EC8561- COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS LAB MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL
EC8561 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS LABORATORY
SEMESTER V /YEAR-III
(R-2017)

PREPARED BY APPROVED BY

Mr.S.MOHAMMED SULAIMAN., AP/ECE Dr.M.ANTOBENNET

Mrs.V.MAHALAKSHMI. AP/ECE PROFESSOR/ HOD ECE

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Vision of the Institute

To Develop Globally Competitive Human Resource through Virtuous Enlightened Learning.
Mission of the Institute
M1: To Impart Quality Technical Education and Research Orientation Enabling the
Technocrats to Fair Well in Global Competition.
M2: To Inculcate Committed Leadership Qualities through Ethical Practices.
M3: To Acquire Skills through Industry Practices and Develop the habit of life-long learning.
Vision of the Department
To Produce Competent and Responsible Engineers to meet the growing Challenges in the field
of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Mission of the Department
M1: To impart strong technical competency to learners by using best pedagogical methods
M2: To provide industrial exposure to learners by collaboration with industries for training,
internships, and expert talks.
M3: To imbibe self-learning, collaborative learning, Ethical values and Environment awareness
through Co- curricular and Extra-curricular activities.
PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’s)

PEO 1: Adapt to dynamically evolving technologies for a successful career in an

academia/Industry/Entrepreneur
PEO 2: Apply the knowledge of Electronics and communication Engineering to solve real
world problems.
PEO 3: Exhibit effective communication skills and can perform as a team player with
leadership traits.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’s)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

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3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and

design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
PROGRAMME SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’s)
PSO 1: Develop Innovative Ideas for an existing / Novel problem through Information and
Communication technologies.

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PSO 2: Apply the Analog and Digital system Design Principles and practices for Developing
Quality products.

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EC8561 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS LABORATORY L T P C

0 0 4 2
OBJECTIVES:
The student should be made:
 To visualize the effects of sampling and TDM
 To Implement AM & FM modulation and demodulation
 To implement PCM & DM
 To simulate Digital Modulation schemes
 To simulate Error control coding schemes
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
1. Signal Sampling and reconstruction
2. Time Division Multiplexing
3. AM Modulator and Demodulator
4. FM Modulator and Demodulator
5. Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation
6. Delta Modulation and Demodulation
7. Line coding schemes
8. Simulation of ASK, FSK, and BPSK generation schemes
9. Simulation of DPSK, QPSK and QAM generation schemes
10. Simulation of signal constellations of BPSK, QPSK and QAM
11. Simulation of ASK, FSK and BPSK detection schemes
12. Simulation of Linear Block and Cyclic error control coding schemes
13. Simulation of Convolutional coding scheme
14. Communication link simulation
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course, the student should be able to:
 Simulate & validate the various functional modules of a communication system
 Demonstrate their knowledge in base band signaling schemes through
implementation of digital modulation schemes
 Apply various channel coding schemes & demonstrate their capabilities
towards the improvement of the noise performance of communication system

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 Simulate end-to-end communication Link

COURSE COURSE K-
EC8561 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS LABORATORY SEM 5
CODE NAME LEVEL

On completion of the course, the students will be able to

CO1 Demonstrate analog modulation and demodulation scheme.

CO2 Demonstrate the digital modulation & Demodulation scheme.

CO3 Demonstrate the concept of line coding techniques.

Simulation of BPSK, QPSK & QAM signal constellation, ASK, FSK BPSK
CO4
& DPSK digital modulation schemes using MATLAB.
Simulation using communication link (MATLAB Simulink) & also the
CO5
error control coding, convolutional coding.

CO/ PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO

PO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2
CO1 3 3 3 0 1 1 2 2 1 3 3
CO2 3 3 3 0 1 1 2 2 1 3 3
CO3 3 3 3 0 1 1 2 2 1 3 3
CO4 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3
CO5 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3
C406 3 3 3 0 1 1 2 2 1 3 3

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INDEX

S.No Name of the Experiment Page No

1. SIGNAL SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION 08

2. TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 12

3. AM MODULATOR AND DEMODULATOR 16

4. FM MODULATION AND DEMODULATION 20

5. PULSE CODE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION 24

6. DELTA MODULATION AND DEMODULATION 28

7. LINE CODING SCHEMES 32

8. SIMULATION OF ASK GENERATION AND DETECTION SCHEME 40

9. SIMULATION OF BPSK GENERATION AND DETECTION SCHEMES 44

10. SIMULATION OF FSK GENERATION AND DETECTION SCHEME 50

11. SIMULATION OF DPSK, QPSK GENERATION SCHEMES 56

OBSERVATION (SIMULATION) OF SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS OF

12. 60
BPSK, QPSK AND QAM

13. SIMULATION OF LINEAR BLOCK CODING SCHEME 64

14. SIMULATION OF ERROR CONTROL USING CYCLICCODE 68

15. SIMULATION OF CONVOLUTIONAL CODING SCHEME 70

16. COMMUNICATION LINK SIMULATIONS 74

CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

1. PULSE WIDTH MODULATION 84

2. AMPLITUDE MODULATOR USING SOFTWARE DEFINED RADIO 88

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3. PULSE POSITION MODULATION 100

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CONNECTION DIAGRAM

NATURAL SAMPLING

SAMPLE AND HOLD

FLAT – TOP SAMPLING

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1. SIGNAL SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION

AIM:
To sample and reconstruct the given signal using natural sampling, sample - hold and flat
top sampling techniques using DCL-01Kit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of the Equipment/ Component Range Quantity

1. DCL-01 trainer kit - 1
2. CRO 30 MHz 1
3. Power supply 5V, ±12V 1
4. Patch chords - Required

THEORY
Sampling is the process of splitting the given analog signal into different samples of
equal amplitudes with respect to time. There are two types of sampling namely natural
sampling, flat top sampling. Sampling should follow strictly the Nyquist Criterion i.e. the
sampling frequency should be twice higher than that of the highest frequency signal.
fs ≥ 2fm
Where,
fs= Minimum Nyquist Sampling rate (Hz), fm= Maximum analog input frequency (Hz).
In natural sampling, the top of the sampled pulse follows the shape of the original signal.
Since the natural sampling increases the system complexity, the flat top sampling is mostly
preferred in practical case. The flat top sampling is achieved with the help of sample and hold
circuit. Sample and Hold circuits are used internally in analog to digital conversion. Here, the
sampled signal obtained at each sampling instant is hold until the next sampling instant. The
sampling process must follow the sampling theorem for proper signal reconstruction. In other
words, the sampling frequency must be equal to twice that of the highest frequency component
present in the original signal.
The reconstructed signal is the succession of sine pulses weighted by x (nTs) these
pulses are interpolated with the help of a LPF. It is also called reconstruction filter or
interpolation filter Natural sampling is chopper sampling because the waveform of the sampled
signal appears to be chopped off from the original signal waveform. The top of the samples
remains constant and equal to instantaneous value of x(t) at start of sampling fs = 1/Ts.

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TABULATION
Amplitude Time Period
Parameters
in Volts in Seconds
Input Signal
Ton =
Sampling Signal
Toff=
Ton =
Natural sampling Output
Toff=
Ton =
Flat-top sampling Output
Toff=
Sample and Hold output

Reconstructed Signal

MODEL GRAPH

Duty cycle calculation:

D = Ton / (Ton + Toff) = ---------- %

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PROCEDURE:

1. Give the connections as per the connection diagram.

2. Put the duty cycle selector switch in position 50%.
3. Connect the modulating signal of 1 KHz frequency to BUFIN and measure its amplitude
and time period.
4. Connect the sampling frequency clock in the internal mode INT CLK using the
sampling signal selector switch SW4.
5. Set the sampling frequency to 8 KHz and note down the amplitude and time period of
the sampling signal.
6. Observe the natural sampling output at OUT terminal and note down the amplitude and
time period of the sampled signal.
7. Give the sampled signal to the 2nd order low pass filter circuit and observe the
reconstructed signal.
8. Note down the amplitude and time period of the reconstructed signal.
9. Repeat the same procedure for flat top sampling, Sample and hold and note down the
readings.
10. Plot the readings in the graph.
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the need of sampling?

