MICROWAVE

COMMUNICATIONS
JESSIE R. BALBIN, MEP-ECE
DEFINITION OF TERMS

 MICROWAVE - a term applied to these radio frequency and wavelengths

that are short enough to have some of the properties of light. ( 1 to 30Ghz
or 30 to o.3cm)

 APERTURE-TO-MEDUIM COUPLING LOSS - otherwise known as antenna gain

degradation , is the loss due to the reduction of the troposcatter volume. It
is the difference between the free-space expected gain and its measured
gain on tropospheric scatter hop.

 BEAMWIDTH - the measure of a unilateral antenna's directional properties of

directivity measured from two points on either side of maximum radiation
where field strength drops by 3dB.
 DIVERSITY - is the use of redundant system to reduce the effects of fading.
There are few available methods of diversity - space, frequency,
polarization, cross band, and hybrid diversity.

 FADE MARGIN - is the extra strength needed in order to assure that enough
signal (30 - 40 dB) reaches the receiving antenna and must be available to
compensate for fades. It is the difference between the field strength of the
level normally received and the threshold level.

 HORIZON ANGLE - the angle at which the antenna must be aimed to clear
the horizon.
 FORWARD SCATTERING - a phenomenon whereby high-powered
electromagnetic waves are refracted in a forward direction resulting from
the turbulence caused my moisture and eddies of wind current.

 KNIFE-EDGE DIFFRACTION - the ability of a radio wave to be bent slightly

over the edge of a sharp obstacle. A sharper edge causes less attenuation
and at higher frequencies, there are lesser diffraction effects.

 MULTIPATH TRANSMISSION - the process when a signal takes several paths in

addition to the direct path to go to a receiving antenna, by reflection and
/ or refraction of waves.
 RADIO PATH - the actual path over the microwave signals are propagated

 RADIO HORIZON - a point at which a radio path is tangent to earth's surface.

 SCATTER ANGLE - either of the two acute angles formed by the intersection of
two portions of the tropospheric scatter beam (lower boundaries) tangent to
the earth's surface. Keeping the angle small effectively reduces the overall path
attenuation.

 SCATTER VOLUME - otherwise known as "common volume", the common

enclosed area where the two beams intercept.
 TAKE-OFF ANGLE - the angle between a horizontal ray extending from the
radiation center of the antenna to the radio horizon.

 THRESHOLD LEVEL - lowest signal level that will be intelligible at the radio
receiver.

 TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER - scattering of waves due to differing temperature and

moisture content of shifting tropospheric layers resulting to different degrees of
refractions and reflections.

 WINDOW - range of microwave frequencies more easily passed by the

atmosphere than the others.
FACTORS AFFECTING MICROWAVE ENERGY

 FADING – variation of field strength caused by changes in transmission

medium, i.e. atmospheric conditions and wave direction

 REFRACTION – change in direction due to changes in transmission medium

densities, temperature, pressure and water vapor.

 ABSORPTION – energy loss due to absorption of wave by atmospheric

elements such as rain, snow, oxygen clouds and vapors.

 DIFFRACTION – the change in propagation direction of waves due

differences in density / velocity of medium.
 ATTENUATION – a decrease in the intensity of energy due to spreading of
energy, transmission line losses or path losses between two antennas.

 REFLECTION – occur when waves strike in smooth surface.

 DUCTING AND THERMAL INVERSION – trapped waves bounce back and

forth in a duct caused by temperature and humidity inversion, i.e. thicker
air is on top instead of being at the bottom.

 EARTH BULGE – earth’s curvature presents “loss” obstruction and must be

compensated using 4/3 earth radius for atmospheric bending of waves.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
MICROWAVE AND HF/VHF
BAND TRANSMISSION ANTENNA TRANSMITTER-TO- OPERATING
MEDIUM USED ANTENNA FREQUENCY
SIGNAL FORM AND
WAVELENGTH

HF/VHF WIRE DIPOLE VOLTAGE OR 30 – 300 MHZ

CURRENT 10 M – 10 CM

MICROWAVE WAVEGUIDE PARABOLIC ELECTROMAGNETIC 1. – 30 GHZ

/ HORN WAVES 2. 30 – 0.3 CM
 MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES

BAND – FREQUENCY RANGE BAND – FREQUENCY RANGE

P-Band = 0.225 – 0.390 GHz K-Band = 18.00 – 36.00 GHz

L-Band = 0.390 – 1.550 GHz Q-Band = 36.00 – 46.00 GHz

C-Band = 5.200 – 8.000 GHz V-Band = 46.00 – 56.00 GHz

X-Band = 8.000 – 16.700 GHz W-Band = 56.00 – 100.00 GHz

ADVANTAGES OF
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS

 Large information handling capacity (256 – 9600 kbps)

 High reliability through diversity techniques
 Lower power consumption (except tropo)
 Carry wideband circuits for high speed data / high quality voice channels
 High degree of privacy – easy data encryption
 Could be fitted with anti-jam equipment, adaptive modems and other
accessories
 Forward error correction pre-detection combining
MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES

 A. MAJOR BAND DESIGNATIONS

BAND FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH
P – Band 0.225 – 0.390 GHz 133.30 – 76.90 cm
L – Band 0.390 – 1.550 GHz 76.90 – 19.37 cm
C – Band 5.200 – 8.000 GHz 19.37 – 5.77 cm
X – Band 8.000 – 16.70 GHz 7.69 – 4.84 cm
K – Band 18.00 – 36.00 GHz 5.77 - 2.75 cm
Q – Band 36.00 – 46.00 GHz 27.50 - 8.34 mm
V – Band 46.00 – 56.00 GHz 8.34 - 6.52 mm
W - Band 56.00 – 100.00 GHz 6.52 - 5.36 mm
 B. DETAILED MICROWAVE SPECTRUM DESIGNATIONS

BAND FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH

P 225-390 MHz 1.33-0.769 m
Lp 390-465 MHz 0.769-0.645 m
Lc 465-510 MHz 0.645-0.588 m
Ll 510-725 MHz 0.588-0.413 m
Ly 725-780 MHz 0.413-0.384 m
Lt 780-900 MHz 0.384-0.333 m
Ls 900-950 MHz 0.384-0.315 m
Lk 1150-1350 MHz 0.315-0.222 m
Lf 1350-1450 MHz 0.222-0.207 m
Lz 1450-1550 MHz 0.207-0.193 m
Se 1.55-1.65 GHz 19.7-18.18 cm
Sb 1.65-1.85 GHz 18.18-16.21 cm
St 1.85-2.00 GHz 16.21-15.00 cm
Sc 2.00-2.40 GHz 15.00-12.50 cm
Sq 2.40-2.60 GHz 12.50-11.54 cm
Sy 2.60-2.70 GHz 11.54-11.11 cm
Sg 2.70-2.90 GHz 11.11-10.34 cm
Ss 2.90-3.10 GHz 10.34-9.68 cm
Sa 3.10-3.40 GHz 9.68-8.82 cm
Sw 3.40-3.70 GHz 8.82-8.11 cm
Sh 3.70-3.90 GHz 8.11-7.69 cm
C 3.90-6.20 GHz 7.69-4.84 cm
Sz 3.90-4.20 GHz 7.69-7.14 cm
Sd 4.20-5.20 GHz 7.14-5.77 cm
Xa 5.20-5.50 GHz 5.77-5.45 cm
Xq 5.50-5.75 GHz 5.45-5.22 cm
Xy 5.75-6.20 GHz 5.22-4.84 cm
Xd 6.20-6.25 GHz 4.84-4.80 cm
Xb 6.25-6.90 GHz 4.80-4.35 cm
Xr 6.90-7.00 GHz 4.35-4.29 cm
Xc 7.00-8.50 GHz 4.29-3.53 cm
Xl 8.50-9.00 GHz 3.53-3.33 cm
Xs 9.00-9.60 GHz 3.33-3.13 cm
Xx 9.60-10.00 GHz 3.13-3.00 cm
Xf 10.00-10.25 GHz 3.00-2.92 cm
Xk 10.25-10.90 GHz 2.92-2.75 cm
Kp 10.90-12.25 GHz 27.52-24.49 mm
Ks 12.25-13.25 GHz 24.49-22.64 mm
Ke 13.25-14.25 GHz 22.64-21.05 mm
Kc 14.25-15.35 GHz 21.05-19.54 mm
Ku 15.35-17.25 GHz 19.54-17.39 mm
Kt 17.25-20.50 GHz 17.39-14.63 mm
Kq 20.50-24.50 GHz 14.63-12.24 mm
Kr 24.50-26.50 GHz 12.24-11.32 mm
Km 26.50-28.50 GHz 11.32-10.52 mm
Kn 28.50-30.70 GHz 10.52-9.77 mm
Kl 30.70-33.00 GHz 9.77-9.09 mm
Ka 33.00-36.00 GHz 9.09-8.33 mm
Qa 36.00-38.00 GHz 8.33-7.89 mm
Qb 38.00-40.00 GHz 7.89-7.50 mm
Qc 40.00-42.00 GHz 7.50-7.14 mm
Qd 42.00-44.00 GHz 7.14-6.82 mm
Va 46.00-48.00 GHz 6.52-6.25 mm
Vb 48.00-50.00 GHz 6.25-6.00 mm
Vc 50.00-52.00 GHz 6.00-5.77 mm
Vd 52.00-54.00 GHz 5.77-5.55 mm
Ve 54.00-56.00 GHz 5.55-5.36 mm
CATEGORIES OF MICROWAVE

 LINE-OF-SIGHT (LOS) COMMUNICATIONS

 Use low transmit power and highly directional antennas

 Subject to earth bulge and other obstructions
 Max distance of single link to 30 to 50 statue miles
 Operates at VHF band and above
 TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER COMMUNICATIONS

 Requires very high powered beam of electromagnetic energy ( 1 to 10 kw)

 Beyond LOS / over the horizon communications
 Uses refractive properties of tropospheric turbulences
 Operates over obstructed path or beyond los by beaming signals towards the
troposphere at about 15 km from the earth
 Provides reliable communications up to 400 statue miles
 Uses parabolic antennas with diameters of 4.5, 9 or 18 meters
 Operates between 300 MHz to 10 GHz through the common value
 The common volume is determined by the antenna size and scattering characteristics
LOS PROPAGATION
 LINE-OF-SIGHT (LOS) DISTANCE – the straight-line distance from
the antenna to the horizon. Radio horizon extends beyond
optical horizon resulting from refraction in the earth’s
atmosphere. Radio Horizon distance may be calculated using
the formulas.

d(miles) = (2)(Htft) or d(km) = [(17)(Ht(meters)) at k = 4/3

LOS HORIZON DISTANCE
 The refractive index decreases with the height above the earth’s
surface because of changes in atmospheric condition, i.e. humidity,
temperature, or pressure.

