INTRODUCTION

General
Open channels are natural or manmade conveyance structures that normally have an open
top, and they include rivers, streams and estuaries. An important characteristic of open-
channel flow is that it has a free surface at atmospheric pressure. Open-channel flow can
occur also in conduits with a closed top, such as pipes and culverts, provided that the
conduit is flowing partially full. For example, the flow in most sanitary and storm sewers
has a free surface, and is therefore classified as open-channel flow.

Figure: A trapezoidal shaped open channel

Channels may be natural or artificial. Various names have been used for the artificial
channels:
 A long channel having mild slope usually excavated in the ground is called a canal
 Flume is the channel made of wood, metal, concrete or masonry usually supported
on or above to carry out water across a depression.
 A chute is a channel having steep slopes.
 A drop is similar to chute but the change in the elevation is effected in a short
distance.
 A culvert when partially full is a covered channel installed to drain water through
highways or rail road embankment.
Types of Channel
Prismatic and Non-Prismatic Channels:
 A channel in which the cross sectional shape, size and the bottom slope are constant is
termed as prismatic channel.
  All natural channels generally have varying cross section and consequently are
nonprismatic.
 Most of the manmade channel are prismatic channels over long stretches. The
rectangle, trapezoid, triangle and circle are commonly used shapes in manmade
channels.
 All natural channels generally have varying cross-sections and consequently are non-
prismatic.
Rigid and Mobile Boundary Channels
Rigid channels:
Channel in which the boundary is not deformable. The shape and roughness magnitudes are
not functions of flow parameters. For example, lined canals and non-erodible unlined
canals.
In Rigid channels the flow velocity and shear stress distribution will be such that no major
scouring, erosion or deposition will take place in the channel and the channel geometry and
roughness are essentially constant with respect to time.
Mobile channels:
When the boundary of the channel is mobile and flow carries considerable amounts of
sediment through suspension and is in contact with the bed, such channels are classified as
mobile channels.
In the mobile channel, not only depth of flow but also bed width, longitudinal slope of
channel may undergo changes with space and time depending on type of flow. The
resistance to flow, quantity of sediment transported and channel geometry all depends on
interaction of flow with channel boundaries.

Types of Flow
The most common method of classifying open-channel flows is by the rate of change of the
free-surface depth. The simplest and most widely analyzed case is uniform flow, where the
depth (hence the velocity in steady flow) remains constant. Uniform-flow conditions are
approximated by long straight runs of constant-slope and constant-area channel. A channel in
uniform flow is said to be moving at its normal depth yn, which is an important design
parameter.

Page | 2 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 Figure: Open-channel flow classified by regions of rapidly varying flow (RVF), gradually
varying flow (GVF), and uniform-flow depth profiles.

A broad generalized classification of open channel flow is given below:

Steady Flow:
Depth, mean velocity and discharge of flow in a channel section do not change with time
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑄
i.e. = = = 0.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Unsteady Flow:
𝜕𝑦
Depth, mean velocity and discharge of flow in a channel section change with time i.e. ≠
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑄
≠ ≠ 0.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Flood flows in rivers and rapidly varying surges in canals are some examples of unsteady
flow.
Uniform Flow:
Depth, mean velocity and discharge of flow in a channel section do not change with
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑄
distance i.e. 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑥 = = 0.
𝜕𝑥

A prismatic channel carrying a certain discharge with a constant velocity is an example of

uniform flow. In uniform flow, the gravity force on the flowing liquid balances the
frictional force between the flowing fluid and inside surface of the channel, which is in
contact with the fluid.
Varied Flow:
Depth, mean velocity and discharge of flow in a channel section change with distance i.e.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑄
𝜕𝑥
≠ 𝜕𝑥 ≠ 𝜕𝑥
≠ 0.

Page | 3 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 In case of varied flow, the friction and gravity force are not in balance.
Gradually Varied Flow (GVF):
 Depth of flow changes along the length of channel.
 Curvature of streamline is not excess.
 The loss of energy in GVF is essentially due to boundary friction. Therefore, the
distribution of pressure in the vertical direction may be taken as hydrostatic.
 Flow over dam.

Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF):

 Depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance.
𝜕𝑦
 |𝜕𝑥 | ≫ 0

 Curvature of streamline is large

 Friction can be neglected.

Spatially Varied Flow (SVF): Varied flow assumes that no flow is externally added to or
taken out of channel system. The volume of water in a known time interval is conserved in
the channel system. However, if some flow is added to or abstracted from the system the
resulting varied flow is known as a spatially varied flow (SVF).
 Discharge changes along the length resulting transverse or lateral addition or
withdrawal of water.
𝜕𝑄
 |𝜕𝑥 | ≠ 0

 Often called discontinuous varied flow.

 SVF can be steady or unsteady. In steady SVF, the discharge while being steady
varies along the channel length.
 The flow over a side weir is an example of steady flow.

State of Flow
The flow types are determined by relative magnitudes of the governing forces of the
motion which are inertia, viscosity, and gravity forces.
Effect of Viscosity:
 Relative to inertia force.
 Expressed by dimensionless quantity known as Reynolds number.

Page | 4 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 Reynolds number, 𝜌𝐿2
𝑇2
Inertia force
=> 𝑅𝑒 = 𝐿⁄𝑇
𝜇( )
𝑅𝑒 = Viscous force 𝐿

𝜌𝐿2
Mass×Acceleration
=> 𝑅𝑒 = Viscous shear force×Area => 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇𝑇

𝐿 𝐿 1
𝜌𝐿3 × 2
𝑇
=> 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑇 . 𝐿 × 𝜇
=> 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌
𝜏×𝐴
1
𝜌𝐿4 => 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑉𝐿 × 𝛾
𝑇2
=> 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑑𝑉 2
𝜇 ×𝐿 𝑉𝐿
𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑅𝑒 = 𝛾

[Here, 𝑉 =mean velocity, 𝐿 =Length of flow & 𝛾 =Kinemetic viscosity]

Effect of Gravity:
 Relative to inertia force.
 Expressed by dimensionless quantity known as Froude number.

Froude number, 1⁄
𝑉2 2
=> 𝐹𝑟 = (𝑔𝐿)
1⁄
Inertia force 2
𝐹𝑟 = (Gravity force) 𝑉
=> 𝐹𝑟 = [Here, 𝑉 =Mean
√𝑔𝐿
=> 𝐹𝑟 =
velocity & L=Length of flow]
1⁄
Mass×Acceleration 2 𝑉
(Mass×Gravitational acceleration) => 𝐹𝑟 = [For an open
√𝑔𝐷
1⁄
𝐿 2
𝑇2
channel, 𝐿 = 𝐷 =Hydraulic depth]
=> 𝐹𝑟 = ( 𝑔 )
𝑉
∴ 𝐹𝑟 = 𝐶 [∵ 𝐶 = √𝑔𝐷]
1⁄
𝐿2 2
𝑇2
=> 𝐹𝑟 = ( 𝐿.𝑔 )

Effect of Density:
 Open channel flow can be classified as homogeneous or stratified on the variation of
the density of flow.
 Homogeneous flow maintains constant density.
 When density varies in any direction, the flow is stratified.
 The strength density variation can be expressed by the gradient of Richardson
number.
𝜕𝜌
−𝑔( )
𝜕𝑦
Richardson number, 𝑅𝑖 = 𝜕𝑉 2
̅(
𝜌 )
𝜕𝑦

Here,
 𝜌̅ = Mean density
𝜕𝜌 = Difference in density
𝜕𝑉 = Difference in velocity
𝜕𝑦 = Difference in depth

Characteristics of Flow
Based on Reynolds number –
i. Laminar flow, when 𝑅𝑒 < 500
ii. Transitional flow, when 500 ≤ 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 12500
iii. Turbulent flow, when 𝑅𝑒 > 12500

