime. Try to observe over a period of 10 days or so.
Activity based on SAPS Student Sheet 12: Fast tissue culture ©SAPS.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.11 Student Sheet

Conclusions and evaluation

State a conclusion based on the experimental evidence and use appropriate scientific knowledge to
explain your conclusions. Comment on the experimental method used and the quality of the results
obtained.
Some questions that cover points to think about when completing your conclusion and evaluation:
Q1 What, if anything, would you expect the explants to obtain from the agar?
Q2 Why should you cover the tubes with a transparent lid?
Q3 Why should you not open the tubes again once you have set them up?
Q4 Explain why the explants can grow and develop new leaves, stem and roots.

Going further
Q5 You could extend this experiment by just growing the shoot apex (no cotyledons), or isolated
cotyledons on their own, and comparing your results with growing the shoot apex/cotyledons
together. What further information would you gain by doing this?
Q6 A student wanted to investigate the effect of sugar on the growth of root explants: design an
experiment that would enable her to complete this investigation.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.12 Student Sheet

ETHICAL CONCERNS ABOUT STEM CELL

RESEARCH

Purpose
 To discuss the ethical implications of stem cell research.

A variety of views
In this activity you will consider some of the different views expressed about the status of the human
embryo and the use of embryo stem cells for research. You will think about it and decide what your
own position is on this issue.
Although most scientists believe that pluripotent embryonic stem cells will be more valuable for
research than multipotent stem cells from adults there is, as yet, no consensus (agreement) for or
against the use of human embryos for research. Here is a selection of quotations from people for and
against the use of human embryos for research:
“This research is very pro-life. The life of a clump of cells smaller than a pin-head – the pre-14-
day-old embryo – does deserve some respect. But the lives of people with cancer, diseases such
as Parkinson’s and organ failure who could be saved by the development of stem cells deserve
to be given a higher value.”
Dr Evan Harris, Liberal Democrat MP and science spokesperson
“The human embryo has a special status and we owe a measure of respect to the embryo. But
we also owe a measure of respect to the millions of people living with these devastating
illnesses and the millions who have yet to show signs of them.”
Lord Hunt, Junior Health Minister
“To rush to approve the destruction of embryos in order to harvest and experiment on ES cells
is inadvisable and unnecessary. We should address the ethical concerns first.”
Frank E. Young, Reformed Theological Seminary, Fourth Presbyterian Church, USA
“I may feel sorry for about two or three cells, but also I care about the millions of cells that are a
human person.”
Professor Julia Polak, Director of the Tissue Engineering Centre
at The Hammersmith Hospital, London

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Procedure
Activity 1: Find out people’s views on human embryos in medical research
1 Produce a short summary leaflet about the arguments for and against using human embryos for
medical therapies suitable for a member of the general public. (Hint: think about designing it for
someone with a reading age of a typical 14-year-old and make sure it can be read in just 5
minutes!)
2 Show this leaflet to your teacher/lecturer and, once they have approved it, run off 20 photocopies.
3 Produce a short interview schedule with just five questions about people’s attitudes towards the
use of human embryos for medical therapies. (Hint: have some questions that can be answered
with ‘yes’ or ‘no’ – for example, ‘Do you think the government should permit the use of human
embryos for medical therapies if it is likely that this would save some people’s lives?’ – and some
‘open’ questions that cannot be answered in this way – for example, ‘How would you feel if you
heard that human embryos were being used for medical therapies?’)
4 Show this interview schedule to your teacher/lecturer and, once they have approved it, run off 20
photocopies.
5 Give the leaflet to 20 people who fall into two different categories – for example, 10 adult women
and 10 adult men, or 10 Advanced level Biology students and 10 Advanced level English
students. Tell them that the next day you would like to carry out a 5 minute interview with them
about their attitudes towards the use of human embryos for medical therapies (not their
knowledge of the science).
6 The next day, carry out the interview with these 20 people. (Hint: practise a couple of interviews
with your friends first. Ensure you can write down the important bits of what is said and ensure
you have more than enough copies of your interview schedule.)
7 Analyse your findings to see if there are interesting similarities or differences between your two
different categories of people. Discuss your findings with the rest of the group.

Activity 2: Debate about whether embryonic stem cells should be used for
research
Organise a debate or discussion in which both sides of the issue are argued: whether the use of
embryonic stem cells for research should be permitted or not.
At the end of the debate or discussion take a vote to see how many people would approve of greater
use of stem cells in medical therapies.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.13 Student Sheet

ACETABULARIA EXPERIMENTS

Purpose
 To discuss the evidence and conclusions drawn from a set of experiments.
 To appreciate the influence of the nucleus and cytoplasm on development.

Why use Acetabularia?

Acetabularia (Figure 1) is a green alga consisting of a single cell, 2–3 cm long. At one end of the
cell is a root-shaped structure, called a rhizoid, containing the nucleus, and at the other end is a
hat-shaped structure.

Because Acetabularia is such a large cell, it is

possible to perform microsurgery on it, dissecting it
into sections and transferring the nucleus from one
section to another. It was used by the Danish-
German biologist Joachim Hammerling to study the
role of the nucleus and cytoplasm in development.
Perform the experiments yourself in the interactive
tutorial that accompanies this activity to help you
answer the questions below.
Figure 1 The structure of an Acetabularia cell.

Questions
Experiment 1
In Experiment 1, a young Acetabularia cell, which had not yet developed a hat, was cut into three
sections (tip, stem and rhizoid); each was then allowed to develop separately. Hammerling was testing
his idea that development of the cell is controlled by genetic material. Figure 2 shows the result of the
experiment.
Q1 From the results of Experiment 1, what can be concluded about the position of the genetic
material in the Acetabularia cell?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Figure 2 Results of Experiment 1.

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Experiment 2
In Experiment 2, the tip was cut off a young cell, which had not yet developed a hat, and the rhizoid
was left attached for a few days. The rhizoid was then cut off and the stem was allowed to develop on
its own. The new tip developed a hat, as shown in Figure 3. Hammerling was testing his idea that the
genetic material is in the rhizoid and development of the rest of the cell is controlled by chemical
signals passing through the cytoplasm.

Figure 3 Results of Experiment 2.

Q2 Does Experiment 2 give you any evidence that either backs up or conflicts with your
conclusions from Experiment 1?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Experiment 3
In Experiment 3, the rhizoid and hat were cut off; then the nucleus was transferred from the rhizoid
into the stem of a young cell. The stem grew into a complete cell with hat and rhizoid, as shown in
Figure 4.

Figure 4 The results of experiment 3.

Q3 What extra information does the result of Experiment 3 give you that supports or modifies
your conclusions from Experiment 1 and 2?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Experiment 4
In Experiment 4, the hats from individuals of two different species of Acetabularia were removed, the
stems were cut off the rhizoids, and the stems were switched. The cells developed hats that were
intermediate to the hats of the two species. These intermediate hats were removed and new hats
developed as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Results of Experiment 4.

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Q4 What can you conclude from Experiment 4 about what influences development of the tip of
the Acetabularia cell?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Q5 Drawing on what you have learnt in Topic 2, explain in detail how the results of Experiment 4
support Hammerling’s model of the genetic information in the nucleus controlling cell
processes and development via chemical messengers.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.14 Student Sheet

INDUCTION OF -GALACTOSIDASE

Purpose
 To demonstrate practically the switching on of a gene.
 To practise aseptic techniques.
 To develop certain practical skills.

YOU NEED
®
● Culture of E. coli in nutrient broth without lactose ● Bungs or Parafilm for test tubes
● Culture of E. coli in nutrient broth with lactose ● Water bath at 35 °C
● Distilled water ● Stopclock
● ONPG solution ● Disposable gloves
● Methylbenzene (toluene) ● Access to a fume cupboard
● Disinfectant – clear phenolic, ethanol or ● Marker pen
hypochlorite ● If optical density is being measured: hairdryer
3
● 5  1 cm sterile pipettes with filler and colorimeter
3
● 5 or 10 cm disposable syringe ● If an enzyme control is being used,
● Dropper β-galactosidase solution and a 4th test tube
● 3 test tubes and rack

SAFETY
Wear eye protection throughout.
All enzymes should be treated as potential allergens; avoid contact and ingestion
or inhalation. See CLEAPSS Student Safety Sheet 1 for further details.
Methylbenzene is highly flammable and harmful by inhalation. See CLEAPSS Hazcard 46A
for further details. Keep away from flames. The vapour is irritating to the eyes and mucous
membranes, and evaporation should only be done in a fume cupboard. Small quantities can be
used with care at the bench. Avoid contact with skin and eyes.
Aseptic techniques should be employed when using microorganisms. See Practical Skills Support
Sheet 11 – plate pouring and aseptic techniques – for detail.
Practical work should be done within a tray that can capture any spills and be disinfected
afterwards. Any spills should be cleared up quickly and correctly.
The disinfectant used may be toxic or harmful and if in contact with skin is likely to irritate.
Wash hands thoroughly at the end of the practical.

ONPG as indicator
Cells only express genes when the protein products they code for are needed, thus conserving energy
and resources within the cell. The bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) can use different carbohydrates
as a food source. If lactose, the disaccharide found in milk, is present in the growth medium it must be
broken down into the monosaccharides glucose and galactose before it can be utilised as an energy
source in respiration. E. coli has a gene for an enzyme called -galactosidase that breaks down the
lactose. The presence of lactose switches on this gene so the enzyme is produced.
ONPG, a colourless synthetic compound, can also be broken down by -galactosidase to give
galactose and ONP, a yellow compound. The formation of this yellow product is used in this activity
to indicate the presence of active -galactosidase. Methylbenzene is added to kill the cells and disrupts
the cell membrane so that the cell’s enzymes and ONPG can mix.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.14 Student Sheet

Read the procedure carefully. Details about aseptic technique can be found in the Practical Skills
Support materials (Practical Support 11 – plate pouring and aseptic techniques). Make any
adjustments to the procedure if necessary. Complete a risk assessment and then follow the procedure
taking appropriate safety precautions.

Procedure
1 Wipe down the bench with disinfectant.
2 Label three sterile test tubes 1 to 3.
3 Using aseptic techniques, transfer 1 cm3 of the E. coli in nutrient broth without lactose to test tube
1.
4 Again using aseptic techniques, transfer 1 cm3 of the E. coli in nutrient broth with lactose to test
tube 2.
5 Using the same techniques, add 1 cm3 of distilled water to test tube 3. This is a control.
6 If the enzyme -galactosidase is available, add 1 cm3 to a fourth test tube, labelled 4. This is a
second control, because the addition of the enzyme should change the colour in the test tube and
allow comparisons with the other tubes.
7 Add five drops of methylbenzene to each test tube.
8 Add 1 cm3 of the ONPG solution to each test tube.
9 Cover each test tube with Parafilm® (Parafilm® is a trade name for a type of cling film) or a bung
and shake to help disperse the ONPG.
10 Put all the test tubes in a water bath set at 35 °C.
11 Compare the colours of the tubes as any colours develop. Record your observations in an
appropriate way.
12 Explain your findings with supporting evidence from the experimental observations and using
your biological knowledge.

Estimating the quantity of -galactosidase

If optical density is being measured using a colorimeter the following step should be added.
After adding the methylbenzene, transfer the tube to a fume cupboard. Use a hairdryer to evaporate all
the solvent (this will be in a thin layer on the surface of the liquid). It is important to evaporate
methylbenzene as it could damage the colorimeter.
Next, add ONPG as in step 8 and continue setting up the experiment, as in steps 9 and 10.
After recording your observations, step 11, transfer each of the solutions to a cuvette and measure the
optical density at 420 or 440 nm.
Describe in detail how this procedure could be used to estimate the quantity of -galactosidase in a
sample.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.15 Student Sheet

MODELLING FLOWERS

Purpose
 To understand that cells in the flower become specialised through differential gene expression.
 To appreciate how the ABC model of flower development was worked out.

Flower structure
Before completing this activity you need to recall the terms used to describe the parts of a flower. You
should have learned these at primary school or in your first years at secondary school, but as a revision
exercise label the parts of the diagram below and add each part’s function. Ensure you include the
terms: petal, sepal, style, stigma, ovule, carpel, stamen, filament, anther, ovary, and receptacle. It may
help to dissect the flower of a perennial geranium (Cranesbill) or a stargazer lily and then draw it in
cross-section.
SAFETY
Lily pollen can cause allergic rhinitis (hay fever) in some individuals. It can stain if damp.
Avoid contact with skin or clothing.
Take care when using a scalpel.

Figure 1 Cross-section of a Cranesbill flower.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.15 Student Sheet

Genetic control of flower development

The parts of a dicotyledonous flower are arranged in four concentric whorls or circles of organs
(Figure 2). If you look down on an open flower, the outermost circle contains the sepals that protect
the flower bud. These are green when the flower is in bud, but often turn brown and shrivel once the
flower has opened. Moving in you will see the petals themselves, which are often brightly coloured
and showy to attract insect pollinators.
In some species, the sepals and petals are indistinguishable, in which case they are called tepals.
The two innermost whorls of the flower contain the reproductive organs. In the third whorl are the
stamens – the male reproductive parts, which produce pollen in anthers at the end of filaments.
Finally, in the fourth whorl at the centre, are the carpels or female reproductive parts. Each carpel
consists of an ovary and stigma, and usually a style connects the two. Several carpels often fuse
together.

Figure 2 Flower parts are arranged in four concentric whorls.

Flowers develop at the apical meristems; these growing tips of shoots consist of rapidly dividing,
undifferentiated cells that differentiate into sepals, petals and so on. In the late 1980s several research
groups used mutant snapdragon (Antirrhinum) and mustard (Arabidopsis) flowers to develop the
‘ABC model of flowering’ to explain the control of flower development.
It was proposed that there were three groups of genes – A, B and C – controlling the flower
development. When all three groups of genes are expressed the flower forms correctly. In the mutant
plants the flower parts develop in the wrong whorl.
You are going to construct the wild type and three mutant flowers and use them to work out how
genes A, B and C determine the development of flowers.

Procedure
1 Complete the top row of Table 1 below showing what the normal or ‘wild type’ flower should
have in each whorl.
Genes expressed Whorl 1 Whorl 2 Whorl 3 Whorl 4
A + B + C (‘wild type’, i.e. normal)
A + C (B – mutants) sepals sepals carpels carpels
B + C (A – mutants) carpels stamens stamens carpels
A + B (C – mutants) sepals petals petals sepals
Table 1 The appearance of wild type and mutant Antirrhinum flowers.

2 Using the ‘cut and stick’ flower parts or by drawing the parts, construct the longitudinal section
‘half-flower’ for the wild type. Stick your completed ‘half-flower’ in the correct place on Table 2
at the end of this Activity Sheet. Remember that the complete half-flower will have eight parts
since each whorl appears twice across the flower: 1,2,3,4,4,3,2,1, or sepal, petal, stamen, carpel,
carpel, stamen, petal, sepal.
3 Repeat step 2 for each of the three mutants.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.15 Student Sheet

4 Look at your model flowers and identify the flower parts that do appear in the correct positions
for each of the three mutants. Shade in the appropriate boxes of the table above to indicate where
these occur.
5 Use the information in the table to complete these summary statements:

Whorl 1 should contain ____________________. Gene group_______ must be expressed for

these to form.

Whorl 2 should contain ____________________. Gene groups _____ and _____ must be
expressed for these to form.

Whorl 3 should contain ____________________. Gene groups _____ and _____ must be
expressed for these to form.

Whorl 4 should contain ____________________. Gene group _______ must be expressed for
these to form.

Each group of genes is active in ___ adjacent whorls. Group __ genes are active in whorls 1 and
2. Group __ genes are active in whorls 2 and 3. Group ___ genes are active in whorls 3 and 4.

In the absence of gene A, gene C is expressed in all whorls and in the absence of gene C, gene A
is expressed in all whorls.
6 Figure 3 shows the regions where the three gene groups are active. Using a different colour for
each gene group shade in the parts of the flower where each gene is expressed in the wild type
flower. You will need to use hatched colours for the expression of two gene groups. Complete the
key with your colours.

Key
Gene group A expressed

Gene group B expressed

Gene group C expressed

Figure 3 A diagram showing how the three gene groups A, B and C control the development of flower parts.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.15 Student Sheet

Wild type flower Mutant A– (genes B and C expressed)

Mutant B– (genes A and C expressed) Mutant C– (genes A and B expressed)

Table 2 Structure of the wild type and mutant flowers in the ABC model of flowering.

References
Lohmann, J.U. and Weigel, D. (2002) Building beauty: The genetic control of floral patterning.
Developmental Cell 2: 135–142. (A summary or review article.)
Mendoza, L., Thieffry, D. and Alvarez-Buylla, E.R. (1999) Genetic control of flower morphogenesis
in Arabidopsis thaliana: a logical analysis. Bioinformatics 15: 593–606.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.15 Student Sheet

Sepals

Petals

Stamens

Carpels

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.16 Student Sheet

MANY GENES CAN AFFECT A SINGLE

CHARACTERISTIC

Purpose
 To explain how some characteristics are controlled by many genes, each with multiple alleles.
 To show how polygenic inheritance can give rise to phenotypes that show continuous variation.

Alleles at many loci

You have already met monohybrid (monogenic) inheritance, where each locus is responsible for a
single heritable feature. Some characteristics are affected by multiple alleles for the same gene at
many loci. Each allele has a small effect on the characteristic and the effects of several alleles jointly
contribute to the phenotype of an individual.
Any characteristic that shows continuous variation may be partly the result of polygenic inheritance,
for example, skin colour, height, weight and intelligence. Look through the worked example on
inheritance of height and then answer the questions that follow.

Inheritance of height
Suppose that only two genes A/a and B/b were involved in the determination of height. The alleles a
and b each contribute 5 cm to the height above a baseline. The alleles A and B each contribute 10 cm
to the height – so the homozygous AABB would give a height of 40 cm above our baseline.
If two homozygotes were crossed they would produce heterozygous individuals, all of the same
height.
Remember: A and B each contribute 10 cm
a and b each contribute 5 cm
Parent phenotypes (height above baseline): 20 cm 40 cm
Parent genotypes: aabb AABB
Gametes: ab AB
F1 offspring genotypes: AaBb
F1 offspring phenotypes: 30 cm
If two heterozygotes were crossed there would be a range of phenotypes as shown below:
Gametes from one parent
AB Ab aB ab

AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb

Gametes
from other Ab AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb
parent

aB AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb

ab AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb

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Q1 Fill in the phenotypes for each of the genotypes in the table to check that the range of heights
obtained is the same as the data presented on the graph in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Graph showing height distribution of offspring.

If, instead of two loci, there were many, each contributing a smaller increase in height, the number of
height phenotypes would increase. The more loci, the greater the number of height classes and the
smaller the differences between neighbouring classes. This, combined with the effects of the
environment, for example, diet, results in the sort of smooth height curve seen in Figure 3.48, page
140 of the Student Book.
Many characteristics whose inheritance is polygenic are also affected by the environment. Many
genetically inherited diseases are thought to be polygenic, but are triggered by factors in the
environment, or have the severity of their expression affected by factors in the environment.
Q2 Suppose that the colour of a plant’s flowers is controlled by alleles at three loci. The flowers
show a range of colours from deep red to white; the larger the number of R alleles inherited,
the darker the colour of the flowers.
If a deep red homozygous plant is crossed with a white homozygous plant it produces plants
that are pink. What will the genotypes of the parents and offspring be, assuming that the deep
red alleles are R1, R2, and R3, and the white alleles are r1, r2 and r3?
Q3 Coronary heart disease (CHD) is thought to be the result of alleles at several loci, but the effect
of these alleles is combined with environmental factors that increase the risk of developing the
disease. Such diseases are known as multifactorial. What factors have been identified as
increasing the risk of CHD?

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.17 Student Sheet

ARE WE STILL GETTING TALLER?

Purpose
 To demonstrate that certain characteristics (in this case human height) may be affected by both
genotype and environment.
 To give experience of using a spreadsheet.
 To calculate standard deviation and compare means using statistical methods.

Collecting evidence
Few people reach the height of Nigel Fingleton from Durham. At 2.33 m (7 feet 7 inches) he is one of
the tallest men in the world. But there is evidence that the population is getting taller. Table 1 shows
how the mean height of males born in 4-year periods from 1861–65 to 1976–80 has changed.

Time periods Mean height (cm)

1861–1865 166.25
1866–1870 166.05
1871–1875 167.05
1876–1880 167.25
1881–1885 167.05
1886–1890 168.85
1891–1895 169.37
1896–1900 169.88
1901–1905 171.29
1906–1910 171.53
1911–1915 171.60
1916–1920 171.90
1921–1925 172.82
1926–1930 173.60
1931–1935 173.86
1936–1940 173.87
1941–1945 174.77
1946–1950 175.17
1951–1955 175.57
1956–1960 176.27
1961–1965 176.77
1966–1970 176.86
1971–1975 177.37
1976–1980 176.83
Table 1 Mean height of males in the UK in birth cohorts from 1861–65 to 1976–80. The data was collated by
scientists, T. Hatton and B. Bray, at the University of Essex, from a range of sources using measurements for the
Health Survey of England, height of 20-year-old army recruits and other self-reported height studies.
Source: Hatton, T.J. and Bray, B.E. (2010) Long run trends in the heights of European men, 19th–20th centuries.
Economics and Human Biology 8: 405–413.

