APPLIED MECHANICS
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APPLIED MECHANICS
ENERGY- Kinetic Energy 3
ENERGY- Potential Energy 5
ENERGY- Chemical Energy 7
ENERGY- Electrical Energy 9
FORCES- Velocity/Acceleration 11
FORCES- Compression & Tension 13
FORCES- Torque 15
FORCES- Friction 17
LOADING/STRESSES- Distributed Load 18
LOADING/STRESSES- Bending Moment 20
LOADING/STRESSES- Shear Stress 21
LOADING/STRESSES- Strain 22
MECHANISMS- Simple Machines 23
MECHANISMS- Gears 28
MECHANISMS- Pulleys, Belts, & Chains 33
MECHANISMS- Linkages 35
POWER- Hydraulic Power 36
POWER- Mechanical Power 38
POWER- Electrical Power 40
POWER- Heat Transfer 41
2
ENERGY & WORK
Kinetic Energy
The energy an object possesses
from being in motion.
For example, a motorcycle uses energy
(fuel) to gain speed. This is the same thing
as saying that the motorcycle transfers
energy from a chemical source into a
kinetic energy. In order to stop, the bike
would have to lose its kinetic energy. This
could be accomplished in many ways such
as braking, an impact, or simply slowing
down over time by stopping the flow of
fuel and allowing friction to bring the bike
to a stop.
3
ENERGY & WORK
Kinetic Energy
One of the many ways energy is defined is
as a force applied for a distance; for
example, pushing a box a certain distance.
If the force and distance are multiplied
Kinetic Energy = ½ x Mass x Speed² and then divided by how long it took
to move the box, the resulting number
would be how much mechanical power, on
average, it took.
As previously noted, power is generally a
force multiplied by a flow or speed. In the
case of a rotating wheel, or shaft, the
amount of power it transfers is related to
the torque multiplied by its revolutions
per second.
4
ENERGY & WORK
Potential Energy
A term used to describe the
possible energy that a body or
system can produce.
Potential energy can be used broadly to
describe stored energy. There are several
categories of potential energy. The falling
ball or descending roller coaster car
illustrates gravitational potential energy.
The stored energy results from the
difference in their position relative to the
earth and its gravitational pull.
5
ENERGY & WORK
Potential Energy
A good example of potential energy can
be seen in a yo-yo. When the yo-yo is
released from the user’s hand, it begins
to spin and fall. Upon release, the yo-yo’s
potential energy begins to convert to
kinetic energy, which causes it to spin and
fall. This potential energy was originally
imparted to it when the user lifted the
yo-yo up. When the yo-yo is climbing
its string, it is converting and storing
the spinning kinetic energy back into
potential energy.
A great example of hydraulics can be
seen in large construction equipment
such as a front-end loader. Hydraulic
pistons interact with mechanical linkages
to control the movement of the backhoe
components such as the bucket.
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ENERGY & WORK
Chemical Energy
Energy stored by chemical bonds
in molecules, which is released
through chemical reaction.
All organic life-forms store energy in the
form of chemical bonds. Plants use the
process of photosynthesis to store energy
that is collected from sunlight. This energy
is then consumed as food by other living
creatures such as humans.
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ENERGY & WORK
Chemical Energy
When food such as fruits or vegetables is
consumed by people or animals, the bonds
are broken down, providing energy. The
human body in turn has the capacity to
create new chemical bonds to conserve
the energy for future use.
There are many different ways in which
chemical energy can be used. One
common way is through combustion. In
the hot-air balloon game, the chemical
energy stored in the fuel is released
through combustion. The heat in turn
increases the temperature and thus the
density of the air inside the balloon. This
change in density is what causes the
balloon to rise.
8
ENERGY & WORK
Electrical Energy
A stored potential energy that is
used via the flow of electrons.
Electrical energy is stored in three
different ways: in chemical bonds, in
electric charges such as static electricity,
and in magnetic fields. When electricity
is being used, such as in a house, it is
electrical power because it is not being
stored. Many applied mechanics’ examples
use electrical power such as in the
operation of a motor, a heater, or even a
light bulb.
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ENERGY & WORK
Electrical Energy
Another way to store electrical energy is
with electrical charges, such as static
electricity. By rubbing your feet on the
carpet, you can literally gain electrons
that attach to your body, and when you
touch something conductive (such as a Batteries store an electrical charge
metal doorknob), the electrons jump off difference with chemical solutions and
your body into the doorknob, creating a constitute the main means of storing
spark. electrical energy.