Based on Froude number –

i. Sub-critical flow, when 𝐹𝑟 < 1
ii. Critical flow, when 𝐹𝑟 = 1
iii. Super-critical flow, when 𝐹𝑟 > 1

Based on Richardson number –

i. Homogeneous flow, when 𝑅𝑖 = 0
ii. Stratified flow, when 𝑅𝑖 ≠ 0
a) Stable stratified flow, when 𝑅𝑖 > 0 or 𝑅𝑖 is positive
b) Unstable stratified flow, when 𝑅𝑖 < 0 or 𝑅𝑖 is negative

N.B: Hydraulic grade line coincides with water surface slope in every kind of open channel
flows. Since the velocity will remain constant in every cross section at uniform flows,
energy line slope, hydraulic grade line slope (water surface slope) and channel bottom
slope are equal to each other and will be parallel as well.
S = S0 = Sener ; Where S is the water surface slope.
Example: If 𝑈 = 1 𝑚⁄𝑠 , 𝑏 = 6 𝑚, 𝑦 = 1.5 𝑚, 𝛾 = 10−6 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠. Then 𝑄 =? , 𝑅𝑒 =? , 𝐹𝑟 =?
Type of flow?
Solution:
1. 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
=𝑏×𝑦×𝑉
= 6 × 1.5 × 1
Page | 6 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet
 = 9 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
𝐴 𝑏×𝑦
𝑈𝐿 1× ⁄𝑏+2𝑦
2. 𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑃
= = 106 > 12500
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾

∴ The flow is turbulence.

𝑈 1
3. 𝐹𝑟 = = = 0.26 < 1
√𝑔𝐷 √9.8×𝑦

∴ The flow is sub-critical.

Example: If 𝑏 = 5.5 𝑚, 𝑈 = 2 𝑚⁄𝑠 , 𝑦 = 1.5 𝑚, 𝛾 = 10−6 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠. Then 𝑄 =? , 𝑅𝑒 =? , 𝐹𝑟 =?
Type of flow?

Solution: = 1.94 × 106 > 12500

1. 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 ∴ The flow is turbulence.
=𝑏×𝑦×𝑉 𝑈 1
3. 𝐹𝑟 = = = 0.52 < 1
√𝑔𝐷 √9.8×𝑦
= 5.5 × 1.5 × 2
∴ The flow is sub-critical.
= 16.5 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
𝐴 𝑏×𝑦
𝑈𝐿 2× 2( ⁄𝑏+2𝑦)
2. 𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑃
=
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾

Example: If 𝑈𝑢𝑝 = 3 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑈𝑏𝑡 = 3, 𝜌𝑢𝑝 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝜌𝑏𝑡 = 1010 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝛿𝑦 =
15 𝑚, 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 then 𝑅𝑖 = ? stratification = ?
Solution: −𝑔(
𝜕𝜌
𝜕𝑦
) −10
−9.81×( )
15
1000+1010
𝑅𝑖 = 𝜕𝑉 2 = 3 2 = 0.163
𝜌̅ = = 1005 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ̅(
𝜌
𝜕𝑦
) 1005×( )
15
2

𝜕𝑈 = 3 − 0 = 3 𝑚/𝑠 The value is positive. So, stable

𝜕𝜌 = 1000 − 1010 = stratified.

−10 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Example:
If 𝑈𝑢𝑝 = 2.1 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑈𝑏𝑡 = 0.1 𝑚/𝑠, 𝜌𝑢𝑝 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝜌𝑏𝑡 = 1020 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝛿𝑦 = 4 𝑚 then
find (1) discharge per unit width, (2) 𝑅𝑖 , (3) stratification.
1000+1020
Solution: 𝜌̅ = = 1010 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
2
𝜕𝑈 = 2.1 − 0.1 = 2 𝑚/𝑠
𝜕𝜌 = 1000 − 1020 =
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴𝑈 = 𝑏𝑦𝑈 = 1 × 4 ×
−20 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
2 = 8 𝑚3 /𝑠

Page | 7 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 −𝑔(
𝜕𝜌
𝜕𝑦
) −20
−9.81×( ) The value is positive. So, stable
4
𝑅𝑖 = 2 = 2 2
= 0.194
̅(
𝜌
𝜕𝑉
𝜕𝑦
) 1010×( )
4
stratified.

Example:
Water flows in a rectangular channel at a depth of 4.0 ft and a flow rate of Q = 200 cfs.
Determine the minimum channel width if the flow is to be subcritical.
Solution:
𝑄 200 50
𝑉= = = , 𝑏 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡
𝐴 𝑏𝑦(= 4) 𝑏
𝑈 50/𝑏
𝐹𝑟 = = = 1[𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑟 = 1]
√𝑔𝑦 √32.2 ∗ 4
Hence, b= 4.41 ft. Ans.

Exercise:
1. Water flows in a rectangular channel at a depth of 2.5 m and a flow rate of Q = 150
cumec. Determine the minimum channel width if the flow is to be critical.

Note: Normal depth: The depth of a uniform flow is called normal depth.

Page | 8 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 OPEN CHANNEL AND THEIR PROPERTIES
Hydraulic Radius
Hydraulic radius plays a prominent role in the equations of open-channel flow and
therefore, the variation of hydraulic radius with depth and width of the channel becomes an
important consideration.
Consider first the variation of hydraulic radius with depth in a rectangular channel of width
B. (Fig. 2.1a).

Figure

Page | 9 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Therefore the variation of R with y is as shown in Fig (2.1.a). From this comes a useful
engineering approximation: for narrow deep cross-sections R≈ B/2. Since any
(nonrectangular) section when deep and narrow approaches a rectangle, when a channel is
deep and narrow, the hydraulic radius may be taken to be half of mean width for practical
applications.
Consider the variation of hydraulic radius with width in a rectangular channel of with a
constant water depth y. (Fig. 2.1.b).

From this it may be concluded that for wide shallow rectangular cross-sections R≈y ; for
rectangular sections the approximation is also valid if the section is wide and shallow, here
the hydraulic radius approaches the mean depth.

Channel Geometry:
Basic terms:
1. Depth of flow, y: vertical distance from the bottom to surface.

Figure: Definition sketch

2. Top width, B: – the width of the channel at the free surface.
3. Flow area, A: – cross-sectional area of the flow.
4. Wetted perimeter, P: - the length of the channel cross-section in contact with the fluid.
5. Hydraulic radius (hydraulic mean depth), R: A/P
6. Average depth (hydraulic average depth), yave: A/B

Page | 10 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 7. The term channel section means cross section of channel taken normal to the direction of
the flow. A vertical channel section is the vertical section passing through the lowest or
bottom section.
8. Stage is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a datum.

Rectangular Channel:

Figure: Rectangular Channel

Bottom width = 𝑏 𝐴
Hydraulic radius = 𝑅 = 𝑃 = 𝑏+2𝑦
𝑏𝑦

Top width = 𝑇 = 𝑏 𝐴 𝑏𝑦
Hydraulic depth =𝐷=𝑇= =𝑦
Depth = 𝑦 𝑏

Area = 𝐴 = 𝑏𝑦
Wetted perimeter = 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 𝑦 + 𝑦 = Section factor = 𝑍 = 𝐴√𝐷 = 𝑏𝑦√𝑦 =
3⁄
𝑏 + 2𝑦 𝑏𝑦 2

Triangular Channel:
T=my+my=2
my

1 y
x m

Figure: Triangle Channel

Page | 11 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Depth = 𝑦 = 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚2
Slope = 𝑚(horizontal): 1(vertical) 𝐴 𝑚𝑦 2
Hydraulic radius = 𝑅 = 𝑃 =
2𝑦√1+𝑚2
Top width = 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑚𝑦 = 2𝑚𝑦
𝑚𝑦
Inclined surface = 𝑥 = √𝑦 2 + (𝑚𝑦)2 =
2√1 + 𝑚2
= 𝑦√1 + 𝑚2 𝐴 𝑚𝑦 2 𝑦
Hydraulic depth = 𝐷 = 𝑇 = 2𝑚𝑦 = 2
1 1
Area = 𝐴 = 2 × 𝑇 × 𝑦 = 2 × 2𝑚𝑦 ×
𝑦
Section factor = 𝑍 = 𝐴√𝐷 = 𝑚𝑦 2 √ 2
𝑦=
5
𝑚𝑦 2 𝑚𝑦 2
=
Wetted perimeter = 𝑃 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 2𝑥 √2