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Q1 How much had the mean height of males changed over the whole time period shown in
Table 1?
Q2 Sketch a graph of the data and comment on whether the rate of change is constant over the
whole time period shown. Comment on your findings.
Table 2 shows the change in height and weight of United States army recruits between 1864 and 1984.

Year (number of men in the study) Height (inches) Weight (pounds)

1864 (23,624) 67.2 141.4
1919 (99,449) 67.7 144.9
1946 (85,000) 68.4 154.8
1984 (869) 68.6 166.8
Table 2 Height and weight of United States army recruits between 1864 and 1984.
Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK235960/

Q3 Compare the height and weight data shown in Table 2 and suggest an explanation for any
patterns or trends you note.
In 1993 the Health Survey for England recorded a mean height of 176.6 cm for men and 163.1 cm for
women aged 16–24. In 2005 the mean heights for males and females in England aged 16–24 years
were 177.0 cm (standard deviation (s) 9.0 cm) and 163.20 cm (s 7.1 cm) respectively. In 2010 the
mean height of 16–24-year-old males was 177.1 cm (s 11.0 cm), for females it was 164.4 cm
(s 7.9 cm).
Q4 How much had the mean height of males and females aged 16–24 changed between 1993 and
2010?
Q5 What information does the standard deviation values give us about the data?
Q6 The mean weights for 16–24-year-old males in England in 2005 and 2010 were 74.3 kg and
76.9 kg respectively, for females aged 16–24 the mean weights were 64.8 kg and 65.4 kg.
Work out the average BMI for each of these groups and comment on your findings.
In the time since these data were collected has there been an increase in the height of this age group?
To answer this question, you can analyse the SNAB Height Survey data and also find recent data on
the Internet. The Health Survey of England, the Scottish Health Survey and Welsh Health Survey
provide detailed data on height, weight and obesity indicators.

The SNAB Height Survey

You can analyse SNAB student height data collected between 2009 and 2013 and include your height
in the analysis as an individual or as a class set. However, any one individual should only be entered
on one occasion. To ensure that all the data are collected in the same way you need to follow the
height measuring procedure outlined below.

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Height measuring
If a height-measuring stand is available this should be used. If not, a measuring tape should be
attached to a wall or an accurate scale marked on a wall. This scale should have 1 mm divisions.
A right-angled block is brought down so that it lightly rests on the head. Ensure that the back of the
block is flat against the wall and that the person being measured is standing straight, not leaning back
against the wall. The height measurement in centimetres is read from the scale to the nearest cm. The
measurements are then entered into the database. Enter a figure like 151.4 cm as 151 cm and 151.5 or
151.6 cm as 152 cm.

Figure 1 Measuring height.

The data can be accessed in a spreadsheet that accompanies this activity.

Analysing the data

The data can be analysed by hand or by using a Microsoft Excel® spreadsheet as explained on
pages 4–8.
1 Check that the data are normally distributed by working out the frequencies of the heights and
plotting the data. For height measurements you should get a bell-shaped, normal distribution
curve. This should also show that height exhibits continuous variation.
2 Calculate the mean male and female heights.
3 Calculate standard deviations for the male and female height data. The standard deviation is a
measure of how much variation there is in the sample. (See the Maths and Stats Support if you
need help.)
4 Compare the mean using an appropriate statistical test. See Maths and Stats Support Sheet 9 –
what test should I use?

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.17 Student Sheet

Questions on the SNAB Height Survey

Q1 Compare the mean values you have obtained with those from the 2010 Health Survey of
England for 16–24-year-olds.
Q2 Comment on your findings. Give possible reasons for the increase, lack of change or decrease
in height. You should include biological explanations, and comment on the accuracy and
validity of the data.
Q3 How could this activity be extended to investigate causes of any height differences over time
or in different locations?

Finding recent data on the Internet

Look for data on the Government national statistics site, Statbase®, or the Department for Health
website. The weblinks for this activity has a link to the best place to start.
Once there, click on the list of tables.

Calculations using a Microsoft Excel® spreadsheet

Calculating frequencies
1 Select all the student heights (click on the first height value and then drag the cursor over the rest
until they are all highlighted – Figure 2).

Figure 2 Select all the height data. Used with permission from Microsoft.

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2 Press the icon on the tool bar to put the heights in order, from smallest to largest (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Put the data in size order. Used with permission from Microsoft.

3 In the first cell of the column alongside the data enter the smallest value rounded down to the
closest 5 cm; for example, if the smallest value was 124 you enter 120. Then enter values in the
column below at 5 cm intervals; for example, 125, 130, 135, 140, etc. Continue until you have
entered the 5 cm value above the largest result for example, 165 for 162 (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Define interval categories. Used with permission from Microsoft.

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4 You can now use the frequency function to work out the number of values in each of the 5 cm
intervals you have defined. For example, 120, 125, 130, 135 and 140 would give intervals of
0–120, 121–125, 126–130, 131–135 and 136–140. Click on the cell adjacent to the first cell of
your interval data. Drag down and select a column of cells that is one cell longer than the interval
data (Figure 5).

Figure 5 Selecting cells for the frequency values data in each size category. Used with permission from Microsoft.

5 Click on the ƒx (function) icon on the tool bar. Select the function category ‘Statistical’ and then
the function name ‘Frequency’. Click OK (Figure 6).

Figure 6 Using the function icon to work out frequency. Used with permission from Microsoft.

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6 A box appears asking you to enter ‘Data_array’. Click on the red arrow at the end of the box
(Figure 7). This takes you to the spreadsheet. Click on the first height data value and drag down
until all the student height data are selected.

Figure 7 Working out the frequency. Used with permission from Microsoft.

Open the frequency dialog box again by clicking on the red arrow (Figure 8).

Figure 8 Working out the frequency. Used with permission from Microsoft.

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The selected cells will have appeared as the ‘Data_array’. Click the ‘Bins_array’ red arrow and
select all the values in your interval data column. Return to the frequency dialog box and you
should see the cell numbers as the ‘Bins_array’ (Figure 9).

Figure 9 Working out the frequency. Used with permission from Microsoft.

7 Hold CONTROL + SHIFT down and click OK. The number of values that are in each of the
interval classes you defined will appear in the cells that you selected in step 4 (Figure 10).

Figure 10 Drawing a graph. Used with permission from Microsoft.

8 Still with this set of data selected, click on Insert and choose a line chart (Figure 10) to draw a
graph to display the trend.
For height measurements you should get a bell-shaped, normal distribution curve.
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Calculating the mean male and female heights

9 Click in the cell you want the answer to appear in.
10 Click on the ƒx icon on the tool bar. Select ‘Statistical function’ category and ‘Average function’
name. Click OK.
11 The average dialog box will open. Press the red arrow alongside ‘Number 1’ to go to the
spreadsheet. Select all the cells with data for male heights. Return to the dialogue box by clicking
the red arrow. Click OK and the calculated average will appear in the answer cell.

Calculating standard deviations

12 Open the STDEV dialog box using the ƒx icon on the tool bar. In the STDEV dialog box enter
details in the ‘Number 1’ box by going to the spreadsheet and selecting all the values that were
used to calculate the average in step 11.
Repeat steps 9 to 12 for the female data.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.18 Student Sheet

GENES OR THE ENVIRONMENT

Purpose
 To appreciate the difficulty of determining the extent to which characteristics in organisms are
caused by genetic or environmental factors.
In this activity you consider the relationship between monoamine oxidase A deficiency, childhood
maltreatment and antisocial behaviour as an example of the interaction of genes and environment.

MAOA – a case study

Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) is an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of a neurotransmitter in
the brain – neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, are produced by a nerve cell, they cross the gap
between nerve cells, known as the synapse, and initiate an impulse in the next nerve cell. If the
neurotransmitter is not broken down the nerve cell continues to send impulses. A 1990s study of a
Dutch family notorious for the aggressive behaviour and violent crimes of the male family members
identified MAOA deficiency in the affected men. A point mutation in the MAOA gene changed the
codon for the amino acid into a chain termination codon, resulting in low levels of MAOA.
Genetically modified mice who have had the MAOA gene inactivated or ‘knocked out’ are also
aggressive. These observations led scientists to suggest there might be a connection between the gene
and violent behaviour although there did not appear to be a clear link.
In 2002, researchers at King’s College in London revealed an interaction between MAOA genotype,
mistreatment in childhood and antisocial behaviour in later life. They used the results of a study that
had followed the health and social development of 1037 children in Dunedin, New Zealand, for over
20 years. The study records for the children born in 1972 and 1973 included information about how
the children had been treated by their parents and any antisocial or criminal behaviour by participants.
In 1999, the children, now 26 years old, provided blood and saliva samples to the Otago University
research team in Dunedin. This allowed DNA to be extracted and tested. There are two alleles for the
MAOA gene: one results in the production of high levels of the enzyme, the other with the mutation is
linked with low production of the enzyme. The researchers focused on the 499 men in the study
because the MAOA gene occurs on the X chromosome so males have only one allele and are more at
risk. The 7% of the males with Maori descent were excluded from the study.
No direct link was found between MAOA levels and subsequent antisocial behaviour. However,
maltreated children with high levels of MAOA were found to be less likely to exhibit violent
behaviour than maltreated children with low MAOA. 12% of the males in the group had a low level of
MAOA and had been maltreated, but they accounted for 44% of the convictions for violent crimes
recorded for the whole group. 85% of the males with the low-activity MAOA genotype who were
severely maltreated developed some form of antisocial behaviour. Boys who had a low level of
MAOA, but who were well treated, did not develop antisocial behaviour as adults.
Further studies have supported this complex interaction between childhood environment and MAOA
genotype. It appears that children with high activity MAOA who experience maltreatment may not
have an increased risk of violent behaviour in adulthood.
The MAOA gene has been nicknamed the warrior gene and attracted a lot of publicity: you can view
some videos on YouTube that sensationalise this gene and the test individuals may take for the
mutation. A more reliable source of information is the paper published in the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (McDermott, R., Tingley, D., Cowden,
J., Frazzetto, G., and Johnson, D.P. (2009) Monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) predicts behavioral
aggression following provocation, 106(7): 2118–2123).

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Questions
Q1 The New Zealand Dunedin study is an example of a ‘longitudinal’ study. Look back at the
information on epidemiological studies in Topic 1 section 1.3. Which type of epidemiological
study is similar to the Dunedin study? In what way is the Dunedin study different from the
epidemiological studies described in Topic 1?
Q2 Why were males of Maori descent excluded from the King’s College analysis?
Q3 Outline the function of neurotransmitters and the role of the enzyme monoamine oxidase A, in
the passage of nerve impulses.
Q4 Draw a series of annotated diagrams to show what is happening at a synapse in a person with:
a normal levels of MAOA and
b low levels of MAOA.
Q5 Using XM for the allele on the X chromosome that results in normal levels of MAOA, and Xm
for the mutant allele, explain why males are more likely to be affected by low levels of MAOA
than females.
Q6 Why did the MAOA ‘knock out’ mice have very high levels of neurotransmitter compared
with normal mice?
Q7 How might researchers have decided that the ‘knock out’ mice were ‘fearless and aggressive’?
Q8 Why is it important that the Dunedin study’s findings have been confirmed by several other
studies?
Q9 Summarise the outcomes of the Dutch and Dunedin studies and conclude whether or not they
show that antisocial behaviour is caused by a genetic mutation? Explain and justify your
answer.
Q10 Suggest how epigenetic changes to the genome may be involved in how the environment and
genes influence antisocial behaviour.

Extension
Q11 The effect of the MAOA has been widely reported in mainstream newspapers and magazines.
Look up some of these news reports. What social, moral and ethical issues do these reports
raise?
Q12 You are a social worker working with a foster family looking after and supporting Jason. Jason
was maltreated as a child and exhibits quite severe antisocial behaviour. His foster family are
finding him increasingly hard to cope with. Jason’s natural mother maintains contact, although
his father is in prison. You have a colleague who is a genetic counsellor and she thinks Jason
should be genetically tested to see if he has the MAOA allele mutation. Discuss the questions
below with another student and note down what you think. There are no ‘right answers’.
 Do you think Jason should be tested?
 Who will benefit from knowing the results of the test?
 How would you explain about MAOA to his foster parents?
 How would you deal with the maltreatment issue?
 What sort of concerns and worries might all the involved parties have?
 How would you reassure them?

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 3.19 Student Sheet

CHECK YOUR NOTES FOR TOPIC 3: THE VOICE OF

THE GENOME

Purpose
 To help you get your notes in order at the end of this topic.

Topic 3 summary
Make sure your notes cover the following points. The points are listed in the order they appear within
the topic. All the points are covered in the Student Book, but where there is supporting information
within the activities this is indicated.
There are suggestions on making notes and on revision in the Exam and Study Skills Support.
You should:
 know that all living organisms are made of cells, sharing some common features.
 know the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells, including cell wall, capsule, plasmid, flagellum, pili,
ribosomes, mesosomes and circular DNA. (Checkpoint question 3.1)
 know the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells, including nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes, rough and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER), mitochondria, centrioles, lysosomes and Golgi apparatus,
and recognise these organelles from electron microscope images. (Activity 3.1)
 understand the role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) and the Golgi apparatus in protein
transport within cells, including their role in formation of extracellular enzymes. (Activity 3.2)
 understand how mammalian gametes are specialised for their functions (including the acrosome in
sperm and the zona pellucida in the egg). (Activity 3.3) (Checkpoint question 3.2)
 understand the role of meiosis in ensuring genetic variation through the production of non-
identical gametes as a consequence of independent assortment of chromosomes and crossing over
of alleles between chromatids (details of the stages of meiosis are not required). (Activity 3.5)
(Checkpoint question 3.3)
 know that a locus (loci) is the location of genes on a chromosome.
 understand the linkage of genes on a chromosome and sex linkage. (Activity 3.6)
 know the process of fertilisation in mammals, including the acrosome reaction, the cortical
reaction and the fusion of nuclei. (Activity 3.3)
 understand the role of mitosis and the cell cycle in producing identical daughter cells for growth
and asexual reproduction. (Activities 3.7, 3.8 and 3.10)
 prepare and stain a root tip squash to observe the stages of mitosis. (Activity 3.9) (Checkpoint
question 3.4)
 understand what is meant by the terms ‘stem cell, pluripotency and totipotency’ (Activity 3.11)
 be able to discuss the way society uses scientific knowledge to make decisions about the use of
stem cells in medical therapies (Activity 3.12) (Checkpoint question 3.5)
 understand how cells become specialised through differential gene expression, producing active
mRNA leading to synthesis of proteins, which in turn control cell processes or determine cell
structure in animals and plants, including the lac operon. (Activities 3.13, 3.14 and 3.15)
(Checkpoint question 3.6)
 know how epigenetic changes, including DNA methylation and histone modification, can modify
the activation of certain genes.
 understand how the cells of multicellular organisms can be organised into tissues, tissues into
organs and organs into systems.
 understand how some phenotypes are affected by multiple alleles for the same gene at many loci
(polygenic inheritance) as well as the environment and how this can give rise to phenotypes that
show continuous variation. (Activity 3.16)
 understand how phenotype is the result of an interaction between genotype and the environment
(Activities 3.17 and 3.18)
 understand how epigenetic changes can be passed on following cell division.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.1 Student Sheet

THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS

Purpose
 To introduce some of the biological ideas covered in the topic.

Darwin and the Galapagos Islands – then and now

Darwin spent five years travelling around the world on the Beagle. The wealth of animals and plants
he encountered, and the adaptations they exhibited were the stimulus for the theory he developed over
the next 20 years and published in his book On the Origin of Species. The Galapagos Islands are
estimated to have between 5500 and 6000 identified species and most importantly a particularly high
level of endemism (species found here and nowhere else).
Look at the interactive map and factfile in the tutorial that accompanies this activity to learn more
about the Galapagos Islands and discover some of the species to be found on the islands. Listen to the
interview with Sarah Darwin, botanist and great-great-granddaughter of Charles Darwin. Visit the
weblinks that accompany this activity, then answer the questions that follow.

Questions
Q1 The Galapagos Islands lie 1000 km off the west coast of Ecuador. The islands are bathed in
cool polar ocean currents, and receive rain from the south east winds. What would the climate
be like in the Galapagos Islands and why?
Q2 The Galapagos Islands are volcanic, having erupted from the seabed around 3 km below the
sea surface. How would the origin of the islands affect the animal and plant life that has
become established here?
Q3 Galapagos Island tortoises can grow to over 1.5 m in length and weigh over 250 kg. What
advantages could there be to this large size?
Q4 Iguanas are cold-blooded and need to regulate their body temperature by moving in and out of
the sun. Suggest why species such as this are more common in the tropics than in temperate
climates.
Q5 What adaptations do large cacti such as Opuntia species seem to have for life on the islands?
Q6 Do you think there is any adaptive reason why the blue feet in the blue-footed booby could
have evolved?
Q7 The marine iguana is the only truly marine lizard, spending much of its time in the water.
What physical adaptations would this species require that would differ from its land-living
relative?
Q8 Although they spend most of their lives at sea, female turtles return to lay eggs on the beach on
which they were born, often travelling thousands of miles in the process. Why do you think
this behaviour has evolved instead of the turtles stopping at the first beach they come to?
Q9 What could be the purpose of the large throat pouch in the magnificent male frigate bird
(Fregata magnificens)?
Q10 Galapagos finches are unique to the Galapagos Islands and yet birds such as the frigate bird
and the green turtle are found throughout the Pacific. Why could this be?
Q11 Four species of Galapagos finches were sketched by Darwin during his voyage. What clues do
you have that these are distinct species and why might these differences have evolved within
the same group of islands?
Q12 Most of the native terrestrial animals on the Galapagos Islands are threatened or extinct; for
example, four of the original eight species of endemic rice rat have disappeared. What might
have caused these extinctions and may continue to threaten many of the animal and plant
species on the islands?
Q13 What are the possible conflicts that may arise between human and wildlife populations in the
Galapagos Islands?
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.2 Student Sheet

WHAT IS IT?

Purpose
 To introduce some of the biological ideas covered later in the topic.
 To develop observation and interpretation skills.
 To highlight the need for detailed information about a species if it is to be conserved.

Identifying organisms
Biologists in the field have to use their observation and interpretation skills to make deductions about
the organisms they discover. This lets them build up an accurate picture of the organisms’ lives, how
they interact with their surroundings and what threats they may face now or in the future. This
observation and interpretation is as important to biologists today as it was for Darwin. In this exercise
your task is to make some deductions about the animal in the field sketch provided.

Questions
Study the field sketch and try to answer the following questions, giving a reason for each of your
answers. Do not worry if you get the answers wrong, but try to make an intelligent attempt.
Q1 a What animals do you think it is most closely related to?
b Can you suggest anything about what it eats, or how it gets its food?
c What sort of habitat do you think it occupies?
d Is it likely to be active at night or during the day?
Q2 You have less information than most taxonomists would have about a new organism.
Normally they would have an actual specimen (usually dead). If they are lucky they have a
chance to observe it alive as well. What information could you get from a dead specimen that
you could not get from a live one and vice versa?
Q3 Would a (living) captive specimen give you more or less information than a free-living one?
Explain your answer.
Q4 If biologists do not recognise this animal they would use a key to help them identify it. A key
lets you name the animal, which is vital if you are going to find out more information about it.
It is an aye-aye; this is its common name, its scientific name is Daubentonia
madagascariensis. Aye-ayes are found on only one island; suggest where this might be (the
Latin name provides a big clue, if you cannot spot where, use the weblinks that accompany
this activity to find their location).
Q5 The first part of the scientific name is shared by the aye-aye’s closest relatives. Do some
research and find out how many other species share the name Daubentonia.
Q6 If you look the aye-aye up on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red
List you will find that it is classified as near threatened. Find out what being classed as near
threatened really means by visiting the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species website.
Q7 Aye-ayes live in rainforest, deciduous forest and dry scrub forest. The biggest threat to these
organisms is the destruction of their habitat. Find out what, if anything, is being done to
protect the aye-aye and its habitat.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.2 Student Sheet

Figure 1 Field sketch. Source: Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.3 Student Sheet

ECOLOGICAL NICHE OF A LEAF-CUTTER BEE

Purpose
 To consider the ecological niche of a leaf-cutter bee.

Working out the niche

In this activity you will be a nature detective and work out one way the leaf-cutter bee is exploiting its
environment – an aspect of this type of bee’s ecological niche.
Figure 1 shows a leaf-cutter bee holding a piece of leaf which it has cut from a rose bush. Figure 2
shows rose leaves after a visit by leaf-cutter bees. These bees eat nectar and pollen, so they are not
using the leaves for food. Colour versions of these images are present in the online mediabank.

