1

2
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The lever arm is defined as the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the
line of action of the force.
Two equal forces acting in opposite directions, i.e., clockwise and counterclockwise, and applied
to a uniform lever at equal distances from the fulcrum counteract each other and establish a state
of equilibrium, or balance

Product of a force by its effort arm is called a moment of the force

Effort
● Force applied on the machine
Load
● Force exerted by the machine
NB: The SI unit of effort and load is Newton(N)
Mechanical Advantage (M.A)
● The ratio of load to effort
Mathematically,
M.A is a ratio of two units hence it has no unit
M.A depends on:
1) Friction between the moving parts of the machine
2) The weight of the parts of the machine that have to lifted when operating it.
Therefore, M.A cannot be 100%
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Velocity Ratio (V.R)

● The ratio of effort distance to load distance
Mathematically,
V.R is a ratio of two distances hence it has no unit
NB: If two machines have velocity ratios VR1 and VR2 then, the resultant VR is given
by;
VR = VR1 x VR2

Load Loaddistance
E= ( Effort )∗( Effortdistance )∗100 00
M.A 0
E= ∗100
V.R 0

● E of a machine is always less than 100% because some energy is lost in

overcoming the friction force and the weight of the parts that have to be lifted
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• Steel is very ductile material and from the stress strain curve it is observed that
higher loads than in the elastic method can be applied over the structure. This is
due to the fact that a major portion of the curve lies beyond the elastic limit. This
extra strength is termed reserve strength and forms the basis of plastic design
method.
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• This is an aspect of limit design, which confines the structural usefulness up to

the plastic strength or ultimate load carrying capacity. this method is based on
failure condition. In this method of design failure implies collapse or extremely
large deformations, thus the structure fails at a much higher load, called the
collapse load, than working load.

Shape factor-
• For a ductile material like structural steel a member reaching yield at the extreme
fibers retains a reserve of strength that varies with the shape factor.
• Shape factor=plastic moment/yield moment
• It is a function of the cross section form or shape.
Load factor-
Load factor is defined as the ratio of collapse load to the working load. It is represented
by F.
F = Pu/ Pw = Mp/ Mw = fy Zp/f Ze = fy S /f = (F.O.S)S

What is difference between structure and mechanism?

when a load act in a member, the structure will retain the load or deformation takes place
whereas in mechanism it will not take the load. It will fail without taking the load

MECHANISM-
When a structure is subjected to a system of loads ,it is stable and hence functional until
a sufficient number of plastics things have been formed to render the structure unstable.
As soon as the structure reaches an unstable condition it is considered to have been
failed. The segments of the beam between the plastic hinges are able to move without
an increase of load. This condition in a member is called mechanism.
The concept of mechanism formation in a structure due to loading beyond the
elastic limit of a virtual work are used in plastic analysis has redundancy r,the collapse of
number of plastic hinges required (r+1).
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• The plastic collapse of a structure depends upon its redundancy .When a

sufficient number of plastic hinges are formed to convert a structure into
mechanism the structure collapse as such a stage, the deflection increases very
fast at a constant load. The collapse of a structure can be partial, complete and
over complete.
• This terms can be explained indeterminacy (r)
• Number of Plastic hinges(N)
• The number of plastic hinges in collapse mechanism are less than (r+1).The
collapse is called partial collapse.
• The number of plastic hinges in collapse mechanism are equal to (r+1).The
collapse is called complete collapse.
• The number of plastic hinges in collapse mechanism are greater than (r+1).The
collapse is called over complete collapse.
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CONDITION IN PLASTIC ANALYSIS

1) Equilibrium condition
2) Mechanism condition
3) Yield condition
PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK
If a system of forces in equilibrium is subjected to a virtual displacement the work done
by the external forces equals the work done by internal forces.
We=Wi
It is to a object to express an equilibrium condition.