Trapezoidal Channel:
T=b+2my

1 1 y
m m

Figure: Trapezoidal Channel

Depth = 𝑦
Slope = 𝑚(horizontal): 1(vertical)
Bottom width = 𝑏
Top width = 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦 = 𝑏 + 2𝑚𝑦
Inclined surface = 𝑥 = √𝑦 2 + (𝑚𝑦)2 = 𝑦√1 + 𝑚2
1 1
Area = 𝐴 = 2 𝑚𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑦 + 2 𝑚𝑦 2 = 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑚𝑦 2 = 𝑦(𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦)

Wetted perimeter = 𝑃 = 𝑥 + 𝑏 + 𝑥 = 𝑏 + 2𝑥 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚2

𝐴 𝑦(𝑏+𝑚𝑦)
Hydraulic radius = 𝑅 = 𝑃 =
𝑏+2𝑦√1+𝑚2
𝐴 𝑦(𝑏+𝑚𝑦)
Hydraulic depth = 𝐷 = =
𝑇 𝑏+2𝑚𝑦

Page | 12 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 3
𝑦(𝑏+𝑚𝑦) [𝑦(𝑏+𝑚𝑦)]2
Section factor = 𝑍 = 𝐴√𝐷 = 𝑦(𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦)√ =
𝑏+2𝑚𝑦 √𝑏+2𝑚𝑦

Table: properties of Open Channel

Velocity Distribution in Open Channel

 Owing to the presence of a free surface and to the friction along the channel wall, the
velocities in channel are not uniformly distributed in channel section.
 The measured maximum velocity in ordinary channels usually appears to occur below
the free surface at a distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the depth.
 The velocity distribution in a channel section depends also on factors as the unusual
shape of the section, the roughness of the channel and the presence of bends.
 In a broad, rapid and shallow stream or in very smooth channel, the maximum
velocity may often be found very near to the free surface.
 The roughness of the channel will cause the curvature of the vertical velocity
distribution curve to increase.
Page | 13 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet
  On a bend, the velocity increases greatly at a convex side, owing to centrifugal action
of the flow.
 Surface wind has very little effect on velocity distribution.
 Velocity component in transverse direction is usually small and insignificant
compared with the longitudinal velocity components.
 In a long and uniform reach, remote from the entrance, a double spiral motion will
occur in order to permit equalization of shear stress on both sides of the channel. The
pattern will include one spiral on each side of centerline, where the water level is
highest.
 Surface velocity v is related to average velocity 𝑣̅ as 𝑣̅ = 𝑘𝑣 where k = coefficient
with value between 0.8 and 0.95.

Figure : Velocity distribution in open channel

Page | 14 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Measurement of Velocity:

0.
2
0. y
y
8y

Figure : Measurement of Velocity

 Usually done by taking the average of velocities at 0.2y and0.8y distances from the
surface.
𝑉0.2 +𝑉0.8
 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 2

 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑉𝑠
Here, 𝑉𝑠 = Surface velocity, 𝑘 = 0.8 to 0.95
 When the energy principal is used in computation, the true velocity head may be
𝛼𝑉 2
expressed as .
2𝑔

Where,
𝑉 = Mean velocity,
∫ 𝑣 3 𝑑𝐴
𝛼 = Energy co-efficient = 𝑉3𝐴

Velocity Distribution Coefficient:

 When the energy principle is used in computation, the true velocity head may be
𝑉2
expressed as 2𝑔.

Where,
𝑉 = mean velocity
𝛼 = energy co-efficient
∫ 𝑉 3 𝑑𝐴
𝛼= 𝑉3𝐴

 The momentum of fluid passing through a channel section per unit time is expressed
𝛽𝜔𝜑𝑉
as 𝑔

Where,
𝛽 = momentum co-efficient or Boussinesq co-efficient

Page | 15 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 ∫ 𝑉 2 𝑑𝐴
𝛽= 𝑉2𝐴

H. W: Prove that velocity distribution coefficients can be written as, 𝛼 = 1 + 3𝜖 2 − 2𝜖 3

and 𝛽 = 1 + 𝜖 2. (Chow-29)

Pressure Distribution:

𝒚
𝜸𝒚 𝑨
𝒉

𝜸𝒏 𝒁𝑨
𝒁

Figure: Pressure Distribution

 Atmospheric pressure is commonly taken as zero at the free surface.
 Distribution of pressure is governed by the acceleration due to gravity and other
accelerations.
−𝜕(𝑃+𝛾𝑍)
 From Euler’s equation, in any arbitrary direction 𝑠, = 𝜌𝑎𝑠 .
𝜕𝑠
−𝜕(𝑃+𝛾𝑍)
 In normal direction perpendicular to 𝑠, = 𝜌𝑎𝑛 .
𝜕𝑛
𝑣2
 As 𝑛 direction crosses the streamline 𝑎𝑛 could be written as, 𝑎𝑛 = .
𝑟

Where,
𝑣 = Velocity of flow along streamline
𝑟 = Radius of curvature
 In case of still water there is no velocity i.e. 𝑣 = 0, and for straight streamline 𝑟 = ∞.
So, we get, 𝑎𝑛 = 0.
 Considering flow without motion –
−𝜕(𝑃+𝛾𝑍)
= 𝜌𝑎𝑛
𝜕𝑛
−𝜕(𝑃+𝛾𝑍)
=> =0
𝜕𝑛

=> −𝜕(𝑃 + 𝛾𝑍) = 0

=> 𝑃 + 𝛾𝑍 = 𝐶1
Page | 16 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet
 𝑃 𝐶1
=> 𝛾 + 𝑍 = =𝐶
𝛾
𝑃1
=> + 𝑍1 = 𝐶
𝛾

𝑃1
At free surface, = 0, so, 𝑍1 = 𝐶.
𝛾

𝑃𝐴
At point 𝐴, + 𝑍𝐴 = 𝐶 = 𝑍1
𝛾

𝑃𝐴
For any point, = 𝑍1 − 𝑍𝐴 = 𝑦
𝛾

So, we get, 𝑃𝐴 = 𝛾𝑦.

Example: The velocity distribution in a rectangular channel of width 𝐵 and depth of flow
𝑦0 was approximated as 𝑣 = 𝑘1 √𝑦 in which 𝑘1 is a constant. Calculate the average
velocity for the cross-section and correlation coefficient 𝛼 and 𝛽.