2. What is sampling rate?
3. What is Nyquist rate of sampling?
4. Mention the types of sampling.
5. State the sampling theorem.
6. What is natural sampling?
7. Differentiate three types of sampling techniques.
8. What is the function sample & hold circuit?
9. What is aliasing effect and how it can be eliminated?
10. State the role of duty cycle in sampling circuit.
11. What is the function reconstruction filter?
12. What is the use of sampling and reconstruction technique in communication
engineering?

RESULT:
Thus the given signal is sampled and reconstructed for natural sampling,sample and hold
and flat top sampling alsoplotted the observed waveforms.

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CONNECTION DIAGRAM

MODEL GRAPH

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2. TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

AIM:
To perform four channel Time Division multiplexing and De multiplexing using DCL –
02 trainer kit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the Equipment/ Component Range Quantity
1. DCL-02 trainer kit - 1
2. CRO 30 MHz 1
3. Power supply 5V, ±12V 1
4. Patch chords - Required
THEORY:
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a technique of transmitting different source signals
on the same channel at different time slots. That is several information can be transmitted over a
single channel by sending samples from different information sources at different moments.
TDM is widely used in digital communication systems to increase the efficiency of the
transmitting medium. TDM can be achieved by electronically switching the samples such that
they interleave sequentially at correct instant in time without mutual interference.A major
problem in any TDM system is the synchronization of the transmitter and receiver timing
circuits. The transmitter and receiver must switch at the same time and frequency.TDM based
on analog modulation, the time slots are separated by guard slots to prevent crosstalk between
the channels.
In PAM, PPM the pulse is present for a short duration and for most of the timebetween the
two pulses no signal is present. This free space between the pulses can be occupied by pulses
from other channels. Thus, time division multiplexing makes maximum utilization of the
transmission channel. Each channel to be transmitted is passed through the low pass filter. The
outputs of the low pass filters are connected to the rotating sampling switch (or) commutator.
It takes the sample from each channel per revolution and rotates at the rate of f s. Thusthe
sampling frequency becomes fs the single signal composed due to multiplexing of input
channels. These channels signals are then passed through low pass reconstruction filters. If the
highest signal frequency present in all the channels is fm, then by sampling theorem, the
sampling frequency fs must be such that fs≥2fm. Therefore, the time space between successive
samples from any one input will be Ts=1/fs, and Ts≤ 1/2fm.

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TABULATION:

Amplitude Time Period

Parameters
in Volts in Seconds
Channel 0 (CH 0)

Channel 1 (CH 1)

Channel 2 (CH 2)

Channel 3 (CH 3)

TxD

RxD

Output 0

Output 1

Output 2

Output 3

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PROCEDURE:

1. Give the connections as per the connection diagram.

2. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit DCL-02 and switch it ON.
3. Connect 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1 KHz, 2 KHz sine wave signal from the function generator to
the multiplexer input channel CH0, CH1, CH2 and CH3 by means of connecting cords.
4. Connect the multiplexer OUT TXD to the transmitter section to the de-multiplexer input
RXD of the receiver section.
5. Connect the output of the receiver section CH0, CH1, CH2 and CH3 to the IN0, IN1,
IN2 and IN3 of the filter section.
6. Connect the sampling clock TXCLK and the channel identification clock SYNC of the
receiver section respectively.
7. Set the amplitude of the input sine wave as desired.
8. Take the observations and draw the required graphs.
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by multiplexing technique?

2. What are the two types of multiplexing?
3. When do you prefer TDM to FDM?
4. When would you prefer FDM to TDM?
5. Differentiate TDM and FDM.
6. Define crosstalk effect in PAM/TDM system.
7. What is the transmission bandwidth of a PAM/TDM channel?
8. State the advantages of TDM.
9. State the disadvantages of TDM.
10. Why are the bands limiting filters used at the PAM-TDM transmitter?
11. In TDM, multiple signals share a channel by transmitting in different ……..
12. The minimum sampling rate for a voice channel is………..

RESULT:

Thus the four channel Time division multiplexing and de-multiplexing using DCL-02 kit
was performed and obtained its waveform.

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AM TRANSMITTER (MODULATOR)

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3. AM MODULATOR AND DEMODULATOR

AIM:
To transmit a modulating signal after amplitude modulation using AM transmitter and
receive the signal back after demodulating using AM receiver.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the Equipment/ Component Range Quantity
1. AM Transmitter kit - ACL 01 - 1
2. AM Receiver kit - ACL 01 - 1
3. CRO 30 MHz 1
4. Power supply 5V, ±12V 1
5. Patch chords - Required
THEORY:
MODULATION THEORY:
Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristics of a carrier signal is
varied in accordance with a modulating signal. The base band signal is referred to as the
modulating signal and the output of the modulation process is called as the modulation signal.
The carrier frequency fc must be much greater than the highest frequency components fm of the
message signal m (t) i.e. fc>>fm. The modulation index must be less than unity. If the
modulation index is greater than unity, the carrier wave becomes over modulated.
The modulating, carrier and modulated signals are given by
Vm(t) =Vmsinωmt ; VC(t) = VCsinωCt ; VAM(t) = VC (1+ma sinωmt) sinωCt
The modulation index is given by, ma = Vm / VC.
Vm = Vmax – Vmin and VC = Vmax + Vmin
The amplitude of the modulated signal is given by,
Where Vm = maximum amplitude of modulating signal, VC = maximum amplitude of
carrier signal, Vmax = maximum variation of AM signal, Vmin = minimum variation of AM
signal
DEMODULATION THEORY:
Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation. The detector circuit is employed to
separate the carrier wave and eliminate the side bands. Since the envelope of an AM wave has
the same shape as the message, independent of the carrier frequency and phase, demodulation
can be accomplished by extracting envelope. The depth of modulation at the detector output

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greater than unity and circuit impedance is less than circuit load (Rl>Zm) results in clipping of
negative peaks of modulating signal. It is called “negative clipping “.
TABULATION:

Amplitude Time Period Frequency Calculation of modulation

Parameter
(V) in seconds in Hz index:

Message signal Practical calculation

Carrier signal

Modulated signal Theoretical calculation

Demodulated signal

MODEL GRAPH:

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PROCEDURE:
1. The circuit wiring is done as shown in diagram
2. A modulating signal input given to the Amplitude modulator
3. Now increase the amplitude of the modulating signal to the required level.
4. The amplitude and the time duration of the modulating signal are observed using
CRO.
5. Finally the amplitude modulated output is observed from the output of amplitude
modulator stage and the amplitude and time duration of the AM wave are noted down.
6. Calculate the modulation index by using the formula and verify them.

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7. The final demodulated signal is viewed using CRO at the output of audio power
amplifier stage. Also the amplitude and time duration of the demodulated wave are
noted down.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the need of modulation and demodulation?

2. What is the range of frequency in commercial AM broadcasting?
3. What is analog modulation various techniques?
4. What is the difference between detector and demodulator?
5. Define the term Modulation index.
6. What are the main components of a RF receiver?
7.What is the Difference between Coherent and Non-coherent Demodulation?
8. Why the Intermediate Frequency Should is Carefully Chosen As?
9. What is the function of an Automatic Gain Control of the AM Receiver?
10.Define Amplitude Modulation?

RESULT:
Thus the AM signal was transmitted using AM trainer kit and the AM signal detected
using AM detector kit. The calculated modulation index ma = ____________.

