Computer hardware

Computer hardware includes the physical

parts of a computer, such as the case,[1]
central processing unit (CPU), monitor,
mouse, keyboard, computer data storage,
graphics card, sound card, speakers and
motherboard.[2]
PDP-11 CPU board

By contrast, software is the set of

instructions that can be stored and run by
hardware. Hardware is so-termed because
it is "hard" or rigid with respect to changes,
whereas software is "soft" because it is
easy to change.

Hardware is typically directed by the

software to execute any command or
instruction. A combination of hardware
and software forms a usable computing
system, although other systems exist with
only hardware.
Von Neumann architecture

Von Neumann architecture scheme

The template for all modern computers is

the Von Neumann architecture, detailed in
a 1945 paper by Hungarian mathematician
John von Neumann. This describes a
design architecture for an electronic digital
computer with subdivisions of a
processing unit consisting of an arithmetic
logic unit and processor registers, a
control unit containing an instruction
register and program counter, a memory to
store both data and instructions, external
mass storage, and input and output
mechanisms.[3] The meaning of the term
has evolved to mean a stored-program
computer in which an instruction fetch and
a data operation cannot occur at the same
time because they share a common bus.
This is referred to as the Von Neumann
bottleneck and often limits the
performance of the system.[4]

Types of computer systems

Personal computer …
Basic hardware components of a modern personal
computer, including a monitor, a motherboard, a CPU,
a RAM, two expansion cards, a power supply, an
optical disc drive, a hard disk drive, a keyboard and a
mouse

Inside a custom-built computer: power supply at the

bottom has its own cooling fan
The personal computer is one of the most
common types of computer due to its
versatility and relatively low price. Desktop
personal computers have a monitor, a
keyboard, a mouse, and a computer case.
The computer case holds the
motherboard, fixed or removable disk
drives for data storage, the power supply,
and may contain other peripheral devices
such as modems or network interfaces.
Some models of desktop computers
integrated the monitor and keyboard into
the same case as the processor and
power supply. Separating the elements
allows the user to arrange the components
in a pleasing, comfortable array, at the
cost of managing power and data cables
between them.

Laptops are designed for portability but

operate similarly to desktop PCs.[1] They
may use lower-power or reduced size
components, with lower performance than
a similarly priced desktop computer. [5]
Laptops contain the keyboard, display, and
processor in one case. The monitor in the
folding upper cover of the case can be
closed for transportation, to protect the
screen and keyboard. Instead of a mouse,
laptops may have a trackpad or pointing
stick.
Tablets are portable computer that uses a
touch screen as the primary input device.
Tablets generally weigh less and are
smaller than laptops.

Some tablets include fold-out keyboards,

or offer connections to separate external
keyboards. Some models of laptop
computers have a detachable keyboard,
which allows the system to be configured
as a touch-screen tablet. They are
sometimes called "2-in-1 detachable
laptops" or "tablet-laptop hybrids".[6]

Case …
The computer case encloses most of the
components of the system. It provides
mechanical support and protection for
internal elements such as the
motherboard, disk drives, and power
supplies, and controls and directs the flow
of cooling air over internal components.
The case is also part of the system to
control electromagnetic interference
radiated by the computer and protects
internal parts from electrostatic discharge.
Large tower cases provide space for
multiple disk drives or other peripherals
and usually stand on the floor, while
desktop cases provide less expansion
room. All-in-one style designs include a
video display built into the same case.
Portable and laptop computers require
cases that provide impact protection for
the unit. Hobbyists may decorate the
cases with colored lights, paint, or other
features, in an activity called case
modding.