Figure 1 Leaf-cutter bee and piece of leaf cut from a rose bush.

Figure 2 Rose leaves cut by leaf-cutter bee.

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Questions
Q1 Look at the shape of the leaf pieces cut from the rose bush. There are two main kinds of shape.
Draw a diagram of the two shapes. Work out the approximate ratio of one shape to the other.
Q2 Suggest what sort of structure the bee could make from these leaf pieces.
Q3 Suggest how the bee might use the structures created.
Q4 Comment on whether or not these bees should be considered garden pests.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.4 Student Sheet

WELL-BEHAVED BEETLES

Purpose
 To investigate behaviour of seed beetles as an example of behavioural adaptation.
SAFETY
Wash your hands thoroughly after handling the beetles or their environment.

Callosobruchus maculatus, the seed beetle

The natural habitat of seed beetles is a field crop of beans (azuki, mung or black-eyed beans) in a
tropical or sub-tropical country. When adult seed beetles (Figure 1) emerge from the bean in which
they have developed, they live for 2–4 weeks. Amazingly, they neither eat nor drink during their adult
lifetime. This is just one fascinating aspect of their behaviour, which can be witnessed in the
classroom.

Figure 1 Male (left) and female (right) adult seed beetles.

A beetle begins life as an egg, laid on a bean. The egg hatches 4–6 days later and the larva eats its way
into the bean until it is about 18 days old, when it pupates. About 7 days later, the adult emerges and
searches for a mate.
Seed beetles engage in multiple mating. In fact, males appear to do nothing other than mate, recover
and look for more mates. Like males, females are also eager to mate, after which they identify good
egg-laying sites on beans. This is to ensure that their offspring survive, mate and make a genetic
contribution to future generations. Females subsequently mate again and lay more eggs, repeating this
pattern of behaviour until they die.

Investigating the behaviour of seed beetles

Seed beetles are remarkably easy to keep, so are perfect for behaviour studies. Most of us know that
woodlice seek out dark places during daylight – but what about seed beetles? Are seed beetles
positively or negatively phototactic (move towards or away from high light intensity)? Do beetles
move as fast on vertical surfaces as they do on horizontal surfaces? Can females recognise a good egg-
laying site: what happens if the seed coat of a bean is removed – do females still lay eggs on it?
Select one of the questions posed above. Design an experiment to answer the question. Using the
Developing Practical Skills Framework to help you plan your investigation, make sure you:
 identify the variables to be measured and controlled
 describe the experimental apparatus and method in detail
 identify any safety and ethical issues, and describe how you will reduce any risks
 identify any sources of error.
Complete the experiment safely and ethically. Analyse and interpret the data you collect and state a
conclusion based on the experimental evidence. Make sure you explain the advantage in the field of
the behavioural adaptations exhibited by the beetles.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.5 Student Sheet

ADAPTATIONS

Purpose
 To explain how an organism’s adaptations help it to survive.
 To communicate knowledge and ideas about adaptation.
 To develop presentation skills.
SAFETY
Wash your hands thoroughly after handling animal or plant materials.

An exhibition on adaptation
In this activity you will work in collaboration with other students to produce an exhibit about a named
organism.
Your exhibit will form part of a whole-class exhibition featuring a range of different organisms. The
aim of the exhibition is to communicate the concept of adaptation. Some examples of adaptations are
described on pages 3–7 of this Student Sheet with questions for you to answer. Colour versions of the
images are available in the online mediabank.

Before the exhibition

Discuss as a class:
 What might be the features of a successful exhibit?
 How many students will prepare each exhibit?
 How and where you will most effectively set up the whole exhibition?
 Who will you invite to see it?
 How will each student most effectively learn from others’ exhibits?
 Are there any health and safety implications in setting up the exhibition?

Planning your exhibit

Use the questions below to plan your group’s exhibit and allocate tasks for your group.

What are the aims of your exhibit?

These may, for example, be to communicate information using a variety of media, to communicate
specific points about the subject content, communicate to a specific audience, etc.

What are the main adaptations to be featured?

Think about the organism’s environment and how the adaptation helps them to survive.

What objects or media will best illustrate the main points you are trying to
communicate?
You could use real whole or part specimens, microscope slides, drawings, photos, looped video clips,
posters, presentation software, text labels, leaflets, etc.

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What type of space is available for your exhibit?

Draw a plan of your exhibit to fit the space you have been allocated, showing what you will include.
Annotate the plan with details of each aspect, for example, any objects, photos, labels or text to be
used. A planning form like the one shown in Table 1 would help you organise these details.
Add to your planning form details of who is responsible for each part of the exhibit. One additional
task for your group is to make an evaluation form for other students to evaluate your exhibit. The
evaluation should refer to your aims.

Planning form

Title of exhibit:

Aims of the exhibition:

Date, time and venue:

Name of item Description of item Who is Deadline for
responsible? work to be
completed
Evaluation form A form which collects feedback on
whether or not the exhibit has successfully
fulfilled its aims

Table 1 Example of an exhibition planning form.

Leave plenty of time to set your exhibit up and make sure you know who is responsible for
dismantling it at the end of the exhibition.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.5 Student Sheet

Barn owls
Hearing
Barn owls catch their prey – mostly voles and mice – in complete darkness, using hearing alone. Birds
have no external ears like a mammal – just simple openings. The ear openings of the barn owl are
hidden in the disc of feathers around the face (Figure 1). The left ear hole is slightly higher and at a
different angle from the right one. When it hears potential prey, the barn owl tilts its head and moves
the ruff of feathers surrounding the facial disc.
Q1 Suggest why the barn owl has a disc of feathers around its face.
Q2 Explain why the owl moves its head when it hears prey.
Q3 Give a reason why an owl has different positioning of its ear holes.
Q4 What selective advantage is there for the owl:
 in having different positioning of its ear holes
 in moving its head when it hears prey?

Figure 1 Young barn owl.

Feathers
The flight of an owl is very quiet. It achieves this by having very soft feathers. In addition, the leading
edge of the first primary feather on each wing is serrated (Figure 2). This helps to reduce the
turbulence caused by the wing as it cuts through the air. (Think of the noise made by a swan’s wings
for comparison).

Figure 2 The serrations of the first primary feather of a barn owl.

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Q5 Give two advantages of an owl’s silent flight.

Look at Figure 3, or try pulling the vanes of a bird’s flight feather apart. What do you notice? Pull it
firmly until the barbs separate. Now smooth the feather back into shape until the barbs rejoin.
Use a hand lens or microscope to study the fine structure of the barbs. To get the best view through a
hand lens, hold the lens close to one eye, then bring the object nearer until it comes in to focus. Do not
lean over the object, but hold it up in a good light source.

Figure 3 Feather structure.

Q6 Suggest the function of the feather barbs.

Q7 What advantage is this structural adaptation to the bird?

Colour
The barn owl’s spotted, buff-coloured back may help to camouflage the female when on the nest, as
this species often nests in hollows in trees lined with yellowish rotting wood.
Barn owls are found worldwide. They have even reached the Galapagos Islands, 400 miles off the
coast of Ecuador. The Galapagos barn owl (Figure 4) looks a bit different from the British one.

Figure 4 Galapagos barn owl. The owl nests in caves within the dark volcanic rock that makes up the islands.

Q8 Suggest reasons for the differences in appearance between a British and a Galapagos barn owl.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.5 Student Sheet

Eggs and incubation

Barn owls feed on small mammals, especially field voles. Field voles vary in numbers from year to
year, with a peak population every fourth year, followed by a crash. The owls cannot predict how
many voles there will be to feed their young when they start laying their eggs.
Many birds start to incubate their eggs only after the whole clutch is laid, so the chicks all hatch at
about the same time. Barn owls start to incubate as soon as the first egg is laid. One egg is laid every
2–3 days, so the young hatch at 2–3 day intervals and the chicks differ considerably in size (Figure 5).
This staggered egg laying is controlled by hormones.
(a) (b)

Figure 5 (a) Barn owl chicks. Notice the range of sizes. (b) Older barn owl young (owlets) in a nest-box, nearly
ready to fly. These owlets were produced in a good vole year, and four have survived. By this stage they show
some anxiety and make themselves as tall and imposing as possible (and make a hissing noise).

Q9 If it turned out to be a bad vole year, which of the owlets would survive? Why?
Q10 What might happen in a bad vole year if all the owlets were the same size?

Adaptations of the feet

Figure 6 The third toe of a barn owl, seen from below.

Q11 Use Figure 6, and your biological knowledge, to suggest how the middle toe of a barn owl is
adapted to its functions.

Types of owl adaptation

Q12 We can classify adaptations as physiological (P), behavioural (B), or anatomical (A). State
which of these three types of adaptation each of the following exemplifies:
a Good hearing
b Feather structure
c Competing for food
d Laying eggs at 2–3 day intervals
e Incubating immediately after the first egg is laid
f Toe structure.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.5 Student Sheet

Mimicry
Many of us have been stung by a wasp and have learnt to associate yellow and black stripes with a
sting. We therefore tend to avoid touching any insect with this colour pattern. But do all insects with
yellow and black stripes have a sting? The answer is no. Many insects mimic the bee and wasp
colouring, but are quite harmless. These include many kinds of hoverflies. You may see these in a
garden, collecting pollen from flowers.
Q13 What advantage does a hoverfly gain from mimicking the colour pattern of a wasp?
Stinging species are called the ‘models’. The harmless insects which look like the models are called
the ‘mimics’. The models are mostly those with ‘wasp’ or ‘bee’ at the end of their name. Mimicry is
an anatomical adaptation, but is closely linked to the behaviour of the predator. In this case the
behaviour (avoiding insects with warning colouration) is probably not inherited, but is learned by
experience, so it is not a genetic adaptation.
Q14 Suggest what might happen if the mimics became much more common than the models.
Q15 Many plants and fungi are poisonous, yet they do not usually have warning colouration.
Suggest why plants and fungi do not usually warn herbivores in this way.
Note: some poisonous plants do have colours that may be warning to herbivores, for example, henbane
has purple veins on its flowers and the famous poisonous fly agaric toadstool, Amanita muscaria, is
red with white spots. However, most poisonous plants and fungi have no warning colouration at all.
The deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) purple flowers look uninviting to humans, but the berries
look quite tasty. Eating two or three berries would kill you.

Carnivorous plants
Carnivorous plants, such as sundews, pitcher plants and bladderworts, obtain their mineral nutrients –
such as nitrates – by trapping and digesting small animals, such as insects. They are well adapted to
their habitat.
Q16 Suggest where carnivorous plants might grow and why.
Q17 Which molecules in an animal’s body will provide nitrates to the plant when digested?
Q18 Suggest how the plants are able to break down all the molecules in the bodies of the captured
animals.
Q19 Carnivorous plants do not grow in grassland and scrubland in the general countryside. Suggest
why not.
Q20 Describe how a pitcher plant traps its prey.
Q21 Suggest why carnivorous plants usually have their flowers on a long stalk.

Try this
You can buy commercially grown carnivorous plants, such as sun-dew, venus fly-trap or pitcher
plants. You can also buy seeds of some of these plants. Try growing them yourself. You will find out a
lot about how they are adapted to their niche.
You will need a humid place to grow them, such as a shady kitchen window ledge, and a supply of
insects to feed them – for example, a colony of fruit flies or crickets. You must not give them fertiliser
or even tap water – rain water is best.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.5 Student Sheet

Spider’s web
A spider can construct a very complex sticky web using silk glands in its abdomen. Many spiders
never see their parents, so this is a genetically inherited behavioural adaptation. They do not learn by
copying the behaviour of other spiders. A garden spider can destroy her damaged web and make a new
one in less than an hour. She usually makes a new one every day (Figure 7).

Figure 7 Web of a garden spider.

Q22 Explain how the production of a web helps the spider to survive.
Q23 Suggest why a spider eats the old web as she removes it to build a new one.

Niches and adaptations – True or false quiz?

For each of the following statements decide if it is true or false.
1 Mice have adapted to living in frozen food stores by growing extra thick fur.
2 Hedgehogs living near roads have stopped rolling up into a ball when they are alarmed – helping
them to avoid being squashed by vehicles.
3 Some arctic fish have antifreeze in their blood.
4 There is a species of nematode worm which has only been found in German felt beer mats.
5 Midwife toads carry and hatch their spawn on their backs.
6 Hardy’s swift lays its eggs on the male’s back in the air and the young are reared entirely in the
air.
7 A fungus that grows on old cow pats is able to fire its spores accurately towards chinks of light
between the grass blades.
8 When alarmed, the woodcock (a wading bird) flies off carrying its young between its legs.
9 When plaice are put in an aquarium with chess boards covering the bottom, the plaice change
their colour pattern to mimic the black and white squares.
10 Chameleons can swivel each eye independently when searching for insect prey.
11 A shark can detect blood in the water at a concentration of ten drops of blood in a large swimming
pool.
12 Racing pigeons use landmarks to find their way home. Studies of marked birds have shown that
they follow the M25 and turn off at major junctions leading towards their home.
13 The wild arum metabolises starch in part of its flower, called the spadix, raising its temperature.
The heat helps to disperse a smell that attracts pollinating insects.
14 The strangler fig has been known to entwine sleeping people in Africa and squeeze them to death.
15 Jellyfish have specialised cells that shoot out a poison dart, paralysing their prey.
16 Starfish digest their prey by turning their stomachs inside out.
17 If sponges of two separate species are mixed together in a blender, they can reassemble
themselves into sponges of separate species.
18 Slime moulds live as single amoeba-like cells most of their lives, but when they reproduce
sexually all the cells join up to form a sporangium.
19 Some bacteria glow in the dark using an enzyme called luciferase.
20 Tropical fireflies flash in the dark to attract mates. Some species flash in unison like Christmas
lights, helping to make the signals more effective.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.6 Student Sheet

NATURAL SELECTION IN ACTION

Purpose
 To demonstrate natural selection.

YOU NEED
● Large piece of patterned paper ● Pair of forceps
● 50 cut-out pieces of the same patterned paper ● Stopclock
● 50 cut-out pieces of white paper (of the same size ● Beaker
and weight as the patterned paper)
● Partner to lay out the equipment and time the
activity

1 Natural selection card sort

Confirm your understanding of the principles of natural selection by putting the cards describing the
adaptation of head lice to head lice shampoos, on the next page, in the correct order. Then look at
pages 159–160 in the Student Book to check that you got the order right.

2 Natural selection in the classroom

In this activity a predator (you) is presented with a prey population with two different phenotypes, one
camouflaged and one which stands out from the habitat background. The predator is given a fixed
length of time to find as many prey items as they can.

Procedure
1 Lay out the patterned paper, pattern side up; this represents the habitat.
2 Mix the coloured and uncoloured paper pieces together and put them on the patterned paper.
Ensure that the patterned pieces are pattern side up.
3 Give the ‘predator’ 15 seconds to pick up as many pieces of paper as possible using the forceps
and put them in a beaker.
4 Count the number of each colour of paper in the beaker and record your results.
5 Replace the ‘eaten’ pieces of paper and rearrange the pieces of paper on the background.
6 Repeat steps 2 to 4 several times.
7 Comment on your results and answer the questions that follow.

Questions
Q1 How many coloured and uncoloured pieces of paper were picked up and put in the beaker over
the course of the whole experiment (this is your observed value)?
Q2 How many of each colour would you expect if there were no advantage to being camouflaged
(this is your expected value)?
Q3 How could you tell if the difference is statistically significant?

3 Using pastry ‘maggots’ and birds as predators

Pastry ‘maggots’ can be made quite easily using a flour, fat and water dough; your teacher/lecturer can
give you a recipe. Design (and you may get a chance to carry out) an experiment to investigate natural
selection using different coloured pastry ‘maggots’ for garden birds to ‘prey’ upon. The ‘maggots’ can
either be put out on coloured backgrounds or directly on grass for birds to be the predators.
While you are planning, be aware of the need for controls and the need to keep the ratio of ‘maggots’
of different colours presented to the birds roughly the same over the course of the investigation.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.6 Student Sheet

Head lice cards

a The few remaining head lice survive because they b There is a lot of genetic variation in the head
happen to have alleles that make them resistant to louse population due to the large number of
the chemicals. different alleles.

c The survivors get together and breed. They

Head lice and natural
produce offspring that inherit the alleles that
selection
make them resistant to the chemical.

d Over the centuries many different mutations have e Soon, virtually all head lice are resistant to the
produced different alleles. chemicals.

f The alleles for resistance to the chemical become g Now when people use the shampoo it does not
more common in the population. kill the head lice.

h Head lice have become a problem once again. i Head lice have been infesting peoples’ heads for
This is an example of natural selection at work. millennia.

k For a while, all but a very few head lice are killed
j Drug companies develop shampoos containing
by the chemicals in the shampoo. Head lice are
chemicals which kill the head lice.
no longer a problem.

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4 Elephant tusks
Tusks are the upper incisor teeth that have evolved into long tools used for ripping bark, pushing over
trees and defending the herd. Occasionally elephants are born that grow no tusks or only very small
ones. In protected populations of African elephants in well managed national parks and reserves only
1–2% of elephants have no tusks.
In Zambia’s North Luangwa National Park there has been a severe problem with ivory poaching and
nearly 40% of elephants were found to be tusk-less in the 1990s. A similar change has occurred in
Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park and in the Kruger National Park.

Questions
Q1 Outline the probable sequence of events that led to reduction of tusk size and an increase in
tusk-less elephants in poached populations.
Q2 Explain what is likely to happen to tusk growth in elephant populations when poaching is
controlled.
Q3 Comment on whether or not elephants are a typical species to show rapid adaptations of this
kind.

Frog evolution
If you have access to the Newbyte Natural selection: Frogs software, use it to investigate how
predation can lead to evolution by natural selection of a prey species.
1 Load the software and read the Quick Tips – getting started and the background information from
the help button.
2 Start by using the default settings, where you act as a predator catching frogs from a population of
30 frogs. Half of the frogs have camouflaged colouration and the other half are red.
3 Work through about 10 generations, then look at the graph by clicking on the graph button at the
top right of the screen. You can print the graph if you wish.
4 Now investigate what happens when you repeat the experiment with 7% poisonous frogs, then
again when the poisonous allele is linked to the allele for red ‘warning’ colouration. Linkage
means that the genes are on the same chromosome so are inherited together – in this case it means
that the red frogs will mostly be poisonous.
5 You can add a mimic species, so that you add red frogs that are not poisonous and see what effect
this has on the population after several generations.

Questions
Q1 a Describe how camouflage, warning coloration and mimicry affect the genetic make-up of
a population.
b Explain the effect in each case in terms of natural selection.
Q2 In this software you can only start with a population of 30 frogs. How do you think the results
would differ if the frog population was much bigger to start with?
Q3 Explain why, even if all the red frogs are consumed by predators in one generation, red frogs
may appear in the next generation.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.7 Student Sheet

CALCULATING ALLELE FREQUENCIES

Purpose
 To calculate allele frequencies using the Hardy-Weinberg Equation.

Working out allele frequencies using the Hardy-Weinberg equation

Before starting to use the Hardy-Weinberg equation, you need to remember that there is a rather
obvious formula which shows the relationship between the frequencies of two alleles of a single gene
in a population. The frequency of the dominant allele in the gene pool is represented by the symbol p,
and the frequency of the recessive allele by the symbol q. (Actually, the equation works perfectly well
even if the two alleles are co-dominant.)
The formula is: frequency of dominant allele (p) + frequency of recessive allele (q) = 1
Imagine a population of 100 mice who all have the genotype Hh at one particular locus. There would
be 100 H alleles and 100 h alleles in a gene pool of 200 alleles. The frequency of the H allele, p, is
100/200 = 50% = 0.5, and the frequency of the h allele, q, is 100/200 = 50% = 0.5. If you increase the
frequency of the H allele, the frequency of the h allele will go down and vice versa.
Unfortunately, you cannot directly observe allele frequencies in populations of diploid organisms.
However, you can observe the phenotypes of the individuals and then work out the frequencies of the
alleles in the population using the Hardy-Weinberg equation.
frequency of frequency of frequency of
homozygous + heterozygous + homozygous = 1
dominant individuals individuals recessive individuals

p2 + 2 pq + q2 = 1
Read pages 160 and 162 of the Student Book and then work through this example before trying the
questions that follow.

A worked example
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited condition in which individuals are unable to break down the
amino acid phenylalanine. If it is diagnosed at birth the baby can be put on a special diet that does not
contain phenylalanine. If this is not done it can result in brain damage. PKU is caused by a recessive
allele. In Europe 1 in 10 000 people is born with PKU. From these data it is possible to work out the
frequencies of the normal (dominant) and recessive alleles in the population, as follows.
Using the information above, work through this example:
The frequency of PKU sufferers in Europe is ……………………….
So the frequency of the homozygous recessive phenotype (q2) is ………………….
Expressed as a decimal this is
q2 = …………………………………
and the frequency of the recessive allele, q, is
q = …………………………………..
Now that we know the frequency of the recessive allele (q), we can work out the frequency of the
dominant allele (p), using the equation: p + q = 1 by rearranging the equation to give
p = ……………………………..
and substituting in the value of q to give
p = ………………………………..