Solution:
Area of cross section, 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦0
1 𝑦 1 𝑦 2
Average velocity, 𝑉 = 𝐵𝑦 ∫0 0 𝑣(𝐵𝑑𝑦) = 𝑦 ∫0 0 𝑘1 √𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 3 𝑘1 √𝑦0
0 0
𝑦
∫0 0 𝑣 3 (𝐵𝑑𝑦)
Kinetic energy correction factor 𝛼 =
𝑉 3 𝐵𝑦0
𝑦 3
∫0 𝑜 𝐾1 3 𝑦 ⁄2 𝑑𝑦
= 2 3
( 𝐾1 √𝑦𝑜 ) 𝑦𝑜
3
𝑦 3
𝐾1 3 ∫0 𝑜 𝑦 ⁄2 𝑑𝑦
= 8 3
𝐾 3 𝑦 ⁄2 𝑦𝑜
27 1 𝑜

= 1.35

𝑦 𝑦
∫0 0 𝑣 2 𝐵𝑑𝑦 ∫0 0 𝑘1 2 𝑦𝐵𝑑𝑦
Momentum correction factor, 𝛽 = = 2 = 1.125
𝑉 2 𝐵𝑦0 2
( 𝑘1 √𝑦0 ) 𝐵𝑦0
3

Example: A lined trapezoidal section having 𝑄 = 8 𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐𝑠 at a depth 1.2 𝑚 have bottom
width2 𝑚, slope 1.5𝐻: 1𝑉, 𝑛 = 0.015, considering uniform flow, find 𝑆, 𝜏0 , 𝐹𝑟 .
Page | 17 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet
Solution:
𝐴 = 4.56 𝑚2
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚2 = 2 + 2 × 1.2 × √1 + 1.52 = 6.32 𝑚
𝐴 4.56
𝑅 = 𝑃 = 6.32 = 0.72 𝑚
𝐴 𝐴 4.56
𝐷 = 𝑇 = 𝑏+2𝑚𝑦 = 2+2×1.5×1.2 = 0.81
𝑄 8
𝑉 = 𝐴 = 4.56 = 1.75 𝑚/𝑠

According to manning’s formula –

1 2⁄ 1
𝑉 = 𝑛.𝑅 3 . 𝑆 ⁄2

1 2⁄ 1⁄
=> 1.75 = 0.015 0.72 3𝑆 2

1
∴ 𝑆 = 936.52
1
Average shear stress, 𝜏0 = 𝛾𝑅𝑆 = 9800 × 0.72 × 986.52 = 7.53 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑉 1.75
𝐹𝑟 = = = 0.61
√𝑔𝐷 √9.81×0.81

Hence, 𝐹𝑟 = 0.61 < 1

So, the flow is sub-critical.

Example: A triangular and a rectangular section having 𝑄 = 8 𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐𝑠 at depth 1.2 𝑚

bottom width 2 𝑚 (Rectangular), slope 1.5𝐻: 1𝑉, and 𝑛 = 0.015. Consider uniform flow,
find𝑆, 𝜏0 , 𝐹𝑟 .

Solution:
For triangular section,
1 1
𝐴 = 2 × 𝑦 × 2𝑚𝑦 = 2 × 1.2 × 2 × 1.5 × 1.2 = 2.16 𝑚2

𝑃 = 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚2 = 2 × 1.2 × √1 + 1.52 = 4.33 𝑚

𝐴 2.16
𝑅 = 𝑃 = 4.33 = 0.5 𝑚
𝐴 𝐴 2.16
𝐷 = 𝑇 = 2𝑚𝑦 = 2×1.5×1.2 = 0.6 𝑚
𝑄 8
𝑉 = 𝐴 = 2.16 = 3.7 𝑚/𝑠 2

From manning’s equation

Page | 18 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 𝑉𝑛 3.7×0.015 1
𝑆=√ 2 =√ 2 = 128.8
𝑅 ⁄3 0.5 ⁄3
1
Average shear stress, 𝜏0 = 𝛾𝑅𝑆 = 9800 × 0.5 × 128.8 = 38.04 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑉 3.7
𝐹𝑟 = = = 1.53
√𝑔𝐷 √9.81×0.6

Hence, 𝐹𝑟 = 1.53 > 1

So, the flow is super-critical.

For rectangular section,

𝐴 = 𝑏𝑦 = 2 × 1.2 = 2.4 𝑚2
𝑃 = 2𝑦 + 𝑏 = 2 × 1.2 + 2 = 4.4 𝑚
𝐴 2.4
𝑅 = 𝑃 = 4.4 = 0.55 𝑚
𝐴 2.4
𝐷=𝑇= = 1.2 𝑚
2
𝑄 8
𝑉 = 𝐴 = 2.4 = 3.33 𝑚/𝑠 2

From manning’s equation

𝑉𝑛 3.33×0.015 1
𝑆=√ 2 =√ 2 =
𝑅 ⁄3 0.55 ⁄3 180.6

1
Average shear stress, 𝜏0 = 𝛾𝑅𝑆 = 9800 × 0.55 × 180.6 = 29.84 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑉 3.33
𝐹𝑟 = = = 0.97
√𝑔𝐷 √9.81×1.2

Hence, 𝐹𝑟 = 0.97 < 1. So, the flow is sub-critical.

Exercise:
1. Calculate the uniform water depth of an open channel flow to convey Q=10 m3/sec
discharge with manning coefficient n=0.014, channel slope S0=0.0004, and channel width
B=4 m. (Bulu, N-4, P-24)

2. Find at the discharge in a trapezoidal channel with a bed width of 10m, side slope of 1:1
and depth of flow of 2.0m under uniform flow condition. The bottom slope of 0.0001 and
n=0.02. (Ans. 16 cumec)

Page | 19 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 ENERGY AND MOMENTUM PRINCIPAL
Critical Flow
Critical flow, a special type of open-channel flow, occurs under certain conditions. It is a
cross-sectional flow type. In other words, critical flow is not maintained along a length of
a channel. It may occur at the entrance of a steep channel, at the exit of a mild channel, and
at sections where channel characteristics change.
Various concepts to be discussed in the subsequent sections will help in understanding the
significance of critical flow. While deferring the definitions of certain terms to later
sections, here we will provide a list of conditions associated with critical flow. At the
critical sate of flow:
 the Froude number is equal to unity
 the specific energy is minimum for a given discharge
 the discharge is maximum for a given specific energy
 the specific momentum is minimum for a given discharge, and
 the discharge is maximum for a given specific momentum
We will mathematically prove some of these conditions latter.
Specific Energy

S
y 𝑸=
𝑸𝟏

𝒚𝟐

𝒚𝒄

𝟒𝟓° 𝒚𝟏

P
𝑬𝒄
E

𝑬𝟏

Figure : Specific Energy

 Specific energy of a channel section is defined as the energy per pound of water at
any section of a channel measured with respect to the channel bottom.
𝛼𝑉 2
 The total energy of a channel flow is given by 𝐻 = 𝑍 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃 + .
2𝑔

 If datum coincide with channel bed 𝑍 = 0, for small slope 𝜃 ≈ 0 and 𝛼 = 1,

Page | 20 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 𝑉2
∴ 𝐻 = 𝑦 + 2𝑔 , This is called specific energy 𝐸.

Here, 𝑦 = Depth of section.

𝑉2
∴ 𝐸 = 𝑦 + 2𝑔

 The concept of Sp. Energy was introduced by Bakkmeteff. (Details: Sub-41)

Criterion for a Critical State of Flow

Basics: The critical state of flow has been defined as the condition for which the Froude
number is equal to unity.
A more common definition is that it is the state of flow at which the specific energy is a
minimum for a given discharge.
When the depth of flow of water over a certain reach of a given channel is equal to the
critical depth yc, the flow is called critical flow.
Critical slope is a slope such that normal flow occurs with Froude number, Fr=1. The
smallest critical slope for a specified channel shape, discharge and roughness is termed as
limiting slope. Furthermore, by adjusting the slope and discharge, critical uniform flow
may be obtained at the given normal depth Scn.
H. W.: critical depth (K Subramanyam: pp-43, 3rd edition)

Discharge-Depth Curve (Critical Depth)

For a given specific energy E1 = constant,
𝑉2
𝐸 =𝑦+
2𝑔
𝑄 = 𝐴√2𝑔(𝐸1 − 𝑦)
Plotting the variation of discharge with the water depth,

Page | 21 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 Figure : Variation of discharge with water depth.
The condition for maximum discharge can be obtained by differentiating the previous
equation with respect to y and equating it zero while keeping E = constant,
𝑄 2 𝑇𝑐
=1
𝑔𝐴3𝑐
This represents the critical flow conditions as discussed earlier. Hence, the critical flow
condition also corresponds to the maximum discharge in a channel for a fixed specific
energy.
Variation of discharge with the water depth is known as Koch parabola. (Fig. b)

a b
Figure: (E-y) and (q – y) diagrams for the rectangular channel

Page | 22 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 Prove that, at Critical state of flow the specific energy is minimum.