Engineers and research workers have been stimulated to study the plastic strength of
steel structures and its application to design for three principle reasons:
a)it has a more logical design basis.
b)it is more economical in the use of steel.
c)it represents a substantial saving of time in the design

 the calculation of load carrying capacity by use of limit theorems is much easier
than the calculation of stress
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 The simplicity of limit analysis opens the way to limit design, to direct design as
contrasted with the trial and error procedure normally followed in conventional
design

The ratio of the plastic moment to the yield moment is known as the shape
factor since it depends on the shape of the cross section. The cross section is
not capable of resisting any additional moment but may maintain this moment for
some amount of rotation in which case it acts like a plastic hinge. If this is so,
then for further loading, the beam, acts as if it is simply supported with two
additional moments Mp on either side, and continues to carry additional loads
until a third plastic hinge forms at mid-span when the bending moment at that
section reaches Mp. The beam is then said to have developed a collapse
mechanism and will collapse as shown in Fig 2.14

If the section is thinwalled, due to local buckling, it may not be able to sustain the
moment for additional rotations and may collapse either before or soon after
attaining the plastic moment. It may be noted that formation of a single plastic
hinge gives a collapse mechanism for a simply supported beam. The ratio of the
ultimate rotation to the yield rotation is called the rotation capacity of the
section. The yield and the plastic moments together with the rotation capacity of
the cross section are used to classify the sections.

Theoretically, the plastic hinges are assumed to form at points at which plastic
rotations occur. Thus the length of a plastic hinge is considered as zero.
However, the values of moment, at the adjacent section of the yield zone are
more than the yield moment upto a certain length ΔL, of the structural member.
This length ΔL, is known as the hinged length. The hinged length depends upon
the type of loading and the geometry of the cross-section of the structural
member. The region of hinged length is known as region of yield or plasticity.
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Equilibrium: the internal bending moments must be in equilibrium with the

external loading.
Mechanism: at collapse the structure, or a part of, can deform as a
mechanism
Yield: no point in the structure can have a moment greater than the plastic
moment capacity of the section it is applied to.

STRUCTURE VS MECHANISM
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Thus far the cross sections considered are only carrying moment. In the
presence of axial force, clearly some material must be given over to carry
the axial force and so is not available to carry moment, reducing the
capacity of the section. Further, it should be apparent that the moment
capacity of the section therefore depends on the amount of axial load being
carried. Considering a compression load as positive, more of the section will
be in compression and so the neutral axis will drop.
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• M – Moment corresponding to working load

• My – Moment at which external fibre of the section yields
• MP – Moment at which entire section is under yield stress

Elastic Analysis - Factor of Safety

Plastic Analysis - Load Factor

A statically determinate beam will collapse if one plastic hinge is developed

For a statically indeterminate beam to collapse, more than one plastic hinge
should be developed

As the load is increased, there is a redistribution of moment, as the plastic hinge

cannot carry any additional moment.

Plastic hinges develop at the ends first Beam becomes a simple beam Plastic
hinge develops at the centre Beam collapses
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• Collapse load (W ): Minimum load at which collapse will occur –

c

Least value
• Fully plastic moment (M ): Maximum moment capacity for design –
P

Highest value

The applied moment to the cross section is such that all fibres in the cross
section are at yield stress. This is termed the Plastic Moment Capacity of
the section since there are no fibres at an elastic stress

At the plastic hinge stresses remain constant, but strains and hence
rotations can increase.

Once the plastic moment capacity is reached, the section can rotate freely –
that is, it behaves like a hinge, except with moment of Mp at the hinge.

For a rectangular cross-section shape factor, f=1.5 means rectangular

section can sustain 50% more moment than the yield moment before a
plastic hinge is formed.
Therefore the shape factor is a good measure of the efficiency of a cross
section in bending.
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Methods of Plastic Analysis

There are three main approaches for performing a plastic analysis:

The Incremental Method

This is probably the most obvious approach: the loads on the structure are incremented
until the first plastic hinge forms. This continues until sufficient hinges have formed to
collapse the structure. This is a labour-intensive, ‘brute-force’, approach, but one that is
most readily suited for computer implementation.