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FM MODULATOR

FM DEMODULATOR

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4. FMMODULATION AND DEMODULATION

AIM:
To plot the modulation characteristics of FM modulator and demodulator and also to
Observe and measure frequency deviation and modulation index of FM.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the Equipment/ Component Range Quantity
1. FM Transmitter kit - ACL 03 - 1
2. FM Receiver kit - ACL 04 - 1
3. CRO 30 MHz 1
4. Power supply 5V, ±12V 1
5. Patch chords - Required

THEORY:
Frequency modulation is a type of modulation in which the frequency of the high
frequency (carrier) is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating
signal.
FREQUENCY MODULATION GENERATION:
The circuits used to generate a frequency modulation must vary the frequency of a high
frequency signal (carrier) as function of the amplitude of a low frequency signal (modulating
signal). In practice there are two main methods used to generate FM.
DIRECT METHOD
An oscilloscope is used in which the reactance of one of the elements of the resonant
circuit depends on the modulating voltage. The most common device with variable reactance is
the Varactor or Varicap, which is a particular diode which capacity varies as function of the
reverse bias voltage. The frequency of the carrier is established with AFC circuits (Automated
frequency control) or PLL (Phase locked loop).
INDIRECT METHOD:
The FM is obtained in this case by a phase modulation, after the modulating signal has
been integrated. In this phase modulator the carrier can be generated by a quartz oscillator, and
so its frequency stabilization is easier. In the circuit used for the exercise, the frequency
modulation is generated by a Hartley oscillator, which frequency is determined by a fixed
inductance and by capacity (variable) supplied by varicap diodes.
FREQUENCY DEVIATION f and MODULATION INDEX fm:

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The frequency deviation f represents the maximum shift between the modulated signal
frequency, over and under the frequency of the carrier.
TABULATION

Time Period
Parameter Amplitude (V) Frequency in Hz
in seconds

Message signal

Carrier signal
Tmin = Fmin =
Modulated signal
Tmax = Fmax =

Demodulated signal

MODEL GRAPH

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We define modulation index m f the ratio between f and the modulating frequency f.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit. While connecting this ensures
that the Power supply is OFF.
2. Switch on the power supply and carry out the following presetting as shown incircuit
Diagram.
3. In the FM modulator set the level about 2Vpp and frequency knob to theminimum and
switch on 1500 KHz.

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4. Observe the FM modulated waveform from the RF/FM output of the FMmodulator
measure frequency deviation and modulation index of FM.
5. For demodulation switch on the demodulator and carry out the followingdemodulation
connection as shown in circuit diagram.
6. Observe the demodulated waveform and plot the graph.
VIVA QUESTION

1. Why frequency modulation is better than amplitude modulation?

2. What is the application of FM?
3. What is PLL?
4. What is FM modulation?
5. What is FM demodulation?
6. Define frequency deviation in FM?
7. Difference between narrowband and wideband FM?
8. What are the advantages of FM over AM?
9. What are the disadvantages of FM over AM?
10. Mention the types of digital modulation.

RESULT:
Thus the modulation characteristics of FM modulator and demodulator are observed and
plotted.

CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

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MODEL GRAPH:

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5. PULSE CODE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

AIM:
To generate a PCM signal using PCM modulator and detect the message signal from
PCM signal by using PCM demodulator.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of the Equipment/ Component Range Quantity

1. PCM Trainer kit - DCL 03, DCL 04 - 1
2. CRO 30 MHz 1
3. Power supply 5V, ±12V 1
4. Patch chords - Required

THEORY:
Pulse code modulation is known as digital pulse modulation technique. It is the process
in which the message signal is sampled and the amplitude of each sample is rounded off to the
nearest one of the finite set of allowable values. It consists of three main parts transmitter,
transmitter path and receiver. The essential operation in the transmitter of a PCM system are
sampling, quantizing and encoding. The band pass filter limits the frequency of the analog input
signal. The sample and hold circuit periodically samples the analog input signal and converts
those to a multi-level PAM signal. The ADC converts PAM samples to parallel PCM codes
which are converted to serial binary data in parallel to serial converter and then outputted on the
transmission line as serial digital pulse. The transmission line repeaters are placed at prescribed
distance to regenerate the digital pulse.
In the receiver serial to parallel converter converts serial pulse received from the
transmission line to parallel PCM codes. The DAC converts the parallel PCM codes to multi-
level PAM signals. The hold circuit is basically a Low Pass Filter that converts the PAM signal
back to its original analog form.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Secrecy
2. Noise resistant and hence free from channel interference
DISADVANTAGE:
1. Requires more bandwidth
APPLICATION:
1. Compact DISC for storage2. Military Applications.

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TABULATION
Time period in Sec
Parameters Amplitude in V
TON TOFF
Input Signal 1(500Hz)
Input Signal 1(1KHz)
Sample & Hold OUT 0
Sample & Hold OUT 1
Multiplexer CLK1
Multiplexer CLK1
Multiplexed Data
MUX OUT
TX Data
TX CLK
TX SYNC
RX Data
RX CLK
RX SYNC
DAC OUT
Demultiplexer CLK1
Demultiplexer CLK2
Demultiplexed Data CH 0
Demultiplexed Data CH 1
Received Signal OUT 0
Received Signal OUT 1

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PROCEDURE:
1. Refer the block diagram and carry out the following connections and switch settings.
2. Connect the power supply with power polarity to the kit and switch it ‘ON’.
3. Put the switch sw1 to ‘FAST’ mode.
4. Select 500Hz and 1 KHz sine wave signals generated on board.
5. Connect the signals to ‘CH0’ and ‘CH1’ of sample and hold circuit.
6. The output of sample and hold circuit ‘OUT0’ and ‘OUT1’ are given to the multiplexer, then to the pulse
code modulation logic.
7. The output ‘TXDATA’ is connected to ‘RXDATA’ of pulse code demodulation logic.
8. The output ‘DAC OUT’ is given to ‘IN’ of ‘DEMUX’.
9. Then the output of ‘DEMUX’ –‘OUT0’ and ‘OUT1’ are given to ‘IN0’ and ‘IN1’ of filter.
10. Observe the pulse code demodulated output at ‘OUT0’ and ‘OUT1’.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is PCM?
2. How bits are needed to encode N different levels?
3. Define step size?
4. How to calculate Step size in PCM?
5. Define Quantization error.
6. What is the max value of Quantization error?
7. What are the applications of PCM?
8. What are the disadvantages of Pulse code modulation?
9. Define Differential pulse code modulation?
10. Why DPCM is better than PCM?

RESULT
Thus the PCM signal was generated using PCM modulator and the message signal was
detected from PCM signal by using PCM demodulator.

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CONNECTION DIAGRAM

DELTA MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

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6. DELTA MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

AIM
To transmit an analog message signal in its digital form and again reconstruct back the
original analog message signal at receiver by using Delta modulator.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No Name of the Equipment/ Component Range Quantity
Delta modulation/ demodulation
1. - 1
trainer kit, DCL 07
2. CRO 30 MHz 1
3. Power supply 5V, ±12V 1
4. Patch chords - Required
THEORY:
Delta modulation uses a single bit PCM code to achieve digital transmission of
analogsignal. With conventional PCM, each code is a binary representative of both the sign and
magnitude of a particular sample. The algorithm of delta modulation is simple if the current
sample is smaller than the previous sample a logic0 is transmitted. If the current sample is larger
than the previous sample logic 1 is transmitted.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Simple system/circuitry - Cheap
2. Single bit encoding allows us to increase the sampling rate or to transmit more
information at some sampling rate for the given system BW.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Noise and distortion.
2. Major drawback is that it is unable to pass DC information.
APPLICATIONS:
Digital voice storage, Voice transmission, Radio communication devices such TV remotes.
Adaptive delta modulation is delta modulation system where the step size of DAC
isautomatically varied, depending on the amplitude characteristics of the analog input signal. A
common algorithm for an adaptive delta modulator is when three consecutive 1s or 0soccurs the
step size of the DAC is increased or decreased by a factor of 1.5
APPLICATION:
Audio communication system

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MODEL GRAPH

TABULATION

Time Period
Parameter Amplitude (V) Frequency in Hz
in seconds
Input signal

Integrator 1 output

Sampler output

Integrator 1 output

Filter output

Demodulated output

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PROCEDURE:
1. Refer to the block diagram and carry out the following connections
2. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit DCL-07 and switch it ON.
3. Select the sine wave input 250Hz or through port P1 and connect port 250Hz to port IN
of input buffer.
4. Connect the output of buffer ‘OUT’ to digital samples input port ‘IN1’.
5. Then select clock rate of 8 KHz by pressing switch S1. Selected clock is indicated by
LED glow.
6. Keep switch S2 in (∆) deltaposition.
7. Connect output of a digital sampler port ‘OUT’ to input port ‘IN’ of integrator.
8. Connect output of integrator 1 port ‘OUT’ to input port ‘IN2’ of digital sampler.
9. The digital sampler ‘OUT’ is given to the input of the output buffer.
10. The output of the buffer is given to the second order input of the fourth order
Butterworth filter.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define Delta modulation? Why it is better?
2. What is granular noise? Define slope overload?
3. When granular noise and slope overload occur in Delta modulation?