Answer:
We know that specific energy, 𝐸 = 𝑦 + 𝑑𝐸
=> 𝑑𝑦 = 1 − 𝑔𝐷
𝑣2

𝑣2
𝑑𝐸
2𝑔 For minimum, 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑄 2
( ) 𝑄2 𝑣2
𝐴
∴𝐸 =𝑦+ = 𝑦 + 2𝑔𝐴2 ∴ 1 − 𝑔𝐷 = 0
2𝑔

Differentiating both side with respect to 𝑣2

=> 𝑔𝐷 = 1
𝑦 𝑣
𝑑𝐸 𝑑 𝑄2 𝑑 1
=> =1
√𝑔𝐷
= 𝑑𝑦 𝑦 + 2𝑔 . 𝑑𝑦 (𝐴2 )
𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝐹𝑟 = 1
𝑑𝐸 𝑄2 2 𝑑𝐴
=> 𝑑𝑦 = 1 − 2𝑔 × 𝐴3 . 𝑑𝑦 Again
𝑑𝐸 𝑄2 2 𝑣2
=> 𝑑𝑦 = 1 − 2𝑔 × 𝐴3 . 𝑇 => 𝑔𝐷 = 1

𝑑𝐸 1 2 𝑄 2 𝑣2
=> 𝑑𝑦 = 1 − 2𝑔 × 𝐴 × (𝑎 ) × 𝑇 => =𝐷
𝑔

𝑑𝐸 1 2 𝑣2 𝐷
=> 𝑑𝑦 = 1 − 2𝑔 × 𝐴 × 𝑇𝑣 2 => 2𝑔 = 2
𝑑𝐸
=> 𝑑𝑦 = 1 − 2𝑔 ×
1 2
× 𝑣2 For a channel, velocity head is half of
𝐴
𝑇
hydraulic depth.
𝑑𝐸 1 1 2
=> 𝑑𝑦 = 1 − 𝑔 × 𝐷 × 𝑣
𝑣2
Prove that, for critical state of flow, 𝑄 is maximum. Prove it. Given that, 𝐸 = 𝑦 + 2𝑔.

Answer:
We know that specific energy, 𝐸 = 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑄
=> 2𝑄 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑔 [𝐴2 𝑑𝑦 (𝐸 − 𝑌) +
𝑑

𝑣2
𝑑
2𝑔 (𝐸 − 𝑦) 𝐴2 ]
𝑑𝑦
𝑄 2
( ) 𝑑𝑄 𝑑
∴𝐸 =𝑦+ 𝐴
=> 2𝑄 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑔 [𝐴2 (𝑑𝑦 𝐸 −
2𝑔

𝑄2 𝑑 𝑑
=> 2𝑔𝐴2 = 𝐸 − 𝑦 𝑦) + (𝐸 − 𝑦)2𝐴 𝑑𝑦 𝐴]
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑄
=> 𝑄 2 − (𝐸 − 𝑦)2𝑔𝐴2 => 2𝑄 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑔 [−𝐴2 +
Differentiating both side with respect to 𝑑𝐴
(𝐸 − 𝑦)2𝐴 ]
𝑦 𝑑𝑦

𝑑 𝑑
𝑄 2 = 2𝑔. 𝑑𝑦 𝐴2 (𝐸 − 𝑦)
𝑑𝑦
Page | 23 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet
 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
=> 2𝑄 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑔[−𝐴2 + For maximum, 𝑑𝑦 = 0

(𝐸 − 𝑦)2𝐴𝑇] 𝑣2
𝑔𝐴2 [ −1]
𝑔𝐷
𝑑𝑄
∴ =0
𝑄
=> 2𝑄 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑔[−𝐴2 + 2𝐸𝐴𝑇 −
𝑣2
=> 𝑔𝐴2 [𝑔𝐷 − 1] = 0
2𝑦𝐴𝑇]
𝑑𝑄 𝑣2
=> 2𝑄 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑔 [−𝐴2 + => 𝑔𝐷 − 1 = 0

𝑣2 𝑣2
(𝑦 + 2𝑔) 2𝐴𝑇 − 2𝑦𝐴𝑇] => 𝑔𝐷 = 1
𝑑𝑄 𝑣
=> 2𝑄 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑔 [−𝐴2 + 2𝑦𝐴𝑇 + => =1
√𝑔𝐷

𝑣2 ∴ 𝐹𝑟 = 1
× 2𝐴𝑇 − 2𝑦𝐴𝑇]
2𝑔

𝑑𝑄 𝑣2
=> 2𝑄 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑔 [−𝐴2 + × 𝐴𝑇] So, Flow is critical.
𝑔

𝑑𝑄 𝑣2
=> 𝑄 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑔 [ 𝑔 × 𝐴𝑇 − 𝐴2 ]
𝑑𝑄 𝑣2𝑇
=> 𝑄 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑔𝐴2 [ 𝑔𝐴 − 1]

𝑑𝑄 𝑣2
=> 𝑄 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑔𝐴2 [ 𝐴 − 1]
𝑔
𝑇

𝑣2
𝑑𝑄 𝑔𝐴2 [ −1]
𝑔𝐷
=> 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑄

Page | 24 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Table 4.1: Critical depth relationship.

Section Critical Min./ Fr Vc Qmax at yc

depth Critical Sp.
Energy

Rectangular 𝐸𝑐 = 1.5𝑦𝑐 𝑉𝑐 = √𝑔𝑦𝑐 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑞2 3
𝑦𝑐 = √
𝑔 = 𝐵𝑦𝑐1.5 √𝑔

Triangular 𝑦𝑐 𝐸𝑐 = 1.25𝑦𝑐 𝐹𝑟

2𝑄 2
5
𝑉√2
=√ 2 =
𝑔𝑚 √𝑔𝑦

Exercise: Calculate the critical depth and the corresponding specific energy for a discharge
of 5.0 m3/s in the following channels:
(a) Rectangular channel, B = 2.0 m
(b) Triangular channel, m = 0.5
(c) Trapezoidal channel, B = 2.0 m, m = 1.5
(d) Circular channel, D = 2.0 m (SUB., 55)

Alternate Depths
A sluice gate is an obstruction that can be introduced into a flow that, under appropriate
conditions, imposes subcritical flow upstream and supercritical flow downstream. The left
side of Figure shows a sluice gate introduced into a rectangular channel with depth y1
upstream and depth y2 downstream. We assume that the gate in Figure 3.6 has been in
place long enough for the system to reach steady state.

Page | 25 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Figure: A sluice gate introduced to a flow imposes subcritical flow upstream of the gate
and supercritical flow downstream of the gate. Depths y1 and y2 make up an alternate depth
pair.
In this case, the continuity equation applies with:

In this book, unless otherwise indicated, all sluice gates we analyze will be handled as
idealized devices that conserve energy. Thus, in Figure 3.6, the energy at location 1 is the
same as the energy at location 2. Hence, for section 1 and 2 we get

The right side of Figure 3.6 shows the E-y relationship for the channel/sluice gate system
depicted on the left. In Observation at E-y graph, it was stated for any energy greater than
Ec, there are two depths that correspond to the same energy. Depths y1 and y2 are such a
pair. Any pair of depths that correspond to the same specific energy for a given discharge
are referred to as alternate depths. In this case, y1 corresponds to the subcritical alternate
and y2 corresponds to the supercritical alternate.
In a rectangular channel with specific discharge, q, if one depth (y1) is known the other can
be calculated with the following equation:

Example: A 2.5-m wide rectangular channel has a specific energy of 1.50 m when carrying
a discharge of 6.48 m3/s. Calculate the alternate depths and corresponding Froude
numbers.
Page | 26 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet
Solution:
We know
𝑉2 𝑄2
𝐸 =𝑦+ =𝑦+
2𝑔 2𝑔𝐵 2 𝑦 2
6.482
1.5 = 𝑦 +
2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ (2.5)2 𝑦 2
0.34243
1.5 = 𝑦 +
𝑦2
Solving this equation by trial and error, 𝑦1 = 1.296 𝑚 and𝑦2 = 0.625 𝑚
Froude Number
𝑉 𝑄 6.48 𝐴
𝐹𝑟 = = = [∵ 𝑄 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 2.5 ∗ 𝑦]
√𝑔𝑦 𝐴√𝑔𝑦 (2.5𝑦)√9.81𝑦 𝑉
0.82756
𝐹𝑟 =
𝑦 3/2
For , 𝑦1 = 1.296 𝑚, 𝐹𝑟1 = 0.561 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦2 = 0.625𝑚, 𝐹𝑟2 = 1.675
The depth y1 = 1.296 m is in the subcritical flow region and the depth y2 = 0.625 m is in the
supercritical flow region.