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This lets us work out the frequency of the three possible genotypes.
The frequency of the homozygous recessive genotypes within the population is
q2 = …………………………
The frequency of the heterozygote carriers of the allele is
2pq = …………………………
And the frequency of the homozygous dominant allele is
p2 = …………………………
Thus ……….% of the population are homozygous recessive and have PKU. Of the ………….% of the
population that are phenotypically ‘normal’, ……….% are heterozygous and are carriers of the
recessive allele for PKU.
Using the Hardy-Weinberg equation like this can be a useful way of working out the likelihood of an
individual carrying a particular allele. It is also used to see if natural selection is operating on a
particular allele in the population. In this situation, the Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to see if
a change in allele frequency is occurring in a population over time. This may seem to be a rather
roundabout way of demonstrating selection, but it is remarkably difficult to prove that a particular trait
is being selected for or against in a wild population.
Strictly speaking, the Hardy-Weinberg equation can only be used if the following conditions are met:
 the population is large enough for genetic drift not to occur
 there are no mutations
 there is random mating with respect to genotype
 there is no natural selection
 there is no movement in or out of the population.

Questions
Cystic fibrosis (CF) affects about 1 in 2200 people. Using the Hardy-Weinberg equation work out:
Q1 a q, the frequency of the recessive allele for CF
b the frequency of the dominant allele, p
c the frequency of the three phenotypes in the population (person with CF, carrier and
‘normal’ – person homozygous for the dominant allele that makes functioning CF
protein).
Q2 The frequency of juvenile-onset diabetes in the population is 1 in 200. Assuming that it is
caused by a recessive allele, work out the frequency of the three phenotypes in the population.
Q3 In a population of 1000 fruit flies, 620 have red eyes, the rest have sepia eyes (a red-brown
colour). Sepia eye colour is recessive. How many of the fruit flies will be heterozygous for eye
colour?
Q4 You are studying a population of chickens. You observe that 16% have yellow skin, which is
recessive. White skin is dominant. What is the frequency of the recessive allele in the
population?

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.8 Student Sheet

WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?

Purpose
 To explore the range of meanings for the term biodiversity.
 To investigate biodiversity in terms of the number of known species of different organisms.

Defining biodiversity
Biodiversity is a very difficult idea to define in words and people use it to mean a number of different
things. Lots of people just use the term as the number of different species, but there is a range of
definitions and although we do not need to learn them all it is useful to be aware of them when
discussing biodiversity and the conservation of biodiversity.
1 Look up the word biodiversity in your Student Book and write down any definitions it gives for
biodiversity.
2 Look up the word in any biological dictionaries you have access to and make a note of the
definition.
3 Using the Natural History Museum website, look at the information on the UK Biodiversity
Portal. The URL is in the weblinks that accompany this activity.
4 Using all the information you have collected, put together your own definition of biodiversity that
accurately reflects the different interpretations of the term, using no more than 30 words.

Questions
How many species?
Q1 Read the main biological principles box on pages 152–153 of your Student Book and make a
note of what is meant by the term ‘species’.
Table 1 gives data for the number of species catalogued in 2014 and the 2011 estimated totals in some
groups of organisms.
Q2 Use these data to answer the following questions:
a Which group has the lowest proportion of its species catalogued?
b Can you suggest why this group is not being described as quickly as other groups?
c Which group now has more catalogued species than the prediction calculated in 2011?
d What does this suggest about the predictions?
You can read more about how species number predictions are made in Extension 4.2. You can look up
the latest catalogue of species on the Catalogue of Life website.

Group Number of species Number of species

catalogued predicted
Prokaryotes
Archaea 281 455
Bacteria 6468 9680
Eukaryotes
Animalia 1 088 177 7 770 000
Chromista 2056 27 500
Fungi 123 126 611 000
Plantae 342 914 298 000
Protozoa 12 695 36 400
Total 1 575 717 8 750 000
Table 1 Number of species catalogued in 2014 and estimated number of species in 2011.
Source: catalogued – Catalogue of Life, May 2014; predicted – PLoS Biology Aug 2011; 9(8): e1001127.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.9 Student Sheet

THE NEXT BUG THING

Purpose
 To provide practice in reading and analysing extended text.
 To introduce binomial nomenclature and taxonomy.

Beetle mania
Many of the scientists who work on cataloguing biodiversity are specialists in one group of organisms.
Much of their work goes on hidden behind the scenes in museums and research institutes around the
world. Get an idea of the scale of biodiversity and the challenge faced by the biologists researching
just one group by reading the extract of the article ‘The next bug thing’ written in 2002. This is about
the work of two beetle taxonomists, Martin Brendell and Peter Hammond, at the Natural History
Museum in London.
Look up any words that you are unfamiliar with before answering the following questions based on
the text.

Questions
Q1 What does Martin Brendell mean when he says that the beetle found in the Kalahari is
probably an ‘unrecorded species’?
Q2 How many species of beetle had been described by scientists in 2002 and what does this term
mean?
Q3 Using Peter Hammond’s lowest estimate of total number of beetle species, calculate what
percentage of the estimated total number of beetle species had been described and catalogued
in 2002.
Q4 Describe the characteristic features that all beetles have in common.
Q5 How many scientific names does each beetle species have? State one example.
Q6 Who devised the system of naming used by all biologists today?
Q7 What are holotypes?
Q8 Why do you think that the process of describing and naming organisms is actually one of the
constraints in cataloguing global biodiversity?
Q9 Compare the current number of beetles described with those given in the article. Comment on
any difference between the values. (The Catalogue of Life will provide the current beetle
numbers.)

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THE NEXT BUG THING

They’re stoic, skilful and brave and have no hang-ups about sex.
A A Gill falls for the beetle, the most ardent survivor in the world.
The Kalahari is a place of few words. There “Darwin Experience”, past the stuffed drongo,
are rules here and you had better understand until you come to large double doors marked
them. It is unforgiving of innocent mistakes. “entomology library”. Here, you step into the
Things that do decide to make a life for secret part of the museum. Museum is not the
themselves here tend to be curmudgeonly, right word for this building – less than 1% of
suspicious, tooled-up specialists. its collection is on display. It employs 900
people, 350 of them natural scientists. This
I love it here. At its heart, a day’s slow, tooth-
isn’t merely a temple or a museum, or even a
jarring, thorn-whipped drive from any
resource, it’s an ark. Up another flight of stairs
direction, are the Makarikari salt pans. This is
– through a locked door with a sign asking you
an extraordinary place, so flat and featureless
not to bring in unwanted live specimens – are
you can turn 360 degrees and see nothing but
beetles. Row upon row of cabinets that reach
the curve of the globe. In the wet season it
twice as high as a man, each filled with thin,
becomes a shallow soda lake, overrun with
wooden, colour-coded drawers. From a
flamingos. For most of the year, though, it’s a
Hobbit-like den in a corner popped Martin
baked crust of salt. Nothing lives here, things
Brendell. He has the personable manner of a
only die. Flocks of exhausted finches lie
man whose inquisitiveness is at odds with a
preserved in bas-relief. Elephants’ footprints,
natural reluctance to socialise. I’d guess that he
perhaps a decade old, pad nowhere. For
was once a solitary foraging boy with
thousands of years, the San people, the
disgusting pockets.
bushmen, have trekked out here to collect salt,
which they barter for tobacco and beads. Salt – To say he’s obsessed with beetles is not
the oldest currency in the world, the origin of enough. He is possessed, and has been since he
our word “salary”. Its main value is as a was 17, in the 1960s, when he came to the
preservative, but it’s also a poison. It sickens museum and wanted to work on mammals.
the earth, turns men mad, and burns and sucks “But there wasn’t an opening, so I got beetles”,
the moisture from the living and the dead. he says, with a shudder of someone who
narrowly escaped a life-deforming accident.
So while picking over the glittering white
He has been here ever since. In a couple of
crust, I was surprised to come across a beetle.
years he’ll have to retire, and it doesn’t bear
A couple of centimetres of questing,
thinking about, so he doesn’t, and burrows on.
streamlined black oval. How had it got here?
I gave him my little beetle and waited. “Yes,
Had it been blown from the relative fecundity
well, it’s carnivorous, a predator”. Called?
of the desert by the hot wind? And then there
“Oh, I don’t know. It’s probably an unrecorded
was another. And another. This was no
species.” You mean I’ve discovered a new
unlucky shipwreck – the beetles must live
beetle? “Perhaps, I’ll have to check.” My mind
here. But why, and how?
races – a new species. I see papers in serious
It was one of the little mysteries of a desert magazines, lecture tours, awards, honorary
where all life is something of a mystery. I fellowships. A grateful nation. A beard – and a
collected a couple in a film canister, put them name: my name, appended to the great roll call
in my pocket and forgot about them. Weeks of life. “Gill’s salt beetle.” And I can’t
later, back home, with nothing better to do, I understand why he isn’t slapping me on the
went to the Natural History Museum in South back, reaching for the dusty bottle of
Kensington to see Martin Brendell, the lead amontillado kept for just such occasions.
curator of beetles. This is exciting – a new beetle. It’s more an
I’ve always adored Waterhouse’s monumental observation than a question. “Ah,” he says,
mausoleum to Mother Earth on Brompton with the apologetic reserve of a man who’s
Road. It is the closest thing this city possesses about to piss on a stranger’s fireworks. “Let
to a humanist pantheon. To get to beetles, you me show you something.” And he goes to a
go through the terracotta hall, up the grand filing cabinet and starts pulling open drawers.
staircase, left past the bust of the remarkable Dozens of them. Inside each are hundreds of
Frederick Selous, on through monkeys and the beetles, like a fairy’s jewel case. Glossy big
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ones, bright little ones, ones with horns and smaller than dust particles. There is one which
flanges. Ones with stripes, spots and runic is the size of a hot dog. There are beetles that
filigree. There are beetles that look like leaves eat opium and strychnine. There are beetles
and twigs, and one or two that just look like that specialise only in beaver hair. The
beetles. “All these beetles,” he jerks a foreleg, whirligig beetle has an eye that’s bisected – the
“are unnamed. They came from one corner of top half sees in air, the bottom half underwater.
the Venezuelan rainforest last year.” He looks There are beetles that live in collections of
at my offering. beetles, the museum beetle. And one, Blaps
gigantean, lived for seven years in a goldfish
“About your beetle – we’ll give you a call.”
bowl on my fridge; it was called Barnacle.”
And two weeks later, I got a terse call from an
assistant: “It’s a Pogonus of some sort.” And Stop, stop. Look, I’ve got to get a mandible on
that was that. all this – how many species of beetle are there
Over the next four years, once in a while, I altogether in the world? “Ah,” he said, “you
thought of Pogonus and the metropolis of need to speak to Peter Hammond.” Hammond
beetles, and promised that one day I’d go back pops out of another den.
and find out more. And then one wet afternoon “It’s an interesting question. Up until now,
with nothing better to do, I did. I sat in there are about 450,000 described species.
Brendell’s little higgledy-piggledy den, with There will definitely be 1m beetles, probably
its piles of papers and books, curling 2m, possibly 5m, conceivably 10.” So let’s get
postcards, paperweight beetles, jokey fridge- this straight – at the most conservative
magnet beetles; the first-world-war army knife estimate, we know of less than half the beetle
with its spike for horses’ hooves and its blade population of the world? “Very conservatively,
sharpened down to a nub, the little magnifying yes. There are only 2000 people in the world
glass and the bottles of pins. And I said: “Tell working on Coleoptera [beetles].” Christ, then
me about beetles.” beetles must be Darwinishly mutating at a rate
It was, I now realise, not a question to be of knots? They look at each other, then at me,
bandied about lightly, a question that should with a fathomless pity. “Beetles” says
have come with the unspoken caveat of not Brendell, “were perfect . . .” “. . . 10m years
how long have you got, but how long do you ago,” finishes Hammond.
propose we live? It was like asking someone to
So, with that much diversity, what makes a
bottle Niagara Falls with a spoon. He took a
beetle a beetle? There is no one thing that all
deep breath, rubbed a mandible on his thorax
beetles have that no other insect has. But the
and said: “Beetles are by far and away the
general definition includes an exoskeleton,
most successful creatures in the world. One in
biting mandibles, six legs, and elytra – that is,
every four animals is a beetle. Every fifth
the hard wing coverings. Incidentally, beetles,
living thing is a beetle. In one genus of
though not generally great flyers, have wings
weevils, there are 2000 species. That’s equal to
that can be five times the size of their cases.
half the total number of known mammals. In
They fold them up like origami umbrellas. And
the beetle department, there are 10m named
they have four distinct lives – as eggs, grubs,
specimens, and 2m unidentified ones. This is
pupae and adults, though not all beetles
the most comprehensive collection in the
necessarily have all of them. Brendell’s off
world. The Smithsonian may be larger, but it’s
again: “Some beetles that live in the desert
got a lot of repeats. Paris may have more, but
have fused elytra, and form an air-conditioning
no one knows where anything is. This museum
system. Some are soft-bodied, some are hairy.
has more variety, from more habitats, in more
There’s one that never really develops from
places than anywhere else. Let me show you.”
the larval stage . . .” Stop, stop. We pass a man
And he’s off again, pulling open drawers. working at a desk, surrounded by specimens.
“Beetles have colonised every conceivable What’s he doing? “Well, all the beetles in the
habitat, from the edge of the polar ice cap to collection – which, by the way, started with
the middle of the hottest desert. The only place Joseph Banks’s specimens from Captain
they don’t live is sea water. There are beetles Cook’s Endeavour – are stuck on pins, set at a
that live in ants’ nests, imitating ants; there are specific height through their right elytron. But
thousands of plants that have their own the old pins are brass, and have copper in
specifically adapted beetles. There are beetles them, and the copper reacts with the fatty
that look like bird sh** and ones that are tissue of the beetles and causes verdigris –
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which makes gas, which in turn can make the means they are holotypes, original examples,
beetles explode. It’s a problem, so they all against which all other contenders have to be
have to be re-pinned and labelled. It’s a measured. In some species, only one has ever
delicate job. “But there are 12m.” “Hmmm.” been found. The Natural History Museum
Good grief. Imagine a lifetime spent defusing holds more holotypes from across the natural
exploding beetles. world than anywhere else. They are of huge
value, and are sent to other scientists to study.
I realise the more I know, the less I This collection is, in fact, a priceless resource.
understand. So Brendell gives me a duffer’s Brendell once asked an obscure German
guide to Coleoptera, the standard work, a museum for a holotype specimen, and got the
reference book of scientific terms, a couple of curt reply: “Your RAF bombed it.”
papers and a chair. It’s all beginner’s stuff, and
after an hour I’m drowning in the vastness of Hammond has a theory – he thinks that the
the subject. So I go and look at more beetles. success of beetles can be put down to two
things: sex and crunchiness. I don’t entirely
What none of us has mentioned is how understand the sex bit, but I think it’s
awesomely, arrestingly beautiful they are. something to do with the fact that beetles are
Each tray is an aesthetic wonder. With their apparently easy lays. They don’t go in for
neatly written labels and amazing patterns, complicated displays and courtship; they’re
they bridge the chasm between science and art. not picky. And the crunchiness is the
And as I pull out drawers, I slowly become ergonomic robustness of most beetles. They’re
aware of the importance of a corner of science utilitarian and can live in places that would put
I haven’t ever paid attention to: taxonomy. The off other orders. They have a tough
science of naming. From the Greek taxos, confidence.
“arrangement”, and nomos, “law”. With I could have, should have, finished this story in
something as vast and varied as the a day. But I drag it out. The truth is, I’m
Coleoptera, precision in name is vital. The hooked. There is a trendy new scientific word
Aborigines believe that a thing without a name – biophilia, the innate emotional affiliation of
doesn’t really exist. And what we call human beings for other living things. Until
biodiversity is a meaningless and formless now, I’ve been pretty immune to biophilic
emotion if we can’t put a name to its parts. tendencies. I’m a city boy – the only natural
If you order red snapper in a restaurant, you world I’m drawn to are things that come off
could get one of 30 different fish, all called red plates. But there’s something about beetles, a
snapper. Aristotle tried to organise the connection. A pheromone of empathy. Perhaps
haphazard colloquialism of 40 000 members it’s a recognition of fellow bourgeoisie. Then,
(beetles have over 200 families), then a generic one morning, Brendell pops out, beaming:
name: Pogonus – which is quite small, only “I’ve discovered something about your
about 30 known species, all Halophilous (salt- Pogonus. I’ve found a paper published about a
loving), then, a species name: gillae. Except similar one in Tanzania. Pogonus rodolphi. It’s
it’s not called that yet, because a drawing of its a predator that has regressed to eating algae.
willy has to be made and reputably published Were your salt pans wet underneath? That’ll
first. Beetle willies are like Yale keys – no two be it, then. I expect it’ll still be a new species.”
species are the same. And it’s not the done Even after all these years, he’s shiny with
thing to name a species after yourself, although pleasure. During Brendell’s time here, the
Brendell has more than 15 named after him, collection has doubled. He and Hammond
including a hawk moth. Your peers do it for have collected everywhere, from the dank
you – coleopterists look after each other in the rainforest to the high Himalayas. Always with
immortality stakes. difficulty, often with danger, and with a
passionate patience. They collect using light
For 200 years after the Linnean system, beetles traps, nets and sieves, smoking the canopy and
were discovered and named in an amateur using cadavers. “I find a goat’s entrails are
way. Since the war, it has all been more particularly effective. And sh**, human sh**’s
purposeful and scientific. Still, there have been marvellous.” They use a specialist piece of
enough species discovered since the beginning equipment called a pooter – a glass jar with
of the 18th century to account for one every two tubes. You suck on one, and the beetle is
six hours. In the trays, some specimens wear pulled up the other. You mean you suck at
the discreet award of a small red dot. This rotten entrails and sh**? “Yes, it’s disgusting.”
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Brendell laughs. How many beetles do you unregarded – lives devoted to the fundamentals
think you’ve killed? “Oh, thousands and of life on Earth, minute and inconsequential,
thousands.” They use a fumigating poison that but also transcendent. Brendell and Hammond
smells like nail-varnish remover, or a syringe find God in small things. Every one of the 12m
for the larger specimens. “But I mind it more specimens here in South Kensington carries
and more. I find myself picking individuals, with it a story of huge diligence, inquiry and
and being pleased when they get away. I’m the open-mindedness that is the defining
getting old. When I was young I collected like characteristic of our species, Homo sapiens.
a madman, but now, well, they’re so Sapiens, the ability to think, to question. If the
wonderful.” world were to end tomorrow and we could
choose to save only one thing as the
Being a coleopterist is as close as anyone can
explanation and memorial to who we were,
get to living the dream of being on the Starship
then we couldn’t do better than the Natural
Enterprise. You boldly go and find new
History Museum, although it wouldn’t contain
habitats and weird life forms, then kill them.
a single human. There is, oddly, no Linnaean
Beetles are as strange, marvellous and varied
holotype for man. But there doesn’t need to be.
as the most vivid sci-fi imagination. We tend
The systematic order, the vast inquisitiveness
to think that the brightest edge of science is
and range of collated knowledge and its
quantum physics, but there’s so much left
consequent beauty would tell all that is the best
undiscovered and unanswered right here. The
of us, and pinned into a corner of this
last frontier is at your feet, under a rock.
encyclopaedic wonder would be my little
Brendell and Hammond look at the beetle beetle, Carabidae pogonus (sod the orthodox
collection and see a resource, a record of procedure and proper channels) gillae.
diversity and a monument to the awesome
© AA Gill/The Sunday Times Magazine
achievement of beetles. I see something
7 April 2002
perhaps they don’t: it’s also a monument to
human achievement. Mostly unremarked and

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.10 Student Sheet

BEING DARWIN

Purpose
 To consider the scientific classification of organisms.
 To look in detail at naming organisms.

