Defining Hydrostatics and Pressure

Hydrostatics is the study of fluids at rest and is therefore the simplest aspect of hydraulics. The
main characteristic of a stationary fluid is the force which it brings to bear on its surroundings. A
fluid force is frequently specified as a pressure, p, which is the force exerted on a unit area.
Pressure is measured in N/m2 or in “bar” (1 bar = 105 N/m2).

Pressure is not constant everywhere in a body of fluid. In fact, if pressure is measured at a series
of different depths below the upper surface of the fluid, it will be found that the pressure reading
increases with increasing depth. An exact relationship can be developed between pressure and
depth as follows. Suppose there is a large body of liquid (e.g., a lake or swimming pool), then
take an imaginary vertical column of liquid within that main body (Fig. 2). The column of fluid is at
rest; therefore, all of the forces acting on the column are in equilibrium. If this statement is to be
true for any point on the boundary surfaces of the column, the action and reaction forces must be
perpendicular to the boundary surface. If any forces were not perpendicular to the boundary, then
a shear force component would exist; this condition arises only for fluids in motion. It follows that
the only force which is supporting the column of fluid is the force acting upwards due to the
pressure on the base of the column. For the column to be in equilibrium, the upward force must
exactly equal the weight force acting downward.

Figure 1. Pressure distribution around a column of liquid

The volume of the column, V, is the product of its horizontal cross-sectional area, A, and its height,
h. The specific weight of the liquid is the product of its density (symbol ρ) and the gravitational
acceleration, g. Hence, the weight of the column is found by taking the product of the specific
weight and the volume, i.e., the weight = ρgAh.

The force acting upwards is the product of pressure and horizontal cross-sectional area, i.e., pA.
Therefore,

𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ

and so

𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
The aforementioned formula is the basic hydrostatic equation or “law”. By way of example, in
freshwater which has a density of 1000 kg/m3), the pressure at a depth of 10 m is

p (N/m2) = 1000 (kg/m3) x 9.81 (m/s2) x 10 (m)

= 98,100 N/m2
= 9.81 kN/m2

The equation is correct both numerically and in terms of its units. For all practical purposes, the
value of g (= 9.81 m/s2) is constant on the earth’s surface. The product ρg will therefore also be
constant for any homogeneous incompressible fluid, and then indicates that pressure varies
linearly with the depth y (Fig. 3).

Figure 2. Pressure variation with depth

Pascals Law

Pascal’s Law, developed by French mathematician Blaise Pascal, states that the pressure on a
fluid is equal in all directions and in all parts of the container. As liquid flows into the large container
at the bottom, pressure pushes the liquid equally up into the tubes above the container. The liquid
rises to the same level in all of the tubes, regardless of the shape or angle of the tube.

The laws of fluid mechanics are observable in many everyday situations. For example, the
pressure exerted by water at the bottom of a pond will be the same as the pressure exerted by
water at the bottom of a much narrower pipe, provided depth remains constant.

Absolute and Gauge Pressure

Gage pressures (Relative Pressure) are pressures above or below the atmosphere and can be
measured by pressure gauges or manometers. For small pressure difference, a U-tube
manometer is used. It consists of a U-shaped tube with one end connected to the container and
the other open to the atmosphere. Filled with a liquid, such as water, oil, and mercury, the
difference in the liquid surface levels in the two manometer legs indicates the pressure difference
from local atmospheric conditions. For the higher differences, a Bourdon gauge, named after
French inventor Eugene Bourdon, is used. It consists of a hollow metal tube with an oval cross-
section, bent in the shape of a hook. One end of the tube is closed, the other open and connected
to the measurement region.
Atmospheric Pressure is the pressure at any one point on the earth’s surface from the weight
of the air above it. A vacuum is a space that has all matter removed from it. It is impossible to
create a perfect vacuum in the laboratory; no matter how advanced a vacuum system is, some
molecules are always present in the vacuum area. Even remote regions of outer space have a
small amount of gas. A vacuum can also be described as a region of space where the pressure
is less than the normal atmospheric pressure of 760 mm (29.9 in) of mercury.

Under normal conditions at sea level:

Patm = 2166 lb/ft2
= 14.7 psi
= 29.9 inches of mercury (hg)
= 760.mm Hg
= 101.325 kPa

Absolute pressure is the pressure above absolute zero (vacuum).

pabs = patm + pgage
pabs = patm – pvacuum
pvacuum = – pgage

Note:
• Absolute zero is attained if all air is removed. It is the lowest possible pressure
attainable.
• Absolute pressure can never be negative.
• The smallest gage pressure is equal to the negative of the ambient atmospheric
pressure.
• Unless otherwise specified in this module, the term pressure signifies gage pressure.

Figure 3. Relationship between absolute and gage pressures

Hydraulic Machines
A hydraulic machine uses components such as pistons, pumps, and hoses to transmit
forces and energy using fluids. Hydraulic machines are applied, for example, to braking
systems, forklift trucks, power steering systems, and airplane control systems. Hydraulic
machines provide an example of Pascal’s law. This law states that pressure applied to an
enclosed and continuous body of fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of that
fluid and to the walls of the containing vessel.

Pressure Measurement
An instrument that is used to measure atmospheric pressure is called a barometer. The most
common types are the mercury barometer and the aneroid barometer.