Exercise: A trapezoidal channel with a bed width of 4.0 m and side slopes of 1.5 H: I V
carries a certain discharge. (a) Based on observations, if the critical depth of the fl ow is
estimated as 1.70 m, calculate the discharge in the channel. (b) If this discharge is observed
to be fl owing at a depth of 2.50 m in a reach, estimate the Froude number of the fl ow in
that reach. (SUB., 57)
Exercise: Calculate the bottom width of a channel required to carry a discharge of 15.0
m3/s as a critical fl ow at a depth of 1.2 m, if the channel section is (a) rectangular, and (b)
trapezoidal with side slope 1.5 horizontal: 1 vertical. (SUB., 57)
exercise: Water is fl owing a critical depth at a section in a Δ shaped channel, with side
slope of 0.5 H: I V. (Fig. 2.8). If the critical depth is 1.6 m, estimate the discharge in the
channel and the specifi c energy at the critical depth section. (SUB., 57)

Assignment: Transitions ( Humb, Width etc. with Example Problem)

Page | 27 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Momentum Pressure in Open Channel:

𝟐
𝑽𝟏 𝟏

𝑷𝟏
𝒚𝟏
𝒚𝟐 𝑽𝟐

𝑷𝟐

𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐

Figure: Momentum Pressure

𝛽𝜔𝑄𝑉
 The momentum of a flow passing a channel section is given by, 𝑔

Where,
∫ 𝑣 2 𝑑𝐴
𝛽 = Momentum co-efficient = Boussinesq co-efficient = 𝑉2𝐴

𝜔 = Unit weight of water

𝑉 = Mean velocity
𝑄 = Discharge
 According to Newton’s second law of motion, a change of momentum per unit time in
the body of water in a flowing channel is equal to the resultant of all external forces
that acting on the body.
 Momentum is a vector quantity.
 There are three force acting –
1. Resultant of hydraulic pressure= 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 .
2. A component of weight at the longitudinal direction= 𝜔 sin 𝜃.
3. Total frictional force due to contact between water and channel= 𝐹𝑓 .
 For section 1 and 2, applying 2nd law of motion,
𝑄𝜔
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) + 𝜔 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹𝑓 = (𝛽2 𝑉2 − 𝛽1 𝑉1 )
𝑔

This equation is called momentum equation.

Page | 28 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 A flow at near critical state is unstable – Explain.

Answer: A flow at or near critical state is unstable. This is because a minor change in
specific energy at or close to critical state will cause a major change in depth. From the
specific energy curve, we see that the curve is almost vertical near the critical depth. A
slight change in energy would change the depth to a much smaller or greater alternate
depth corresponding to the specific energy after the change. When a flow is near the critical
state water surface appears unstable and wavy, causes of changes in energy, roughness,
cross section, slope and deposits.

S
y 𝑸=
A=Td 𝑸𝟏
y

𝒚𝟐

𝒚𝒄

𝟒𝟓° 𝒚𝟏

P
𝑬𝒄
E

𝑬𝟏

Figure 4.3 Specific Energy Diagram

1.1 Specific Force

𝑄𝜔
Applying momentum equation, (𝛽1 𝑉1 − 𝛽2 𝑉2 ) = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) + 𝜔 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹𝑓 .
𝑔

If, 𝛽1 = 𝛽2 = 1 and 𝜃 = 0
∴ 𝜔 sin 𝜃 = 0, 𝐹𝑓 = 0

Page | 29 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 𝑄𝜔
∴ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝑔

Now,
𝑃1 = 𝜔𝑍1 𝐴1
𝑃2 = 𝜔𝑍2 𝐴2

𝐴1 , 𝐴2 are the area of water at section 1 and 2 respectively.

𝑍1 , 𝑍2 are the distance of the centroids of respective water areas below the surface of flow.

𝑄𝜔 𝑄 𝑄
∴ (𝐴 − 𝐴 ) = 𝜔𝑍1 𝐴1 − 𝜔𝑍2 𝐴2
𝑔 2 1

𝑄2 𝑄2
=> 𝑔𝐴 − 𝑔𝐴 = 𝑍1 𝐴1 − 𝑍2 𝐴2
2 1

𝑄2 𝑄2
=> 𝑔𝐴 + 𝑍1 𝐴1 = 𝑔𝐴 + 𝑍2 𝐴2
1 2

𝑄2
In general, 𝑔𝐴 + 𝑍1 𝐴1 = 𝐹 for any channel.
1

This 𝐹 is called specific force.

Prove that, at critical state of flow the specific force is minimum.

Answer:
𝑄2 𝑄 2 𝑑𝐴
We know, 𝐹 = 𝑔𝐴 + 𝑍̅𝐴 => 𝑔𝐴2 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐴

Differentiating the equation – 𝑄2

=> 𝑔𝐴2 . 𝑇 = 𝑇𝐷
𝑑𝐴
[𝑑𝑦 =
𝑑𝐹 𝑑 𝑄 𝑑 2
= 𝑑𝑦 𝑔𝐴 + 𝑑𝑦 (𝑍̅𝐴) 𝐴
𝑑𝑦 𝑇, 𝐷 = 𝑇 ]
𝑑𝐹 𝑄 2 𝑑𝐴 𝑑(𝑍̅𝐴)
=> =− + 𝑄2
𝑑𝑦 𝑔𝐴2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 => 𝑔𝐴2 = 𝐷
𝑑𝐹 𝑄 2 𝑑𝐴 𝐴𝑑𝑦
=> 𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑔𝐴2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑣2
𝑑𝑦 => =𝐷
𝑔
[assuming 𝑑(𝑍̅𝐴) = 𝐴𝑑𝑦] 𝑣2
=> 𝑔𝐷 = 1
𝑑𝐹 𝑄 2 𝑑𝐴
=> 𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑔𝐴2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐴
𝑣
=> =1
√𝑔𝐷
For minimum
𝑑𝐹 ∴ 𝐹𝑟 = 1
=0
𝑑𝑦

𝑄 2 𝑑𝐴
∴ − 𝑔𝐴2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐴 = 0

Page | 30 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

It is critical state of flow. So, at critical state of flow the specific force is minimum.

Laminar Flow:
 When particles appear to move in define smooth path or streamline, it is termed as
laminar flow.

Stanton Diagram:
When the laminar, turbulent and transitional flow is expressed by a diagram that shows a
relation between the Reynolds’s number and the friction factor of the Darcy – Weisbach
equation, this diagram is known as Stanton diagram.