The Equilibrium (or Statical) Method

In this method, free and reactant bending moment diagrams are drawn. These diagrams
are overlaid to identify the likely locations of plastic hinges. This method therefore
satisfies the equilibrium criterion first leaving the two remaining criterion to derived
therefrom.

The Kinematic (or Mechanism) Method

In this method, a collapse mechanism is first postulated. Virtual work equations are then
written for this collapse state, allowing the calculations of the collapse bending moment
diagram. This method satisfies the mechanism condition first, leaving the remaining two
criteria to be derived therefrom.

The Upperbound (Unsafe) Theorem ( Plastic analysis)

If a bending moment diagram is found which satisfies the conditions of
equilibrium and mechanism (but not necessarily yield), then the
corresponding load factor is either greater than or equal to the true load
factor at collapse.
This is called the unsafe theorem because for an arbitrarily assumed
mechanism the load factor is either exactly right (when the yield criterion is
met) or is wrong and is too large, leading a designer to think that the frame
can carry more load than is actually possible.
Think of it like this: unless it’s exactly right, it’s dangerous
This is why plastic analyses are not used as often in practice as one might
suppose.
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The Lowerbound (Safe) Theorem (elastic analysis)

If a bending moment diagram is found which satisfies the conditions of
equilibrium and yield (but not necessarily that of mechanism), then the
corresponding load factor is either less than or equal to the true load factor
at collapse.
This is a safe theorem because the load factor will be less than (or at best
equal to) the collapse load factor once equilibrium and yield criteria are
met leading the designer to think that the structure can carry less than or
equal to its actual capacity.
Think of it like this: it’s either wrong and safe or right and safe.
Since an elastic analysis will always meet equilibrium and yield conditions,
an elastic analysis will always be safe. This is the main reason that it is
elastic analysis that is used, in spite of the significant extra capacity that
plastic analysis offers.

The Uniqueness Theorem

If a bending moment distribution can be found which satisfies the three
conditions of equilibrium, mechanism, and yield, then the corresponding
load factor is the true load factor at collapse.
The Uniqueness Theorem does not claim that any particular collapse
mechanism is unique – only that the collapse load factor is unique.
Although rare, it is possible for more than one collapse mechanism to
satisfy the Uniqueness Theorem, but they will have the same load factor.

If the collapse loads are determined for all possible mechanisms, then the
actual collapse load will be the lowest of these (Upperbound Theorem);

The collapse load of a structure cannot be decreased by increasing the

strength of any part of it (Lowerbound Theorem);

The collapse load of a structure cannot be increased by decreasing the

strength of any part of it (Upperbound Theorem);
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What's the difference between the centre of gravity and the centre of mass?

Center of mass and center of gravity are two terms that are often used interchangeably,
but they're really not the same.
Let's take an object, like, for example, a 5 kilogram bowling ball. If you drop a bowling ball, it
will fall to the ground because of the force of gravity. But did you know that the bowling ball
will fall to the ground in the same way that a 5 kilogram point mass would if the point mass
was placed at the very center of the bowling ball?
The bowling ball is a uniform object with a center of mass at the very center of the bowling
ball. The center of mass is the mean position of the mass in an object. If you have the same
amount of mass to your right as you have to your left and the same amount above as you
have below and the same amount in front as you have behind, then you must be at the
center of mass.
The bowling ball also has a center of gravity, which is the point where gravity appears to
act. Or in other words, it's the sum total of all the forces of gravity on all the particles in the
object. It doesn't take much understanding of physics to realize that for the bowling ball, this
is also at the very center of the object. For the bowling ball, the center of mass and center of
gravity are pretty much in the same place.
But they're NOT the same thing. It turns out that they're only the same when the gravitational
field is uniform across the object, or at least close enough to be uniform that it isn't worth
discussing. With small objects near the surface of the Earth, that's always the case. But once
you start putting spaceships in space, suddenly things get weird.
Centre of mass is the point at which the distribution of mass is equal in all directions, and
does not depend on gravitational field. Centre of gravity is the point at which the
distribution of weight is equal in all directions, and does depend on gravitational field.