 Changes in media density from high to low bends / refracts waves

toward earth’s surface. Reducing earth’s curvature and extending
radio horizon

 Refraction vary with atmospheric and climatic conditions

 Far average conditions, the direct path distance can be plotted as a

straight line by increasing the earth’s radius by a factor of 4/3 or 1.33. (K
varies from 1.0 in cold, dry climates, to 0.66 in hot, humid climates).

 Since the actual earth’s radius is 3960 miles, the effective radius for calculating the radio
horizon is 3960 x 1.33 or 5280 statue miles.
APPLICATIONS OF LOS MICROWAVE
SYSTEMS
 Point-to-point links as backbone retails of large networks for common
carriers.
 Point-to-multipoint systems for TV, telephony, data or various mixes thereof
 Transport of TV of other video signals such as CATV headend extension,
broadcast transport and studio to transmitter links.
 Specialized digital and digital data networks.
 Power and pipeline companies for transport of telemetry, command and
control information.
 Air traffic control center interconnectivity.
 Short-haul applications such as linking offices and buildings in congested
urban areas; final connectivities for common carrier fails of fiber optic
trunks.
 Military applications: Fixed point-to-point, point-to-multipoint and
transportable point-to-point.
TROPOSCATER PROPAGATION
 Atmospheric air turbulence, irregularities of refractive index, homogenous
discontinuities divert a small fraction of the transmitted radio energy forward a
receiving station. Radio energy is scattered similar to what fog or moisture does
to scatter a searchlight in a dark night.
 Air stratified into discrete layers of varying thickness in the troposphere. The
boundaries between these layers become partially reflecting surfaces for radio
waves and thereby scatter the waves downward over the horizon.
 The distance at which diffraction and the tropospheric scatter losses are
approximately equal to:

d(km) = 65(100/f)1/3

where:
d = distance in kilometers
f = radio frequency in MHz
 For path lengths less than this value, diffraction will be predominant mode
 For paths having angular distances of 20 mrad or more, the diffraction mode by
neglected and the path can be considered to be operating in the troposcatter
mode.
BASIC LONG-TERM TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER
TRANSMISSION LOSS
The basic long term tropospheric scatter transmission loss may be
determined using the NBS method. The frequency gain function and the
scattering efficiency correction may b neglected to simplify calculations.

Lbsr = 30Logf – 20Loge + F(θd) – Fo + Ho +Aa

Where:
F = Operating Frequency in megahertz
D = great circle distance (path length) in kilometers
F(θd) = attenuation function (dB)
Fo = Scattering efficiency correction factor
Ho = Frequency gain function
Aa = Atmospheric Absorption factor

 * Attenuation function is the product of the angular distance (scatter

angle) in radians and the great circle path length in kilometers.
TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER RADIO SYSTEM
APPERTURE TO MEDIUM COUPLING LOSS
HORIZON ANGLES
ADVANTAGES OF TROPOSPHERIC
SCATTER/DIFFRACTION

 Reduces the number of stations required to cover a given large distance

when compared to radio links. Troposcatter may require 1/3 to 1/10 the
number of stations as a radio link system over the same path.
 Provide reliable multi-channel communications across large stretches if
water or between areas separated by inaccessible terraia.
 May be ideally suited to meet toll-connecting requirements of areas of low
population density.
 Useful when radio waves must cross territories of another political
administration.
 Requires less maintenance staff per route-kilometer than conventional
radio link systems over the same route.
 Allows multi-channel communications with isolated areas, especially when
intervening territory limits r prevents the use of repeaters.
 Desirable for multi-channel communications in tactical military field
environment for links from 30 t 200 miles (50-340 km) long.
 Thin-line military systems with links up to 800 miles (1480 km) long.
CRITICAL TROPOSCATTER PARAMETERS

 Basic transmission loss

 Path loss variability = meteorological effects / effective distance / elimate
types
 (ENERGY PER BIT) / (NOISE PER HERTZ BANDWIDTH)

* Delay dispersion / correlation bandwidth / multi-level signaling

LOS LINK ENGINEERING PROCEDURES
 Select sizes (radio equipments plus tower locations) that are in LOS of each
other to maximize signal strength.
 Select an operational frequency band considering RF interference
environment and legal restraints.
 Develop path profiles to determine radio tower heights. If tower heights
exceed a certain economic limit, repeat step 1 to bring the sites closer
together or reconfiguring the path along another route.
 Perform path calculations. After setting a propagation reliability expressed
as a percentage f time, the RSL will be above threshold level (FM
Improvement threshold) of the FM receiver. Set signal level margin fr fading
under all anticipated elimactic conditions.
 Conduct a path survey / Gather additional planning information vital to the
installation project.
 Establish a frequency plan and necessary operational parameters.
 Determine equipment configuration to achieve the fade margins in most
economical manner / Satisfy technical and legal requirements. Consider
transmitter output, distance between stations, antenna size and height,
Fresnel zones, etc.
 Make necessary plans / design and install equipment.
 Align Antenna Beam line up equipment, checkout equipment
performance and secure customer acceptance.
LOS SITING PRCEDURES
 Construct path profile chart using contour maps and profiling charts. Use Path
Profiling software if available.
 Conduct field inspection to determine ground suitability, antenna erection,
equipment shelter building and amount of clearing required.
 Use equipment such as: 2-way radios, binoculars, surveyor’s transit, radio
altimeters DME, ancroid barometer, etc. Use compass or RDF for triangulation.
 Conduct aerial reconnaissance and take aerial photographs if possible, t
determine accessibility of roads, power lines, and evade reflecting bodies of
water, obstructions, navigational hazards etc
 Test signal strength / conduct propagation tests
 Determine wind loading effect for tower design
 Conduct soil tests for structural foundation design.
TYPES OF MICROWAVE PATHS
 LINE OF SIGHT (LOS) – no obstructions exists and antennas could “see” each
other.
 GRAZING PATH – the microwave beam just barely touches the obstruction or
there is a zero clearance.
 OBSTRUCTED PATH –the microwave beam is hindered by an obstruction.
RADIO PRAPAGATION PATHS

 PATH PROFILE
Show the “cross-section” of the earth’s surface where the
radio path passes over.
Determines the actual clearance along the radio path
antenna heights and overall system reliability. Normally
scaled at 4, 2, or 1 mile per inch on the horizontal and 25, 100
and 400 feet on the vertical.
 SAMPLE PATH PROFILE

TOTAL
POINT MILE ELEVATION TREES
ELEVATION

1 0 380 20 400

2 3 240 240

3 6 280 280

4 11 100 100

5 16 135 25 160

6 20 60 60

7 24 160 160

8 26 140 140

9 28 220 220

A PROFILE FROM A CONTOUR MAP

INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
SYMBOLS AND CONTOUR LINES

ROAD JUNCTION
-Where one road joins another

ROAD INTERSECTION
-Where one road crosses another
 CURVE
-A bend in the road

DEAD END
- where the road stops
with no outlets

TRAIL DEAD END

- where the trail stops
 TRAIL CURVE

ROAD AND TRAIL JUNCTION

- where a road intersects two trails

ROAD AND TRAIN

INTERSECTION
- where a road crosses a trail
INTERMITTENT STREAM JUNCTION

STREAM JUNCTION

BEND IN STREAM
POND’S EASTERNMOST POINT

POND

OUTLET
-where the water flows out of pond
 INLET
-where water runs into a pond

MARSHY OR SWAMPY POND

TRAIL AND STREAM

INTERSECTION
-where a trail crosses a stream
(in most cases, there is no
bridge)
 ISLAND
- land surrounded by water

DRAWS

SPUR
SEMILEVEL GROUND ALONG
THE PATH OF A RIDGE

VALLEY
-in both directions of a
creek

CREEK JUNCTION
HILL TOP

ORCHARD
PATH PROFILING PROCEDURE
 1. USE TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP (1:50,000)
Plot transmit and receive stations on the map. Get elevations and distances from
contours. Consider earth’s curvature and refraction of the microwave beam

 2. DETERMINE ELEVATIONS AND DISTANCES

Use contour maps and scales

 3. PLOT ELEVATION ON PROFILE PAPER

Use profile paper and observe proper scaling procedures, determine if LOS exists

 4. DETERMINE TERRAIN OBSTRUCTION THAT MAY IMPEDE THE FIRST FRESNEL ZONE
Determine if constructive or destructive Fresnel interference exists and if site is
technically feasible.