𝐿 𝑉2 ℎ𝑓
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓. 𝐷 . 2𝑔 Since, 𝐷𝑜 = 4𝑅𝑒 , 𝑆 =
𝑜 𝐿
8𝑔𝑅𝑒 𝑆
∴𝑓= 𝑉2

Figure 3.9 Stanton Diagram

Example-3.4: A rectangular channel 2.5m wide has Sp. Energy of 1.5m. When carrying a
discharge of 6.48m3/s calculates alternate depths and corresponding Froude number.
Solution:
We know, So, 𝑦1 = 1.296, 𝑦2 = 0.62, 𝑦3 =
𝑉2 0.4(not acceptable)
𝐸 = 𝑦 + 2𝑔
Now
𝑄2
=> 𝐸 = 𝑦 + 2𝑔(𝐵𝑦)2 𝑄
𝑉1 = 𝐴1 = 2 𝑚/𝑠
1
6.482
=> 1.5 = 𝑦 + 2𝑔𝐵2 𝑦 2 𝑄2
𝑉2 = 𝐴 = 4.18 𝑚/𝑠
2
42
=> 1.5 = 𝑦 + 122.63𝑦 2 𝑉1 2
𝐹𝑟 1 = = = 0.5
√𝑔𝑦1 √9.81×1.296
=> 122.63𝑦 2 × 1.5 =
Hence, 𝐹𝑟 = 0.5 < 1
122.63𝑦 3 + 42
So, the flow is sub-critical.
3 2
=> 𝑦 − 1.5𝑦 + 0.34 = 0
𝐴𝑛𝑠.
Example-3.5 A flow of 5 m3/s is passing at a depth of 1.5m through a rectangular channel
of width 2.5m the kinematic correction factor 𝛼 is found to be 1.20. What is the specific
energy of the flow? What is the value of the depth alternate to the existing depth if 𝛼 = 1 is
assumed for the alternate flow?
Solution:
𝑄 5 5 𝑄2
𝑉1 = 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 = 2.5×1.5 = 𝑦2 + 2×9.81×(𝐵𝑦 2 = 1.6087
1 2)

1.33 𝑚/𝑠 => 122.625𝑦2 3 + 25 −

𝑉1 2 1.332 197.266𝑦2 2 = 0
𝛼1 = 1.2 × 2×9.81 =
2𝑔
=> 𝑦2 3 + 1.61𝑦2 2 + 0.2 = 0
0.1087 𝑚
So, 𝑦2 = 1.463, 0.413, 0
1 𝑉2
Specific energy, 𝐸1 = 𝑦1 + 𝛼1 2𝑔 =
∴ 𝑦2 = 0.413
1.5 + 0.1087 = 1.6087 𝑚
For the alternative depth 𝑦2 ,

Prove that, for rectangular channel, critical energy 𝐸𝑐 is equal to 1.5 times or 150% of
the critical depth (𝑦𝑐 ).
Answer:
y

Page | 32 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 ∴ 𝐵 = 𝑇, 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦
We know,
For critical state of flow, ⇒
𝑉2
=𝑦
𝑔
𝐹𝑟 = 1
𝑉2 𝑦𝑐
𝑉2 ⇒ 2𝑔 = 2
⇒ 𝑔𝐷 = 1
We know,
𝑉2
⇒ =𝐷 𝑉2
𝑔 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 + 2𝑔
𝑉2 𝐴
⇒ =𝑇 𝑦𝑐
𝑔 ⇒ 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 + 2
𝑉2 𝐵𝑦
⇒ = ∴ 𝐸𝑐 = 1.5𝑦𝑐
𝑔 𝐵

Prove that, for triangular channel, critical energy 𝐸𝑐 is equal to 1.25 times 125% of the
critical depth (𝑦𝑐 ).
Answer:
T

1
y
m

∴ 𝑇 = 2𝑚𝑦, 𝐴 = 𝑚𝑦 2
We know, ⇒
𝑄2 𝑐
= 2𝑚𝑦
𝐴 3
𝑔 𝑐
For critical state of flow, 5
𝑄2 𝑚2 𝑦𝑐
𝐹𝑟 = 1 ⇒ =
𝑔 2
𝑉2 1⁄
⇒ 𝑔𝐷 = 1 2𝑄 2 5
⇒ 𝑦𝑐 = (𝑔𝑚2 )
𝑄2
⇒𝐴 2 =𝐷 We know,
𝑐 𝑔

𝑄2 𝐴𝑐 𝑉2
⇒ = 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 + 2𝑔
𝐴𝑐 2 𝑔 𝑇

Page | 33 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 𝑄2 ∴ 𝐸𝑐 = 1.25𝑦𝑐
⇒ 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 + 2𝑔𝐴 2
𝑐
5
𝑚2 𝑦𝑐
⇒ 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 + 4
4𝑚2 𝑦𝑐
𝑦𝑐
⇒ 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 + 4

Example 3.6: The 500 triangular channel has a flow rate Q = 16 m3 /sec. Compute a) yc, b)
Vc, and c) Sc if n = 0.018.
R=A/P= 0.5ycos500
a) The critical flow condition should
satisfy the following equation
𝑄 2 𝑇𝑐
=1
𝑔𝐴3𝑐
Putting values yc= 2.37m.
b) Critical velocity is
𝑄 16
Solution: Ac=4.71 m2, 𝑉𝑐 = = =
𝐴𝑐 4.71
All geometric quantities for this cross
3.40 𝑚/𝑠
section can be written in terms of depth
y.
c) Critical slope for this discharge is,
P= 2y cosec 500
1 2/3 1/2
A=y2cot 500 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛 𝑐 𝑐
T= 2ycot 500 𝑅𝑐 = 0.5𝑦𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠500 = 0.838
∴ 𝑆𝑐 = 0.00474

Example 3.7: A rectangular channel 2.50 m wide has a specific energy of 1.50 m when
carrying a discharge of 6.48 m3 /sec. Calculate the alternate depths and corresponding
Froude numbers.
Solution:
𝑉2 𝑄2
𝐸 = 𝑦 + 2𝑔 = 𝑦 + 2𝑔(𝐵𝑦)2

Putting values
0.34243
1.50 = 𝑦 +
𝑦2

Page | 34 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Solving by trial and error, y1=1.30m, so And
Froude Number, Fr=0.56---------- y2=0.63, so Froude Number, Fr=1.67----
Subcritical flow ------Supercritical flow

Example 3.8: Find the critical water depth for a specific energy head of E1 = 1.5 m in the
following channels:
a) Rectangular channel, B = 2.0 m. b) Triangular channel, m = 1.5. c) Trapezoidal channel,
B = 2.0 m and m = 1.0.
Solution:

H.W.: Sub. Exm-2.7, 2.8 pp-58-59.

Exercise:
 1. A flow of 5.0 m3/sec is passing at a depth of 1.50 through a rectangular channel of width
2.50 m. What is the specific energy of the flow? What is the value of the alternate depth to
the existing depth? Bulu-N5-P8 (Ans: 1.60m, 0.41m)

1.2 Occurrence of Critical Depth

The analysis of open channel flow problems usually begins with prediction of points in the
channel at which the critical depth yc will occur. Those points feature a change from
subcritical to supercritical flow, are known as controls since their occurrence governs, or
controls, the liquid depths in the reach of channel upstream from these points.
The most obvious place where critical depth can be expected is in the situation in Fig.
(3.10), where a long channel of mild slope (S0 < Sc) is connected to a long channel of steep
slope (S0 > Sc). At the upstream of the channel, uniform subcritical flow at normal depth,
y01, will occur, and at the downstream a uniform supercritical flow at a smaller normal
depth, y02, can be expected. These two uniform flows will be connected by a reach of
varied flow in which at some point the depth must pass through the critical water depth, yc.

Figure 3.10:
When a long channel of steep slope discharges into one of mild slope (Fig. 3.11), normal
depths will occur upstream and downstream from the point of slope change. Under these
conditions a hydraulic jump will form whose location will be dictated by the details of
slopes, roughness, channel shapes, but the critical depth will be found within the hydraulic
jump.