Capacitors store energy in the same way, Inductors store energy with a magnetic
and much like static electricity, they field created by a coil of wire and act like
discharge their stored energy very fast, water flowing through a pipe; once the
unlike a battery. In this sense, they act like water starts moving, it is hard to stop. As
springs; when compressed they hold such, it can store energy in the form of
energy, and they let it all go when the movement much the same way as kinetic
spring is released. energy or inertia.
10
FORCES
Velocity/Acceleration
Velocity: The measurement
of the rate of change in the
position of an object over a
period of time in a particular
direction.
Velocity is simply speed with a direction.
For example, a ball flying through the air
at 30 miles per hour (mph) represents
a speed. A ball flying upwards through
the air at 30 mph represents a velocity
because there is a direction associated
with it.
To understand velocity, you need to
calculate speed. Speed is calculated as
Speed = D/T. distance (D) traveled over a specific period
of time (T).
For example, a car may travel a distance of
25 miles in ½ hour. The speed of the car is
then 50 mph. For velocity, you would also
need to include the direction of movement,
such as 50 mph northward. In addition
to compass directions, the direction in
velocity can also be mathematically defined
in many different ways, including angles
and relative axes (x,y,z coordinates).
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FORCES
Velocity/Acceleration
Electrical energy is stored in three Acceleration: A measurement
different ways: in chemical bonds, in that defines the rate at which
electric charges such as static electricity,
and in magnetic fields. When electricity the velocity of an object
is being used, such as in a house, it is changes.
electrical power because it is not being
stored. Many applied mechanics’ examples
use electrical power such as in the
operation of a motor, a heater, or even a
light bulb.
Newton’s second law states that whenever
a net force acts on a mass, the mass will
accelerate. This concept is used
throughout all engineering fields and is
very useful.
The formula for this law is
Force = Mass x Acceleration, F = MA
If the mass of an object (say the weight of a
rocket) stays the same, then more force
(thrust) will result in increased acceleration.
12
FORCES
Compression & Tension
Compression: The result that occurs
when opposed forces push an object or
material together, causing internal
stresses. Stress often results in
temporary or permanent deformation.
Compression involves an inward or
pushing force. When the projectile is
launched from the catapult, it strikes
the target and experiences compressive
forces.
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FORCES
Compression & Tension
When under stress, such as being
compressed, materials such as clay will be
permanently deformed after the load is
removed. A material such as rubber can
also be deformed, but due to a property
called elasticity will return to the original
form after the load is removed. Other
materials, such as glass and concrete, are
brittle and will break without deforming
much.
Tension: A pulling force that elongates
or stretches an object due to internal
stresses.
A great example of tension can be
seen in a bungee cord. The force of the
accelerating object (person) creates
tension on the cord; as a result, the cord
stretches out in length and the diameter
of the cord is reduced. Due to its elastic
properties, the cord will return to its
original shape, creating a rebound effect.
When the load is removed, the cord
returns to its original shape. Over time,
elastic properties can degrade, resulting
in a cord that is permanently stretched or
even broken.
14
FORCES
Torque
A rotational force or a series of
forces that attempt to rotate an
object.
The mousetrap catapult provides a good
example of torque. The mice hanging
off of the catapult arm use their weight
to apply a torque force on the spring. A
reaction torque in the spring generates
stored potential energy. When the
lever and attached spoon are released,
potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy (energy of motion), launching the
projectile.
15
FORCES
Torque
Torque can be understood as a force
multiplied by the length of a lever. For
example, when using a wrench or jar
opener, the length of the handle is
the lever. This means that the torque
generated equals the force applied to the
handle multiplied by the handle length.
Torque = Lever Arm Length x Force
Based on this formula, the longer the
handle, the less force the user has to exert
to open the jar. This lever is one of six
devices called “simple machines.”
16
FORCES
Friction
Friction is a resistance force that
always opposes the motion of an
object, either slowing it down or
stopping it.
Friction can be generated by any
combination of fluids or surfaces touching
each other. A fluid could be a liquid (for
example, water) or a gas (for example, air).
An airplane encounters resistance due to
the friction created between the surface
of the wings and fuselage and the air
through which it is traveling. In aviation,
this resistance is referred to as drag.
Friction is often a source of mechanical
inefficiencies such as when the friction
created between moving parts in an
engine causes wear and increases fuel
consumption. On the other hand, friction
can also be an extremely useful force; for
example, without friction, a cyclist could
not speed around a sharp turn without
crashing.