 5. CALCULATE PATH LOSSES

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN LOCATING
RELAY STATIONS
 1. ANTENNA HEIGHT - Take advantage of the natural elevation to clear
obstructions.

 2. TERRAIN
OBSTRUCTIONS – Thick vegetation, buildings, other obstructions block
or absorb microwave energy. Plan requirements for obstruction
removal to ensure LOS

REFLECTIONS – Smooth surfaces may cause a second signal to reflect

to the receiving antenna. Out – of – phase signal causes multipath
fading or cancellation of desired signal and the terrain. Clearance
required depends on the radius of the first Fresnel zone.
 3. AVAILABILITY OF POWER LINES AND WATER SUPPLY
 4. ROAD ACCESIBILITY FOR REFUELING, RESUPPLY AND MAINTENANCE
 5. TYPE OF GROUND/SOIL FOUNDATION ON WHICH TO BUILD THE STATION
 6. SECURITY TRQUIREMENTS AGAINST ILLEGAL INTRUSION AND SABOTAGE OF
FACILITIES
 7. NAVIGATIONAL HAZARDS POSED BY TOWERS TO AIR TRANSPORT
FREE SPACE LOSSES

FREE SPACE LOSS – The reduction of intercepted

energy due to spreading of electromagnetic
energy resulting from expanding spherical area
of the propagated wave, free space loss is
inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between isotropic radiators , doubling
the distance between the receiver and
transmitter quadruples attenuation or increases
FSL by 6dB.
FORMULAS FOR FSL CALCULATIONS

FSL(dB) = 32.58  20 log10 ( f MHz )  20 log10 ( Dst.mi. )

FSL(dB) = 37.8  20 log10 ( f MHz )  20 log10 ( Dn.mi. )

FSL(dB) = 32.44  20 log10 ( f Mhz )  20 log10 ( Dkm )

FSL(dB) = 92.44  20 log10 ( f Ghz )  20 log10 ( Dkm )

FADE MARGIN AND RELIABILITY

 Fade margin = Medium Received Power – Practical Threshold

RAYLEIGH RELIABIILITY TABLE

SINGLE HOP PROPAGATION

REQUIRED FADE
RELIABILITY(%) MARGIN(dB)

90.00 8
99.00 18
99.90 28
99.99 38
99.999 48
99.9999 58
FACTORS AFFECTING SYSTEM RELIABILITY

 Power supply and equipment failures or total outage

time
 Transmitter output power and antenna efficiency
 Distance between stations – (30-50 miles at 10ghz)
 Receiver sensitivity
 Reflected signals
 Fading due to ionospheric storms
 Terrain characteristics and climatic changes
 Path clearance/fresnel zone/earth bulge
 Diversity techniques used
 Abnormal propagation conditions
 Interference
 Support Facilities (collapse of tower, generator failures,
DC-AC converters, etc.)
 Human Activity/error
FADING

 FADING – is the change in received signal level or radio

field strength variation due to a change in the path or
direction of wave travel resulting from a complex
combination of atmospheric and topographic factors
such as Fresnel Zone selection, multipath, ducting,
temperature inversions, fade margin.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FADING

 More severe for paths over water/smooth surfaces than

for paths over rough terrain.
 More severe in tropical zones than in temperate zones.
 Dry paths such as deserts may cause severe fading.
Presence of some vegetation reduces fading.
 A well-mixed turbulent atmosphere is less likely to cause
fading than a still one. Ground fogs are associated with
bad reception conditions.
 Severe fading occur from 11:00 PM to 4:00 AM especially
during summer months.
 Fading is minimized by providing at least 0.6 Fresnel zone
for 4/3 earth clearance, or 0.3 Fresnel zone for 2/3 earth
profile.
 An excessive clearance three times that necessary for
the first Fresnel Zone clearance, increases severity of
fading, especially for paths over water.
 Severity of fading directly increases with hop distance
and operating frequency.
FRESNEL ZONES

 FRESNEL ZONES – are concentric circular zones about

the direct path of a microwave signal forming a three
dimensional imaginary solid called an ellipsoid. The
positions of these zones are dependent on wavelength.
 Difference in distances traveled by the wavefront result to 180 degrees
phase difference with the rest of the wavefront, causing cancellation
of waves.
 Odd Fresnel Zones gives positive contribution to the total received field
 Even Fresnel Zone gives negative contribution to the total received field
 First Fresnel Zone accounts for approximately 25% of the total received
field energy and should be clear of all path obstructions if the received
signal is to have a maximum signal strength.
 Fresnel zone loss depends on first Fresnel zone obstruction. If 60% of the
first Fresnel zone clears the obstructions, there will be no net change in
attenuation from free space ( No gain/ No loss situation).
 The area of the First Fresnel Zone depends upon Tx/Rx antennas and
the operating frequency.
 FRESNEL RADIUS CALCULATIONS
RADIUS OF FIRST FRESNEL ZONE

(d1km )(d 2 km ) [d1km )][d 2 km ]

F1( m )  17.3  2,280
( f GHz )( Dkm ) [ FMHz ][d1mi  d 2 mi ]

(d1mi )(d 2 mi )
F1( ft )  72.1
( f GHz )( Dmi )
RADIUS OF THE nTH FRESNEL ZONE:

Fn  F1 n
Where:

F = the required first Fresnel Zone in feet or meters

D = the path distance ( D= d1+d2)
d1= the distance from the transmitter to a point along the path
d2 = the remaining distance from d1 along the path
r = the operating frequency in GHz
FRESNEL INTERFERENCE
 DESTRUCTIVE FRESNEL INTERFERENCE
 * If an obstacle is placed in front of the wave so that all the wavefront
below the LOS is blocked, half of the area is obstructed and a 6 dB
energy loss occurs.
 CONSTRUCTIVE FRESNEL INTERFERENCE
 * An obstruction can be helpful if it is at the height where all of the first
Fresnel Zone is exposed, the power received at the antenna will be
greater than it would be there were no obstructions at all. This is
because the higher numbered zones are not allowed to reach the
antenna and cancel part the energy.
SELECTION OF FRESNEL ZONE
 1. OPTIMUM FRESNEL CLEARANCE
* Optimum Fresnel Clearance actually occurs when the edge of an
obstruction is located a slight amount within the first Fresnel Zone.
The slight penetration into the first Fresnel Zone Causes wave
reinforcement to occur since the reflected wave is one-half wavelength
longer than the direct wave and also reversed in phase by 180 degrees at the
reflection point. The reflected wave is therefore in phase with the direct wave,
thus increasing the effective signal strength at the receiving antenna.
 2. MORE THAN OPTIMUM CLEARANCE
* When there is more than optimum clearance multipath fading may
occur, caused by the impinging waves from the surface of the obstacle.
 3. LESS THAN OPTIMUM CLEARANCE
* Less than optimum clearance may cause a possible shadow loss of
power, depending upon the degree of obstruction, due to multiple reflections
from the obstructed side of the Fresnel Zone.
EARTH BULGE

 EARTH BULGE – obstruction resulting from earth’s curvature and changes in

atmospheric refraction.

 The earth’s curvature affects the horizon line of sight conditions. It is

customary to draw profile charts of the earth’s radius at 4/3 the actual size
to compensate for the bending of waves by the atmosphere and permit
straight line radio paths.

 Paths without adequate clearance are undesirable because atmospheric

refraction may change. If a signal just clears an outside obstacle under
normal conditions, a change in refraction may cause the path to be
obstructed.
 If the earth bulges form the bottom of the first Fresnel zone to the center, for
example, a 6-dB loss will occur in the signal received.

 It is important to consider the average and worst conditions that may occur
and locate the antennas at heights which will provide as much signal as
possible. This must be accomplished without suffering severe, partial, or
even worse total loss of signal during the year.
 EARTH BULGE CALCULATIONS

A. ENGLISH SYSTEM: B. METRIC SYSTEM:

 d d   d d 
hm   1 2 
h ft   1 2 
 1.5k   12.75k 

CASE I: At k= infinity, CASE I: k= infinity

h= 0 h= 0

CASE II: At k= 4/3 CASE II: k= 4/3

 d1 d 2   d1 d 2 

h  hm   
 2   17 
 CASE III: At k =2/3 CASE III: k=2/3

 d d 2  
h  d1 d 2  hm   1
 8.5 


CASE IV: At k= 1 CASE IV: k= 1

h  0.67d1 d 2   d d 

hm   1 2 
 12.75 

where: where:

d1 & d2 are expressed in miles d1 & d2 are expressed in kilometers

h is expressed in feet h is expressed in meters
REFLECTION

 Reflection is the property of waves to be turned back by a conducting

medium.
 Reflection is an important principle in the shaping of radio waves into
beams, and also in providing tropospheric scatter communications.
 Ground reflected waves results whe there is a “good mirror” surface
available for it to bounce to an antenna.
 A body of water or smooth earth is good reflector, while wooded terrain
provides weaker reflection.
 A reflected ground-wave signal is undesirable because it can cause wave
cancellation/fading and distortion.
 The coefficient of reflection (p) is defined as a square root of a power ratio,
and is found by dividing the reflected energy per second leaving a
reflecting surface by the energy per second incident to the same surface.
 Perfect Reflection occurs when incident and reflected waves have equal
magnitudes or the coefficient is equal to one.
 When the wave energy is absorbed, it is converted into heat.
REFLECTED WAVES
EARTH REFLECTION ZONES
 As radio waves are reflected from the earth’s surface, their phase are
changed depending upon the wave polarization and the angle of
incidence.