Power supply …

A power supply unit (PSU) converts

alternating current (AC) electric power to
low-voltage direct current (DC) power for
the computer. Laptops can run on built-in
rechargeable battery.[7] The PSU typically
uses a switched-mode power supply
(SMPS), with power MOSFETs (power
metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect
transistors) used in the converters and
regulator circuits of the SMPS.[8]

Motherboard …

Computer motherboard

The motherboard is the main component

of a computer. It is a board with integrated
circuitry that connects the other parts of
the computer including the CPU, the RAM,
the disk drives (CD, DVD, hard disk, or any
others) as well as any peripherals
connected via the ports or the expansion
slots. The integrated circuit (IC) chips in a
computer typically contain billions of tiny
metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect
transistors (MOSFETs).[9]

Components directly attached to or to part

of the motherboard include:

The CPU (central processing unit), which

performs most of the calculations which
enable a computer to function, and is
referred to as the brain of the computer.
It takes program instructions from
random-access memory (RAM),
interprets and processes them and then
sends back results so that the relevant
components can carry out the
instructions. The CPU is a
microprocessor, which is fabricated on a
metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS)
integrated circuit (IC) chip. It is usually
cooled by a heat sink and fan, or water-
cooling system. Most newer CPU
includes an on-die graphics processing
unit (GPU). The clock speed of CPU
governs how fast it executes
instructions and is measured in GHz;
typical values lie between 1 GHz and
5 GHz. Many modern computers have
the option to overclock the CPU which
enhances performance at the expense
of greater thermal output and thus a
need for improved cooling.
The chipset, which includes the north
bridge, mediates communication
between the CPU and the other
components of the system, including
main memory; as well as south bridge,
which is connected to the north bridge,
and supports auxiliary interfaces and
buses; and, finally, a Super I/O chip,
connected through the south bridge,
which supports the slowest and most
legacy components like serial ports,
hardware monitoring and fan control.
Random-access memory (RAM), which
stores the code and data that are being
actively accessed by the CPU. For
example, when a web browser is opened
on the computer it takes up memory;
this is stored in the RAM until the web
browser is closed. It is typically a type of
dynamic RAM (DRAM), such as
synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), where
MOS memory chips store data on
memory cells consisting of MOSFETs
and MOS capacitors. RAM usually
comes on dual in-line memory modules
(DIMMs) in the sizes of 2GB, 4GB, and
8GB, but can be much larger.
Read-only memory (ROM), which stores
the BIOS that runs when the computer is
powered on or otherwise begins
execution, a process known as
Bootstrapping, or "booting" or "booting
up". The ROM is typically a nonvolatile
BIOS memory chip, which stores data on
floating-gate MOSFET memory cells.
The BIOS (Basic Input Output
System) includes boot firmware and
power management firmware.
Newer motherboards use Unified
Extensible Firmware Interface
(UEFI) instead of BIOS.
Buses that connect the CPU to various
internal components and to expand
cards for graphics and sound.
The CMOS (complementary MOS)
battery, which powers the CMOS
memory for date and time in the BIOS
chip. This battery is generally a watch
battery.
The video card (also known as the
graphics card), which processes
computer graphics. More powerful
graphics cards are better suited to
handle strenuous tasks, such as playing
intensive video games or running
computer graphics software. A video
card contains a graphics processing unit
(GPU) and video memory (typically a
 type of SDRAM), both fabricated on
MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) chips.
Power MOSFETs make up the voltage
regulator module (VRM), which controls
how much voltage other hardware
components receive.[8]
Expansion cards …

An expansion card in computing is a

printed circuit board that can be inserted
into an expansion slot of a computer
motherboard or backplane to add
functionality to a computer system via the
expansion bus. Expansion cards can be
used to obtain or expand on features not
offered by the motherboard.
Storage devices …

A storage device is any computing

hardware and digital media that is used for
storing, porting and extracting data files
and objects. It can hold and store
information both temporarily and
permanently and can be internal or
external to a computer, server or any
similar computing device. Data storage is
a core function and fundamental
component of computers.

Fixed media E…

Data is stored by a computer using a

variety of media. Hard disk drives (HDDs)
are found in virtually all older computers,
due to their high capacity and low cost, but
solid-state drives (SSDs) are faster and
more power efficient, although currently
more expensive than hard drives in terms
of dollar per gigabyte,[10] so are often
found in personal computers built post-
2007.[11] SSDs use flash memory, which
stores data on MOS memory chips
consisting of floating-gate MOSFET
memory cells. Some systems may use a
disk array controller for greater
performance or reliability.