17
LOADING & STRESSES
Distributed Load
Any force that acts over any area
or length.
Often a load is represented by a single
arrow weighing something down; this is
known as a point load. In reality, most
loads are considered distributed loads;
that is, the force (or weight) is spread
across an area. This means that the units
used to measure a distributed load are
those of pressure, such as pounds per
square inch (PSI) or pascals (N/m²).
Spreading the load across multiple
members, or supports, is an important
engineering practice; for example, as in
the making of bridges or the use of spokes
on a wheel.
18
LOADING & STRESSES
Distributed Load
Often, changing the area the load is
affecting reduces the amount of stress an
object or material is subjected to. For
example, when walking on snow, a
standard person’s shoe will sink into the
snow, making walking difficult. By making
the person’s footprint larger, the load will
be distributed, placing the same amount
of force over a larger area and causing less
compressive stresses.
19
LOADING & STRESSES
Bending Moment
A bending moment is generated
by a force or series of forces that
impart a force on a structural
member that causes the member
to bend.
A bending moment is a torque that is
acting on a structural member, causing
it to bend. Since the bending moment is
torque, it can be calculated in the same
way.
As discussed in the torque section, the
greater the force and the further away the
load is positioned from the pivot point or
joint, the larger the moment will be. A
larger moment causes more bending. This
also means that in most cases when a
bending moment may cause something to
break or fail, it will happen where there is
the most bending. For example, a diving
board has the highest bending moment
near its support because the board acts as
one large lever.
20
LOADING & STRESSES
Shear Stress
Shear stress results from
opposing forces applied parallel
to the surfaces of a material.
Stress is an internal force generated by
forces acting on an object or body.
Compression and tension are two of the
three main types of stress; the third is
shear stress.
With compression, a force pushes on the
material and compacts it. With shear
stress, a force attempts to slide or shear
the material apart. For example, when
walking up a slope wearing sandals, the
sandal’s sole deforms due to compression
and shear stress.
21
LOADING & STRESSES
Strain
Strain is the measurement
of how much an object has
deformed from its initial
dimensions.
In engineering, strain is an accurate and
mathematical way to measure deformation.
Whenever stresses (compression, tension,
and shearing) are applied to a material, it
will deform. Strain is the mathematical way
to describe how they deform.
In the case of compression and tension,
strain is the ratio of the difference between
the original length and the new length
divided by the original length.
An understanding of strain can be seen in
the context of cables and ropes used in
cranes. If a crane needs to lift a heavy
container, its cables will stretch and get
longer. If the crane operator knows
that the cables will strain, he may
appropriately compensate the change in
cable length by reeling in more cable.
22
MECHANISMS
Simple Machines
A basic device that can be used
to apply a force and/or provide a
mechanical advantage.
Simple machines fall into six categories:
wheel and axle, wedge, incline plane,
screw, lever, and pulley. Historically, they
were thought to be the building blocks of
any mechanism and physically based
machine.
A wheel and an axle are in some respects
two machines that are interconnected. A
wheel greatly reduces the amount of force
required to move a load. Because only one
point on the wheel touches the surface it
is traveling along, friction is minimized.
An axle serves as a shaft typically inserted
through the center of the wheel. Axles
can be connected to various types of
power sources such as a motor and also be
connected to some form of load-bearing
device such as a vehicle chassis.
23
MECHANISMS
Simple Machines
A wedge has one or two slanted sides that
create a sharp edge that allows for cutting
or separating materials. The shape of the
wedge allows downward force to be
converted to a side-acting force.
An inclined plane can reduce the amount
of work needed to move an object from
one level to another. A ramp is a great
example of an inclined plane, where
vertical movement is made much easier
and often safer.
24
MECHANISMS
Simple Machines
Screws incorporate a circular inclined
plane. The design of a screw thread
enables rotational motion to be converted
in linear motion. Consequently, turning
a screw enables it or the component
that it is interacting with to move in a
linear direction. Screws comprise a huge
segment of mechanical fasteners that play
a major role in applied mechanics.
Pulleys use a wheel with a groove in
combination with a rope or chain to lower
or elevate a load. With one pulley, the
amount of force required to lift the load is
the same as the load. In this case, a load of
200 lbs. requires 200 lbs. of force to lift it.
The pulley, however, allows the direction
of lift to differ from the direction of the
lifting force. The distance that the load is
lifted equals the length of rope that needs
to be pulled.