 Horizontally polarized waves reflected from the earth’s surface are shifted in
phase by about 180 degrees, effectively changing the electrical path
length by a half wavelength.

 In vertically polarized waves, a considerable variation in the phase angle

will be found to exist for different angles of incidence and reflection
coefficients, and will vary between 0 and 180 degrees lag depending upon
waves, therefore, if the are of the reflecting surface is large enough to
include the total area of any odd-numbered Fresnel zones, the resulting
wave reflections will arrive at the receiving antenna out of phase with the
direct wave and cause destructive interference.
 The radiation pattern of an antenna near a reflecting surface, such as the
ground, differs from the free-space pattern primarily because of the
existence of ground reflections.

 Since the direct path will not be of the same physical length, and since
there will be a phase change upon reflection, the two waves may arrive at
the receiving antenna with any phase relationship. This phase relationship
of the two waves will cause either an increase or decrease in the signal
strength at the receiver and will produce the effect of distinct lobes and
nulls in the radiation pattern, since the two rays add vectorially at the
receiver.
 REFLECTION POINTS
A. ENGLISH SYSTEM B. METRIC SYSTEM
1. At K= 4/3 1. At K= 4/3
h1 d1 h2 d 2 h1 d1 h2 d 2
     
d1 2 d 2 2 d1 17 d 2 17

2. At K= 2/3 2. At K= 2/3
h1 h h1 d1 h2 d 2
 d1  2  d 2   
d1 d2 d1 8.5 d 2 8.5

3. At K= 
d1  hD
Where: Where:
h = height in feet h = meters
d and D = distances in miles d and D = kilometers
REFRACTION

 REFRACTION – is the process by which a radio wave is bent and

returned to earth from one medium to another medium after striking
them.

 Radio waves are slowed down when it passes through a medium

other than vacuum.
 Thicker or denser media slows down travel speed. When a radio
wave leaves one medium for another at an angle of 90 degrees, a
change of velocity takes place.
 At angles other than 90 degrees, a change in speed and direction
occurs.
 Refraction is caused by part of the wave entering the new medium
and changing speed before the rest of the wave enters the
medium.
 Atmospheric index of refraction decreases with altitude.
 Refraction may increase the range of coverage beyond to optical
horizon.
 WILLBROD SNELL’S LAW OF REFRACTION
“An incident wave, traveling obliquely from one direction medium to another, will
undergo a change in direction, if the velocity of the wave in one medium is different
from that in the other and the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine
of the angle of refraction is the same as the ratio of the respective wave velocities in
these media, and is a constant for two particular media.”

η = (sin i / sin r) = (v1 /v2)

where:
η – the refractive index of the second medium relative to the first
i – angle of incidence
r – angle of reflection
The absolute refractive index of a substance is its index with
respect to a vacuum and is practically the same value as the
index with respect to air. Thus, if the velocity of wave is in a
particular substance, v in a vacuum, and v in air, the refracted
index of the substance is given by the formula;

η = (Vo / V) = (Va / V)

The change in the index of refraction determines the path of

electromagnetic through the atmosphere.
DIFFRACTION

DIFFRACTION – is the change in the propagation

direction of waves due to difference in density /
velocity of medium. Electromagnetic diffraction
is, the bending of waves as they earth ‘ s surface
or any other intervening obstacle and is caused
by Huygen’s wavelets.
 The amount of RF energy in the form of electromagnetic waves that
will travel a transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna is
determined by the path the waves must travel. At frequencies
below approximately 100 MHz, waves may reach much farther
beyond the horizon than refraction can account for.

 Wave reflections will reradiate in all directions from a multitude of

elementary radiations centers at the earth’s horizon as they receive
incident wave energy, according to Huygen’s wavelet principle.
 KNIFE EDGE DIFFRACTION – is the ability f a radio wave to
be bent slightly over the edge of a sharp obstacle. A
sharper edge causes less attention and at higher
frequencies, there are lesser diffraction effects.

 As a general rule, no two terminals should be placed

closer than two miles fro every 1000 feet of obstacle
height
Multipath Fading

Multipath Transmission – is the process when a

signal takes several paths in addition to the
direct path to go to a receiving antenna, by
reflection and or refraction of waves
 Two equal signals travel paths that are different by a half
wavelength or any odd multiple thereof, are received 180 degrees
out of phase and completely cancel each other. Phase shifts other
than 0 or 180 degrees, result to partial cancellation.

 Multipath occur when there are constant layers of air in the path.,
i.e. still air at night and just before dawn. These layers have different
temperature and moisture content and thus can cause reflection
and refraction. When air is constantly moving, no layers can form
and multipath is not so likely to occur.
 Fade Margin – is the extra strength needed in order to
assure that enough signal (30 – 40 dB) reaches the
receiving antenna and must be available to
compensate for fades. It is usually based upon the
received signal level (RSL), which is expected to be
equaled or exceeded 90 percent of the time.

 A signal path over a good reflecting surface will require

additional allowance for fade margin.
DUCTING AND THE THERMAL
INVERSIONS
A signal path can be altered by a duct which, in
turn, can affect the reliability of a radio system.
Effects of ducts depend on: position, vertical
extent, intensity of duct, position of antennas in
relation in the duct and operating frequency.
 THERMAL INVERSION – occurs when the thicker air is on top instead
of the bottom. If the temperature water vapor gradient is greater
than the standard rate, electromagnetic waves will be bent to a
greater extent. It the rate is less than normal, downward bending
will be less and may become upward. In this condition, ducts are
formed.

 SUPERREFRACTION – occurs if temperature or water vapor gradient

is greater than the standard rate. Electromagnetic waves are bent
to greater extent. If the rat is less than normal, downward bending
will be less and may become upward. In this condition, ducts are
formed.
 SUPERDUCTING – the phenomenon when radio waves tend to be
trapped inside and guided by ducts in the atmosphere.

 HORIZONTAL DUCT – is caused by differences in temperature from a

hot dry and that of cold air mass over water.

 GROUND – BASED DUCT – occurs if the high density is at earth’s

surface. UHF/SHF bands are susceptible to ground based duct.
 ELEVATED DUCT – occurs if high density layers itself above the
surface of the earth. VHF band is susceptible to elevated duct.

 SUBSIDENCE – large stationary circular movement of air (clockwise

or anti-cyclonic) characterized by high pressure, downward flow
through center and outward flow at low levels.

 DIURNAL CHANGES – result from daylight heating and the nocturnal

ending effect on earth’s surface.
INVERSE BEAM BENDING

 INVERSE BEAM BENDING – is the upward, slow bending of radio wave

through a thin layer of special air or a duct. Waves tend to bounce
back and forth between the edges of this layer and as result of
ducting; they will be bent away from the intended destination.

 It is also a rare type of fading caused by changes in refractive index of

the air through which this beam passes resulting to change in direction
and weaker signal / reduced Received Signal Level (RSL)

 Ordinarily, the beam follows a slightly curved path between the

transmitting and receiving antennas, with the center of the beam
striking the receiving antenna under standard conditions.
FADE MARGIN

 FADE MARGIN- is the difference between the normal unfaded and the
Fade Margin Improvement Threshold. It is the allowance for fading for the
extra signal strength to assure enough strength reaches the receiver
antenna to compensate for fading.

FADE MARGIN FORMULA:

FM = IT – RSL = NT – RSL
 FADE MARGIN- is a “fudge factor” included in the system gain
equation that considers the non-ideal and less predictable
characteristics of radio wave propagation, such as multipath
propagation and terrain sensitivity. These characteristics cause
temporary, abnormal atmospheric conditions that alter the free-
space path loss and are usually determined to the overall system
performance.

 *Fade margin also considers system reliability objective. Thus fade

margin is included on the system gain equation as loss.
BARNETT-VIGANT RELIABILITY EQUATION

FMdB = 30 LogDkm + 10 Log(6Abf(GHz)) – 10Log(1-R)-70

Where:
FM= Fade margin in dB
D= Distance in kilometers
F= frequency in GHz
R=Reliability expressed as a decimal
 A= ROUGHNESS FACTOR

A = 4 – over water or very smooth terrain

A = 1 – over an average terrain
A =0.25– over a very rough, mountainous terrain

 B= ANNUAL AVAILABILITY TO WORST MONTH CONVERSION FACTOR

B = 0.5 for hot humid areas

B = 0.25 for average inland areas
B =0.125 for very dry or mountainous areas

 *Barnett-Vigant reliability equation may be used for specified annual system

availability for an unprotected non-diversity system.
 OUTAGE TIME VERSUS SYSTEM RELIABILITY

PERCENTAGE OUTAGE TIME OUTAGE TIME OUTAGE TIME OUTAGE TIME

RELIABILITY (%) PER YEAR PER MONTH PER DAY
0 100 8760 hrs 720 hrs 24 hrs
50 50 4380 hrs 360 hrs 12 hrs
80 20 1752 hrs 144 hrs 4.8 hrs
90 10 876 hrs 72 hrs 2.4 hrs
95 5 438 hrs 36 hrs 1.2 hrs
98 2 175 hrs 14 hrs 29 min
99 1 88 hrs 7 hrs00 14.4 min
99.9 0.1 8.8 hrs 43 min 1.44min
99.99 0.01 53 min 4.3 min 8.5 min
99..999 0.001 5.3 min 26 sec 0.86 min
99.9999 0.0001 32 sec 2.6 sec 0.086 min
RELIABILITY AND UNAVAILABILITY

 *The probability of outage expresses system unavailability (U). In

equation form:

U = (downtime/totaltime) = MTTR/(MTTR+MTBF)

Where:

U= system unavailability
MTTR = Mean time to repair
MTBF = Mean time between failure
 *Availability which expresses reliability, is simply 100 % less %
Unavailability. For a fully redundant block (diversity hop), the mean
time to repair one side is given by the formula”
m = M2/2 T1

Where:
m= MTBF of Redundant Block
M= MTBF of one complete side
T1= MTTR and restore one side failure
UNAVAILABILITY OF REDUNDANT BLOCK

*The unavailability of a redundant block Ur is given by the equation:

Ur = (T1/M)2

Where

T1= Mean time to repair or restore

M= MTBF of one complete site
MULIT-HOP PROPAGATION

TOTAL OUTAGE- for a mulit-hop propagation, the

outage is the summation of each hop and the
reliability is 100 % - total outage. In short and
simple language, the probability of an
equipment or system being operational is 100%
minus the probability of being non-operational
 TOTAL SYSTEM RELIABILITY- the overall system reliability is the product of all
individual reliabilities, or in equation form:

R= (r1)(r2)(r3)(r4)…(rn)

 For a very special case when there are n hops with equal reliabilities of r,
the total reliability is expressed by the equation

R=(r)n
DIVERSITY

 DIVERSITY – is the use of redundant system to reduce the

effects of fading. There are a few available methods of
diversity-space, frequency, polarization, crossband, and
hybrid diversity.
DIVERISTY TECHNIQUES

 SPACE DIVERSITY- involves the use of two receiving

antennas normally placed vertical several wavelength
apart, space diversity is the preferred means of diversity
operation. Since this technique uses frequency in each
direction, received signals are then being fed into
combiner.
 Space diversity takes advantage of the fact that
simultaneous fading is not likely to occur over two well-
separated paths. Components of the sae interference
points. The same wavelength is interfered with differently
at two vertically or horizontally separated points
because it travels different path lengths to the antenna.
In a typical system, the signal form a single transmitter is
received at two antennas having a vertical or horizontal
separation of 100 or more wavelengths. When vertical
separation is used, a stronger and taller will be required.
SPACE DIVERSITY
ADVANTAGES OF SPACE DIVERSITY

 FREQUENCY CONSERVATION- only one transmitting frequency is

used.
 MINIMIZED MULTIPATH FADING- Fading due to different arrival times
of waves and wave reflection are reduced. Two or more antennas
are spaced several wavelengths apart, generally in the vertical
direction. Mulipath fading will not occur in synchronism of both
antennas, although a diurnal change in signal intensity will.
 AVAILABILITY OF SUFFICIENT SIGNAL OUTPUT- Sufficient output is almost
always available from one of the antennas to provide a useful signal, and
only the strongest signal is applied to the receiver amplifier.
 COMPENSATION FOR ELECTRICAL DIFFERENECS BETWEEN DIRECT AND
REFLECTED WAVES- The use of two antennas at different heights provides a
means of compensation, for changes on the electrical path differences
between direct and reflected rays by the selection of the stronger signal .
however, fading due to inverse beam-bending is generally not affected by
space diversity.

*The antennas should be placed far enough to give an approximate half-

wavelength between the geometrical path differences of the two signal
DISADVANTAGES OF SPACE DIVERSITY

 COSTLY- Requires additional cost for additional antennas

and waveguides
 MORE TOWERS REQUIRED- separate towers or stronger
and taller towers must be used.
 CONCEPT DOES NOT ALWAYS WORK AS INTENDED –
Although separate paths are involved, they may or may
not experience simultaneous fading.
VERTICAL SPACE BETWEEN ANTENNAS

SPACING(feet) = | (43.2 λ d)/ ht |

Where:

λ = wavelength in centimeters
ht = Height in feet of the transmitting antenna above a
plane tangent to the earth at point reflection
In metric form, the spacing between antennas may be computed using the
formula:

ΔH = | (127 Dkm)/ ((FGHz)( hm))|

Where:

ΔH = difference in antenna heights or the spacing in meters

D=path distance or length in kilometers
F=frequency in GHz
H= height in meters of the TX antenna above a plain tangent to earth
at reflection point.
 FREQUENCY DIVERSITY- Involves the use of two
transmitters and two receivers, each pair toned to a
different frequency. From a practical standpoint, the
refraction or deflection of a microwave signal is
independent of its frequency.
*Two waves at different frequencies travel the
same path in a multipath fade. Signals of
different amounts of phase cancellation at the
receiving antenna. Thus, when one signal
experiences a 180 degrees phase cancellation,
the other signal may actually experience a 0
degrees phase cancellation.
 *Most frequency diversity systems employ frequencies separated by
2 to 3 percent. A separation of 5% is considered ideal, but is usually
difficult to obtain because of frequency allocations. Most LOS
systems employ 2 transmitters, 2 receivers and common antennas.

 *Tropospheric scatter systems usually employ 4 receivers. Since this

method doubles the amount of equipment necessary, it is used on
the most expensive systems, such as the Trans-Atlantic network
where high reliability is a necessity.
 *Since the period of fading decreases as the frequency of a signal
increases, this method has been utilized to some extent with varying
degrees of success. Frequently diversity is generally cheaper than
space diversity when the costs of providing equal reliabilities are
compared for two systems.

 *Frequency diversity also provides a backup in equipment since it

has two complete electrical paths. If one transmitter fails, the other
keeps working and the system is still usable. This is also
advantageous when maintenance is required of the sets of
equipment.
CROSSBAND DIVERSITY
 CROSSBAND DIVERSITY- Is a variation on frequency
diversity. Instead of 5% separation, the signals are
entirely different allocations. For example, one signal
may be 6 GHz and the other may be 12 GHz. Crossband
diversity offers protection from rain attenuation while
space and inband frequency diversity do not.
 POLARIZATION DIVERSITY – uses the same transmission
path to radiate the intelligence in two different planes-
horizontal and vertical. This system has been found to be
useful only on frequencies employing a sky wave and is
not beneficial to microwave operations. It requires
feedhorn reorientation and is applied to paths beyond
LOS as in troposcatter systems.
POLARIZATION DIVERSITY
 ANGLE DIVERSITY- is the transmission at two or more
slightly different angles resulting to two or more paths
based on illuminating different scatter volumes in
troposcatter systems.
REDUNDANT EQUIPMENT/ HOT STANDBY

 HOT STANDBY – implies the use of standby diversity to

reduce equipment costs and space requirements by
channel sharing. The requirement for additional
equipment imposed by frequency diversity is and
explosive one.
 *In large systems, where many channel link, the same
locations, a system of standby diversity is used to reduce
equipment cost and space requirements. This system is
also useful where the signals use such a large portion of
the available frequency band that diversity reception is
not practical. Protection offered is listed one for two,
one for three, two for four, and so on.
 DEGREE OF DIVERSITY
 The technique of diversity used are as important to system reliability as
the degree of diversity. The greater the degree of diversity, the better
the systems reliability, assuming the fade margin is the same. The
following are the degrees of diversity:
 DUAL DIVERSITY- this condition where two signals carrying the same
information(where system employs either space, polarization or
frequency diversity technique) are available at the receiver.
 TRIPLE DIVERSITY- the condition where three signals carrying the same
information (whose system employs either space, polarization, or
frequency diversity techniques or combination of these) are
available at the receiver.
 QUAD DIVERSITY-the condition where four three signals carrying the
same information (whose system employs either space, polarization,
or frequency diversity techniques or combination of these) are
available at the receiver.
MICROWAVE LINK DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

 Site description i.e. geographic coordinates political subdivision,

access roads, availability of ac power and physical objects.
 Unusual weather patterns including amount of precipitation,
maximum expected wind velocity and temperature range.
 Site physical characteristics- leveling required, removal of rocks,
trees or structures, etc, as part of site preparation cost.
 Relationship of site to any airport / potential navigational hazards.
 Site elevation and effect of elevation on any necessary leveling.
 Description or recommendation for an access road to the proposed
building.
 Building code/ land use zoning restrictions.
 Commercial power, name and location of the nearest power utility
company.
 Proximity to telephone facility, name of company and available
telecommunication services.
EQUIPMENT SELECTION

 Know equipment selection factors to include radio

specification, power requirement, tower, waveguide,
transmission lines, antenna systems, etc.
 Conduct on the spot survey and consider engineering
requirements to determine most appropriate sites for
relay stations.
 Select type of tower if guyed or self-sustaining.
 Select antenna type for maximum gain and beamwidth
 Select waveguides with lengths avoiding undesirable
reflection and signal attenuation; ensure availability of
dehydrators and compressor to keep waveguide free
from moisture and corrosion. Waveguide moisture
meads higher attenuation and SWR.
RADIO EQUIPMENT SELECTION

 Know distance between stations –long-hand equipment

 Determine volume of traffic- multi-channel, heavy route
layout, sophisticated switching
 Determine duration, quality of service
 Know requirements for multiple access, drops and
inserts-maintenance and flexibility
 Determine type of radio equipment- heterodyne,
baseband or remodulating.
 HETERODYNE- eliminates demodulation and
remodulation at repeaters, it contributes the least
amount of seems to distortion and is the choice for the
system handling exclusively or almost exclusively long
inserted haul traffic with little or no requirement for drop
and insert as long the route.
 BASEBAND OR REMODULATING- is widely used being
short haul or for distributed systems in the telephone
industry, and for either short or long haul for industrial
systems.
 The great flexibility for drop and insert plus maintenance
and advantages are determining factors.
EQUIPMENT SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

 Characteristics of the end-to-end baseband facility,

including bandwidth, frequency response, loading
capability, noise figure and noise performance.
 Amount of radio gain available, as determined by
transmitter power output and receiver noise
characteristics.
 Operating frequency and required frequency spacing
between radio channels, determined by transmitter
deviation, receiver selectivity and frequency selectivity.
 Primary power requirements and options available.
 Supervisory functions available, including under wire,
alarms, and controls.
 Equipment reliability, including availability of redundant
version such as frequency, diversity, 1 or for N or 2 for N
multi-line switching, but standby, or hot standby at
transmitter and space diversity at receivers,
TRANSMITTER POWER

 *A transmitter can affect the signal level at the receiver

is through its output power level. A change of +3dB in
signal level is possible by doubling the power, this is
calculated by the formula:

SIGNAL LEVEL CHANGE = 10 Log (Pnew/Poriginal)

RECEIVER:

 *FM THRESHOLD is the minimum usable Received Signal Level (RSL)

and is the point where the RF carrier/ noise ratio is 10 dB and the FM
quieting curve becomes linear. Before this point is reached, noise
peaks are higher than the FM carrier and result is unusable
intelligence. A receiver must have enough signal to operate
properly.