Organising organisms
Imagine trying to find your favourite brand of biscuit in a supermarket where they just randomly put
all the items on the shelves. Most supermarkets are pretty well organised; items are arranged in groups
with common features – biscuits, beverages, confectionary, toiletries, ready meals, etc. You can
quickly find the ginger snaps! Biologists faced with the huge number of organisms that have so far
been described also need to organise them in a logical way. In the same way that all the different
brands of decaffeinated coffee might be shelved together, within the coffee section, which is within
the hot drinks section that can be found in the drinks aisle, organisms are placed into a hierarchy of
groups called taxa (singular taxon). Members of a taxon share common features.
In this activity you consider the taxonomic hierarchy developed by Whittaker in 1959 and modified by
Margulis and Schwartz in 1982 and try putting some of the organisms that Darwin found in the
Galapagos Islands into their appropriate taxonomic groups. Read pages 166–168 of the Student Book
before continuing with this sheet.
Q1 What are the names of the five kingdoms suggested by Murgulis and Schwartz?
Q2 What are the other groupings found in the hierarchy?
Use your biological knowledge to assign each of two key feature cards provided to the correct
kingdom. Cut out the cards, if this has not been done already. Lay out the kingdom cards as column
headings. Then place the key features cards in the appropriate columns. Note that some features are
shared by more than one kingdom so there are some cards with the same features. Then complete the
questions below using the description of the five kingdoms in the columns or in Figure 1 on page 2 of
this activity. These summarise the common features of the organisms in the five kingdoms, and some
animal phyla and classes. Note that the diagram does not show all of the phyla, nor all of the classes.
Q3 Colour all the phyla in Figure 1 one colour and all the classes another colour.
Q4 What do all the classes in the phylum Chordata have in common?
Q5 What do spiders, centipedes and insects have in common?
Q6 If you have time, look at the organisms shown in the virtual tour of the Galapagos Islands in
the interactive tutorial that accompanies Activity 4.1 (or the ones provided by your
teacher/lecturer) and see if you can assign them to one of the five kingdoms and, where
appropriate, to the correct phylum and class.
Q7 a What is the name of the sixth kingdom that has been added to the five of Murgulis and
Schwartz?
b What common feature do its members share?
c Give two examples of organisms from this new kingdom.
For a long time the five kingdoms were considered to be the top level in the taxonomic hierarchy: this
is no longer the case. Read pages 168–169 of the Student Book and then answer the questions below.
Q8 a Who proposed a new system of classification?
b What are the main groups that make up the top level of this classification?
c What feature is used to assign organisms to these groups?

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All organisms

Prokaryotae Animalia Plantae

No nucleus. No membrane- Eukaryotic, multicellular Eukaryotic and multicellular.
bound organelles. Bacteria and have no cell walls. Have cellulose cell walls.
and blue-green bacteria. Cannot photosynthesise. Can photosynthesise.

Protoctista Fungi
Eukaryotic simple Eukaryotic. Can be single-
organisms. Include algae celled or multicellular. Have
and unicellular organisms. cell walls made of chitin.
Cannot photosynthesise.

Porifera Platyhelminthes Annelida Mollusca Chordata

Sponges. Unsegmented flat Segmented worms. Unsegmented, muscular Have spinal cord.
worms (flukes). Include earthworms, foot (e.g. snails,
ragworms and leeches. octopus, clams, etc.).

Cnidaria Nematoda Arthropoda

Jellyfish, sea anemones, Unsegmented Segmented body and
hydra and corals. Only roundworms (e.g. pin chitinous exoskeleton.
one mouth/anus. worms, ascarid worms).

Echinodermata
Marine, spiny skinned,
have five-fold radial
symmetry (e.g. star fish,
brittle stars, sea urchins,
sea cucumbers).
Insecta Myriapoda Arachnida Crustacea
3 body segments, wings, Centipedes, 2 body segments, 8 legs Calcareous exoskeleton,
1 pair antennae, 6 legs millipedes. (e.g. spiders, scorpions). many body segments,
(e.g. flies). 2 pairs antennae
(e.g. shrimps).

Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia

Fish with Have scales, fins, Smooth moist skin, Scales, lungs, Feathers, beak, Fur, mammary
cartilaginous and gills (bony metamorphosis. lay eggs with lungs. Lay eggs glands,
skeletons (e.g. fish, e.g. herring, leathery shells. with hard shell. homeothermic.
sharks, rays). pike, tuna). Homeothermic.

Figure 1 Taxonomic groups using the five kingdoms classification of Margulis and Schwartz. All kingdoms and
animal phyla are shown, but only some other taxa.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.10 Student Sheet

Naming organisms
The taxonomic classification of humans and tigers is shown in Table 1.

Human Tiger
Kingdom Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata
Class Mammalia Mammalia
Order Primata Carnivora
Family Hominidae Felidae
Genus Homo Felis
Species H. sapiens F. tigris
Table 1 Taxonomic classification of humans and tigers.

Frequently one species will have many different common names, so when biologists, be they research
scientists or keen gardeners, want to refer to a particular species they use the scientific name to avoid
confusion. The scientific name for humans is Homo sapiens and that of tigers is Felis tigris. The first
part of the name, the genus, is shared by all closely related species. The second part of the name is the
particular species in the genus. They are written in italics or underlined to identify them as scientific
names. The first time a scientific name is used it is given in full, after that it can be shortened, thus
tiger would be F. tigris.
The scientific names for some common wild flowers are shown in Table 2.

Common name Scientific name

Red clover Trifolium pratense
Creeping buttercup Ranunculus repens
Herb robert Geranium robertianum
Cut-leaved cranesbill Geranium dissectum
Meadow thistle Cirsium dissectum
Table 2 Scientific names for some common wild flowers.

Q9 Look at the list of scientific names. In addition to writing the name in italics, what other
common convention is used?
Q10 What genus does red clover belong to?
Q11 What is the species name for creeping buttercup?
Q12 Which two plants are most closely related: meadow thistle and cut-leaved cranesbill, or herb
robert and cut-leaved cranesbill? Explain your answer.

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Kingdom cards

kingdom Animalia

kingdom Plantae

kingdom Fungi

kingdom Protoctista

kingdom Prokaryotae

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Key features cards

Key features Heterotrophic – most absorb nutrients from

decaying matter after extracellular digestion

Multicellular and unicellular eukaryotes Includes the bacteria and blue-green bacteria
(cyanobacteria)

Includes moulds, yeasts and mushrooms Cell walls made of the polysaccharide chitin

Cannot photosynthesise Includes mosses, liverworts, ferns, conifers

and flowering plants

Multicellular eukaryotes (although most do May either photosynthesise or feed on

not have separate cells). But yeasts also organic matter from other sources
belong to this group and they are unicellular
No cell walls or large vacuoles Cannot photosynthesise

Includes single-celled protozoa, such as Multicellular eukaryotes with differentiated

amoeba and paramecium, and algae cells organised into specialised organs

Includes phyla such as jellyfish, Cells have no distinct nucleus. The nucleic
roundworms, arthropods and molluscs acid is in a single circular chromosome

Multicellular eukaryotes with differentiated Cells contain chloroplasts and large vacuoles
cells organised into specialised organs

Cells do not have organelles, such as Cells are very small, typically less than
mitochondria or chloroplasts 10 μm across

Most are made up of a network of thread-like Heterotrophic, relying on other organisms

strands, called multinucleate hyphae for nutrition

Most can move from place to place and have Make organic compounds by photosynthesis
nervous coordination (except for a few parasites)

Cell walls contain cellulose Basic body structure is relatively simple

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.11 Student Sheet

NEW IDEAS IN BIOLOGY

Purpose
 To consider how new ideas in science are assessed and tested by other scientists.
 To recall how species are defined and how evidence is used to make decisions about classification
of species.

Brilliant idea or simply crazy – what’s the evidence?

In this activity you think about how scientists work when a new idea comes forward. How are new
ideas tested by scientists and how do they move from being extreme to being mainstream?
Below are examples of some biological ideas, some new and some older, which have varying degrees
of evidence to support them. How can we decide whether they are brilliant ideas or simply crazy?

To do
Read the following accounts, then research each of the ideas. For each idea:
 Produce a list of evidence that supports the idea.
 Consider whether or not you can trust the ‘evidence’ you have quoted. Is it based on ‘peer-
reviewed’ scientific papers (i.e. subjected to scrutiny by other experts in that field before
publication)? If it is information from the Internet, is the source reliable? Is the writer trying to
persuade you to accept their ideas for commercial or political reasons?
 Place the ideas you researched in a rank order, with the one with the greatest support number 1
and the one that you consider to be on the shakiest ground last. Give reasons for your selection.
 Consider how the ideas could be tested further. Remember that there is no such thing as a
‘scientific fact’ – all scientific ideas are only as good as the evidence that supports them and even
accepted ideas can be overturned. Ideas which cannot be tested by experiment or observation (for
example, some religious ideas) are beyond the scope of science.

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The ideas
Endosymbiosis
Endosymbiosis is the idea that eukaryotic cells are associations of different types of cell which joined
forces many millions of years ago. Prokaryotes are thought to have been engulfed by larger cells,
giving rise to modern eukaryotic cells. They developed a mutualistic relationship. The eukaryotes
probably benefited from the products of the metabolism of the prokaryotes: sugar and oxygen from the
photosynthetic prokaryotes that became chloroplasts, and ATP from the non-photosynthetic
prokaryotes that became mitochondria. Lynn Margulis and others in America developed these ideas in
the 1960s.

Three domains
The idea that all living organisms can be classified under three domains – Archaea, Bacteria and
Eukaryotes – was put forward in the 1970s by Carl Woese in America. The prokaryotes are separated
into two distinct groups. It is claimed that Archaea, which look very like conventional bacteria on the
outside, are as different from bacteria as we are. The reasoning comes from their ribosomal RNA.
Since ribosomes have a role in protein synthesis, they tend to remain unchanged in evolution. This is
because any mutation is likely to impair their function. But mutations do accumulate very slowly, in
subtle and random ways which do not affect them too much. The Archaea live in all sorts of odd
places, such as oil deposits deep in the earth, in hot springs and very salty water.

Formative causation
The idea of formative causation is an idea proposed in the 1980s by British scientist Rupert Sheldrake.
Morphogenesis (the development of an organism) not only depends on genes and gene products, but
also on organising fields. He proposes that morphogenetic fields are shared by members of the species
through a kind of non-local resonance, called morphic resonance. Each individual both draws upon
and contributes to the collective memory of the species. This means that the form and behaviour of
organisms is influenced by past events. As a result, new patterns of behaviour can spread more rapidly
than would otherwise be possible. For example, if all your class learned the SNAB course very
thoroughly it would make it easier for everyone else studying the course to learn the same course in
the future. Sheldrake has made strenuous efforts to test the hypothesis and New Scientist magazine
held a competition in the 1980s offering a prize for the best ideas to test it further.

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How do we classify our nearest (extinct) relatives?

Read the passage below and then answer the questions.
Neanderthals, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, have traditionally been classified as a subspecies of
modern humans, the third word added to its binomial name denotes the subspecies – we are Homo
sapiens sapiens. A sub-species means that the Neanderthals were distinct in anatomy from modern
people, but not so distinct that we can be sure they did not interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Figure 1 shows the skulls of both Neanderthal and modern man.

Figure 1 Compare the Neanderthal and modern skull. Can you tell the difference?

Typical Neanderthals are known from fossils to have lived in Europe and Asia during the Ice Age
(from about 100 000 years ago). They were well adapted to a hunter-gatherer life in the cold climate.
They had more robust skeletons and muscles than modern humans, with prominent brow ridges and
wide nostrils. They made beautiful stone and bone tools, buried their dead, and possibly made simple
shelters and wore clothes. It is not known whether they had language. They do not seem to have made
cave paintings, unlike the Cro-Magnon people in Spain and France, who were fully modern, appearing
in Europe about 40 000 years ago. Neanderthals lived alongside Cro-Magnon people for 10–15 000
years, and died out only 20–30 000 years ago.

Questions
Q1 What is a sub-species? How does it differ from a species and from a genus?
Q2 Why are all modern people, of all races, considered to be the same species?
Q3 Suggest why it is difficult to tell from fossil and archaeological evidence alone whether or not
we are the same species as the Neanderthals.
Q4 Nuclear DNA has recently been sequenced from Neanderthal fossils. How could this be used
to determine if the Neanderthals are a separate species?
Q5 When looking at how closely related two species might be, why is nuclear DNA more useful
than mitochondrial DNA?
Q6 Neanderthals may have competed with modern humans for the same ecological niche. What is
likely to happen when two (sub) species compete for the same niche?
Q7 If we find evidence that Neanderthals used different tools from other populations living at the
same time, can this be taken as evidence that they are different species/subspecies?

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.12 Student Sheet

EXPLORING BIODIVERSITY

Purpose
 To consider how biodiversity can be measured.

Measuring biodiversity
Measures of species richness are normally used to talk about biodiversity. In this activity you
investigate the plant biodiversity of hedges and you also compare the biodiversity of six sites on
Pocklington Beck using species richness and species evenness.

Biodiversity and dating hedges

In Britain, fields are often bounded by hedges, which can be hundreds or even thousands of years old.
From the 1400s, many areas of open common land were enclosed by hedges and brought under
individual ownership. The process accelerated during the 18th and 19th Centuries, when many
enclosure plans were enforced through parliamentary act.
In the 1960s and 70s, concern about the loss of hedges through agricultural intensification prompted
government scientists to study hedges. They chose 227 hedges whose ages were known from historical
records. They then counted the number of shrub species present in the hedges and plotted a graph of
their results (see Figure 1). In order to make fair comparisons, the scientists counted the number of
shrub species in a fixed length – 30 yards – of hedge.

Figure 1 Hedges classified according to their age, and the number of shrub and tree species in 30-yard lengths.
From: Pollard, E., Hooper, M.D. and Moore, N.W. (1974). Hedges. William Collins and Sons, p. 80.

The relative frequency of hedges in a class are shown by the size of the circle. 277 hedges were
sampled in total.
Q1 Describe any correlation shown by the data in Figure 1.
Q2 Suggest possible reasons why older hedges have more shrub species than younger hedges.
Q3 Explain whether or not you would expect older hedges to also have more insect biodiversity.

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Date your own hedge

Procedure
Select one or two hedges near your school, college or home to study. Choose a parish boundary hedge
if you can. Find a representative 30-yard section of your hedge. It is sufficient to measure this by
striding out 30 long paces. Do not choose a section near a field corner, wood or other major feature.
A section somewhere in the middle of a long stretch is best.
Identify all the shrub and tree species in your 30-yard section. If you have time measure several
30-yard lengths so you can take an average. You may need an identification guide to help you identify
the shrubs and trees in your hedge. The following are the shrub species you are most likely to find:
Hawthorn, blackthorn, hazel, elder, dog rose, field rose, ash, oak, field maple, holly, privet, buckthorn,
dogwood, sycamore, elm, crab apple, gorse.
Include trees of all sizes, but do not count bramble, honeysuckle or any herbaceous plants, such as
nettles and hogweed.
If you are unable to identify all the shrubs on the spot, collect a small twig (with leaves) from each
shrub species, take the samples back in a plastic bag and use an identification guide or the online tree
identification key. The URL for this can be found in the weblinks that accompany this activity.
When you have your figure for the number of shrub species in your 30-yard section, use the graph in
Figure 1 to estimate the age of your hedge.

Questions
Q4 Suggest reasons why the estimate of your hedge’s age could be:
a too young
b too old.
Q5 The evenness of shrub species composition in the hedge is another measure of biodiversity.
Explain how you could measure the species evenness of your hedge.

Pocklington Beck: Exploring biodiversity

The sample data in Table 1 gives the number of individuals counted at each of six sites on Pocklington
Beck. Use the data to complete the questions that follow.
Q6 Work out the species richness for each site and decide which site has the greatest biodiversity.
Q7 Compare species evenness for the six sites. Comment on whether this affects which site is
considered to have the greatest biodiversity

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.12 Student Sheet

Taxonomic Name Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5 Site 6

group
Platyhelminthes
Polycelis nigra 14 * * * * *
Polycelis feline 8 * * * * *
Annelida
True worms Horsehair worms * 175 * * * 6
Tubifex tubifex 9 * 428 48 * 11
Other worms 1 46 * * * 3
Leeches Erpobdella octoculata 6 21 7 1
Glossiphonia complanata 2 1 * * * *
Mollusca
Spire shell snail 1 34 * 1 2 8
Ramshorn snail 9 1 1 * * *
Fresh water limpet 1 1 * 12 * *
Arthropoda
Crustacea Cyclops * 1 * * * *
Water hoglouse 1 * * * 1 4
Gammarus pulex 263 659 4 56 18 58
Insecta Large water boatman 17 2 * * * *
Olive mayfly nymph 419 213 17 13 * 43
Burrowing mayfly nymph 4 * * * * *
Flattened mayfly nymph * 31 * * * *
Striped mayfly nymph 47 37 * 3 * 14
Swimming mayfly nymph 2 * * * * 1
Sand cased caddis larvae 6 17 * * * 5
Stone cased caddis larvae 4 * * * * *
Green caseless caddis 5 4 * * * 12
Midge larvae 24 671 6 1037 92 164
Chironomid midge larvae 7 43 28 * 2 3
Dicranota larvae * 1 * * * *
Tipula larvae 7 33 * * * 35
Elmid beetle/larvae 2 22 * * * 15
Halipid type beetle 1 * * * * 7
Agabus type beetle 2 19 * * * *
Other beetle * 9 * * * 1
Arachnida Red mite 7 51 * * * 6
Brown mite 9 18 * * * 17
Other mite * * * * * 5
Chordata
Fish Bullhead fish 1 * * * * *
Brown trout * * * * * *
Table 1 Sample data for Pocklington Beck. Numbers of individuals counted at each site. The data is also
available as a spreadsheet which can be accessed through the activity page.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.13 Student Sheet

COMPARING DIVERSITY

Purpose
 To compare biodiversity in different habitats.
 To calculate a diversity index.

Comparing diversities
Various diversity indices can be used to give a quantitative basis when comparing the biodiversity of
two areas. In this exercise you will learn how to calculate one such diversity index, then sample two
areas, calculate the diversity index for each and use these to compare the biodiversity of two habitats.

Calculating a diversity index

The diversity index compares the number of individual organisms found in an area with the number of
species found there. The logic is that if you have almost as many species as you have individual
organisms the area is very diverse. On the other hand, if all of your individuals belong to one or two
species, the area has a low biodiversity.
To calculate this index you will need to record the number of individuals of each species in an area (or
sample). For each species this number is called n. The number of individuals of species 1 is n1, the
number of species 2 is n2 and so on.
You also need to know the total number of individual organisms of all species in the area (this number
is called N). As you will probably have realised, you can calculate N by adding up all of the individual
species counts.
The mathematical formula for calculating the diversity index, D, is:
N(N  1)
D=
 n(n  1)

The Σ sign simply means that you add up all of the n(n – 1)s.
Have a look at the worked example on page 173 of the Student Book and then answer the questions
below.
Q1 Imagine that you have data from two small rocky islands. You collected the following datasets
on numbers of birds from each:
Green Island Gull Island
Puffin 4 Herring gull 50
Arctic tern 10 Black headed gull 7
Black headed gull 5
Fulmar 5
Total (N) = 24 Total (N) = 57
Intuitively you can see that Green Island has more diversity, but fewer individual birds.
Calculate the diversity index D for each island to check.

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Q2 Calculate the diversity index for the rocky shore shown in Figure 1 and compare this middle
shore with the numerical data below collected from an upper shore site.

Figure 1 Middle shore of a rocky shore.

Upper shore data

10 channel wrack
3 Enteromorpha
15 periwinkles
3 limpets
14 top shells
15 lichens.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.13 Student Sheet

Assessing the species diversity of two stream sites

In this exercise you will be trying to establish which of two stream sites has a greater diversity. You
will then try to suggest why there is a difference, if there is one.
SAFETY
Stream beds are often slippery and may contain broken glass or other sharp objects.
Wellies (or shoes/trainers that can get wet) should be worn. Sandals/flip-flops are not
suitable because they do not protect the feet from cuts. Always work in pairs or small groups.
Choose the area of your stream carefully. Avoid fast-flowing water, steeply-sided banks or
marshy/boggy areas. Fast-flowing water that is over knee height can knock people off their feet.
Enter the stream where the bank makes it easy to get in and out and the water is shallow and clear.
Many waterways have rats or other mammals that can spread Weil’s disease, – a rare but
potentially serious bacterial infection. You should avoid getting water in your mouth or eyes. Rubber
gloves may be worn to avoid skin contact with the stream water. If you have any cuts, cover them
with waterproof plasters and avoid getting them wet. When the activity is finished you should wash
all of the skin that was exposed to the water thoroughly. You should not eat or drink until you have
washed your hands.
Remember, the floating orange will be contaminated with stream water – do not be tempted to
eat it.

YOU NEED
● Net ● Plastic spoon
● Metre rule ● A few simple bottles/yoghurt pots to put
● Orange or brightly coloured plastic ball (e.g. table interesting specimens in
tennis ball) ● Key (for example, the Field Studies Council
● Tape measure or knotted piece of string freshwater key is excellent)
● Tray to wash the nets into ● Paper to draw maps on
● Pipette with the tip removed ● Recording sheet

Procedure
Choosing a site
Make sure that the section of stream you choose is shallow enough that you can climb into it without
flooding your wellies and has banks that are easy to get up. Work in pairs and try to find a site far
enough from other pairs so that you will not get too much material washed down from their site.
Stretch your transect line across the stream. Keep upstream of your transect line until you start
sampling to avoid disturbing the ground.
Now collect as much data as you can about factors that might affect the diversity and distribution of
organisms at the site. To do this quickly, draw a map and collect the data for flow rate and a profile as
described below.

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Site map
Quickly sketch a map of your site (see Figure 2), indicating where the water is slow or fast moving,
and where there are trees overhanging, or clumps of weed.

Figure 2 Example of a site map.