Removable media E…
To transfer data between computers, an
external flash memory device (such as a
memory card or USB flash drive) or optical
disc (such as a CD-ROM, DVD-ROM or BD-
ROM) may be used. Their usefulness
depends on being readable by other
systems; the majority of machines have an
optical disk drive (ODD), and virtually all
have at least one Universal Serial Bus
(USB) port.

Input and output peripherals …

Input and output devices are typically

housed externally to the main computer
chassis. The following are either standard
or very common to many computer
systems.

Input device E…

Input devices allow the user to enter

information into the system, or control its
operation. Most personal computers have
a mouse and keyboard, but laptop systems
typically use a touchpad instead of a
mouse. Other input devices include
webcams, microphones, joysticks, and
image scanners.

Output device E…
Output devices are designed around the
senses of human beings. For example,
monitors display text that can be read,
speakers produce sound that can be
heard.[12] Such devices also could include
printers or a Braille embosser.

Mainframe computer …

A mainframe computer is a much larger

computer that typically fills a room and
may cost many hundreds or thousands of
times as much as a personal computer.
They are designed to perform large
numbers of calculations for governments
and large enterprises.
An IBM System z9 mainframe

Departmental computing …

In the 1960s and 1970s, more and more

departments started to use cheaper and
dedicated systems for specific purposes
like process control and laboratory
automation. A minicomputer, or
colloquially mini, is a class of smaller
computers that was developed in the mid-
1960s[13][14] and sold for much less than
mainframe[15] and mid-size computers
from IBM and its direct competitors.

Supercomputer …

A supercomputer is superficially similar to

a mainframe but is instead intended for
extremely demanding computational
tasks. As of November 2019, the fastest
supercomputer on the TOP500
supercomputer list is the Summit, in the
United States, with a LINPACK benchmark
score of 122.3 PFLOPS Light, by around 29
PFLOPS.
The term supercomputer does not refer to
a specific technology. Rather it indicates
the fastest computations available at any
given time. In mid-2011, the fastest
supercomputers boasted speeds
exceeding one petaflop, or 1 quadrillion
(10^15 or 1,000 trillion) floating-point
operations per second. Supercomputers
are fast but extremely costly, so they are
generally used by large organizations to
execute computationally demanding tasks
involving large data sets. Supercomputers
typically run military and scientific
applications. Although costly, they are also
being used for commercial applications
where huge amounts of data must be
analyzed. For example, large banks
employ supercomputers to calculate the
risks and returns of various investment
strategies, and healthcare organizations
use them to analyze giant databases of
patient data to determine optimal
treatments for various diseases and
problems incurring to the country.

This section needs expansion with: mobile

phone, cloud computing, embedded system
Learn and
more

Hardware upgrade
When using computer hardware, an
upgrade means adding new or additional
hardware to a computer that improves its
performance, increases its capacity, or
adds new features. For example, a user
could perform a hardware upgrade to
replace the hard drive with a faster one or
a Solid State Drive (SSD) to get a boost in
performance. The user may also install
more Random Access Memory (RAM) so
the computer can store additional
temporary data, or retrieve such data at a
faster rate. The user may add a USB 3.0
expansion card to fully use USB 3.0
devices, or could upgrade the Graphics
Processing Unit (GPU) for cleaner, more
advanced graphics, or more monitors.
Performing such hardware upgrades may
be necessary for aged computers to meet
a new, or updated program's system
requirements.

Sales
Global revenue from computer hardware in
2016 reached 408 billion Euros.[16]

Recycling
Because computer parts contain
hazardous materials, there is a growing
movement to recycle old and outdated
parts.[17] Computer hardware contain
dangerous chemicals such as: lead,
mercury, nickel, and cadmium. According
to the EPA these e-wastes have a harmful
effect on the environment unless they are
disposed of properly. Making hardware
requires energy, and recycling parts will
reduce air pollution, water pollution, as
well as greenhouse gas emissions.[18]
Disposing unauthorized computer
equipment is in fact illegal. Legislation
makes it mandatory to recycle computers
through the government approved
facilities. Recycling a computer can be
made easier by taking out certain reusable
parts. For example, the RAM, DVD drive,
the graphics card, hard drive or SSD, and
other similar removable parts can be
reused.
Many materials used in computer
hardware can be recovered by recycling for
use in future production. Reuse of tin,
silicon, iron, aluminium, and a variety of
plastics that are present in bulk in
computers or other electronics can reduce
the costs of constructing new systems.
Components frequently contain copper,
gold, tantalum,[19][20] silver, platinum,
palladium, and lead as well as other
valuable materials suitable for
reclamation.[21][22]