 *Most LOS receivers pass the signal through the intermediate

frequency (IF) circuitry directly from a mixer stage, so received level
must be adequate. Troposcatter receivers pass the signal into a
special RF amplifier circuit because received signals is too weak for
use in an IF system.
 *Most receivers employ a broad band pass filter in series with the
input signals to remove unwanted signals from the IF and RF
amplifier stages. This filter causes a slight loss (0.5 dB) in the signal
and this loss must be added to the other losses reducing the
workable signal level.

 *FM receivers are immune to noise with high signal levels. As a signal
fades noise increases in direct proportion to the signal strength. A
narrow band receiver is less susceptible to noise. Its noise level is
lowered directly as the bandwidth is lowered as defined by the
equations in the noise figure.
TOWERS

 *Tower problems have significant effect on many

microwave path engineering choices.
 *The two types of towers are guyed and self-supporting.
 *As height goes up, the core of self supported types
increase exponentially, while guyed towers which have
a constant cross section increases linearly.
 *Use guyed towers for high tower requirements.
*Transport factors to consider in tower selection:
Total costs,
Space allotment
Proximity to airports
Soil conditions
Wind loading
Local building code restrictions
WAVEGUIDE AND TRANSMISSION LINE
LOSSES

 *A transmission line is required to carry the signal from

the antenna transmitter to an antenna and from the
antenna to the receiver and some fraction of the
energy are lost due to impedance.

 *In general, transmission line losses increase as the

frequency increases and the distance between
antenna and equipment increases, thus passive
reflectors are used on a tower instead of the actual
radiator.
 *Waveguides and transmission lines are important not
only for its loss characteristic, which enter into the path
loss calculations, but also for the degree of impedance
matching attainable., because of the effect of echo
distortion noise. The latter becomes extremely important
with high-density systems having long waveguides runs.
TYPES OF WAVEGUIDES

 ELLIPTICAL

 *Short selections of flexible elliptical waveguides are used, the

number and length of flexible section are minimized. Size and
attenuation is similar to standard rectangular waveguides

 *Can be installed on single continuous run with no intermediate

flanges. It can provide good VSWR performance, but even small
deformations can cause impedance mismatch and severe echo
distortion noise.
 RECTANGULAR

 *Rigid rectangular waveguide is the most commonly used, with

oxygen free, hihgh conductivity copper, it gives a favorable
transmission channel for the microwave frequency. It is used for
extremely low VSWR applications to meet stringent noise
performance specifications,
 CIRCULAR

 *Rigid circular waveguides have the lowest loss and can support
two orthogonal polarization within the single guide and is capable
of carrying several frequency hands, but is practical only for straight
runs.

 *Requires complicated and critical network to make the transistion

from rectangular to circular, and can have significant moding
problems, when the waveguide is large enough to support multi-
mode for the frequency range in use.
ANTENNA SYSTEM

 *In general, radiating and receiving antennas for microwave LOS

and troposheric scatter are of the parabolic “dish” type. The only
choices are size and height. The bigger the antenna, the higher the
gain.

 *Fresnel zones and practical limits as to how large an antenna can

be safely supported by a tower under local wind conditions must be
considered.
 *Point-to-point microwave communications system usually utilize
high-gain and highly directional antennas to increase the effective
radiated or received power by several orders of magnitude over
that of isotropic.

 *Other important characteristics of antennas include: bandwidth,

side-lobe magnitude, off-axis radiation, sensitivity patters and
polarization discrimination.
 *Impedance matching i.e VSWR or return loss across the band to be
used is a great impedance in situations where echo distortion is
significant.

 *Select an antenna system with optimum gain efficiency to attain

the desired net path loss between the transmitter output and the
receiver input.
 *Know the transmitter output power, fixed losses of the
waveguides, circulators, hybrids and radomes and other
items between the transmitter and its antenna, path
attenuation or fading and the receiver strength needed
to give the required noise performance and fade
margin.
TYPES OF MICROWAVE ANTENNAS

 DIRECT RADIATING ANTENNA- consists of parabolic antenna with

parabolic dish, illuminated by a feed horn at its focus
 HIGH PERFORMANCE/ SHROUDED- similar to the common parabola,
except they included a cylindrical shield performance to improve
the front-to-back ratio and the wide angel radiation discrimination.
Gain efficiency is lower than ordinary parabolic antenna.
 CROSS BAND PARABOLIC ANTENNA- permits operation into two
widely separated bands. Very complex and critical assemblies,
have lower gains and poorer VSWR than single band antennas.
 HORN REFLECTED ANTENNA – contains a section of large parabolic
mounted such as an angle that the energy feedhorn is
simultaneously focused and reflected at the right angles. It provides
a good front-to-back ratio, good VSWR and can be used for
multiband operation on both polarization but offers some moding
and distortion problems particularly at higher frequencies.
 PERISCOPE ANTENNA SYSTEM – consists of parabolic radiator,
illuminating a reflector at the top of the tower. It eliminates long
waveguide runs. Gain is the complex function of the antenna and
reflector sizes and separation, the frequency and the geometric
relationship. Usable at 6GHz but seldom used a 2GHz due to the
inefficiency.
 Requires compressor for continuous pressurization availability of dry
air to prevent entry of moisture into the waveguide or coaxial cable
system which can degrade VSWR and increase attenuation.
PERISCOPE ANTENNA CONFIGURATION
GAIN OF PARABOLIC ANTENNA

 The gain of a parabolic microwave antenna may be calculated using the

following formulas:

ENGLISH SYSTEM:

A.G. (dB) = 20 LogF (MHz) + 20 LogB (ft) – 52

A.G. (dB) = 20 LogF (GHz) + 20 LogB (ft) +7
 METRIC SYSTEM

A.G. (dB) = 20 LogF (GHz) + 20 LogB (ft) +17

Where:
A.G. = Antenna Gain in decibel
F = Operating Frequency
B = Parabolic Antenna Diameter
PASSIVE REPEATERS / REFLECTORS
 *A passive repeater is a flat metal billboard whose purpose is to
reflect microwave signals
 *It acts as a microwave mirror to reflect o redirect the beam without
amplification and frequency transistion.
 *It does not require any power supply to operate.
 *No gain but can introduce loss if improperly designed or installed.
 *Curved reflector can combine the first and second Fresnel zones.
 *Improper curving can occur with good reflector where
temperature changes warp the reflector.
GAIN OF A PASSIVE REPEATER

 The gain of a passive repeater may be computed using any of the

formulas:

GAIN = 20 Log ( (4πcos(α)) / (λ)2 )

 ENGLISH SYSTEM
A.G. (dB) = 22.2 + 40LogF (GHz) + 20Log A( ft2 ) + 20 Log Cos α
 METRIC SYSTEM
A.G. (dB) = 42.9 + 40LogF (GHz) + 20Log A( m2 ) + 20 Log Cos α

Where:
A.G. = two way gain in decibels (dB)
F = Frequency in Gigahertz
A = Actual Area of the passive repeater
α = ½ of included angle (in degrees) between 2 paths (incident and
reflected waves)
λ = operating wavelength
ATTENUATION

 ATTENUATION- is the decrease in the intensity of energy

of electromagnetic waves resulting from slowing down
spreading due to distance and absorption while passing
through media other vacuum.
 *The attenuation of transmitted signal determines the
maximum range for reliable reception.

 *Attenuation occurs in the transmitting antenna and

from the receiving antenna to the receiver, but most of
the signal attenuation is found in the radio path
between the antennas.
 *Basically, the attenuation in the atmosphere under
normal condition consists of contributions by the oxygen
and water vapor in the air.

 *Water vapor attenuation is highly dependent on

frequency. Vapor attenuation is about; 0.0002 dB/mile at
2 to 8 and 0.010 dB/mile at 14 GHz/
UNUSUAL SOURCES OF ATTENUATION

 RAINDROPS
 SNOW/HAILSTORMS
 FOG/CLOUDS
PATH ATTENUATION

 PATH ATTENUATION- the decrease in energy between

transmitting and receiving antenna terminals generally
expressed in decibels. Electromagnetic waves are
attenuated as they travel outward from the source and
is directly proportional to the square of the distance
traveled.
 *An isotropic in free space theoretically radiates
electromagnetic field energy equally well in all
directions, spreads out in a spherical form called
spherical wavefronts.
 As the spherical wavefront expands in free space, no
energy is actually lost but only spread over a larger
spherical surface.
 Although there is no decrease in the total amount of
radiated energy, there is a decrease in the amount of
energy per square meter of the wavefront.
INVERSE SQAURE LAW

 “Power Density is inversely proportional to the square of the

distance from the source/ transmitter to the destination/receiver.”