Profiles
Every 25 cm along your transect string measure the depth of the stream with your ruler and record the
type of substrate at that point. When you get back to the lab, plot this on a piece of paper to give a
cross-section of the stream at this point (see example profile in Figure 3).
NB: you will have to plot it as negative numbers. In other words, call the water level 0 m.

Figure 3 Example of a stream cross-section.

Measuring rate of flow (or Pooh sticks)

To measure the rate of flow, mark out a distance of 2 m on the bank. Measure the amount of time it
takes for an object (ideally your orange) to float over this distance. Convert the answer to metres per
second and record it on your data sheet. If the water is too shallow to float your orange or ball use a
leaf or twig instead.

Collecting the data

Collect and identify animals at both of the sites you selected. Avoid unnecessary stress to these
organisms. Make sure that they are returned to the stream in the same place as they were caught as
soon as you have finished recording your data. Do not touch them unnecessarily and be gentle when
you move them. Most of them are very fragile and dry out easily.
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It is important that the data you collect from the two sites are comparable. In order to do this you must
make sure that the sampling is random and that the amount of effort that you put into the sampling is
the same at each site. (It would add bias if you took 100 samples in one site and two in the other.) You
have three methods of sampling available to you: kick sampling, stone turning and net sweeping.
Kick sampling
Many small invertebrates live among the small pebbles, etc. on the streambed. By keeping close to the
pebbles they avoid being swept away by the current, but get the benefits of being in swift-flowing
water (lots of dissolved oxygen and the flow of food particles being swept past them). Kick sampling
knocks the invertebrates free of the pebbles and lets the water sweep them into your net.
One member of the pair or group (preferably in wellies) steps into the stream, at the lower end of your
sample site. This person is the sampler. The sampler faces downstream (in the direction the water is
going) and holds the net into the water, just in front of them, with the top of the net just touching the
bottom of the stream. They should then shuffle their feet about. The water will carry the organisms
into the net. The sampler now shuffles backwards or sideways to a fresh area, keeping the net just in
front of them as they move. This should be done at each site for the same timed interval. Try to keep
the area covered at each site the same.
When your time is up you should remove the net from the water and tip the contents into your sample
tray. Rinse the net through if necessary with more water from the stream (but make sure there’s
nothing in the water before you pour it in).
Net sweeps of reeds/weeds if present
Many small invertebrates and fish hide in weeds. If you have vegetation growing in your stream you
will need to sample that as well.
Standing on the downstream side of the vegetation, take your net and sweep it back and forth through
the weeds. You will need to decide in advance how many times you will move it through your
vegetation and complete the same number at each site. Tip whatever you find into the tray, and
identify and count your individuals as described below.
Boulder turning
Many organisms live under stones. Turn over any large stones and collect the organisms by washing
them off of the stones into your tray. It is a good idea to hold your net downstream of the stone when
you turn it over to catch anything that washes away. If you turn stones over, turn them back again or
the animals and plants on them will die.

Counting and recording

Now carefully pick through your sample. Do not neglect the very small organisms that may be on
dead leaves, or stuck to rocks. Try to identify your animals using a key (see Figure 4 for one simple
example). If you cannot identify an organism show it to your teacher/lecturer. In the end it matters less
what the correct name for each organism is than that the whole class calls it the same thing if you are
pooling your data. Once you have an idea of what you have, count the individuals in each taxon and
record your results in an appropriate format (see Table 1). This is usually easiest if you select one
taxon and count the individuals in it into another small container. (This makes recounts easier.)
Having one person acting as a scribe while the other counts will help here. Tallies are a useful way of
keeping a running total. Put all of your animals back into the stream when you have finished.

Analysing and interpreting your data

 Using the method shown on page 1, calculate the diversity index for each site.
 Using the information that you have collected, or been given about the two sites, try to explain
your results.
 If you were managing the stream could and should you ‘improve’ the sites to increase their
diversity? Suggest how you could do this, and explain the reasons for and against doing so.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.13 Student Sheet

Caddis larvae Fly larvae

a) Cased

b) Uncased

Asellus spp.

Mayfly nymphs

Gammarus spp.

Stonefly nymphs Flatworms

Swimming beetles Leeches

Diving beetles Molluscs

Beetle larvae

Figure 4 A very simple key to freshwater invertebrates.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.13 Student Sheet

Name of Number in Class total in Number in Class total

organism sample 1 sample 1 sample 2 in sample 2
Crustaceans

Insects

Molluscs

Annelids

Flatworms

Fish

Others

Table 1 A simple chart on which to record the number of individuals sampled.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.14 Student Sheet

NATTERJACK TOADS AND GENETIC DIVERSITY

Purpose
 To consider how genetic diversity can be measured.
 To calculate and compare the heterozygosity index for two populations.

Heterozygosity index
The natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) is Britain’s rarest amphibian. It is very restricted in distribution,
due to loss of its preferred habitat of heath or sand dunes. In Britain there are now very few
populations, with a stronghold around Formby and Ainsdale on Merseyside.
Trevor Beebee and his research group at the University of Sussex have investigated the genetic
diversity of natterjack toad populations and attempted to correlate this diversity with the genetic
fitness of the animals.
The genetic fitness of a population reflects the average ‘fitness’ (the likelihood of survival and
successful breeding) of the individuals within it. Measurable quantities, such as rate of growth,
resistance to disease and spawn size will all affect genetic fitness.
Genetic diversity has been measured by preparing DNA fingerprints for individuals within the
populations. (You will discover exactly how these fingerprints are made in Topic 6.) By examining the
prepared DNA fingerprints it is possible to calculate how many of the different gene loci are
heterozygous, i.e. have more than one allele present. The proportion of genes which are present in
heterozygous form can be expressed as a number called the heterozygosity index.
Figure 1 represents the DNA fingerprint of 10 DNA microsatellite sequences for one individual. Note
that sequences I, VI and VII give only a single band, indicating that the individual is homozygous for
these sequences. The other seven sequences each have two bands showing that the individual is
heterozygous for each of these sequences.

Figure 1 The banding pattern for 10 DNA microsatellite sequences in an individual.

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A heterozygosity index (H) for each sequence can be calculated using the equation:
number of heterozygotes
H=
number of individuals in the population
The DNA fingerprint banding patterns for sequence VII in a population of 21 individuals is shown in
Figure 2. The heterozygosity index for this sequence is:
heterozygosity index (VII) = 7/21 = 0.333
An average heterozygosity index for the population is determined by taking the mean of all of the
heterozygosity index values for each of the microsatellite sequences studied in the individuals of this
population.
The heterozygosity index is a useful measure of genetic diversity. Because it is a proportion rather
than an absolute number, it is unaffected by the sample size.

Figure 2 DNA fingerprints for microsatellite VII in 21 individuals.

The research group led by Trevor Beebee obtained the results in Table 1 below.
Population number 1 2 3 4 5 6
Population size/number of clumps 33 11 146 17 87 20
of spawn laid
Tadpole growth rate/mm per week 5.0 2.8 4.6 4.1 5.6 5.0
Average heterozygosity 0.269 0.189 0.293 0.257 0.336 0.325
Table 1 Results of Trevor Beebee’s research group.

Questions
Q1 Plot tadpole growth rate against average heterozygosity. You could use an automated
spreadsheet programme to do this, or you can plot the data by hand.
Q2 What do these results suggest about the benefits for genetic diversity (heterozygosity) in terms
of genetic fitness? Use results from the table and from your graph to support your conclusions.
Q3 Two other small populations of toads were studied. DNA fingerprints were prepared and are
shown in Figure 3. Use these DNA fingerprints to calculate the heterozygosity index for these
two populations.
Q4 a Use your results to predict the approximate tadpole growth rate for members of these
populations.
b Which of the two populations is more likely to succeed over a lengthy period of time?
c Suggest three environmental factors that should be controlled if these growth rate results
are to be compared in a valid way.
If you are interested in natterjack toad conservation, why not conduct an Internet search for
information on these animals? You will find more data on their distribution and on conservation
measures being taken to protect them.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.14 Student Sheet

Figure 3 DNA fingerprints for microsatellites in two toad populations.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.15 Student Sheet

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Purpose
 To describe the typical ultrastructure of a plant cell.
 To compare the typical ultrastructure of a plant and an animal cell.
 To recognise the parts of a plant cell on an electron micrograph.
Use the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity to complete this worksheet.

Questions
Q1 Label the plant cell shown in Figure 1 and annotate it to describe the function of each labelled
part.

Figure 1 Plant cell.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.15 Student Sheet

Q2 Use the following terms to complete the passage below. Some terms may be used more than
once or not at all.

cell surface membrane cell wall chlorophyll chloroplasts chromosomes

cytoplasm endoplasmic reticulum amyloplasts eukaryotic nuclear membrane

nucleus tonoplast prokaryotic vacuole

Animal and plant cells have many features in common. Each is surrounded by a __________________

and each cell has a single__________________, which itself is surrounded by a

__________________. Animal and plant cells are both types of __________________ cell.

Viewed through an optical microscope the nucleus contains darkly stained material which condenses

to form separate visible __________________ during nuclear division.

There are other membrane-bound structures common to both animals and plants, such as the

__________________. These organelles are situated in the cell __________________.

Plant cells possess a number of unique structures that do not occur in animal cells. They are

surrounded by a fairly rigid __________________ outside the __________________. They also have

a large __________________ surrounded by a membrane called the __________________. Also

present are __________________, which are involved in photosynthesis. Glucose produced in

photosynthesis is stored as starch within __________________.

Q3 Using ticks and crosses, indicate which of the structures in Table 1 are found in each cell type.

Structure Plant cell Animal cell

Chloroplast
Chromosome
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Amyloplast
Large central vacuole
Tonoplast
Cell wall
Nuclear membrane
Golgi apparatus
Mitochondrion
Table 1 Cell structures.

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Q4 a Decide which of the electron micrographs in Figure 2 shows an animal cell and which a
plant cell.
b Identify the parts labelled 1 to 5.

2 4

5
A B

Figure 2 Electron micrographs of cells.

Q5 a In which part of the cell are:

i proteins synthesised
ii DNA molecules transcribed
iii glycoprotein molecules assembled
iv lysosomes formed?
b State which part of the cell is involved in:
i photosynthesis
ii respiration
iii modification of lipids
iv endocytosis.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.16 Student Sheet

CELLULOSE STRUCTURE

Purpose
 To describe the structure of cellulose.
 To relate the structure of cellulose to its physical properties.
 To compare the structure of cellulose and starch.

Questions
Q1 Use the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity and then annotate Figure 1 below, to
explain how β-glucose units can be joined to form a strong, structural carbohydrate.

Figure 1 Formation of cellulose from β-glucose.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.16 Student Sheet

Q2 In Figure 2, in which direction is cellulose stronger: AB or XY? Explain your answer.

Figure 2 Cellulose strength is due to bonding.

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……..

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……..

………………………………………………………………………………….………….……..

Q3 Use Biochemistry Support 11 Carbohydrates, and 14 Cellulose, to produce a table to compare

the structures and functions of starch and cellulose.

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 Activity 4.17 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

LOOKING AT PLANT STEMS

Purpose
 To look at the structure of xylem vessels, phloem sieve tubes and sclerenchyma fibres.
 To locate the position of these tissues within the stem.
 To develop practical skills including microscope use, biological drawing and measuring using an
eyepiece graticule.

Part A: Looking at tissues

The procedure below lets you look at the structure of vascular tissue in rhubarb.
SAFETY
Wear eye protection, lab coats and disposable gloves.
Avoid contact with methylene blue as it stains clothes and skin. See CLEAPSS Hazcard 32
for further details.
If liquid comes in contact with skin, flood area of skin with water and then wash thoroughly
with soap and water.
Be aware of the danger of using microscopes where direct sunlight may strike the mirror. Take care
to avoid cuts caused by broken coverslips.

YOU NEED
● Small piece of tinned rhubarb ● Watch glass
● Microscope slide ● Methylene blue (1% solution)
● Coverslip ● 50% glycerol
● 2 mounted needles ● Filter paper
● Forceps

Procedure
1 Place a small piece of tinned rhubarb on a watch glass. Use forceps to pick out one or two
vascular bundles from this block of tissue and place them on a microscope slide.
2 Use mounted needles to tease the vascular bundles apart. Cover the tissue with a drop of
methylene blue, and leave for 5 minutes.
3 Draw off the extra stain with filter paper. Place a drop of dilute glycerol on the fibres and mount
under a coverslip.
4 Examine your preparation under low, medium and high magnification. If the tissues are not
separated enough, place your slide on a piece of filter paper, put a filter paper pad on the coverslip
and press down with your thumb. This may separate out the tissue. Do not move your coverslip
sideways at all. You may need to re-irrigate the slide with glycerol after squashing it. To do this,
place a drop of glycerol on the slide next to the coverslip. It will be drawn under the coverslip by
capillary action. Blot off any excess and re-examine the slide.
5 Look for vascular bundles amongst the separated tissues. Use Figures 4.43 and 4.44 in the Student
Book (pages 181 and 182) to help you identify the different tissues.
● The xylem vessels are empty, elongated tube-like cells; they may show different types of wall
thickening, for example, spiral or annular (in rings) thickening or, in some cases, virtually
complete lignification of the walls.
● Phloem sieve tube elements are also elongated; they lack a nucleus even though the cells are
alive with some cell cytoplasm. There are sieve plates with pores between adjacent cells.
Each sieve tube element is associated with a companion cell.
Make drawings of the different types of cells you can identify.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

Part B: Exactly where are the ‘fibres’ found?

You can either make your own sections of a plant stem or look at ready prepared slides. The procedure
given below is for cutting hand sections of buttercup or any herbaceous stem.
SAFETY
Wear eye protection, lab coats and disposable gloves. Avoid inhalation and skin contact.
Acidified phloroglucinol is corrosive and highly flammable. See CLEAPSS Hazcard 12 for
further details.
If the liquid comes in contact with skin, flood the area of skin with cold water for 10 minutes
and then wash thoroughly with soap and cold water.
Take care when using a scalpel or razor blade.
Be aware of the danger of using microscopes where direct sunlight may strike the mirror. Take care
to avoid cuts caused by broken coverslips.

YOU NEED
● Piece of stem from herbaceous plant ● Paintbrush
● Acidified phloroglucinol (benzene-1,3,5-triol) in ● Pipette
ethanol with concentrated hydrochloric acid ● Microscope
● Sharp scalpel ● Microscope slide
● New razor blade ● Coverslip
● Watch glass ● Wax crayon

Procedure
1 Use a sharp scalpel to cut out a piece of stem.
2 Hold the stem as shown in Figure 1 and cut thin transverse sections across it using a moistened
new razor blade.

Figure 1 Cutting thin transverse sections of a stem using a razor blade.

3 Cut a lot of sections. You do not need a complete section across the stem, as a small segment will
be sufficient. Use a paintbrush to transfer your sections to a watch glass of water.
4 Select the thinnest sections and transfer to a slide. Using a wax crayon, draw a line from top to
bottom of the slide on both sides of the specimen to stop the dye spreading.
5 Add a few drops of acidified phloroglucinol and a coverslip.
6 Examine under a microscope.
7 Use your sections and/or a prepared slide of a cross-section across a dicotyledonous stem, such as
Helianthus or a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, to draw a low-power plan drawing. Identify
and label the position of the vascular bundles (xylem, cambium, phloem and any sclerenchyma).
8 Use an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer to measure and compare the mean diameter of the
xylem vessels and phloem sieve tubes. See Practical Skills Support Sheet 9 – size and scale – for
information on the use of a stage micrometer and eyepiece graticule.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.18 Student Sheet

WATER TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

Purpose
 To explain the role of xylem vessels and transpiration in the movement of water through a plant.

Xylem and water transport

Work through the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity and read the section on water
transport in plants in the Student Book before completing the task below.

Task
Write a short passage (around 100 words) explaining how water moves through a plant, highlighting
the role of xylem vessels. (It may be easiest to start with transpiration from the leaves.) Ensure that
you have explained what is happening at each of the places numbered on the plant in the figure below.
Use the list of keywords beside the figure in your account.

xylem
cohesion
hydrogen bond
diffusion
stomata
cell walls
substomatal cavity
transpiration
evaporation
capillary action
lignin
osmosis

Water loss in plants

SAFETY
The springs or bungees may be under high tension. Care should be taken when connecting
and disconnecting.
Wash your hands thoroughly after returning from the environment.

YOU NEED
● Tree with a trunk about the same diameter as a ● Bungee cord or steel spring
street light
● Datalogger and sensors (force, temperature and
light)
The majority of the mass of a plant is water.
Water helps support the plant, particularly in non-woody plants. It also maintains the shape of the
plant. Wilting, for example, is caused when the plant cells lose water to the point where they cannot
hold their shape and the plant collapses.
A tree loses many litres of water per hour in transpiration. You can check out how much might be lost
by doing a transpirometer experiment. Does this water loss produce a change in the trunk dimensions
(girth)?
It should be possible to measure any change in size of the plant. The difficulty is that the changes are
very small and fall outside the accuracy of many conventional measuring instruments (for example,
rulers). This experiment uses a force sensor to measure the changes in size of a tree trunk.

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Procedure
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1. The spring/bungee cord should be positioned around
the trunk and attached to the force sensor.

spring/
bungee cord trunk

force sensor

Figure 1 Measuring the girth of a tree trunk.

2 Connect the sensor to the datalogger with a long cord (1.5 m or longer). This enables the sensor to
be placed away from the trunk.
3 Select the appropriate function on the logger and start recording. If appropriate sensors are
available, record other environmental conditions at the same time, for example, light and
temperature.
4 Check that data are being collected. Place the logger in a polythene bag and place it somewhere
secure for the datalogging period. It is best not to place the unit directly on the ground; this helps
to reduce the chances of rain getting into the bag.
5 The data should be collected over 3 days.

Analysing the results

Download the data from the logger.
Produce a trace from the data. The axis will need to be adjusted as the changes in force are very small.
 Describe any patterns in the data.
 Relate any patterns observed to changes in environmental conditions that have occurred over the
same period.
 Explain why the change in size takes place. Think of what is happening within the plant at a
cellular level.
 How much did the girth of the tree change? (You will need to produce a calibration of force
against distance.)
 The changes in force measured by the spring may be due to the effect of temperature on the
spring. Suggest a control that could be used to check if this is the case.

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 Activity 4.19 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

SICK PLANTS
Purpose
 To put together ideas about the transport and use of plant minerals.
 To investigate the effect of plant mineral deficiencies.
SAFETY
When carrying out any practical work, your own safety is important, and so is the safety
of other people. Also consider how to avoid damage to apparatus.
Think about the design of the apparatus and how everyone can be safe in its vicinity.
Wash your hands thoroughly after handling plant material or growth media.
List any safety issues in your experiment and note how you will deal with each one. The table below
shows a way to record this.

Safety issue How it will be minimised

   

Identifying sick plants

How are minerals, such as nitrate, calcium and magnesium ions, transported and used in plants? What
happens if the plant is not getting enough? Gardeners and fruit growers need to be alert to signs of
deficiency and give appropriate treatments.
Figure 1 shows part of an orange plant. The newer leaves in front are a lighter green colour than the
older leaves behind.

Figure 1 An orange plant.

Use the photo and the Student Book to answer the questions below.
Q1 Describe the pattern of dark and light shades of green on the new leaves (look at the
mediabank of SNAB Online to see the photo in colour).
Q2 From your knowledge of plant anatomy, explain how the pattern you have described compares
with the distribution of xylem vessels in a plant leaf.
Q3 Name the green pigment, present in plant leaves, which is needed for photosynthesis.
Q4 Name the mineral ion needed in the synthesis of this pigment.
Q5 Putting all the ideas together from questions 1–4:
a explain the pattern of dark and light green in the new leaves of this orange plant
b suggest a treatment for the plant that will help it to make uniformly dark green leaves.
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 Activity 4.19 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

Investigating plant mineral deficiencies

The Mexican hat plant (Bryophyllum) reproduces asexually. Plantlets grow from buds along the leaf
edge. After a while they fall off and establish new plants. These miniature plants are ideal for
investigating the effect of mineral deficiencies. Alternatively, germinated mung beans could be used.

1 Scientific questions and information research

Research relevant information and state what you are going to investigate.
Before you start planning your experiment you should decide what you think will be the effect of
mineral deficiencies on the plant. Write down your idea as a question or hypothesis that you can
answer or test and support your idea with biological knowledge. To help you decide on what you are
going to investigate and how you will carry out the practical work you will need to research the
background science and methods people have used to investigate similar problems.

2 Planning and experimental design

Using Mexican hat plantlets or germinated mung beans, design an experiment to investigate the effect
of mineral deficiencies.
You are provided with the following equipment:
● Mexican hat (Bryophyllum) plantlets or germinated mung beans
● a range of nutrient solutions, including solutions:
– with all nutrients present
– lacking nitrogen
– lacking magnesium
– lacking calcium
– lacking all nutrients
● standard laboratory equipment.