4. What is Adaptive Delta Modulation and what are the advantages?

5. Compare all Digital pulse modulation techniques (PCM, DPCM, DM and ADM)
6. In digital transmission, the modulation technique that requires minimum bandwidth is
…………
7. In Delta Modulation, the bit rate is ………….
8. What are the applications of DM?
9. Mention the advantage of DM?
10. What is temporal waveform coding?

RESULT:

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Thus the analog message signal in its digital form was transmitted and again the original
analog message signal was reconstructed at receiver by using Delta modulator and
Demodulator.

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CONNECTION DIAGRAM
NON-RETURN TO ZERO-SPACE (NRZ-S)

NON-RETURN TO ZERO-MARK (NRZ-M)

NON-RETURN TO ZERO-LEVEL (NRZ-L)

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7. LINE CODING SCHEMES

AIM
To study the various encoding and decoding techniques and observe the output waveforms
of NRZ-S, NRZ-M, NRZ-L, BIPHASE -L, BIPHASE –M, BIPHASE –S, URZ,AMI using
trainer kit DCL-05 and DCL-06.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Equipment/ Component Range Quantity

1. Line encoding trainer kit DCL-05 - 1

2. Line decoding trainer kit DCL-06 - 1

3. CRO 30 MHz 1

4. Power supply 5V, ±12V 1

5. Patch chords - Required

THEORY:
NON-RETURN TO ZERO signal are the easiest formats that can be generated. These
signals do not return to zero with the clock. The frequency component associated with these
signals are half that of the clock frequency. The following data formats come under this
category. Non-return to zero encoding is commonly used in slow speed communications
interfaces for both synchronous and asynchronous transmission. Using NRZ, logic 1 bit is sent
as a high value and logic 0 bit is sent as a low value.
a) NON-RETURN TO ZERO-LEVEL (NRZ-L)
This is the most extensively used waveform in digital logics. All “ones” are represented
by “high” and all “zeros” by“low”. The data format is directly available at the output of all
digital data generation logics and hence very easy to generate. Here all the transitions take place
at the rising edge of the clock.
b) NON-RETURN TO ZERO-MARK (NRZ-M)
These waveforms are extensively used in tape recording. All „ones‟ are marked by
change inlevels and all “zeros” by no transitions, and the transitions take place at the rising edge
of the clock.
c) UNIPOLAR AND BIPOLAR
Unipolar signals are those signals, which have transition between 0 to +VCC. Bipolar
signals are those signals, which have transition between +VCC to –VCC.

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CONNECTION DIAGRAM
BIPHASE – LINE CODING

BIPHASE MARK CODING

BIPHASE SPACE CODING

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d) NON-RETURN TO ZERO-SPACE (NRZ-S)

This type of waveform is marked by change in levels for „zeros‟ and no transition for
“ones” and the transitions take place at the rising edge of the clock. This format is also used in
magnetic tape recording.
e) BIPHASE – LINE CODING (BIPHASE -L):
With the Biphase – L one is represented by a half bit wide pulse positioned during
thefirst half of the bit interval and a zero is represented by a half bit wide pulse positioned
during the second half of the bit interval.
f) BIPHASE MARK CODING(BIPHASE-M):
With the Biphase-M, a transition occurs at the beginning of every bit interval. A “one”
isrepresented by a second transition, half bit later, whereas a zero has no second transition.
g) BIPHASE SPACE CODING(BIPHASE-S):
With a Biphase-S, a transition occurs at the beginning of every bit interval. A “zero”
ismarked by a second transition, one half bit later; „one‟ has no second transition.
h) RETURN TO ZERO SIGNALS:
These signals are called “Return to Zero signals” since they return to “zero” with
theclock. In this category, only one data format, i.e, the unipolar return to zero (URZ); With the
URZ a “one” is represented by a half bit wide pulse and a “zero” is represented by the absence
of pulse.
i) MULTILEVEL SIGNALS:
Multilevel signals use three or more levels of voltages to represent the binary digits,
“one” and “zero” – instead of normal “highs” and “lows” Return to zero – alternative mark
inversion (RZ - AMI) is the most commonly used multilevel signal. This coding scheme is most
often used in telemetry systems. In this scheme, “one” are represented by equal amplitude
ofalternative pulses, which alternate between a +5 and -5. These alternating pulses return to
0volt, after every half bit interval. The “Zeros” are marked by absence of pulses.

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UNIPOLAR RETURN TO ZERO

ALTERNATIVE MARK INVERSION

TABULATION
Time period in Sec
Type of line coding Amplitude in V
TON TOFF
DATA INPUT
CLOCK
NRZ-S
NRZ-M
NRZ-L
BIPHASE -L
BIPHASE –M
BIPHASE –S

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URZ
AMI

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect power supply in proper polarity to the kits DCL-05 and DCL-06 and switch it on.
2. Connect CLOCK and DATA generated on DCL-05 to CODING CLOCK IN and DATA
INPUT respectively by means of the patch-chords provided.
3. Connect the coded data NRZ-L on DCL-05 to the corresponding DATA INPUT NRZ-L, of
the decoding logic on DCL-06.
4. Keep the switch SW2 for NRZ-L to ON position for decoding logic as shown in the block
diagram.
5. Observe the coded and decoded signal on the oscilloscope.
6. Connect the coded data NRZ-M on DCL-05 to the corresponding DATA INPUT NRZ-M,
of the decoding logic on DCL-06.
7. Keep the switch SW2 for NRZ –M to ON position for decoding logic as shown in the block
diagram.
8. Observe the coded and decoded signal on the oscilloscope.
9. Connect the code data NRZ-S on DCL-05 to the corresponding DATA INPUT NRZ-S, of
the decoding logic on DCL-06.
10. Keep the switch SW2 for NRZ-S to ON position for decoding logic as shown in the block
diagram.
11. Observe the coded and decoded signal on the oscilloscope.
12. Use RESET switch for clear data observation if necessary.
13. Unipolar to Bipolar/Bipolar to Unipolar:
a. connect NRZ-L signal from DCL-05 to the input post IN Unipolar to Bipolar and
Observe the Bipolar output at the post OUT.
b. Then connect bipolar output signal to the input post IN of Bipolar to Unipolar and
Observe Unipolar out at post OUT.

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MODEL GRAPH:

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VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is Line coding and what are the different line coding techniques?
2. What is the difference between Source coding and Line coding?
3. Define ISI (Inter symbol Interference)?
4. What is Matched filter?
5. What is the cause of inter symbol Interference (ISI) and it can be reduced?
6. Define polar encoding?
7. Define bipolar encoding?
8. Define Manchester encoding?
9. What are the Properties of Line Coding?
10. State any two requirements of line code.

RESULT:

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Thus the various decoding and encoding schemes are studied and observed its output
waveforms.

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SIMULATION WAVEFORM

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8. SIMULATION OF ASK GENERATION AND DETECTION SCHEME

Aim:
To generate and demodulate amplitude shift keyed (ASK) signal using MATLAB.
Theory
Generation of ASK
Amplitude shift keying - ASK - is a modulation process, which imparts to a sinusoid two or
more discrete amplitude levels. These are related to the number of levels adopted by the digital
message. For a binary message sequence there are two levels, one of which is typically zero. The
data rate is a sub-multiple of the carrier frequency. Thus the modulated waveform consists of bursts
of a sinusoid. One of the disadvantages of ASK, compared with FSK and PSK, for example, is that
it has not got a constant envelope. This makes its processing (eg, power amplification) more
difficult, since linearity becomes an important factor. However, it does make for ease of
demodulation with an envelope detector.
Demodulation
ASK signal has a well defined envelope. Thus it is amenable to demodulation by an
envelope detector. Some sort of decision-making circuitry is necessary for detecting the message.
The signal is recovered by using a correlator and decision making circuitry is used to recover the
binary sequence.
Algorithm
Initialization commands
ASK modulation
1. Generate carrier signal.
2. Start FOR loop
3. Generate binary data, message signal(on-off form)
4. Generate ASK modulated signal.
5. Plot message signal and ASK modulated signal.
6. End FOR loop.
7. Plot the binary data and carrier.
ASK demodulation
1. Start FOR loop
2. Perform correlation of ASK signal with carrier to get decision variable
3. Make decision to get demodulated binary data. If x>0, choose ‘1’ else choose ‘0’
4. Plot the demodulated binary data.