ρ = ( Pt / (4Πd2))

Where:
ρ = power density
d = distance of receiver from isotropic antenna
Pt = transmitted power (watts)
 ATTENUATION FORMULAS
Attenuation = 10 Log10 (Pt / Pr )

Where:
Pt = Power in watts at the terminals of the
transmitting antenna
Pr = Power in watts at the receiving antenna terminals
*The decibel expresses the magnitude and is equal to the common
logarithmic of the ratio of power level transmitted over power level
received.

Attenuation (dB) = 10 Log10 (((dm)2 (λ)2 )/ (Ar Ae ))

Where:
A = Effective area of the transmitting or receiving antenna (square
meters)
d = any given distance between transmit and receive antenna
(meters)
λ = Wavelength (meters)
ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS

 *Weather affects electromagnetic wave propagation. Wind, air

temperature and water content of the air combine causing radio
signals to be heard many hundred of miles beyond their ordinary
range.
 The three basic elements of weather which affect refractive
modules are: atmospheric pressure, temperature and vapor
pressure.
 *Pressure and temperature normally decrease with higher elevation
and may be determined from wet and dry both temperature
readings applied to relative humidity charts,

 *Elevation has no effect on water vapor content, although both

dew point and relative humidity change with elevation due to
change in pressure and temperature.
 *In normal weather conditions in temperature latitudes, the density
of earth’s atmosphere decreases at a standard rate.
Electromagnetic waves passing from dense to light medium are
bent back by refraction towards the earth and thus a receiver
detects signals beyond LOS.
 M-PROFILE – a graphical cross-section of the atmospheric showing the change
of the index of refraction with altitude, and is drawn by plotting the modified
index M as abscissa and altitude or height as the ordinate.

*The atmosphere may refract or bend at a radio path.

*The atmospheric contains water vapor, fogs and other forms of
precipitation such as rain and snow which may absorb and / or scatter
some of the radiated energy most especially for frequencies beyond 11
GHz.
*Refraction affects all microwave frequencies to some degree.
*Generally, the lower the frequency, the more that atmospheric refraction
occurs.
*Absorption and scattering become more significant at higher microwave
frequencies.
 ABSORPTION LOSS – is the loss of energy due to the absorption of
the wave by the elements in the air such as rain, snow and clouds
which contain oxygen and water vapor.
 *When water vapor such as in fog and clouds, forms in droplets,
each drop acts as a small particle of absorbing and scattering
material. If drop size is small in relation to wavelength of the
impinging wave, the absorption is independent of drop size and
dependent only upon the total water content per unit volume of
density.
 *Since the concentration of water in fog is extremely small,
attenuation by these media is almost negligible. If drop size
increases as compared to the wavelength, absorption will increase
at a fairly rapid rate.
DIURNAL SIGNAL VARIATIONS
*A diurnal signal changes from steady
condition at midday to a type characterized by
fading at night. On non-optical paths, the
average signal levels rises when fading occurs
as in over water paths, but on optical paths it
may either rise or fall for considerable periods.
 TEMPRERATURE FRONTS
 Warm fronts are usually associated with lower signal strength,
whether or not the signal prior to arrival of the front was
normal or high. A warm front with high moisture content will
occasionally result to much stronger signals during winter.
 *Cold fronts are usually accompanied or followed by an
increase in signal strength and may continue for several hours
after the passage of the front.
 *High winds produce a thorough missing of the atmosphere
and hence a normal signal will result except when
accompanied by exceptionally dry or moist air mass.
 TYPES OF SIGNALS
1.SCINTILLATING OR SUBSTANDARD – occur quite rapidly with signal strength below
normal. It is common during summer.
2.STANDARD – average signal level is steady within +/- 5 dB. Scintillation is usually present
with an amplitude varying between 5 and 10 dB.
3.PARTIAL TRAPPING - when shallow surface M-inversions with their accompanying duets
occur, the signal level is above the standard and increase with duet height. The signal never
rises above the free space values. It is common during the winter.
4.STRONG TRAPPING – As M-inversions deepens, the amplitude of fading decreases.
Roller fading is characterized by broad flat maxima and sharp deep minima and represents
most violent fluctuations possible. It usually occurs during summer, 1 to 5 hours between
midnight and sunrise.
5.FREQUENCY DEPENDENCY- Variations from a standard signal are approximately equal
at frequencies between 3 to 13 GHz.
 *During period of standard or nearby standard atmospheric
conditions, the signal strength at all frequencies will be
approximately standard. There is no unusual strength due to ducts
or multi-path conditions.

 *During superstandard conditions, different frequencies will be

affected by M-inversions at some layers of the atmosphere.
 RAIN ATTENUATION:
FACTORS AFFECTING RAIN ATTENUATION
 OPERATING FREQUENCY- Attenuation due to absorption or scattering by
rain does not have a severe effect on frequencies below 8 GHz. However,
at frequencies above 8 GHz rain attenuation may be more damaging. In
fact, at frequencies greater than 11 GHz, rain attenuation may cause
total system outage.
 DISTANCE TRAVELLED IN THE RAIN –Minimize hop distance to reduce rain
attenuation
SIZE AND SHAPE OF RAINDROPS – millimetric raindrop
diameters disrupt radios at higher frequencies.

RAINFALL DENSITY AND HEAVINESS –During periods of heavy

rainfall, there can be no multipath fading and the entire fade
margin is available to combat the rain attenuation. This is a
result of the homogenous air created by thorough mixing
during the heavy rainfall.
The problem presented by rain is not its total
amount but its concentration. Some rainy areas
present less of a problem than dry areas that
have “cloudburst”, as an area can be
engineered for any average level of rainfall.
 NATURE OF RAIN ATTENUATION
 The rate of rainfall along a radiation path vary from point to point. At some point
along the path there will likely be no rain at all.
 The attenuation of rain increase when rainfall density increases and as the size of
the rainfall increases. Large rain concentration means more scattering attenuation.
 Rain scatters radiation from a passing electromagnetic wave. If the precipitation
are comprised of a dissipative medium, they absorb from the wave and convert it
to heat.
 Rain attenuation becomes noticeable above 8 GHz where scattering and
absorption limits propagation
 Since it is extremely difficult to measure drop size in a typical rain storm, attenuation
by rainfall is expressed in terms of rate or precipitation per unit time.
RAIN ATTENUATION FORMULA

RAIN ATTENUATION = (10Rd)/ λ2

Where:
R= rate of rainfall in inches per hour
d=path length in miles
λ=wavelength in centimeter
 RAYLEIGH’S SCATTERING THEORY
According to Rayleigh’s Scattering theory, the attenuation in relation to the
radius of raindrops could be computed using the formula:

as = λ2 ((2Π) rr)/ λ)6

where:
as = Attenuation due to scattering
rr = radius of rain drops
λ= wavelength
 FOG ATTENUATION
 *The effects of fog follows the same relationship as rain attenuation.
However, the atmospheric conditions that usually accompany fog may
create refractive conditions. The heavier air that occurs with fog may
shorten the normal radio horizon by increased refraction or super
refraction. Sometimes temperature inversions occur with fog. A severe
inversion may cause sub-refraction.
 *Fog has less attenuation than rain due to smaller size of droplets. Its
primary disruptive effect on communications lies is that fog in normally
accompanied by still air and temperature inversions that can cause
refraction of the waves.
 *Fog causes another problem as it occurs close to the ground and can
form a very good source of reflections to waves from antennas located
on higher ground.
Attenuation in rainfall intensity of:
A0.25 mm/hr (drizzle)
B10 mm/hr (light rain)
C40 mm/hr (moderate rain)
D16 mm/hr (heavy rain)
E100 mm/hr(very heavy rain)

Attenuation in fog or cloud:

F. 0.032 gm/cm3 (visibility greater than 600 meters)
G. .0. 32 gm/cm3 (visibility about 120 meters
G. .2.3 gm/cm3 (visibility about 30 meters

RAIN AND FOG ATTENUATION

 SNOW AND HAIL ATTENUATION
 *Snow and hail have less attenuation than rain due to a
lower moisture content, no data exists for the
attenuation of these elements.
 *The attenuation of snow depends in its area of
coverage, flake size, and the moisture content.
 *Hail has lesser tendency to cause refraction and
absorbs less energy.
 *If the particles such as hail stones or snow are
sufficiently large, the scattering loss will result in an
appreciable rate of attenuation.
 WEATHER EFFECTS ON PROPAGATION
 *Weather affects electromagnetic wave propagation. Wind, air
temperature and water content of the air combine causing radio signals to
be heard many hundreds of miles beyond their ordinary range.
 *Pressure and temperature normally decrease with higher elevation and
may be determined from its wet and dry bulb temperature readings and
applied to relative humidity charts.
 *Elevation has no effect on water vapor content, although both dew points
and relative humidity change with elevation due to the change in pressure
and temperature.
 *In normal weather conditions in temperature latitudes, the density of the
earth’s atmosphere decreases at a standard rate.
WEATHER ELEMENTS AFFECTING REFRACTIVE
MODULES

 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
 TEMPERATURE
 VAPOR PRESSURE
NOISE CONSIDERATIONS

 SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO (S/N)

 *Noise in a 3KHz voice channel is usually expressed in noise units above a

reference above value with an adjustment included to compensate
frequency weighing. Here we use unweighted noise units, specifically
dBrm0 (3KHz flat).
 Reference power for dBm0 (flat) is –90dBm0.
 N(dBm0) = n(dBm0)+90
 *If we know the noise level in a channel, we can define a ratio of
test-tone level to noise level that will be an indication of noise
performance. Since “out” levels are always referred to as a zero
dBm0, tone (dBrn0), etc., we will define a signal to noise ratio
assuming zero dBm0 signal.
 (S/N)dB = 90 –N(dBrno)
S/N PARAMETERS

 RECEIVED SIGNAL LEVEL (RSL)

 PER CHANNEL DEVIATION SETTING
 RECEIVER NOISE FIGURE
 RECEIVER IF BANDWIDTH
 SYSTEM LOADING/NR OF CHANNELS
NOISE FIGURE PARAMETER

 *Noise figure is the signal-to-noise ratio of an ideal noiseless device divided

by the S/N ratio at the input to a device divided by the S/N ratio at the
output.
NF = ( (S/N)IN)/ (S/N)OUT )
 *Noise figure is a ratio of ratios. The noise figure of a totally noiseless device
is unity or zero dB.