Toxic computer components …

The central processing unit contains many
toxic materials. It contains lead and
chromium in the metal plates. Resistors,
semi-conductors, infrared detectors,
stabilizers, cables, and wires contain
cadmium. The circuit boards in a
computer contain mercury, and
chromium.[23] When these types of
materials, and chemicals are disposed
improperly will become hazardous for the
environment.

Environmental effects …

The examples and perspective in this section

deal primarily with the United States and do not
Learn more
According to the United States
Environmental Protection Agency only
around 15% of the e-waste actually is
recycled. When e-waste byproducts leach
into groundwater, are burned, or get
mishandled during recycling, it causes
harm. Health problems associated with
such toxins include impaired mental
development, cancer, and damage to the
lungs, liver, and kidneys.[24] That's why
even wires have to be recycled. Different
companies have different techniques to
recycle a wire. The most popular one is the
grinder that separates the copper wires
from the plastic/rubber casing. When the
processes are done there are two different
piles left; one containing the copper
powder, and the other containing
plastic/rubber pieces.[25] Computer
monitors, mice, and keyboards all have a
similar way of being recycled. For
example, first, each of the parts are taken
apart then all of the inner parts get
separated and placed into its own bin.[26]

Computer components contain many toxic

substances, like dioxins, polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), cadmium, chromium,
radioactive isotopes and mercury. A
typical computer monitor may contain
more than 6% lead by weight, much of
which is in the lead glass of the cathode
ray tube (CRT). A typical 15 inch (38 cm)
computer monitor may contain 1.5 pounds
(1 kg) of lead[27] but other monitors have
been estimated to have up to 8 pounds
(4 kg) of lead.[28] Circuit boards contain
considerable quantities of lead-tin solders
that are more likely to leach into
groundwater or create air pollution due to
incineration. In US landfills, about 40% of
the lead content levels are from e-
waste.[29] The processing (e.g. incineration
and acid treatments) required to reclaim
these precious substances may release,
generate, or synthesize toxic byproducts.
Recycling of computer hardware is
considered environmentally friendly
because it prevents hazardous waste,
including heavy metals and carcinogens,
from entering the atmosphere, landfill or
waterways. While electronics consist a
small fraction of total waste generated,
they are far more dangerous. There is
stringent legislation designed to enforce
and encourage the sustainable disposal of
appliances, the most notable being the
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Directive of the European Union and the
United States National Computer
Recycling Act.[30]
Efforts for minimizing computer
hardware waste
…

As computer hardware contain a wide

number of metals inside, the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
encourages the collection and recycling of
computer hardware. "E-cycling", the
recycling of computer hardware, refers to
the donation, reuse, shredding and general
collection of used electronics. Generically,
the term refers to the process of
collecting, brokering, disassembling,
repairing and recycling the components or
metals contained in used or discarded
electronic equipment, otherwise known as
electronic waste (e-waste). "E-cyclable"
items include, but are not limited to:
televisions, computers, microwave ovens,
vacuum cleaners, telephones and cellular
phones, stereos, and VCRs and DVDs just
about anything that has a cord, light or
takes some kind of battery.[31]

Recycling a computer is made easier by a

few of the national services, such as Dell
and Apple. Both companies will take back
the computer of their make or any other
make. Otherwise a computer can be
donated to Computer Aid International
which is an organization that recycles and
refurbishes old computers for hospitals,
schools, universities, etc.[32]

See also
Computer architecture
Electronic hardware
Glossary of computer hardware terms
History of computing hardware
Microprocessor
MOSFET
List of computer hardware
manufacturers
Open-source computing hardware
Open-source hardware
 Transistor

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External links
Media related to Computer hardware at
Wikimedia Commons
Computer hardware at Wikibooks
Learning materials related to
Computer hardware at Wikiversity

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