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Program
%ASK Modulation
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%GENERATE CARRIER SIGNAL
Tb=1; fc=10;
t=0:Tb/100:1;
c=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc*t);
%generate message signal
N=8;
m=rand(1,N);
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N
t=[t1:.01:t2]
if m(i)>0.5
m(i)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i)=0;
m_s=zeros(1,length(t));
end
message(i,:)=m_s;
%product of carrier and message
ask_sig(i,:)=c.*m_s;
t1=t1+(Tb+.01);
t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
%plot the message and ASK signal
subplot(5,1,2);axis([0 N -2 2]);plot(t,message(i,:),'r');
title('message signal');xlabel('t--->');ylabel('m(t)');grid on
hold on
subplot(5,1,4);plot(t,ask_sig(i,:));
title('ASK signal');xlabel('t--->');ylabel('s(t)');grid on
hold on

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end
hold off
%Plot the carrier signal and input binary data
subplot(5,1,3);plot(t,c);
title('carrier signal');xlabel('t--->');ylabel('c(t)');grid on
subplot(5,1,1);stem(m);
title('binary data bits');xlabel('n--->');ylabel('b(n)');grid on
% ASK Demodulation
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N
t=[t1:Tb/100:t2]
%correlator
x=sum(c.*ask_sig(i,:));
%decision device
if x>0
demod(i)=1;
else
demod(i)=0;
end
t1=t1+(Tb+.01);
t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
end
%plot demodulated binary data bits
subplot(5,1,5);stem(demod);
title('ASK demodulated signal'); xlabel('n--->');ylabel('b(n)');grid on

Result
The program for ASK modulation and demodulation has been simulated in MATLAB and
necessary graphs are plotted.

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SIMULATION WAVEFORM

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9. SIMULATION OF BPSK GENERATION AND DETECTION SCHEMES

Aim:
To generate and demodulate Binary phase shift keyed (BPSK) signal using MATLAB
Generation of PSK signal

PSK is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing, or modulating, the phase
of a reference signal (the carrier wave). PSK uses a finite number of phases, each assigned a unique
pattern of binary digits. Usually, each phase encodes an equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits
forms the symbol that is represented by the particular phase. The demodulator, which is designed
specifically for the symbol-set used by the modulator, determines the phase of the received signal
and maps it back to the symbol it represents, thus recovering the original data.

In a coherent binary PSK system, the pair of signal S1(t) and S2 (t) used to represent binary
symbols 1 & 0 are defined by
S1 (t) = √2Eb/ Tb Cos 2πfct
S2 (t) =√2Eb/Tb (2πfct+π) = - √ 2Eb/Tb Cos 2πfct where 0 ≤ t< Tb and
Eb = Transmitted signed energy for bit
The carrier frequency fc =n/Tb for some fixed integer n.
Antipodal Signal:
The pair of sinusoidal waves that differ only in a relative phase shift of 180° are called
antipodal signals.
BPSK Transmitter

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Program
% BPSK modulation
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%GENERATE CARRIER SIGNAL
Tb=1;
t=0:Tb/100:Tb;
fc=2;
c=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc*t);
%generate message signal
N=8;
m=rand(1,N);
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N
t=[t1:.01:t2]
if m(i)>0.5
m(i)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i)=0;
m_s=-1*ones(1,length(t));
end
message(i,:)=m_s;
%product of carrier and message signal
bpsk_sig(i,:)=c.*m_s;
%Plot the message and BPSK modulated signal
subplot(5,1,2);axis([0 N -2 2]);plot(t,message(i,:),'r');
title('message signal(POLAR form)');xlabel('t--->');ylabel('m(t)');
grid on; hold on;
subplot(5,1,4);plot(t,bpsk_sig(i,:));
title('BPSK signal');xlabel('t--->');ylabel('s(t)');

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grid on; hold on;

The input binary symbols are represented in polar form with symbols 1 & 0 represented by
constant amplitude levels √Eb& -√Eb. This binary wave is multiplied by a sinusoidal carrier in a
product modulator. The result in a BSPK signal.
BSPK Receiver:

The received BPSK signal is applied to a correlator which is also supplied with a locally
generated reference signal c1 (t). The correlated o/p is compared with a threshold of zero volts. If x>
0, the receiver decides in favour of symbol 1. If x< 0, it decides in favour of symbol 0.
Algorithm
Initialization commands
BPSK modulation
1. Generate carrier signal.
2. Start FOR loop
3. Generate binary data, message signal in polar form
4. Generate PSK modulated signal.
5. Plot message signal and PSK modulated signal.
6. End FOR loop.
7. Plot the binary data and carrier.
BPSK demodulation
1. Start FOR loop
2. Perform correlation of PSK signal with carrier to get decision variable
3. Make decision to get demodulated binary data. If x>0, choose ‘1’ else choose ‘0’
4. Plot the demodulated binary data.

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t1=t1+1.01; t2=t2+1.01;
end
hold off
%plot the input binary data and carrier signal
subplot(5,1,1);stem(m);
title('binary data bits');xlabel('n--->');ylabel('b(n)');
grid on;
subplot(5,1,3);plot(t,c);
title('carrier signal');xlabel('t--->');ylabel('c(t)');
grid on;
% PSK Demodulation
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N
t=[t1:.01:t2]
%correlator
x=sum(c.*bpsk_sig(i,:));
%decision device
if x>0
demod(i)=1;
else
demod(i)=0;
end
t1=t1+1.01;
t2=t2+1.01;
end
%plot the demodulated data bits
subplot(5,1,5);stem(demod);
title('demodulated data');xlabel('n--->');ylabel('b(n)');
grid on;

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Result
Thus the program for BPSK modulation and demodulation has been simulated in MATLAB
and necessary graphs are plotted.

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SIMULATION WAVEFORM

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10. SIMULATION OF FSK GENERATION AND DETECTION SCHEME

Aim
To generate and demodulate frequency shift keyed (FSK) signal using MATLAB
Theory
Generation of FSK
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital
information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave. The simplest FSK
is binary FSK (BFSK). BFSK uses a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s)
information. With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is called the space
frequency.
In binary FSK system, symbol 1 & 0 are distinguished from each other by transmitting one of the
two sinusoidal waves that differ in frequency by a fixed amount.
Si (t) = √2E/Tb cos 2πf1t 0≤ t ≤Tb
0 elsewhere
Where i=1, 2 &Eb=Transmitted energy/bit
Transmitted freq= ƒi = (nc+i)/Tb, and n = constant (integer), Tb = bit interval
Symbol 1 is represented by S1 (t)
Symbol 0 is represented by S0 (t)
BFSK Transmitter

The input binary sequence is represented in its ON-OFF form, with symbol 1
represented by constant amplitude of √Ebwith & symbol 0 represented by zero volts. By using
inverter in the lower channel, we in effect make sure that when symbol 1is at the input, The