 *The noise present at the input to an amplified by the same gain as the
signal.
 *Only noise added within the amplifier can decrease the signal-to-noise
ratio at the output and increase the noise figure

 *A noise figure of 10means that the device sufficient noise to reduce the
S/N ratio by a factor 10, or the noise power increased tenfold in respect to
the increase in the signal power.
 NOISE FIGURE OF CASCADED AMPLIFIERS

 *When two or more amplifiers or devices are cascaded together,

the total noise figure is an accumulation of the individual noise
figures.
NF = F1 + (F2/A1) + ((F2-1)/A1) + ((F3-1)/(A1A2)) + ((F4-1)/(A1A2A3))….

Where:

NF = total noise figure

Fn = Noise figure of the nth amplifier
An = Gain of the nth amplifier
RECEIVER NOISE THRESHOLD

 RECEIVER NOISE THRESHOLD- is dependent on the amount of

thermal noise the signal must overcome. Carrier-to-noise ratio is
probably the most important parameter considered when
evaluating the performance of a microwave communication
system.

 RECEIVER THRESHOLD OR SENSITIVITY – is the minimum wideband

carrier power at the input to a receiver that will provide usable
baseband output.
FACTORS AFFECTING RECEIVER THRESHOLD

 WIDEBAND NOISE POWER AT RECEIVER INPUT

 NOISE INTRODUCED WITHIN THE RECEIVER
 NOISE SENSITIVITY OF BASEBAND DETECTOR
 Before the minimum wideband carrier power can be calculated,
the input noise power must be determined. The input noise power is
expressed mathematically as:
N=KTB
Where:
N= Noise Power
K=Boltzmann constant (1.38 X 10-23 joule/ degree Kelvin
T= equivalent noise receiver temperature (Kelvin)
B=Noise bandwidth (Hz)
 INPUT NOISE POWER (Expressed in dBm)

N dBm = 10 Log ((KT)/0.001) + 10LogB

 *Added to thermal noise, is the noise added to the equipment itself,
expressed by the noise figure. Then, the noise threshold becomes:

Noise Threshold = 10LogKTB +NF

 *Assuming T= 290 degrees Kelvin, the equation for receiver thermal noise
becomes:

Noise Threshold = -114 +10LogB(MHz) +NF

 *At the noise threshold, RMS signal equals RMS noise. However,
communication is still not practical, since the detector in an FM
receiver is controlled by peak voltages.
 When noise peaks exceed signal peaks, the receiver will follow the
noise peaks. For sine waves, the peak to RMS ratio is 3dB, while for
white noise, peaks are 13dB above RMS., where peaks of noise are
defined as levels exceed less than 0.001 percent of the time.
 Accordingly, FM improvement threshold must be 10dB above noise
threshold. In equation form, FM improvement Threshold becomes:

IT(dBm) = -104 +10LogB(MHz) +NF

 FM THRESHOLD
 *FM threshold is the point where signal peaks exceed noise peaks
99.999 percent of the time. This occurs 10 dB above noise threshold
 *The actual value of S/N ratio at FM threshold, and in the linear
region of the operation, depends on the receiver noise figure and
the deviation setting of the transmitter. The signal to noise ratio at this
region is:
S/N= C-NF+20 Log (F/Fm)+P+139
Where:
C= Carrier Power
F= per channel RMS deviation
Fm = Channel frequency
P=Pre-emphasis Improvement for channel
BASIC PROPAGATION LOSSES
Basic Propagation Loss is the summation of Free Space
Losses (FSL) and the Scatter Loss, Scatter Losses
increases at a frequency dependence of 10 Log F, thus
there is a total dependence of 30 Log F for BPL. This
means that each time the frequency is doubles, basic
propagation loses will increase by 9 dB. The formula for
calculating BPL is given by:

BPL  37  20LogFMhz  20LogDmi  Scatter Loss

 RADOMES

* Horn reflector and shrouded types of antenna usually includes integral

radomes, whose losses are taken into account in the manufacturer’s
published gain figures.

* Parabolic dish gains usually do not include radome losses and if

radomes are to be used, their losses must be ascertained and added
with the fixed losses.
• Amount of loss may vary from less than 0.5dB for a typical unheated
radome in the high frequency bands.

• Radomes are also expected to degrade VSWR as compared to the

antenna without radome. This becomes significant in situations where
very low VSWR is needed to control echo distortion.

* In some cases radomes have been found to create highly reflective

“spikes” at peculiar frequencies. And if these coincide with the used RF
channel frequency, high degree of distortion results.
COMBINERS

 Any diversity technique requires use of combiners.

Combiners adds and mixes signals and present the
strongest and least distorted ones to the output.
Combining can be done at the baseband of IF level.
TYPES OF COMBINERS

 LINEAR COMBINER
Passive device that simply adds together the output of two
receivers equally. An advantage of the linear combiner is
cancellation of intermodulation or distortion products from
the two paths. Its primary disadvantage is inability to reject
high noise levels from a receiver experiencing a deep
fade.
 *Combined signal-to-noise ratio will not be more than 6 dB better than the
worst channel except when the channels are equal. When the two
channels are equal, this type of combiner provides a 3 dB improvement in
signal-to-noise ratio over either signal.

LINEAR, EQUAL- GAIN COMBINING

 SWITCHING COMBINER
*A switching combiner switches its input so that its output is always the
best signal available. An automatic device monitors pilot and noise
levels from both receivers and determines which signal is the best.
*Switching process introduces transient “spikes” and data errors with
even the fastest relays.
*The two in-phase signals add to produce an output signal voltage
equal to that in each receiver.
*Signals add together on a voltage basis while the random noise and
pilot levels.
*Comparator unit constantly monitors receiver noise and pilot
levels.

*Discount bad receiver whenever the receivers are within 5 to 6 dB

of each other and the full voltage from the other circuit is
connected to the output. The receiver will operate in this
uncombined state until the poor condition of the other receiver
improves.
OPTIMAL SWITCHING COMBINING
SWITCHING AND OPTIMAL COMBINING

RATIO-SQUARED VARIABLE GAIN COMBINER

 * Offers the same 2:1 signal-to-noise advantage as the switching
combiners. Also offers protection from receiver front-end thermal
noise. Each receiver has a fixed output that is sensed, filtered and
fed to variable-gain amplifiers.
 *More circuits that are in series with the signal means lower the
circuit reliability.
 *Ratio squared variable gain principle states that the signal-to-noise
ratio of the output signal varies with input signal and noise levels.
 *It can totally cut off a receiver if its output becomes excessively
noisy or if it should fail for any other reason. Complex and expensive
system introduces gain variations into the system. The process of
stabilizing a variable-gain amplifier is considerably more difficult
than stabilizing a fixed amplifier. The only combiner with unstable
gains.
 *Use of variable amplifiers produce intermodulation noise – a severe
problem in high-density wideband microwave systems. To reduce
this problem, it requires operating the combiner output level much
lower than the preferred levels and additional amplifiers must be
placed in series with the signal to bring it up to a workable level.
*Amplifier gain controlled in accordance with well-known ratio-
squared principle given by the equation:

So

S1 2  S2 2
No  S1   S2 
2

  N1   
4
 N 2 4
 N1   N2 
RATIO SQUARED VARIABLE GAIN COMBINER
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN WORKING WITH
MICROWAVE EQUIPMENT

 Do not allow microwave radiation in enclosed areas. Terminate

waveguides and feed horns in shielded dummy loads.
 Observe safety precautions when working at power densities of 10
milliwatts per square centimeter or more. Damage to human body
depends upon the type and amount of radiation, time or duration
of exposure, distance form the source and type of shielding used.
 Radiating antennas should be pointed away from the population.
Do not allow personnel to work on antenna which are switched
“ON” for transmission of microwave signals.
 Observe precautions when working with toxic fumes from gases
such as pyronol or sulfur hexafluoride used as waveguide coolants.
 Use appropriate cabinet enclosures and shielding as necessary.
MICROWAVE DESIGN FORMULAS
•GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCE CALCULATIONS

  LB  LA  
 C    2 
Sin
Y  x   
Tan   Cot  
 2   2   Cos  LB  LA  
  2 
  

AZIMUTH (Z)

 Y X 
 
 LB  LA   
Sin
 ZO    2 
Tan   Tan 
 2    2    Sin  Y X 
  
  2 
 GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCE

Skm  Z o 111.12km / deg ree

•REFLECTION POINTS

 h1 
d1  D  
 1
h  h2 

and
d2  D  d1
Where:
h1 = Elevation of the lower antenna (ft)

h2 = Elevation of the higher antenna

D = Path Length (miles)= d1 + d2

d1 = the distance from h1 end to the reflecting point (miles)