Make sure your plan includes:

 apparatus and a method that will validly answer your question or test your hypothesis
 identification of the independent and dependent variables and, where possible, controls or allows
for other variables
 the range of values you will use for the independent variable and the range you might expect to
find for the dependent variable
 a fully explained control if appropriate
 replicates if appropriate and an explanation of why these are necessary
 a statement of exactly what observations and measurements you will make and how they will be
made to ensure valid, accurate and precise results are obtained
 information about any possible sources of error and how these can be minimised
 a risk assessment that identifies any safety issues and describes how any risks will be reduced.
SAFETY
When carrying out any practical work, your own safety is important, and so is the safety of other
people. Also consider how to avoid damage to apparatus.
Think about the design of the apparatus and how everyone can be safe in its vicinity.
Wash your hands thoroughly after handling plant material or growth media.
List any safety issues in your experiment and note how you will deal with each one. The table below
shows a way to record this.

Safety issue How it will be minimised

   
Have your plan and risk assessment checked by your teacher/lecturer before starting your practical
work.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.20 Student Sheet

TRANSLOCATION IN PLANTS

Purpose
 To understand the role of phloem sieve tubes in the translocation of organic solutes within a plant.

Looking at evidence
Some of the experiments used to investigate transport of organic solutes in plants are described below.
In each case think about what evidence the results contribute to our understanding of transport in
plants and answer the questions posed.

Experiment 1
Figure 1 shows the set up and results of an early experiment used to investigate transport in bean
plants. Carbon dioxide containing a radioactive carbon isotope was introduced into the glass chamber
containing a single leaf. After 43 hours in the light, small sections of the leaf, stem, stem tip (bud) and
root tips were analysed to determine the radioactive carbon content. The values in Figure 1B show the
amount of carbon isotope in each part of the plant.
Q1 What can be concluded from the results shown in Figure 1B? Explain your ideas and support
your conclusion with evidence from the results.

Figure 1 Experiment to investigate transport of photosynthetic products in bean plants. The values in 1B
are the amount of labelled isotope relative to normal plant tissue. Modified from Rabideau, G.S. and
13
Burr, G.O. (1945) The use of the C isotope as a tracer for transport studies in plants. American Journal
of Botany 32: 349–356.

Experiment 2
A complete ring of bark and the phloem tissue lying just below
the bark were removed from a plant stem as shown in Figure 2A:
this is known as girdling. After about a week there is a swelling
above where the ring was removed (Figure 2B).
Q2 a Suggest why swelling occurred above where the
bark and phloem were removed from the plant stem
as shown in Figure 2B.
b Explain why, in the longer term, this girdling will
cause the death of the plant.

Figure 2 A Bark and phloem removed from a plant stem.

B The same stem after a week.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.20 Student Sheet

Experiment 3
Aphids feed using a long thin syringe-like mouthpart called a stylet. It pierces the surface of the stem
and enters a phloem sieve tube. It only starts to feed once the end of the stylet is successfully in the
sieve tube. The stylet contains two tubes: a saliva canal and a food canal; saliva is injected down the
saliva canal and is taken back up through the food canal mixed with sap from the phloem. Whilst
feeding in this way, excess sap is excreted out of the aphid’s body. A drop of liquid from the phloem
sieve tube is exuded from the animal’s body (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Aphid feeding on a plant stem.

Q3 a Explain why aphids target the phloem sieve tubes so specifically.

b Suggest why sampling the liquid exuded by the aphid may not provide an accurate
measure of the phloem composition.
c If the aphid is anaesthetised and the head is detached from the mouthpart, sap continues
to exude from the stylet. What can be concluded about phloem transport from this
observation?

Experiment 4
Figure 4 shows the results of an experiment looking at sucrose concentration in the leaves of maize
plants with and without a mutation in a gene that codes for a membrane protein. The membrane
protein is involved in active transport of sucrose into phloem cells.
Q4 a Look at the results and identify which strain (A or B) is the mutant and explain the
reasoning that led to your choice.
b How would you expect this mutation to affect the growth of the plant?

Figure 4 Sucrose concentration in four leaves of a small maize seedling (leaf number 7 is the newest),
measured in the morning (8am, open symbols) and in the evening (8pm, closed symbols) for two strains
of the same variety of maize; one with the mutation and one without the mutation. Each point on the
graph is the mean of analysis of nine replicate seedlings.
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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.20 Student Sheet

Explaining translocation
Read the section of the Student Book on translocation of organic solutes and look at the SAPS
animation ‘Transport of Water and Sugar in Plants’ and accompanying notes, which can be accessed
via the weblinks for this activity.
Q5 Look at Figure 4.52 in the Student Book and decide where the author could have added
numbers with a bullet point summary explaining the process. Add your number and bullet
suggestions to the copy of the diagram below.

Figure 4.52 from the Student Book.

Q6 Complete Table 1 to make a comparison of transport of fluid in xylem vessels, phloem sieve
tubes and blood vessels. Place a tick if the feature is present and a cross if it is absent. One line
is done for you.

Xylem Phloem Blood

transport transport circulation
Mass flow
Fluid mostly water
One direction only
Under positive pressure
Depends on evaporation
A contractile pumping organ involved
Vessels also provide support
Vessels are dead
Vessels have one way valves
Supplies cells with oxygen   
Protection from disease
Table 1 Comparing transport systems.

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 Activity 4.21 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

EXTRACTION OF ‘FIBRES’ FROM PLANTS

Purpose
 To extract ‘commercially useful fibres’ from a plant stem and investigate their properties.
 To develop certain practical skills.

Using plant fibres

In this activity you extract the fibres from plants and then test their strength.
‘Fibres’ have been extracted from plant stems for centuries and used in the commercial manufacture of
a wide range of textiles and paper. The term ‘fibres’ does not just refer to the sclerenchyma, but is
used to describe a range of ‘fibre-like’ structures. These plant fibres have been used for different
purposes, as indicated in Table 1. Their use is dependent on their properties.

Fibre Useful part of the plant Applications

Flax Stem of flax plant Linen for clothing
Cotton Hairs on the seeds of plant Cotton for clothing
belonging to the mallow family
Hemp Fibres from the stem/leaves of the Used for ropes, backing for carpets
hemp plant
Coir Fibre from the husks of the fruit of Floor coverings, ropes
the coconut
Jute Fibre from the stem of the jute Hessian, sacking and carpets
plant
Manila Hard fibres from the leaves of a Marine cables and other ropes,
type of banana nets and matting
Pulp Softwood trunks Paper, cardboard
Table 1 Fibres and their uses.

Fibres can be removed from plant stems by simply scraping away the upper layers of tissue, or by
retting. This can be field retting – plant stems are cut or pulled up and left in the field to rot; microbial
action breaks down the stalks. Alternatively, water retting may be used – stems are immersed in water.
The latter produces more uniform, higher quality fibres, but is more expensive and produces nitrogen-
rich waste-water that must be treated before discharge. During soaking, bacteria and fungi break down
the soft tissues of the stems leaving the cellulose intact. It is then relatively easy to remove the
cellulose-rich fibres. The procedures on the next page use these techniques to extract the fibres from
New Zealand flax leaves or nettle stems.

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 Activity 4.21 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

Extracting fibres from New Zealand flax

SAFETY
Take care when using a scalpel or razor blade.
Wash your hands thoroughly after handling plant material.

YOU NEED
● Leaf of New Zealand flax plant ● Scalpel or razor blade
● White tile ● Forceps

Procedure
Carefully scrape the surface layer of tissue from each side of the leaf.
1 Separate the fibres using forceps. These ‘fibres’ are made up of the vascular tissue; including the
xylem vessels, the phloem and the sclerenchyma fibres.

Extracting fibres from mature nettle stems

SAFETY
Wear eye protection and gloves when handling the unretted nettles to avoid being stung.
Wash your hands after handling the soaked fibres.
Use a tray to catch any falling masses.

YOU NEED
● Stems of mature stinging nettles or other plant ● Rubber gloves
stems ● Paper towels
● Bucket or bowl

Procedure
1 Remove the leaves and any flowers from the stems of mature stinging nettles. Place the stems in a
bowl/bucket of water so that they are completely submerged. This may have already been done
for you. The stems are soaked for at least a week; leave them outdoors because they are very
smelly.
2 Remove the stems from the water. Wash the stems to remove the softened tissue and then dry the
remaining fibres. The outside cuticle and epidermal layer will rub away and the central pith will
be left when you peel away the fibres. These ‘fibres’ are made up of the vascular tissue; they
contain the xylem vessels, the phloem and the sclerenchyma fibres.

Investigating fibre strength

Strength can be defined as the maximum stress a material can withstand without failing (breaking).
Tensile strength is the maximum stress caused by a pulling force that a material can withstand without
failing. Compression strength is the maximum stress caused by a pushing force that a material can
withstand without crushing.
You could investigate the strength of the extracted fibres: whether they are as strong as the intact
stem; whether the strength of the stem is entirely due to the fibres or whether the epidermis and
packing tissue make a major contribution. You could extract and compare some different fibres. You
could design an experiment to find out if the plant fibres under tension are stronger or weaker than
synthetic fibres.

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 Activity 4.21 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

1 Scientific questions and information research

Research relevant information and state what you are going to investigate – the first thing you need to
do is decide what you are going to investigate and write down your idea as a question or hypothesis
that you can answer or test. You should support your idea with biological knowledge: to do this it will
help to research the background science and methods people have used to investigate similar
problems.

2 Planning and experimental design

Your plan should include:
 a description of the apparatus and method that will produce valid results allowing you to answer
your question or test your hypothesis
 identification of the independent and dependent variables and, where possible, controls or allows
for other variables
 the range of values you will use for the independent variable and the range you might expect to
find for the dependent variable
 a fully explained control if appropriate
 replicates if appropriate and an explanation of why these are necessary
 a statement of exactly what observations and measurements you will make and how they will be
made to ensure valid, accurate and precise results are obtained
 a risk assessment that identifies any safety issues and describes how any risks will be reduced
 information about any sources of error and how these can be minimised.
Have your plan and risk assessment checked by your teacher/lecturer before starting your practical
work.

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 Activity 4.22 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

WHY DO THEY PUT MINT IN TOOTHPASTE?

WOULD GARLIC BE BETTER?

Purpose
To investigate the antibacterial properties of plants.
To develop practical skills.

YOU NEED
● Agar plate seeded with bacteria ● Sterile Petri dish
● Plant material (garlic cloves and mint leaves) ● Sterile forceps
● Pestle and mortar ● Tape
3
● 10 cm industrial methylated spirit ● Marker pen
● Pipette (sterile) ● Incubator set at 25 °C
● Paper discs (for example, Whatman antibiotic
assay paper discs)

SAFETY
Wear eye protection, lab coats and disposable gloves.
Industrial methylated spirit is harmful and highly flammable and because of the latter hazard
should not be used while naked flames are in use. See CLEAPSS Hazcard 40A for details.
Do not use if the preparation and pouring of agar plates is being done elsewhere in the lab.
Use aseptic techniques. Do not open Petri dishes containing growing microorganisms.
Only dispose of used Petri dishes after they have been autoclaved. See CLEAPSS Student Safety
Sheet 1 and Practical Skills Support Sheet 11 for further details.
Wash your hands thoroughly after handling plant material or growth media.

Antibacterial chemicals
Plants are susceptible to infection by bacteria and fungi; they do everything they can to repel such
attacks. Several plants are known to, or thought to, destroy or inhibit the growth of certain bacteria.
A plant with this property is known as antibacterial.
Chemicals in their cells are toxic to bacteria or interfere with their metabolism in some other way.
You can probably guess why there is mint in toothpaste, but would garlic be better? Mint may numb
our gums, but is it lethal to bacteria? In this activity you will investigate if two plants contain
antibacterial chemicals and their effectiveness by looking at the growth of bacteria on agar plates.
Before you start, read through the procedure and suggest what you might expect to observe on the
plates. Decide how you would take precise measurements to enable you to make valid conclusions
from the data about whether or not the plant extracts have antimicrobial properties and if they are
equally effective.

Procedure
1 Agar plates seeded with suitable bacteria need to be prepared. This may have been done for you in
advance; if not, follow the instructions on page 3. The Practical Skills Support has a sheet on plate
pouring and aseptic technique.
2 Obtain a plant extract by crushing 3 g of plant material with 10 cm3 of industrial methylated spirit
and shake it from time to time for 10 minutes.
3 Pipette 0.1 cm3 of extract onto a sterile antibiotic assay paper disc. (If these are not available,
discs cut from new filter paper using a hole punch can be used.)
4 Let the paper discs dry for 10 minutes on open sterile Petri dishes.
5 Repeat steps 1 to 4 for other plants, making separate test discs for each extract.

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 Activity 4.22 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

6 Decide within your group what a ‘suitable control’ should be. Check with your teacher/lecturer
before proceeding.
7 Use sterile forceps to place the test discs onto the bacterial plate together with the suitable control
per plate. Three test discs and a control can be placed on a single Petri dish. Ensure that you can
distinguish between the different discs by marking the underside of the Petri dish.
8 Close the Petri dish and tape it as shown in Figure 1. Do not tape all round the dish because this
can lead to the growth of anaerobic bacteria, some of which may be harmful. Make sure your
name, the date, the plant and bacteria used are recorded on the plate.

clear tape

Figure 1 A convenient way of taping a Petri dish without allowing anaerobic conditions to develop.

9 Incubate the plates for 24 hours at 25 °C (longer incubation times may be required for the growth
to be visible, so it may be necessary to observe them at intervals over several days).
10 Observe the plates without opening them. Bacterial growth on an agar plate looks cloudy. Make
any appropriate measurements that will enable you to compare the antibacterial properties of the
different plant extracts.
11 Return plates to your teacher to be autoclaved to kill bacteria before disposal of the plates.
12 Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water after completing the practical.

Analysis and interpretation of data

Present your results in the most appropriate way. See Maths and Stats Support Sheet 1 – presenting
data – tables, in the support section of SNAB Online. Remember to record a suitable number of
significant figures in measured and calculated values. If you have repeated measurements use these to
comment on the significance of your results. See Maths and Stats Support Sheet 9 for an introduction
to statistical tests.

Conclusion and evaluation

In the write up of your experiment, making sure your report includes:
 a clear conclusion to your work that explains any patterns in the data using evidence from the data
and your own biological knowledge
 comments on how valid your conclusion is
 comments on the accuracy and precision of the results obtained in this experiment
 comments on whether or not the outcome of your work was as you expected. If it wasn't, try to
explain why not.
 discussion about any safety precautions you took during the experiment
 descriptions of any modifications you made to the procedure and how the experiment could be
improved.

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 Activity 4.22 Student Sheet
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Core Practical

Pouring agar plates

SAFETY
Wear eye protection and a lab coat.
Do not do this procedure if methylated spirit is in use.
Aseptic techniques should be used throughout to avoid contamination.

YOU NEED
● 15 cm3 of sterile agar in an agar bottle or test ● Sterile Petri dish
tube ●
3
1 cm sterile pipette
● Beaker into which the agar bottle will fit

Procedure
1 Collect a bottle or test tube containing 15 cm3 of sterile nutrient agar.
2 Melt the agar by placing the bottle or tube in a hot water bath (agar melts at 97 °C). If the bottle
has a screw cap it should be loosened to allow air to escape.
3 Once all the agar has melted, remove the bottle. You will need to use a cloth to do this. Allow the
agar to cool to about 50 °C, a temperature at which you can handle the bottle. The agar will start
to solidify at about 42 °C. Take care not to let it cool too much or it will set as you pour it into the
Petri dish.
4 Pipette 1 cm3 of bacterial broth into a sterile Petri dish using an aseptic technique. The lid of the
Petri dish should only be lifted enough to allow entry of the pipette. See Figure 2 below.
5 Pour the 15 cm3 of molten agar into the Petri dish and replace the lid. Gently push the plate back
and forth, N–S, NE–SW and NW–SE to mix the bacteria with the agar and allow the agar to set.
6 Please note: it is essential that the plates are used for the investigation an hour or so after the agar
has set, otherwise once the bacteria have started to grow they will be unaffected by the
antimicrobial agent.

Flame neck of
culture tube.

cotton plug sterile pipette

from tube

Take sample.

Raise just enough

to give access.
Flame neck of
culture and replace
plug.

Pipette into Replace lid and

Petri dish. tape as shown.

Figure 2 Aseptic techniques.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.23 Student Sheet

TESTING A NEW DRUG

Purpose
 To compare William Withering’s approach to drug development with methods used by drug
companies today.

Digitalis
Digitalis is a natural toxin found in foxgloves. Although digitalis can be fatal in even quite small doses
it was used for centuries in herbal remedies to treat some heart conditions. The man responsible for
bringing the use of digitalis into conventional medicine in the 1700s was William Withering.
Read through sections in the Student Book titled ‘Digitalis and drug development’ (page 191) and
‘Drug testing today’ (page 192) before attempting the questions.
Q1 Make two flowcharts: one outlining the stages that William Withering went through when he
was working on digitalis and a second showing the steps involved in developing a new drug
today. Try to use the same layout to make comparisons easier.
Q2 Compare the two flowcharts. What similarities and differences do you notice?
Q3 In what way is the current system of drug testing safer and more reliable?
Q4 What do we gain nowadays from testing the drug on healthy volunteers first?
Q5 Why is it important to randomly assign patients to the treatments and have a double blind trial?
(Assume the researchers are well-meaning and honest.)
Q6 Many people in the UK use ‘alternative’ therapies such as aromatherapy, homeopathy and
reflexology. Only a few of these have been subjected to clinical trials and in many cases where
trials have been run the results have been ambiguous. However, it is claimed that some
acupuncture trials have produced positive findings. Choose one ‘alternative’ therapy described
below and design a trial to test its efficacy (effectiveness). Remember that the placebo effect,
where the patient’s belief in the procedure affects the outcome, is thought to be particularly
strong in this area, so you will need to design your placebo with care.
In acupuncture, very fine needles are stuck into the patient at specific sites. Skill is needed to make
sure the needles are accurately sited. The needles are said to influence the flow of energy in the patient
and vibrations of the needles can change the effects.
Aromatherapy is the use of volatile plant oils for physical and psychological wellbeing. In
aromatherapy, patients are treated with ‘essential oils’ from plants. These may be inhaled, or diluted in
other oils and massaged onto the skin. Different essential oils are used to treat different conditions. For
example, rosemary can be used for muscle pains and dandruff, while lavender can be used for acne,
asthma and hypertension.
Reflexology is based on the idea that specific areas of a person’s feet influence parts of the rest of the
body. The feet are massaged, concentrating on the areas which are thought to affect the afflicted part.
In homeopathy, the patient uses minute quantities of substances which would, if given in much larger
amounts, produce similar effects to the patient’s symptoms. (For example, red onions may be used to
treat watery eyes.) The substances are diluted to extremely low concentrations. It is believed that the
more they are diluted the more effective they are.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.24 Student Sheet

SUPERHEATING STARCH

Purpose
To describe the use of starch as a packaging material.
SAFETY
Wear eye protection and lab coats at all times.
Care must be taken when heating oil and popping corn without a lid.
Add a teaspoon of oil to a cold pan, then add the corn to the pan before heating. Only a small
amount of oil should be used.
Do not add the corn straight into hot oil.
Do not stand over or look into pan whilst it is heating up.
Add the oil and the corn to the cold pan as this will make
You must not eat the popcorn unless you do the practical with ‘food use only’ utensils.

YOU NEED
● 2 or 3 kernels of popping corn ● Cooking pan
● Teaspoonful of cooking oil

Heating starch under pressure

Ever wondered how they make savoury corn puffs?
It is simply done by heating starch under pressure. Superheating causes starch to gelatinise: as the
starch is heated, hydrogen bonds within the granules break. If water is present the granule absorbs the
water and starts to swell. If very little water is present and heating occurs under pressure the starch
forms a plastic mass. If water is superheated under pressure and then the pressure is released the water
turns to steam.
What happens when the starch in corn kernels is superheated? You get popcorn. Here you can have a
go at popping some corn and then try to explain what has happened.

Procedure
1 Place a teaspoonful of oil into a cooking pan.
2 Place two or three corn kernels in the oil. Heat the pan gently over a medium heat. Making
popcorn in the kitchen would be done with a lid covering the pan. Here, without a lid, care must
be taken to avoid any burns from spitting fat or popping corn. Observe the corn as it heats, taking
care to stand well clear in case the oil spits. You could use a plane mirror, held in a clamp and
angled so that you can see down into the pan from a safe distance.
3 Once the corn has ‘popped’, remove the pan from the heat and allow it to cool.
4 Observe the corn carefully.
5 Explain your observations.

Starch extruders
Making puffed breakfast cereal, corn snacks or starch foam packaging uses exactly the same principle
as popping corn. Figure 1 is from a guidebook for a factory tour. It shows a diagrammatic
representation of a starch extruder that is used to make starch foam packaging. The results look just
like snacks but do not try to eat them! The guidebook had failed to include labels on the diagram to
explain the process. Add some annotated labels that could be included when they reprint the book.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.24 Student Sheet

starch

water

Figure 1 A starch extruder used to make starch foam packaging.