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two frequency f1& f2 are chosen to be equal integer multiples of the bit rate 1/T b.By summing
the upper & lower channel outputs, we get BFSK signal.
Program
% FSK Modulation
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%GENERATE CARRIER SIGNAL
Tb=1; fc1=2;fc2=5;
t=0:(Tb/100):Tb;
c1=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc1*t);
c2=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc2*t);
%generate message signal
N=8;
m=rand(1,N);
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N
t=[t1:(Tb/100):t2]
if m(i)>0.5
m(i)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
invm_s=zeros(1,length(t));
else
m(i)=0;
m_s=zeros(1,length(t));
invm_s=ones(1,length(t));
end
message(i,:)=m_s;
%Multiplier
fsk_sig1(i,:)=c1.*m_s;
fsk_sig2(i,:)=c2.*invm_s;
fsk=fsk_sig1+fsk_sig2;
%plotting the message signal and the modulated signal
subplot(3,2,2);axis([0 N -2 2]);plot(t,message(i,:),'r');

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title('message signal');xlabel('t---->');ylabel('m(t)');grid on;hold on;

BFSK Receiver

The receiver consists of two correlators with common inputs which are supplied with
locally generated coherent reference signals c1(t) and c2 (t).
The correlator outputs are then subtracted one from the other, and the resulting
difference x is compared with a threshold of zero volts. If x >0, the receiver decides in favour
of symbol 1 and if x <0, the receiver decides in favour of symbol 0.
Algorithm
Initialization commands
FSK modulation
1. Generate two carriers signal.
2. Start FOR loop
3. Generate binary data, message signal and inverted message signal
4. Multiply carrier 1 with message signal and carrier 2 with inverted message signal
5. Perform addition to get the FSK modulated signal
6. Plot message signal and FSK modulated signal.
7. End FOR loop.
8. Plot the binary data and carriers.
FSK demodulation
1. Start FOR loop
2. Perform correlation of FSK modulated signal with carrier 1 and carrier 2 to get two decision
variables x1 and x2.
3. Make decisionon x = x1-x2 to get demodulated binary data. If x>0, choose ‘1’ else choose ‘0’.
4. Plot the demodulated binary data.

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subplot(3,2,5);plot(t,fsk(i,:));
title('FSK signal');xlabel('t---->');ylabel('s(t)');grid on;hold on;
t1=t1+(Tb+.01); t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
end
hold off
%Plotting binary data bits and carrier signal
subplot(3,2,1);stem(m);
title('binary data');xlabel('n---->'); ylabel('b(n)');grid on;
subplot(3,2,3);plot(t,c1);
title('carrier signal-1');xlabel('t---->');ylabel('c1(t)');grid on;
subplot(3,2,4);plot(t,c2);
title('carrier signal-2');xlabel('t---->');ylabel('c2(t)');grid on;

% FSK Demodulation
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N
t=[t1:(Tb/100):t2]
%correlator
x1=sum(c1.*fsk_sig1(i,:));
x2=sum(c2.*fsk_sig2(i,:));
x=x1-x2;
%decision device
if x>0
demod(i)=1;
else
demod(i)=0;
end
t1=t1+(Tb+.01);
t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
end
%Plotting the demodulated data bits
subplot(3,2,6);stem(demod);
title(' demodulated data');xlabel('n---->');ylabel('b(n)'); grid on;

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Result
Thus the program for FSK modulation and demodulation has been simulated in MATLAB
and necessary graphs are plotted.

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SIMULATION WAVEFORM

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11. SIMULATION OF DPSK, QPSK GENERATION SCHEMES

AIM:
To simulate DPSK and QPSK Generation Schemes using MATLAB.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED: MATLAB
PROGRAM FOR DPSK GENERATION SCHEME:
clc;
clear all;
rng default
M = 6; % Alphabet size
dataIn = randi([0 M-1],1011,1); % Random message
txSig = dpskmod(dataIn,M); % Modulate
rxSig = txSig*exp(2i*pi*rand());
dataOut = dpskdemod(rxSig,M);
errs = symerr(dataIn,dataOut)
errs = symerr(dataIn(2:end),dataIn(2:end))
figure
subplot(2,2,1)
plot(dataIn)
title('DATA')
subplot(2,2,2)
plot(txSig)
title('DPSK SIGNAL')
subplot(2,2,3)
plot(rxSig)
title('Received DPSK')
subplot(2,2,4)
plot(dataOut)
title('DATA RECEIVED')

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SIMULATION WAVEFORM

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PROGRAM FOR QPSK GENERATION SCHEME:

QPSK
clc; clear all;
t=0:0.0001:0.25;
m=square(2*pi*10*t);
c1=sin(2*pi*60*t);
c2=sin(2*pi*60*t+180);
for i=1:2500
if(mod(i,1000))<500
s(i)=c1(i);
else
s(i)=-c2(i);
end
end
subplot(4,1,1);
plot(t,m,'k','linewidth',5);
title('polor representation of message 1 0 1 0 1 0');
xlabel('time'); ylabel('amplitude')
subplot(4,1,2); plot(c1);
title('frequency 1');
xlabel('time'); ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(4,1,3); plot(c2);
title('frequency 2');
xlabel('time'); ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(4,1,4); plot(s);
title('quadrature phase shift keying');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
RESULT:

Thus the DPSK and QPSK generation schemes were simulated using MATLAB.

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BPSKCONSTELLATION:

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12. OBSERVATION (SIMULATION) OF SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS OF

BPSK, QPSK AND QAM

Aim:
To plot the constellation diagram of digital modulation system BPSK, QPSK & QAM
using MATLAB.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.PC
2. MATLAB SOFTWARE
THEORY:
A constellation diagram is a representation of a signal modulated by an arbitrary digital
modulation scheme. It displays the signal as a two dimensional scatter diagram in the complex
plane at symbol sampling instants. It can also be viewed as the possible symbols that may be
selected by a given modulation scheme as points in the complex plane.
PROGRAM: BPSK
clc;
clear all;
close all;
M=2;
k=log2(M);
n=3*1e5;
nsamp=8;
X=randint(n,1);
xsym = bi2de(reshape(X,k,length(X)/k).','left-msb');
Y_psk= modulate(modem.pskmod(M),xsym);
Ytx_psk = Y_psk;
EbNo=30;
SNR=EbNo+10*log10(k)-10*log10(nsamp);
Ynoisy_psk = awgn(Ytx_psk,SNR,'measured');
Yrx_psk = Ynoisy_psk;
h1=scatterplot(Yrx_psk(1:nsamp*5e3),nsamp,0,'r.');
hold on;
scatterplot(Yrx_psk(1:5e3),1,0,'k*',h1);
title('constellation diagram BPSK');
legend('Received signal' ,'signal constellation');
axis([-5 5 -5 5]);
hold off;

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QPSKCONSTELLATION:

QAM CONSTELLATION:

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Program for QPSK & QAM:

clc;
clear all;
close all;
M=16;
k=log2(M);
n=3*1e5;
nsamp=8;
X=randint(n,1);
xsym = bi2de(reshape(X,k,length(X)/k).','left-msb');
Y_qam= modulate(modem.qammod(M),xsym);
Y_qpsk= modulate(modem.pskmod(M),xsym);
Ytx_qam = Y_qam;
Ytx_qpsk = Y_qpsk;
EbNo=30;
SNR=EbNo+10*log10(k)-10*log10(nsamp);
Ynoisy_qam = awgn(Ytx_qam,SNR,'measured');
Ynoisy_qpsk = awgn(Ytx_qpsk,SNR,'measured');
Yrx_qam = Ynoisy_qam;
Yrx_qpsk = Ynoisy_qpsk;
h1=scatterplot(Yrx_qam(1:nsamp*5e3),nsamp,0,'r.');
hold on;
scatterplot(Yrx_qam(1:5e3),1,0,'k*',h1);
title('constellation diagram 16 QAM');
legend('Received signal' ,'signal constellation');
axis([-5 5 -5 5]);
hold off;
h2=scatterplot(Yrx_qpsk(1:nsamp*5e3),nsamp,0,'r.');
hold on;
scatterplot(Yrx_qpsk(1:5e3),1,0,'k*',h2);
title('constellation diagram 16 PSK');
legend('Received signal' ,'signal constellation');
axis([-5 5 -5 5]);
hold off;
title('constellation diagram 16 PSK');
legend('Received signal' ,'signal constellation');
axis([-5 5 -5 5]);
holdoff;

RESULT:
Thus the constellation diagrams of digital modulation system BPSK, QPSK & QAM are
simulated & plotted in MATLAB.

