TECHNOLOGY – SLIP ANGLE

Getting more from

your yaw diagrams
Slip Angle provides a summary
Our analysis of yaw versus lateral acceleration continues with Claude
of OptimumG’s seminars Rouelle’s explanation of the yaw moment diagram and how to interpret it

p, balance, control and stability simulations are

W
e of the main focuses at OptimumG.
e will start this article The yaw moment diagram is In both cases, the inputs (steering steering angle δ and the CG
by reviewing some a 2D chart that represents two angle δ and CG slip angle) and slip angle ß. The procedure
basic concepts. As outputs: the resultant yaw moment outputs (lateral acceleration and described in the next paragraphs
we have seen in the previous in the vertical axis and the resultant yaw moment) are the same, but they must be repeated for every
articles on the yaw moment versus lateral acceleration in the horizontal represent different scenarios. The combination of these two
lateral acceleration method, an axis. Each point of this diagram constant speed simulation represents parameters, within a range, to
understeering car is defined as a represents a combination of two the car running at a very large flat generate the full diagram. Since
car that doesn’t have enough yaw inputs: the steering angle δ and the surface, while the driver tries to it is not possible to calculate the
moment and an oversteering car is CG slip angle (also called CG yaw reach the tightest possible radius in equilibrium state of the vehicle
a car with too much yaw moment. angle) ß. Using the yaw moment a steady-state, neutral behaviour, at explicitly, we will need to run
The yaw moment is caused by 12 diagram, an engineer can get a car a given speed. The constant radius an iterative process until a
factors, which come from the tyres: design and set-up that can not only method represents, of course, the car convergence criterion is met.
the four lateral forces (Fy), the four reach the maximum possible lateral at a skid pad, where the driver tries
longitudinal forces (Fx) and the four acceleration, but also have the right to reach the maximum longitudinal Steering angle
self-aligning torques (Mz). Let’s also amount of yaw moment at the right speed also in steady-state. We start by positioning the vehicle
remind ourselves that at the corner time during a corner. Let’s now dive into the algorithm with a given steering angle δ and
apex – i.e. where the car is closest to There are two types of yaw that generates the yaw moment CG slip angle ß (Figure 2) at either a
a steady-state – the resultant yaw moment diagrams: at constant speed diagram. As said previously, the two constant speed or radius. Then, we
moment should be equal to zero. and at constant radius (Figure 1). main inputs of the diagram are the can calculate the slip angle of each

Porsche on a skid pan. This could

be seen as a real-world equivalent
of the constant radius diagram

Once we have the forces and moments of each tyre we

can calculate the outputs of the yaw moment diagram
44 www.racecar-engineering.com SEPTEMBER 2017
Figure 1: The two types of yaw moment versus lateral acceleration diagrams – constant speed or constant radius