Not only can starch be made into foam pellets, it can also be moulded into shapes and made into
transparent films. So, the foam box that fruit is sometimes packed in at a supermarket and the clear
film that covers it can both be made of starch. To find out more about starch foams and films see the
weblinks for this activity.

Think back
Some science equipment comes packed in starch packaging. How would you check that it was starch
packaging? (Eating it is not a test.)

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.25 Student Sheet

IS YOUR LIFESTYLE SUSTAINABLE?

Purpose
 To consider what human activities are threatening biodiversity.
 To calculate your own ecological footprint.
 To consider ways of achieving greater sustainability.

Human impacts on the world

The world population is estimated to rise by 40% in the next 50 years. So the impact we have on our
planet will also rise. What impact do we have on the planet now?
As individuals or in groups, list the negative and positive impacts that humans have on the world.
Identify those impacts that threaten biodiversity and which of them you contribute to directly or
indirectly.

Your ecological footprint

Measure your own demands on the planet and calculate your individual ecological footprint. Do this
by completing one of the online questionnaires that can be found in the weblinks accompanying this
activity.
Your footprint is given in terms of Earth units, i.e. the number of planet Earths we would need to
support everyone now alive if they all had your particular lifestyle. You will almost certainly find that
your footprint is greater than one planet and probably more than two.

Making our lifestyles more sustainable

In 1987 the Brundtland report highlighted the need for development that could be sustained without
depleting natural resources or harming the environment. The 1992 United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development, or ‘Earth Summit’, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, saw international
agreements to increase sustainability. These included Agenda 21; this requires each country to draw
up a national strategy of sustainable development and is implemented in the UK by local authorities.
The aim is to encourage people to think globally, but act locally.
Make a list of five ways you could make your lifestyle more sustainable. But remember that it is not as
simple as changing to using plant-based products if natural forest and all its biodiversity has been
destroyed to plant the crops.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.26 Student Sheet

ANIMAL DATING AGENCY

Purpose
 To examine the use of studbooks to manage captive populations of endangered animals.

What are studbooks?

Studbooks are kept by zoos involved in breeding endangered species. They keep a record of the
history of all captive individuals, their parents, location and any movements between zoos. In this
activity, using real data from a lemur studbook, you have to identify key individuals involved in the
captive breeding programme. This should highlight the complexity of animal management in a
modern zoo. Names of the actual zoos and the species of lemur have been removed for reasons of
privacy.

Managing captive lemur populations

Read pages 198–201 of the Student Book and then use the data in Table 1 taken from a lemur
studbook to answer the questions that follow.

Stud No. Sex Sire Dam Date of Event Event Location

L1 F *Wild Wild Aug 1985 Capture Malagasy
Aug 1985 Transfer to Zoo G
Nov 1996 Death Zoo G
L4 M Wild Wild Nov 1990 Capture Malagasy
Dec 1990 Loan to Zoo A
Nov 1996 Transfer to Zoo B
Jul 1999 Transfer to Zoo A
L5 M Wild Wild Nov 1990 Capture Malagasy
Dec 1990 Loan to Zoo A
L8 F Wild Wild Nov 1990 Capture Malagasy
Dec 1990 Loan to Zoo A
L10 M Wild Wild Nov 1990 Capture Malagasy
Dec 1990 Loan to Zoo A
Dec 1992 Transfer to Zoo G
Apr 1998 Transfer to Zoo A
Jul 1999 Transfer to Zoo B
L11 M Wild Wild Nov 1990 Capture Malagasy
Dec 1990 Loan to Zoo A
May 1998 Transfer to Zoo D
L13 M L5 L8 Aug 1993 Birth Zoo A
Dec 1998 Transfer to Zoo C
L15 F L5 L8 Aug 1994 Birth Zoo A
May 1998 Transfer to Zoo D
L16 M L5 L8 Aug 1994 Birth Zoo A

L20 F L10 L1 Mar 1995 Birth Zoo G

Apr 1998 Transfer to Zoo A
L21 F L5 L8 Jul 1995 Birth Zoo A
Nov 1996 Loan to Zoo B

L22 F L5 L8 Apr 1996 Birth Zoo A

Jun 1998 Transfer to Zoo E

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.26 Student Sheet

Stud No. Sex Sire Dam Date of Event Event Location

L24 M L11 L15 May 1996 Birth Zoo A
May 1998 Transfer to Zoo D
L25 M L11 L15 May 1996 Birth Zoo A
May 1998 Transfer to Zoo D
L26 M L5 L8 Jan 1997 Birth Zoo A

L27 M L5 L8 Jan 1997 Birth Zoo A

L28 M Wild Wild Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy

Apr 1997 Transfer to Zoo A
Dec 1998 Transfer to Zoo F
Jan 2001 Death Zoo F

L29 M L28 Wild Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy

Apr 1997 Transfer to Zoo A
L30 M Wild Wild Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy
Apr 1997 Transfer to Zoo A
Oct 1998 Transfer to Zoo C
Oct 2001 Transfer to Zoo E
L31 M Wild Wild Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy
Apr 1997 Transfer to Zoo A
Dec 1998 Transfer to Zoo F
L32 F Wild Wild Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy
Apr 1997 Transfer to Zoo A
Dec 1998 Transfer to Zoo F
Jan 2001 Death Zoo F
L34 M L33 L32 Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy
Apr 1997 Transfer to Zoo A
Jun 1998 Transfer to Zoo E
Oct 2001 Transfer to Zoo C
L38 M Wild Wild Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy
Apr 1997 Transfer to Zoo A
Nov 2001 Death Zoo A
L39 F Wild Wild Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy
Apr 1997 Transfer to Zoo A
L40 F Wild Wild Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy
Apr 1997 Transfer to Zoo A
Dec 1998 Transfer to Zoo F
L41 F Wild Wild Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy
Apr 1997 Transfer to Zoo A
Oct 1998 Transfer to Zoo C
L42 F L5 L8 Jan 1998 Birth Zoo A

L44 M L38 L39 Jun 1998 Birth Zoo A

Feb 2002 Transfer to Zoo H
L46 M L31 L40 Jul 1998 Birth Zoo A
Dec 1998 Transfer to Zoo F
L47 M L5 L8 Oct 1998 Birth Zoo A

L48 M L5 L8 Oct 1998 Birth Zoo A

L49 M L38 L39 Apr 1999 Birth Zoo A

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.26 Student Sheet

Stud No. Sex Sire Dam Date of Event Event Location

L50 F L5 L8 Aug 1999 Birth Zoo A
Jul 2001 Transfer to Zoo H
L51 M L5 L8 Aug 1999 Birth Zoo A

L52 M L31 L40 May 1999 Birth Zoo F

L53 M L31 L40 May 1999 Birth Zoo F

L57 M L29 L20 Mar 2000 Birth Zoo A

L58 F L38 L39 Apr 2000 Birth Zoo A

L60 M L5 L8 Oct 2000 Birth Zoo A

L62 F L29 L20 Jan 2001 Birth Zoo A

L63 F L29 L20 Jan 2001 Birth Zoo A

L64 F L38 L39 Apr 2001 Birth Zoo A

L65 M L31 L40 May 2000 Birth Zoo F

L66 M L31 L40 May 2001 Birth Zoo F

L75 M L5 L8 Jul 2001 Birth Zoo A

Table 1 Extract from lemur studbook.

*Note: an assumption is made that wild-caught animals are not related.
Sire = father.
Dam = mother.
Source: DWCT/Jersey Zoo.

Questions
Q1 Which female lemur in Zoo A has had the most offspring?
Q2 L21 needs a new mate. Which males must she not be paired with and why?
Q3 Wild-caught animals are genetically important.
a Why do you think this is the case?
b Which lemur(s) in the studbook extract are the most important to breed from?
Q4 Give reasons for the use of studbooks in captive-breeding programmes?

Websites for further information

 The American Zoo and Aquaria website gives a good description of what a studbook is and how it
works. The website is in the weblinks that accompany this activity.
 Other studbooks can be accessed on the web.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.27 Student Sheet

PUTTING THEM BACK

Purpose
 To highlight some of the complications of releasing captive-bred animals back into the wild using
the example of the release of captive-bred black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata
variegata) back into their native forests of Eastern Madagascar.
 To examine some data on the captive breeding of the Mauritius kestrel which provides an
example of how captive breeding can be highly effective.

Ruffed lemur reintroduction

Figure 1 Varecia variegata variegata ready for release.

In order to ensure that a reintroduction programme is going to work it is vital that research is
conducted to find out exactly how well captive-bred individuals can survive in the wild. Back in 1997
a plan was put into action to release some captive-bred black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia
variegata variegata) back into their native forest in the north west of Madagascar. The plan was drawn
up by the Madagascar Fauna Group, a collection of conservation organisations concerned with
biodiversity conservation on the island. The group includes the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust
based at Jersey Zoo.
The Betampona forest reserve was chosen as the release site as it was a protected site and research had
shown that the area could benefit from an increase in the wild Varecia population. The following is an
extract from Lemur News, a web-based journal produced by the Madagascar Fauna Group. Study this
report on the release of captive-bred black-and-white ruffed lemurs before completing the questions
that follow.

Extract
As previously reported the Madagascar Fauna Group have been attempting an experimental
reinforcement of captive-bred black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia v. variegata) in the Betampona
Reserve since 1997 (Britt et al. 1998, 2000). Whilst some individuals have shown encouraging signs
of adaptation to a wild existence, others have adapted poorly. However, regardless of the degree of
adaptation it is clear that captive-bred individuals of this species are extremely vulnerable to predation
by a cat-like carnivore [actually a civet, family: Viverridae] called the fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox). This
paper will discuss the impact of this predator on the success of the project and its implications for
future reinforcement or reintroduction efforts.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.27 Student Sheet

The release programme

Of the 13 captive-bred V. v. variegata released to date, five (two males, three females) have been
killed by C. ferox. Of these five, one pair produced triplets in October 1999, and at least one of these
offspring is also presumed to have fallen victim to C. ferox predation. It is particularly disappointing
that this pair who had been able to reproduce and raise triplets were killed. Of the remaining animals
one male died as a result of injuries sustained during a fall or possibly malnutrition and another female
simply disappeared. One male from the November 1997 release is integrated into a wild group and
thriving. A female released in November 1998 has been withdrawn from the programme following the
killing of her two fellow releasees by C. ferox, but also due to her poor adaptation over a period of 2
years in the forest. Three males and one female released in January 2001 are still surviving and
showing good signs of adaptation in terms of food location, travel and navigation within the forest.
Preliminary analyses of behavioural data indicate that individuals with early or long-term experience
in enclosures that simulate the natural forest environment of this species adapt better to life in the
wild. This has been the case for both the first and third release groups. For both groups it has been
possible to stop supplemental feeding within a few months of release. Also both groups have shown
similar ranging patterns to wild V. v. variegata and have established territories of comparable size.
However, the second release group had very limited experience (a few months) in ‘natural habitat
enclosures’ and remained reliant on provisioning throughout their 2 years in the forest. This group
showed no inclination to range far from their release site in search of food.
Extract from Britt, A., Welch, C. and Katz, A. (2001) The impact of Cryptoprocta ferox on the
Varecia v. variegata Reinforcement Project at Betampona. Lemur News 6: 35–37.
Lemur News provides reports on other lemur species and conservation work being conducted in
Madagascar on this unique group of mammals. The website for Lemur News can be found in the
weblinks that accompany this activity.
In 2014, the IUCN Red List classified the ruffed lemur as critically endangered as they were thought
to have declined by more than 80% over the last three generations (21 years). The decline has been
attributed to decrease in size and quality of habitat due to slash and burn agriculture, logging and
mining. The ruffed lemur is also hunted for meat. See the IUCN Red List website for more
information on its current status.

Questions
Q1 What was the fate of the released captive-bred lemurs?
Q2 What percentage of the released lemurs survived?
Q3 Why was ‘supplemental feeding’ carried out for the release group?
Q4 Do the results give any indication that captive-bred lemurs can be successfully released into
the wild?
Q5 Suggest what modifications a zoo could make to their reintroduction programme to increase
the chances of successful release into the wild.
Q6 Give reasons for the inclusion (or non-inclusion) of juvenile or adult lemurs in the release
programme.
Q7 Suggest what other measures need to be taken in Madagascar to aid the success of any
reintroduction programme.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.27 Student Sheet

Saving the Mauritius kestrel

Table 1 shows the changes in population size for the Mauritius kestrel (Falco punctatus) from its low
point in 1973, with only two known pairs surviving in the wild, up to 1990. Direct management of the
wild population began in 1983. This involved a combination of fostering captive-bred kestrels by wild
pairs and release of captive-bred fledglings. By 2002 the wild population was over 350 pairs and it
was thought that the population had stabilised. The species was reclassified, from endangered to
vulnerable. It was thought that the population may have reached 500 birds.
However in 2011–12 the total population was estimated to be between 300 and 400 individuals. One
sub-population in the north of the island is thought to have become extinct, with declines in some
others. The decrease in numbers has been linked to the spread of introduced plant species. The
Mauritius kestrel has been reclassified as endangered due to the decline of its small population.
Using a spreadsheet (or graph paper) draw a graph of the data to illustrate the changes that took place
between 1973 and 1990. Use this to answer the questions that follow.
Season Total population Natural production Number of captive Number fostered
fledglings
released
1973 4 0
1974 6 2
1975 6 0
1976 12 6
1977 15 6
1978 16 5
1979 18 4
1980 20 4
1981 17 3
1982 20 8
1983 20 5 5
1984 34 12 12 12
1985 35 8 13 8
1986 34 8 12 8
1987 48 8 24 10
1988 62 8 26 12
1989 110 10 55 28
1990 135 12 53 24
Table 1 Changes in population size of the Mauritius kestrel. Source: The data are from a paper by Carl Jones,
Mauritius Wildlife Fund (Dodo Journal, published by DWCT).

Q8 Explain the impact of releasing captive-bred kestrels on the total wild population.
Q9 Based on the shape of the graph for natural production do you think that the species would
have gone extinct over time without the release of captive-bred stock?
Q10 What natural events could have caused the natural population to go extinct if numbers had
remained low over a long period?
Q11 One argument for increasing population size rapidly when the original population of a species is
low is that it generates more individuals, some of which should be able to survive the impact of
inbreeding. What could have happened to the wild kestrel population as a result of inbreeding?
Q12 Why might the spread of introduced plant species lead to a decline in kestrel numbers?
The Mauritius Wildlife Foundation website provides additional information on the kestrel and other
species. The website is in the weblinks that accompany this activity.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.28 Student Sheet

MORE THAN JUST SAVING SEEDS

Purpose
 To discuss and evaluate the methods used by seed banks in the conservation of endangered plants.

Seed banks
Watch the video about the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) that accompanies this activity in the
weblinks, read the Student Book and visit the MSB website to find out more about the creation of a
worldwide seed conservation network to safeguard wild plant species. Then answer the questions that
follow.

Questions
Q1 Draw a flowchart to summarise the processes involved in the storage of seeds in a seedbank.
Q2 The scientists operating the seedbank need their seeds to remain viable while in storage. Seeds
are considered viable if they can germinate and produce a radicle (young root) which protrudes
through the seed coat (testa). However, with time all seeds lose their ability to germinate. Why
may seeds lose their viability with time?
Q3 Some plant species’ seeds are longer-lived than others. Seed longevity is measured as the time
for viability to fall to 50%. For example, seeds of wood anemone, Anemone nemorosa, a
British woodland herb, only survive seedbank storage for a year or two at best, whereas
sunflower seeds and oil-seed rape have predicted longevity of 165 years and 843 years
respectively.
a What are the advantages of seeds being long-lived in the wild?
b Why is it useful for researchers at the seedbank to know the longevity of the seeds in their
care?
Q4 The Millennium Seed Bank Project (MSBP) is conducting research to determine the longevity
of the seeds they store. Figure 1 shows the results of some of the research completed as part of
the Save our Seeds project. Look at the results.
a Identify the shortest-lived and longest-lived species.
b Comment on the longevity of the buttercup (Ranunculus sceleratus) and the
chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum).

Figure 1 Results of an experiment to investigate longevity of 10 species.

Source: Millennium Seed Bank Save Our Seeds Project.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.28 Student Sheet

Q5 The MSBP identifies habitats and species that are a priority for seed conservation. Many
partners within the project focus seed collection on particular species. What features are used
to decide which species are collected?
Q6 MSB collections are being used for the reintroduction of species to the wild. Describe one
example from the UK and one from aboard.
Q7 International partnerships are an important feature of conservation and reintroduction
programmes. Explain why the priorities of the scientists at the MSB need to be balanced with
those of international partners.
Q8 Describe how seedbank collections can be used for research and education.
Q9 There is much discussion about the role of zoos in the conservation of endangered species.
People express views both for and against. Discuss if the concerns that many people have
about zoos also apply to seedbanks.

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.29 Student Sheet

CHECK YOUR NOTES FOR TOPIC 4:

BIODIVERSITY AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Purpose
 To help you get your notes in order at the end of this topic.

Topic 4 summary
Make sure your notes cover the following points. The points are listed in the approximate order they
appear within the topic. All the points are covered in the Student Book but where there is supporting
information within the activities this is indicated.
There are suggestions on making notes and on revision in the Exam and Study Skills Support.
You should:
 Understand the concept of a niche. (Activities 4.3 and 4.5)
 Be able to discuss examples of adaptation of organisms to their environment (behavioural,
physiological and anatomical). (Checkpoint question 4.1) (Activities 4.4 and 4.5)
 Understand how natural selection can lead to adaptation and evolution. (Checkpoint question 4.2)
(Activity 4.6)
 Understand how the Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to see if a change in allele frequency
is occurring in a population over time. (Activity 4.7)
 Understand that reproductive isolation can lead to accumulation of different genetic information
in populations, potentially leading to the formation of new species.
 Understand the terms biodiversity and endemism. (Activities 4.8 and 4.9)
 Understand that classification is a means of organising the variety of life based on relationships
between organisms using differences and similarities in phenotypes and in genotypes, and is built
around the species concept. (Activity 4.10)
 Understand the process and importance of critical evaluation of new data by the scientific
community, which leads to new taxonomic groupings, including the three domains of life based
on molecular phylogeny, which are Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryota. (Checkpoint question 4.3)
(Activity 4.11)
 Know how biodiversity can be measured within a habitat using species richness and within a
species using genetic diversity, by calculating the heterozygosity index. (Activities 4.12 and 4.14)
 Understand how biodiversity can be compared in different habitats using a formula to calculate an
index of diversity. (Activity 4.13)
 Know the ultrastructure of plant cells (cell wall, chloroplasts, amyloplasts, vacuole, tonoplast,
plasmodesmata, pits and middle lamella) and be able to compare it with animal cells. (Checkpoint
question 4.4) (Activity 4.15)
 Be able to recognise the organelles in plants cells from electron microscope (EM) images.
(Activity 4.15)
 Understand the structure and function of the polysaccharides starch and cellulose, including the
role of hydrogen bonds between β-glucose molecules in the formation of cellulose microfibrils.
(Checkpoint question 4.5) (Activity 4.16)
 Identify sclerenchyma fibres, phloem sieve tubes and xylem vessels, and their location within
stems through a light microscope. (Activity 4.17)
 Know the similarities and differences between the structures, position in the stem and functions of
sclerenchyma fibres (support), xylem vessels (support and transport of water and mineral ions)
and phloem (translocation of organic solutes). (Checkpoint 4.7) (Activities 4.18 and 4.20)

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Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Resources Activity 4.29 Student Sheet

 Understand how the arrangement of cellulose microfibrils and secondary thickening in plant cell
walls contributes to the physical properties of xylem vessels and sclerenchyma fibres in plant
fibres, which can be exploited by humans. (Checkpoint question 4.6) (Activities 4.16, 4.17 and
4.21)
 Determine the tensile strength of plant fibres practically. (Activity 4.21)
 Understand how the uses of plant fibres and starch may contribute to sustainability, including
plant-based products to replace oil-based plastics. (Activity 4.25)
 Understand the importance of water and inorganic ions (nitrate, calcium ions and magnesium
ions) to plants. (Activity 4.19)
 Investigate plant mineral deficiencies practically. (Activity 4.19)
 Understand the development of drug testing from historic to contemporary protocols, including
William Withering’s digitalis soup, double blind trials, placebo, three-phased testing. (Activity
4.23)
 Understand the conditions required for bacterial growth. (Activity 4.22)
 Investigate the antimicrobial properties of plants, including aseptic techniques for the safe
handling of bacteria. (Activity 4.22)
 Know that over time the variety of life has become extensive, but is now being threatened by
human activity. (Activity 4.25)
 Be able to evaluate the methods used by zoos and seed banks in the conservation of endangered
species and their genetic diversity, including scientific research, captive breeding programmes,
reintroduction programmes and education. (Checkpoint question 4.8) (Activities 4.26, 4.27 and
4.28)

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