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OUTPUT

Enter the Generator Matrix: [1 0 0 0 1 0 1; 0 1 0 0 1 1 1; 0 0 1 0 1 1 0; 0 0 0 1 0 1 1]

g=

1 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 1 1

G=
The Order of Linear block Code for given Generator Matrix is:
n =7
k =4

The Possible Code words are:

c=

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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13. SIMULATION OF LINEAR BLOCK CODING SCHEME

AIM:
To simulate and study the error control coding scheme of linear block code using MATLAB

ALGORITHM:

STEP 1: Give the generator matrix

STEP 2: Find the order of the linear block code for the given generator matrix
STEP 3: Obtain the possible code words
STEP 4: Find the minimum hamming distance
STEP 5: Give the received code word
STEP 6: Calculate the syndrome vector and compare it with
transpose of hamming matrix.
STEP 7: Find the error bit position and display the corrected code word

MATLAB CODE:
% Input Generator Matrix
g=input('Enter The Generator Matrix: ')
disp ('G = ')
disp ('The Order of Linear block Code for given Generator Matrix is:')
[n,k] = size(transpose(g))
fori = 1:2^k
forj = k:-1:1
ifrem(i-1,2^(-j+k+1))>=2^(-j+k)
u(i,j)=1;
else
u(i,j)=0;
end
end
end
disp('The Possible Codewords are :')
c = rem(u*g,2)
disp('The Minimum Hamming Distance dmin for given Block Code is= ')
d_min = min(sum((c(2:2^k,:))'))

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The Minimum Hamming Distance dmin for given Block Code is=

d_min = 3

Enter the Received Code Word:[1 0 0 0 1 0 0]

r=
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
Hammimg Code
ht =

1 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
Syndrome of a Given Code word is :
s=
0 0 1
The Error is in bit:
7
The Corrected Code word is:
1 0 0 0 1 0 1

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% Code Word

r = input('Enter the Received Code Word:')

p = [g(:,n-k+2:n)];

h = [transpose(p),eye(n-k)]; disp('HammimgCode')
ht = transpose(h)
disp('Syndrome of a Given Codeword is :')
s= rem(r*ht,2)
fori = 1:1:size(ht)
if(ht(i,1:3)==s)
r(i) = 1-r(i);
break;
end
end
disp('The Error is in bit:')
disp(i);
disp('The Corrected Codeword is :')
disp(r);

RESULT:
Thus the error control coding scheme of linear block code is studied using MATLAB.

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OUTPUT
COMPUTATION OF CODE VECTORS FOR A CYCLIC CODE
Msg=
1001
1010
1011

Code =
1101001
0111010
0001011

SYNDROME DECODING

Recd=
1011110

Syndrome=7(decimal), 1 1 1(binary)

Parmat=
1001011
0101110
0010111

Corrvect=
0000010

Correctedcode=
1011100

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14. SIMULATION OF ERROR CONTROL USING CYCLICCODE

AIM:
a. To generate parity check matrix & generator matrix for a (7,4) Hamming code.
b. To generate parity check matrix given generator polynomial g(x) = 1+x+x3.
c. To determine the code vectors.
d. To perform syndrome decoding
PROGRAM:
Generation of parity check matrix and generator matrix for a (7, 4) Hamming code.
[h,g,n,k] = hammgen(3);
Generation of parity check matrix for the generator polynomial g(x) = 1+x+x3.
h1 = hammgen(3,[1011]);
Computation of code vectors for a cyclic code
clc;
close all;
n=7;
k=4;
msg=[1 0 0 1; 1 0 1 0; 1 0 1 1];
code = encode(msg,n,k,'cyclic');
msg
code
Syndrome decoding
clc;
close all;
q=3;
n=2^q-1;
k=n-q;
parmat = hammgen(q); % produce parity-check matrix
trt = syndtable(parmat); % produce decoding table
recd = [1 0 1 1 1 1 0 ] %received vector
syndrome = rem(recd * parmat',2);
syndrome_de = bi2de(syndrome, 'left-msb'); %convert to decimal
disp(['Syndrome = ',num2str(syndrome_de),.....
' (decimal), ',num2str(syndrome),' (binary) ']);
corrvect = trt(1+syndrome_de, :);%correction vector
correctedcode= rem(corrvect+recd,2);
parmat
corrvect
correctedcode

RESULT:
Thus encoding and decoding of block codes are performed using MATLAB.

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CONVOLUTIONAL CODING

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15. SIMULATION OF CONVOLUTIONAL CODING SCHEME

AIM

To simulate convolutional coding scheme using MATLAB Simulink tool.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

PC with MATLAB Software

ALGORITHM:

Simulate the link by following these steps:

1. Generate binary data.
2. Encode the data with a rate 2/3 convolutional code.
3. Modulate the encoded data.
4. Pass the signal through an AWGN channel.
5. Demodulate the received signal.
6. Decode the demodulated signal by using a Viterbi decoder.
7. Collect the error statistics.

THEORY:

Generating Random Data

The Bernoulli Binary Generator block produces the information source for this
simulation. The block generates a frame of three random bits at each sample time. The Samples
per frame parameter determines the number of rows of the output frame.
Convolutional Encoding with Puncturing
The Convolutional Encoder block encodes the data from the Bernoulli Binary Generator.
This example uses the same code as described in Soft-Decision Decoding.
The puncture pattern is specified by the Puncture vector parameter in the mask. The
puncture vector is a binary column vector. A 1 indicates that the bit in the corresponding
position of the input vector is sent to the output vector, while a 0 indicates that the bit is
removed.
For example, to create a rate 3/4 code from the rate 1/2, constraint length 7
convolutional code, the optimal puncture vector is [1 1 0 1 1 0].' (where the .' after the vector
indicates the transpose). Bits in positions 1, 2, 4, and 5 are transmitted, while bits in positions 3
and 6 are removed. Now, for every 3 bits of input, the punctured code generates 4 bits of output
(as opposed to the 6 bits produced before puncturing). This makes the rate 3/4.

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In this example, the output from the Bernoulli Binary Generator is a column vector of
length 3. Because the rate 1/2 Convolutional Encoder doubles the length of each vector, the
length of the puncture vector must divide 6.

BIT ERROR RATE (BER)

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Transmitting Data
The AWGN Channel block simulates transmission over a noisy channel. The parameters
for the block are set in the mask as follows:
 The Mode parameter for this block is set to Signal to noise ratio (Es/No).
 The Es/No parameter is set to 2 dB. This value typically is changed from one simulation
run to the next.
 The preceding modulation block generates unit power signals so the Input signal
power is set to 1 Watt.
 The Symbol period is set to 0.75 seconds because the code has rate 3/4.
Demodulating
In this simulation, the Viterbi Decoder block is set to accept unquantized inputs. As a
result, the simulation passes the channel output through a Simulink® Complex to Real-
Image block that extracts the real part of the complex samples.
Viterbi Decoding of Punctured Codes
The Viterbi Decoder block is configured to decode the same rate 1/2 code specified in
the Convolutional Encoder block.
In this example, the decision type is set to Unquantized. For codes without puncturing,
you would normally set the Traceback depth for this code to a value close to 40. However, for
decoding punctured codes, a higher value is required to give the decoder enough data to resolve
the ambiguities introduced by the punctures.Since the punctured bits are not transmitted, there is
no information to indicate their values. As a result they are ignored in the decoding process.
The Puncture vector parameter indicates the locations of the punctures or the bits to
ignore in the decoding process. Each 1 in the puncture vector indicates a transmitted bit while
each 0 indicates a puncture or the bit to ignore in the input to the decoder.In general, the
two Puncture vector parameters in the Convolutional Encoder and Viterbi Decoder must be the
same.
Calculating the Error Rate
The Error Rate Calculation block compares the decoded bits to the original source bits.
The output of the Error Rate Calculation block is a three-element vector containing the
calculated bit error rate (BER), the number of errors observed, and the number of bits
processed.
In the mask for this block, the Receive delay parameter is set to 96, because
the Traceback depth value of 96 in the Viterbi Decoder block creates a delay of 96. If there
were other blocks in the model that created delays, the Receive delay would equal the sum of
all the delays.
BER simulations typically run until a minimum number of errors have occurred, or until
the simulation processes a maximum number of bits. The Error Rate Calculation block uses
its Stop simulation mode to set these limits and to control the duration of the simulation.
RESULT:

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Thus the convolution coding scheme was simulated using MATLAB Simulink tool.