Mercury Barometer
A mercury barometer is an accurate and relatively simple way to measure changes in atmospheric
pressure. At sea level, the weight of the atmosphere forces mercury 760 mm (29.9 in) up a
calibrated glass tube. Higher elevations yield lower readings because the atmosphere is less
dense there, and the thinner air exerts less pressure on the mercury.
 Figure 4. Mercury Barometer

Aneroid Barometer
In an aneroid barometer, a partially evacuated metal drum expands or contracts in response to
changes in air pressure. A series of levers and springs translate the up and down movement of
the drum top into the circular motion of the pointers along the aneroid barometer’s face.

Figure 5. Aneroid Barometer

Piezometer
A piezometer is a vertical tube, usually transparent, in which a liquid rises in response to a positive
gage pressure. For example, Fig. 7 shows a piezometer attached to a pipe. Pressure in the pipe
pushes the water column to a height h, and the gage pressure at the center of the pipe is which
follows directly from the hydrostatic equation. The piezometer has several advantages: simplicity,
direct measurement (no need for calibration), and accuracy. However, a piezometer cannot easily
be used for measuring pressure in a gas, and a piezometer is limited to low pressures because
the column height becomes too large at high pressures.
 Figure 6. Piezometer attached to a pipe

Variations in Pressure
Consider two points (1&2), whose difference in elevation is h, to lie in the ends of an elementary
prism having a cross-sectional area a and a length of L. Since this prism is at rest, all forces acting
upon it must be in equilibrium.

Figure 7. Forces acting on elementary prism

Note: Free liquid surface refers to the liquid surface to zero gage pressure or with atmospheric
pressure only.
With reference to the figure above:
W = γV
W = γ(aL)

[ΣFx = 0]
F2 – F1 =W sinθ
p2 a – p1 a = γ (aL) sinθ
 p2 – p1 = γL sinθ (but L sin θ = h)

thus,
𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑞 = 𝛾ℎ

Therefore, the difference in pressure between any two points in a homogeneous fluid at rest is
equal to the product of the unit weight of the fluid (γ) to the vertical distance (h) between the points.

Also:

𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝑤ℎ

It means that any change in pressure at point 1 would cause an equal change at point 2.
Therefore, a pressure applied at any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted equally and
undiminished to every other point in the liquid.
Let us assume that point 1 in Figure 8 lie on the free surface, then the gage pressure p 1 is zero,
thus the above equation becomes;

𝑝2 = 𝑤ℎ

This means that the pressure at any point “h” below a free liquid surface is equal to the product
of the unit weight of the fluid (γ) and h.

Consider the points 1 and 2 in Figure 8 lie on the same elevation, such that h=0; then
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝑤ℎ
𝑝2 = 𝑝1

This means that the pressures along the same horizontal plane in a homogenous fluid at rest are
equal.
Pressure below Layers of Different Liquids

Figure 8. Pressures below layers of different liquids

Consider the tank shown (Fig. 9) to be filled with liquids of different densities and with air at the
top under a gage pressure of pa, the pressure at the bottom of the tank is:

𝑝𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝛴𝛾ℎ + 𝑝 = 𝛾1 ℎ1 + 𝛾2 ℎ2 + 𝛾3 ℎ3 + 𝑝𝐴

Pressure Head
Pressure head is the height “h” of a column of homogenous liquid of unit weight γ that will produce
an intensity of pressure p.
𝑝
ℎ=
𝛾

To convert pressure head (height) of liquid A to liquid B

𝑠𝐴 𝛾𝐴 𝜌𝐴
ℎ𝐵 = ℎ𝐴 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝐵 = ℎ𝐴 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝐵 = ℎ𝐴
𝑠𝐵 𝛾𝐵 𝜌𝐵

To convert pressure head (height) of any liquid to water, just multiply its height by its specific
gravity.

ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = ℎ𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

Manometer
A manometer, often shaped like the letter “U,” is a device for measuring pressure by raising or
lowering a column of liquid. For example, Fig.10 shows a U-tube manometer that is being used
to measure pressure in a flowing fluid. In the case shown, positive gage pressure in the pipe
pushes the manometer liquid up a height Δh. To use a manometer, engineers relate the height of
the liquid in the manometer to pressure.

Figure 9. U-tube manometer

Types of Manometer
1. Open Type – has an atmospheric surface in one leg and is capable of measuring gage
pressures.
2. Differential Type – without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring only
differences of pressure.
3. Piezometer – the simplest form of open manometer. It is a tube tapped into a wall of a
container or conduit to measure pressure. The fluid in the container or conduit rises in this
tube to form a free surface.

Figure 10. Open Manometer

 Figure 11. Differential Manometer

Limitation of Piezometer:
• large pressures in the lighter liquids require long tubes
• gas pressures cannot be measured because gas cannot form a free surface
Steps in Solving
1. Decide on the fluid in feet or meter, of which the heads are to be expressed. Water is most
advisable.
2. Starting from end point, number in order, the interface or different fluids.
3. Identify points of equal pressure (taking into account that for a homogenous fluid at rest,
the pressure along the same horizontal plane are equal). Label these points with the same
number.
4. Proceed form level to level, adding (if going down) or subtracting (if going up) pressure
heads as the elevation decreases or increases, respectively with due regard for the
specific gravity of the fluids.