tyre, providing we have some basic

information about the car, such as
the steering ratio, the Ackermann
geometry and the toe angles of each
wheel. The formulae for calculating
slip angles are shown in Figure 3.
Note that, at this stage, we assume
that the vehicle has zero yaw velocity
(r), which will be included in the next
iterations. Basically, there are three
causes for tyre slip angle: steering
input (or toe angle) δ, CG slip angle
ß and yaw velocity r. With these
three pieces of information, we can
calculate the longitudinal and lateral
speeds at each contact patch and
obtain the slip angle.
Each tyre slip angle comes
this way (Figure 3):
αLF = [Vy + (r a)] / [ Vx - (r Tf /2)] - δLF
(9) Figure 2: The three causes of tyre
αRF = [Vy + (r a)] / [ Vx + (r Tf /2)] slip angle – steering δ, CG slip
-δRF (10) angle ß, and yaw velocity r
αLR = [Vy - (r b)] / [ Vx - (r Tr /2)] (11)
αRR = [Vy - (r b)] / [ Vx + (r Tr /2)]
(12)
This is where Vx and Vy are the
longitudinal and lateral car CG speed, model will receive as inputs the tyre than zero, the values of vertical recalculate the forces and moments
Tf and Tr are the front and rear tracks, slip angle α, the vertical force Fz, the forces that we initially used in of the tyres. We iterate through this
a is the distance from the front axle camber angle γ and the slip ratio κ the tyre model for calculating the process until the imposed lateral
to the CG, b is the distance from the (which, in this case, is zero). Some forces and moments are no longer acceleration matches the resultant
CG to the rear axle, ß is the CG slip tyre models can also include effects correct. The lateral acceleration will lateral acceleration. More details on
angle, r is the yaw velocity and δLF of speed, pressure and temperature, cause a lateral load transfer, which this algorithm are explained in the
and δLR are the left front and right but let’s keep it simple for now. The will modify the vertical loads on OptimumG seminars.
front steering angles. In this case the tyre model will then return the values each tyre. The inclination angles It is worth mentioning that the
bump steer and the compliance are of lateral force (Fy), longitudinal force will also be different, as the lateral accuracy and usefulness of the
not being considered. (Fx) and self-aligning moment (Mz). acceleration results in a roll angle. yaw moment diagram will change
Now that we have the forces Even the resultant slip angles will depending on how complex our
Black magic and moments of each tyre, we change, since now we have a yaw vehicle model is. You can, for
Once we have the slip angles we can calculate the outputs of the velocity r = Ay/Vx. If we are running a example, consider effects such as
can proceed to calculate the forces yaw moment diagram: the lateral constant radius simulation, the new suspension kinematics (bump steer,
and moments of each tyre. To do so, acceleration and the yaw moment. value of longitudinal speed must also camber change, etc.), compliance,
we can use a simple ‘magic formula’ However, since the resultant lateral be calculated (V=√(A R) ). Thus, we changes in aerodynamic forces
tyre model. The magic formula tyre acceleration is (most likely) different need to update all these values and with ride heights, chassis stiffness,

SEPTEMBER 2017 www.racecar-engineering.com 45

TECHNOLOGY – SLIP ANGLE

The lateral acceleration will cause a lateral load transfer,

which will modify the vertical loads on each tyre
longitudinal acceleration, etc. As a
general rule, the more complex the
vehicle model is, the more sensitivity
analysis we can perform.
Once we calculate the vehicle
state for every combination of
steering angle δ and CG slip
angle ß, we will have the full yaw
moment diagram. Ideally, some
measurements made on track
can help us to decide the realistic
window of inputs. To better visualise
the diagram, we usually connect
lines with same CG slip angle or same
steering angle, as shown in Figure 4.

Point taken
Even though we calculate the full
yaw moment diagram, we are usually
only interested in a few of its points.
Obviously, we don’t know which
points will fall in the regions of
interest prior to the simulation,
that’s why we compute all of them.
Figure 3: Tyre slip angle calculation Figure 4 shows three points that we
often watch for, when interpreting
a yaw diagram of constant speed.
At point 1, we see that the
intersection of the isoline δ = 0
and the isoline ß = 0. This point
usually corresponds to the origin
of the outputs, where both lateral
acceleration and yaw moment are
equal to zero. That seems logical: at
constant speed with no yaw angle
and no steering input the car should
be travelling in a straight line; the
turn radius is infinite. There is an
exception: if the car is asymmetrical
(in NASCAR or Indycar, on ovals, for
example) it is possible that, even
without any steering or CG slip
angle input, the car would have
a small amount of yaw moment
Figure 4: Yaw moment diagram at constant speed with CG slip angle and steering isolines and lateral acceleration. This point
is particularly important because
we can take conclusions about the
behaviour of the car as it enters the
corner. This subject will be further
explored in the next article.

CONTACT
Claude Rouelle
Phone: + 1 303 752 1562
Enquiries: engineering@
optimumg.com
Website: www.optimumg.com

46 www.racecar-engineering.com SEPTEMBER 2017