The centre of mass and the centre of gravity of an object are in the same position if the
gravitational field in which the object exists is uniform.
But if the gravitational field strength were greater towards your feet and weaker towards
your head, then your centre of gravity would be below your centre of mass, perhaps
somewhere around your knees. If the gravitational field strength were greater towards
your head, and weaker towards your feet, then your centre of gravity would
be above your centre of mass, perhaps somewhere around your shoulders.
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The object on the left, in a uniform gravitational field, has overlapping centres of
gravity and mass. For the object on the right, in which the gravitational field is
stronger towards its base, the centre of gravity is below the centre of mass. 

Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF) contributes very slightly to strength gain. However, acts as a
flux during manufacturing. Contributes to the color effects that makes cement gray.
tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF) is primarily a result of materials used in the
cement manufacturing process to lower the temperatures required in the
kilns. C4AF hydrates rapidly, but contributes little actual strength. Perhaps its
most significant effect on concrete is its influence on color. 

Higher concentrations of C4AF will result in darker color concretes. In white

cement the percentage of C4AF is kept low, often about 1% to 2%.

This is a fluxing agent which reduces the melting temperature of the raw
materials in the kiln (from 3,000o F to 2,600o F). It hydrates rapidly, but does
not contribute much to strength of the cement paste.

Gives resistance to Sulphate attack

Build–operate–transfer (BOT) or build–own–operate–transfer (BOOT) is a form

ofproject financing, wherein a private entity receives a concession from the private or
public sector to finance, design, construct, and operate a facility stated in the concession
contract.A type of arrangement in which the private sector builds an infrastructure
project, operates it and eventually transfers ownership of the project to the
government. In many instances, the government becomes the firm's only customer
and promises to purchase at least a predetermined amount of the project's output.
This ensures that the firm recoups its initial investment in a reasonable time span.
This type of arrangement is used typically in complicated long-term projects as seen
in power plants and water treatment facilities. In some arrangements, the
government does not assume ownership of the project. In those cases, the company
continues running the facility and the government acts as both the consumer and
regulator.
The main reasons for this trend are a shortage of public funds and a hands-off approach of
government agencies. The Build Operate Transfer (BOT) approach is an option for the
government to outsource public projects to the private sector

The most common examples are roads, bridges, water and sewer systems, airports, ports and
public buildings

Build-Own-Operate-Transfer BOOT is a founding model and a form of concession in which a

public authority makes an agreement with a private company (concessionaire) to Design Build,
Own and Operate a specific piece of an infrastructure such as power, transport, water, and
 20

telecom industries, within receiving the right to achieve income from the facility under a period
of time (concession period approximately 15-25 years), and later transferring it back into public
ownership

Public Private Partnership

The P3 procurement model is unique in that the private sector assumes a major share of the
responsibility for the delivery and the performance of the infrastructure from designing the
concept, architectural and structural planning to its long-term maintenance. When applied
effectively, the P3 model can provide additional value to taxpayers by leveraging the right
capabilities to complete the job on time and on budget, allowing for greater integration of
project planning and design and eliminating major shortfalls around building, construction and
maintenance
P3 is a service contract between a public authority and a private sector concessionaire, where
the public authority pays the concessionaire to deliver infrastructure and related services,
Typically, the concessionaire, who builds the infrastructure asset, is financially responsible for its
condition and performance throughout the asset lifetime, or the duration of the agreement
[13], or it describes a government service or private business venture which is funded and
operated through a partnership of government and one or more private sector companies.
P3 main features and benefits are, Delivers value for money, Engages in a competitive process to
achieve the best project for the best cost, Transfers appropriate risks, Establishes performance
standards and payment mechanisms, Maintains government involvement to oversee public
interest, improve project delivery, better project discipline, reduce scope creep, faster
procurement
In PPP, private sector has a role as engineer or constructor. Ownership, operation and financing
are the public role. On the other hand a pure private is responsible for all matter. In BOOT final
owner is public, but concession for a long period of time (25-30 year) is regarded to private. The
ownership shifts from public to private as we move from PPP to BOOT. Also private sector
accepts more risk and preparing capital investment in BOOT/BOT.