25
MECHANISMS
Simple Machines
There are many other combinations of
pulleys. With a two-pulley configuration,
the amount of force required to lift the
load is decreased by half. However, the
distance that the rope must be pulled is
twice as much as the vertical distance that
the load travels.
The lever is a fundamental technology in
applied mechanics. There are three basic
types or “classes” of levers: first, second,
and third. Many devices incorporate two
or more classes.
26
MECHANISMS
Simple Machines
A first-class lever uses a pivot point or
fulcrum to move a load. With this class of
lever, the load and applied force are on
opposite ends. The load then moves in a
direction that is opposite to the applied
force. A good example of this sort of lever
is a crowbar. The longer the lever arm, the
less force needs to be applied at the end in
order to lift a load.
With a second-class lever, the pivot or
fulcrum is placed at opposite ends of the
lever. The applied force occurs at the
end of the lever to provide mechanical
advantage. As a result, the load moves in
the same direction as the applied force. A
great example of this class of lever is a
wheelbarrow.
The third-class lever also places the
fulcrum or pivot at the opposite end of the
lever; however, the force is applied in
between the end of the lever and the
fulcrum. Consequently, there is no
mechanical advantage with this class of
lever. A great example of a third-class
lever can be seen in a hockey stick as a
skater shoots the puck. One hand serves
as the pivot or fulcrum, the other hand
applies force near the center of the stick,
and the end of the stick exerts force on the
puck.
27
MECHANISMS
Gears
Wheel-like mechanisms
that use teeth to mesh with
another mechanism to transfer
rotational motion and torque
and change speeds or direction
of motion.
Gears are used to transfer power and
motion while modifying mechanical
advantage by altering gear ratios. The gear
ratio between two different-sized gears
can be calculated by counting the number
of teeth the output gear has and then
dividing it by the number of teeth on the
input gear.
Gear systems only modify the way power
is transferred; that is to say, they can
never create power. This means that a gear
system that increases torque will lower
the rate of rotation.
Gears can modify the direction in which
two shafts rotate. In a simple gear system
involving only two gears, the output shaft
rotates in a direction that is opposite to
that of the input shaft. This relationship
holds true for any number of even gears.
When there are an odd number of gears
in a system, the output shaft will rotate in
the same direction as the input shaft.
28
MECHANISMS
Gears
There are seven main types of gears: spur,
helical, bevel, crown, rack and pinion,
worm, and planetary.
Spur Gear
The spur gear is a standard
straight-toothed gear.
Helical Gear
Helical gears are similar
to spur gears; however,
the angle of the teeth
makes this gear operate
more smoothly. The shafts
used with helical gears
can be oriented in parallel
or in a perpendicular
configuration, as used in
worm or bevel gears.
29
MECHANISMS
Gears
Bevel Gear
Bevel gears are used when
the axis of the two shafts
cross each other. They use
angled faces of teeth to
mesh up at these angles.
Crown Gear
Crown gears are similar
to bevel gears in that they
often meet a spur gear
in a perpendicular shaft
orientation.
30
MECHANISMS
Gears
Rack and Pinion
The pinion is often a spur
gear, and the rack is a
straight bar with gear
teeth. This system is used to
transfer rotational motion
into linear motion.
Worm Gears
A worm gear acts as a screw
to turn another gear. These
gears can offer extreme
differences in gear ratios
and often are used because
the round pinion gear
cannot turn the screw gear.
31
MECHANISMS
Gears
Planetary Gears
These are a system of
revolving gears that can be
used for a number of
mechanical applications,
although they are primarily
used as gear reducers and
in transmissions.
32
MECHANISMS
Pulleys, Belts, & Chains
Both belts and chains transfer
rotational motion between
multiple rotating wheels,
sprockets, cogs, and so on.
Pulleys, belts, and chains, are all used to
transfer motion and power over longer
distances than gears. A useful example
of a chain drive is a bike, which transfers
power from the pedestal through a set of
sprockets and chains. It would be too long
of a stretch to transfer the motion and
power to the back wheel of the bike using
gears alone, because they would weigh the
bike down.
The amount of mechanical advantage
derived from a chain or belt is similar to
that of a gear; it’s proportional to the ratio
of the sprocket sizes or number of teeth.
Pulleys
Pulleys use ropes or cables to transfer
motion, force, and power and are often
used to lift loads.