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OUTPUT (AM)

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16.COMMUNICATION LINK SIMULATIONS

AIM:
To generate modulation and demodulation of AM, ASK, DM and PAM using Simulink.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

PC with MATLAB Software with Simulink tool

PROCEDURE:
1. Start simulink section
2. Select file New Model in the simulink library to construct a new model
3. Go to simulink library select appropriate module and add to model
4. Connect all the inserted models
5. Set the simulation parameters
6. Run the simulation and observe and save all the plots and values.

AM MODULE

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OUTPUT

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ASK MODULE

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SIMULATION OUTPUT

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DM MODULE

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SIMULATION OUTPUT

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PAM MODULE

RESULT:
Thus the basic principle of AM, ASK, DM and PAM were studied using simulink.

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CONTENT
BEYOND
THE SYLLABUS

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TRIGGER CIRCUIT

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PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

AIM:
To generate the Pulse Width Modulated signal using 555 timer.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Name of the
S.NO Range Quantity
Component

1 IC 555 -
2 Diode IN4001
3 Capacitors 0.1µF, 0.01 µF 3,2
4 Resistors 6.8K, 10K, 1.8K 2,1,1
5 Function Generator 1MHz 1
6 CRO 20MHz 1
7 Bread board - 1
Regulated power
8 0-15 V 1
supply

DESIGN:
Assume carrier frequency fc = 750 Hz.
The operating frequency of IC 555 timer is given by f0 =

Let C = 0.1 µf, Let RA =RB , Substituting we get, RA =6.4K ;RA =6.8
THEORY:
Pulse Time Modulation is also known as Pulse Width Modulation or Pulse Length
Modulation. In PWM, the samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of the
individual pulses. Width may be varied by varying the time of occurrence of leading edge, the
trailing edge or both edges of the pulse in accordance with modulating wave. It is also called
Pulse Duration Modulation. Pulse width modulation is a one in which each pulse has fixed
amplitude but width of the pulses is made proportional to amplitude of the modulating signal at
that instant.

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MODEL GRAPH:

TABULATION:

Parameter Amplitude in Volts Time period in ms

Modulating Signal

Ton =
Carrier signal
Toff =

Positive spike =
Trigger input
Negative spike =

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Modulated signal Time period of each pulse

Pulse width increase when signal amplitude increases in positive direction and decreases
when signal amplitude increases in negative direction. Pulses of PWM is of varying pulse width
and hence of varying power component. So transmitter should be powerful enough to handle the
power of maximum pulse width. But average power transmitted is only half is peak power. The
main advantage of PWM is system will work even if the synchronization between the
transmitter and receiver fails. The emitter coupled monostable multivibrator is an excellent
voltage to time converter. Since its capacitor charges if the voltage is varied in accordance with
the signal voltage, a series of rectangular pulses will be obtained with varying width as required.
PROCEDURE:
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Note down the amplitude (Vm) and time period of the modulating signal.
3. Observe the output at „A‟ (carrier signal) and measure the amplitude (V c) and time period.
4. Observe the spike output at „B‟ and measure the amplitude and time period.
5. Apply the modulating signal input and trigger input and observe the PWM output.
6. Note down the amplitude and time period of all the signals and plot them on the graph.

RESULT:

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Thus the Pulse Width Modulated signal is generated using IC 555 timer and its
Waveforms are plotted.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM:

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AMPLITUDE MODULATOR USING SOFTWARE DEFINED RADIO

AIM:
To construct an Amplitude modulator and demodulator and using SDR TRAINER KIT.
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
SDR Trainer Kit -1
SMA Connector-1
USB device -1
THEORY:
INTRODUCTION TO SDR KIT
What is Software defined radio (SDR)?
Software defined radio is defined as an environment where Hardware and Software are
different parts allows user to implement the operating functions of hardware through a
modifiable software. Complete design produces a radio which can receive and transmit widely
different radio protocols (sometimes referred to as waveforms) based solely on the software
used.
Where SDR can be used?
Due to its wide RF range it covers a wide range of applications including high frequency
communications, FM and TV broadcast, cellular, Wi-Fi, ISM, and lot more. Starting from
simple experiments, it makes you grow in experience and complexity up to being able to deal
with competence and master the fundamental elements which makes the Software Based Radio.
FEATURES
• RFCoverage from70MHz – 6 GHz RF
• GNU Radio and open BTS support through the open source USRP Hardware Driver
• USB 3.0 High speed interface (Compatible with USB 2.0)
• Flexible rate 12 bit ADC/DAC
• 1TX, 1 RX, Half or Full Duplex
• Xilinx Spartan 6 XC6SLX75 FPGA
• Up to 56 MHz of real-time bandwidth
Power
• DC Input: 6V

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SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
What is GNU Radio?
GNU Radio is a software library, which can be used to develop complete applications for radio
engineering and signal processing.
Introduction
GNU Radio is a free and open-source software development toolkit that provides signal
processing blocks to implement software radios. It can be used with readily-available low-cost
external RF hardware to create software-defined radios, or without hardware in a simulation-
like environment.
GNU Radio is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) version 3. All of
the code is copyright of the Free Software Foundation. While all the applications are
implemented using python language while critical signal processing path is done using C++
language.

PROCEDURE TO WORK ON GNU Radio Companion:

GNU Radio Companion (GRC) is a graphical user interface that allows you to build GNU
Radio
flow graphs. It is an excellent way to learn the basics of GNU Radio. This is the first in a series
of tutorials that will introduce you to the use of GRC.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Amplitude modulation is the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively high
frequency carrier signal in proportion with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.

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Procedure for Amplitude modulation:

STEP 1:Click on GRC.

STEP 2: Click on options and name the title and change generate options as WX GUI.

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STEP3: Click variable and change ID and value.

STEP 4: Press control+F and search for signal source.

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STEP 5: Place the signal source for message signal as amplitude modulation.

STEP 6: Change the properties in signal source as (i) Output Type: Float
(ii)Waveform: Cosine
(iii)Frequency: 100
(iv)Amplitude: 2

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STEP 7: Place another signal source for carrier signal in amplitude modulation.

STEP 8: Change properties in signal source as (i) Output type: float

(ii) Waveform: Sine
(iii) Frequency: 100K
(iv) Amplitude: 2

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STEP 9: Press control + F and search Multiply block.

STEP 10: Place Multiply for multiply the message signal and carrier signal.

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STEP 11: Change properties in multiply as (i) ID Type: Float

(ii)Num Inputs: 2

STEP 12: Press Control + F and search for scope sink and Place WX GUI Scope sink.

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STEP 13: Change the properties in Wx GUI scope sink as (i) Type: Float
(ii)Num input: 2

STEP 14: Connect wires of signal source to multiply and connect to WX GUI scope sink.

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STEP 15: Click Run and stop.

OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

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RESULT:

Thus the Amplitude modulation was studied using SDR kit.

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OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

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PULSE POSITION MODULATION

AIM:
To write and simulate in the MATLAB codes for Pulse position modulation.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

PC Installed with MATLAB

PROGRAM:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
fc=1000;
fs=10000;
fm=200;
t=0:1/fs:(2/fm-1/fs);
mt=0.4*sin(2*pi*fm*t)+0.5;
st=modulate(mt,fc,fs,'PPM');
dt=demod(st,fc,fs,'PPM');
figure
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(mt);
title('message signal');
xlabel('time period');
ylabel('amplitude');
axis([0 50 0 1])
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(st);
title('modulated signal');
xlabel('time period');
ylabel('amplitude');
axis([0 500 -0.2 1.2])
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(dt);
title('demodulated signal');
xlabel('time period');
ylabel('amplitude');
axis([0 50 0 1])

RESULT:
Thus the MATLAB code for PPM was written & output is verified.

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