33
MECHANISMS
Pulleys, Belts, & Chains
Pulleys differ from chains or belts in that
the size of the pulley does not factor into
the mechanical advantage. As a general
rule, the mechanical advantage from a
block-and-tackle pulley system equals the
number of ropes “holding up” the load. For
example, the picture on the left has an
advantage of five; that is, the person
pulling on the rope only hast to pull 1/5 of
the weight of the object.
Belts are often used to transfer power and
motion from a motor to another rotating
component in a mechanical system. A fan
belt in a car is a common example. The use
of a rubberized belt reduces friction and
noise. The diameters of the pulleys used
with belts directly impact speed and
power output.
34
MECHANISMS
Linkages
Linkages use a series of levers
and pivots to transfer power and
motion.
Linkages can be considered to be a series
of levers attached to each other; however,
unlike a lever, they often feature multiple
pivots on one length. Linkages are useful
for defining and restricting a motion, in
addition to being able to transfer power
like a lever.
Analyzing mechanical advantage derived
from a system of linkages is done by
treating each separate linkage as a lever.
Analyzing the motion of one of the
linkages, however, is much harder to
do and generally falls into the realm of
kinematics.
35
POWER
Hydraulic Power
The transfer of energy through
the motion and pressure of
liquids such as water or oil.
In most systems, power can be described
by multiplying a force by a speed or rate.
In fluid flows (such as in a pipe or river),
the power of the flow can be quantified by
multiplying its volume flow rate (the
volume of fluid that is flowing) by the
pressure (how much pressure is pushing
the fluid).
36
POWER
Hydraulic Power
An intriguing aspect of hydraulics is the
multiplication of force. The piston on the
left is smaller in surface area than the two
pistons attached to the car on the right. As
a result, the forces on the car-lift pistons
are increased; however, the distance they
travel is less than the input piston.
A great example of mechanical
applications of hydraulics is in large
construction equipment such as a front-
end loader. Hydraulic pistons interact
with mechanical linkages to control the
movement of the backhoe components
such as the bucket.
37
POWER
Mechanical Power
The transfer of energy as
motion and forces through
mechanical means.
As stated, power is simply the speed of
energy transference. In a mechanical
system, power can be transported in two
different ways, rotational motion and
linear motion.
A slider and crank actually converts linear
motion into rotational motion in an
engine.
38
POWER
Mechanical Power
Linear Systems
One of the many ways energy is defined is
as a force applied for a distance; for
example, pushing a box a certain distance.
If the force and distance are multiplied
and then divided by how long it took
to move the box, the resulting number
would be how much mechanical power, on
average, it took.
Rotational Systems
As previously noted, power is generally a
force multiplied by a flow or speed. In the
case of a rotating wheel, or shaft, the
amount of power it transfers is related to
the torque multiplied by its revolutions
per second.
Rotational Power (watts) = Torque (n-m) x
Revolutions per Second (1/s)
39
POWER
Electrical Power
The transfer of energy through
electron flows.
The word “power” is often used to refer to
electrical power. If electrical energy is
stored in a battery or capacitor, it is not
power; that is, until it starts “flowing” and
is used for work.
Power can be measured as a flow speed
multiplied by a force. This definition still
holds for electricity as long as voltage is
compared to a “pressure” or “force” and
amperage (a measure of electrons per
second) to a “flow.” As such, electrical
power is very easy to quantify; it is voltage
multiplied by amperage.
Electrical Power (watts) = Voltage (V) x Although these different powers are in
Amperage (A) different systems, they are all, in the end,
watts or power; and as such, can be
compared to each other. For example, an
80-watt motor can lift as much mass as an
80-watt hydraulic flow can in the same
amount of time.
40
POWER
Heat Transfer
The transfer of energy as heat.
Heat-based energy is measured in terms of
joules, and the definition of a watt (the SI
unit of power) is a joule per second.
Consequently, flame heating water works
by transferring energy into the water.
Heat can be transferred by three main ways: conduction, convection, and radiation.
Linear Systems
Conduction is the transfer of heat through
a material. For example, when heating a
pan, the heat travels through the pan.
In applied mechanics, you often have to be
concerned with keeping components
cooled. For example, heat from friction
can negatively impact parts of fans in
electronics.
41
POWER
Heat Transfer
Convection
Convection is the heat transfer between
two different phases of materials. For
example, a hair dryer uses hot electric
coils to transfer heat into the air, which is
then used to dry hair.
Radiation
Radiation is present all around us as Earth
is warmed by radiant heat from the sun.
Hot objects radiate heat as infrared rays.
When you feel heat coming off of a fire, it
is most likely infrared radiation.
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