Page | 36 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Figure 3.11:
The occurrence of critical depth on overflow structures may be proved by examining the
flow over the top of a broad-crested weir equipped with a movable sluice gate at the
downstream end and discharging from a large reservoir of constant surface elevation (Fig.
3.12). With a gate closed (position A), the depth of water on the crest will be yA, and the
discharge will be zero, giving point A on the q-curve. With the gate raised to position B, a
discharge qB will occur, with a decrease in depth from yA to yB. This process will continue
until the gate is lifted clear of the flow (C ) and can therefore no longer affect it. With the
energy line fixed in position at the reservoir surface level and, therefore, giving constant
specific energy, it follows that points A, B, and C have outlined the upper portion of the q-
curve, that the flow occurring without gates is maximum, and the depth on the crest is the
critical depth. For flow over weirs, a relation between head and discharge may be obtained
by substituting yc = 2H/3 which yields,

Figure 3.12:

Page | 37 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Another occurrence of the critical water depth is the free outfall from a long channel of
mild slope. The critical water depth occurs a short distance (3 to 4 yc) upstream from the
fall for rectangular channels and the fall depth (yb) is 72% of the critical depth. (Fig.3.13)

Figure 3.13:
Exercise:
1. Back water effect, Draw down curve and Flow measurement. V T Chow, pp-71,74

Page | 38 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 UNIFORM OPEN CHANNEL FLOW VELOCITY EQUATIONS
The Chezye’s Formula:

Chezy’s equation
𝑣 = 𝐶√𝑅𝑆
C, Chezy coefficient has a dimension and there it is not a constant value. When using the
Chezy equation to calculate the mean velocity, one should be careful since it takes different
values for different unit systems.

1.3 Darcy – Weisbach Formula:

𝐿 𝑣2
 For pipe flow, ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓. 𝐷 . 2𝑔
𝐿 𝑣2
 For open channel, ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓. .
4𝑅 2𝑔

1.4 Manning’s Formula:

The simplest relation and the most widely used equation for the mean velocity calculation
is the Manning equation which has been derived by Robert Manning (1890) by analyzing
the experimental data obtained from his own experiments and from those of others. His
equation is,
Manning’s equation
1 2⁄ 1
𝑣 = 𝑛.𝑅 3 . 𝑆0 ⁄2

Where n is the Manning’s roughness coefficient. S0 is called bed/bottom/channel slope.

Above equation was derived from metric data; hence, the unit of length is meter. Although
“n” is often supposed to be a characteristic of channel roughness, it is convenient to
consider n to be a dimensionless. Then, the values of n are the same in any measurement
system. Some typical values of n are given in Table.

Page | 39 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 Table 4.1: Typical values of the Manning’s roughness coefficient n.

1.5 Determination of Chezye’s Resistance Fator:

1. Ganguillet – kutter equation,

1 0.00155
23+ +
𝑛 𝑆
𝐶= 0.00155 𝑛
1+(23+ )
𝑆 √𝑅

2. Bazin’s equation,
87
𝐶= 𝜇
1+
𝑅

1.6 Factors Affecting Manning’s Roughness Coefficient:

It is not uncommon for engineers to think of a channel as having a single value of n for all
occasions. Actually, the value of n is highly variable and depends on a number of factors.
The factors that exert the greatest influence upon the roughness coefficient in both artificial
and natural channels are listed below.
a) Surface Roughness e) Silting and Scouring
b) Vegetation f) Obstruction
c) Channel Irregularity g) Size and shape of Channel
d) Channel Alignment h) Stage and Discharge

Page | 40 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 i) Seasonal Change j) Suspended Material and Bed Load

1.7 Determination of Manning’s Roughness Coefficient:

In applying the Manning equation, the greatest difficulty lies in the determination of the
roughness coefficient, n; there is no exact method of selecting the n value. Selecting a
value of n actually means to estimate the resistance to flow in a given channel, which is
really a matter of intangibles (Chow, 1959) .To experienced engineers, this means the
exercise of engineering judgment and experience; for a new engineer, it can be no more
than a guess and different individuals will obtain different results.

Taking into account primary factors affecting the roughness coefficient, Cowan (1956)
developed a method for estimating the value of n. The value of n may be computed by,
n= (n0+n1+n2+n3+n4)*m

Where n0 is a basic value for straight, uniform, smooth channel in the natural materials
involved, n1 is a value added to n0 to correct for the effect of surface irregularities, n2 is a
value for variations in shape and size of the channel cross-section, n3 is a value of
obstructions, n4 is a value for vegetation and flow conditions, and m is a correction factor
for meandering of channel. These coefficients are given in Table (3.2) depending on the
channel characteristics (French, 1994).
Table 4.2: Values for the Computation of the Roughness Coefficient.

Page | 41 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 Many empirical formulae have been presented for estimating manning’s coefficient n in
natural streams. These relate n to the bed-particle size. (Subramanya, 1997). The most
popular one under this type is the Strickler formula,
1/6
𝑑
𝑛 = 50
21.1
Where d50 is in meters and represents the particle size in which 50 per cent of the bed
material is finer. For mixtures of bed materials with considerable coarse-grained sizes,
1/6
𝑑
𝑛 = 90
26
Where d90 = size in meters in which 90 per cent of the particles are finer than d90. This
equation is reported to be useful in predicting n in mountain streams paved with coarse
gravel and cobbles.

1.8 Energy Line Slope for Uniform Open Channel:

The head loss (energy loss) between sections between two sections
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
𝑧1 + + = 𝑧2 + + + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃1 𝑃2
Let, = = 𝑦 and 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣
𝛾 𝛾

∴ ℎ𝐿 = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2

Page | 42 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Head loss for unit length of channel is energy line slope
ℎ𝐿 𝑧1 −𝑧2
𝑆= = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝐿 𝐿

Since for open channel, slope is generally small, 𝛼 < 5° − 10°

So, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 ≅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
ℎ
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = ∆𝑥𝐿 = 𝑆0 (bottom slope)

∴ 𝑆 = 𝑆0

Example-4.1: Water flows in a rectangular channel that is 12m wide, the channel slope is
0.0028. If the velocity of the flow is 6m/s, find the depth of the flow. (n=0.13).
Solution:
Given, => 6 = 4.07 𝑅 3
2

𝐵 = 12𝑚 => 𝑅 = 1.78

𝑠0 = 0.0028 𝐴 12 𝑦
𝑅 = 𝑃 => 1.78 = 12+2𝑦
𝑉 = 6 𝑚/𝑠
=> 21.38 + 3.56𝑦 = 12𝑦
𝑛 = 0.013
21.38
2 1 𝑦=
1 2 8.44
𝑉 = 𝑛 𝑅 𝑆03
∴ 𝑦 = 2.53 𝑚
2 1
1
=> 6 = × 𝑅 × (0.0028)
3 2
0.013

Example-4.2: A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 2/3, a depth of 2 m, a bottom

width of 8 m and a channel slope of 0.0009 has a discharge of 56 m3/s. Find the manning’s
n.
Solution: 22
= 8 + 2 × 2√1 + (3 )
Given,
𝑄 = 56𝑚3 /𝑠 , 𝑠0 = 0.0009, = 12.807
𝐴 18.66
𝐵 = 8𝑚, 𝑦 = 2𝑚. 𝑅 = 𝑃 = 12.807 = 1.45
𝐴 = ( 𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦 Now,
2 2 1
= ( 8 + 3 × 2) 2 1
𝑄 = 𝑛 𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆02
= 18.66𝑚2 1 2
=> 56 = 𝑛 × 18.66 × (1.45)3 ×
𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚2 1
(0.0009)2

Page | 43 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 0.717
=> 56 = => 𝑛 = 0.0128 ≈ 0.013
𝑛

Example-4.3: A trapezoidal channel having width of 10m maintain side slope of 1.5:1. If
the channel slope is 0.00003 compute mean velocity and discharge for a depth of 3m.
Solution: 𝐴
𝑅 = 𝑃 = 2.090𝑚
𝐴 = (𝐵 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦 = 43.50 𝑚 1 2 1
𝑉 = 𝑛 𝑅 3 𝑆 2 = 2.36𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦√𝑚2 + 1 = 20.817
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 102.63𝑚3 /𝑠

Example-4.4: In the channel of previous example find the bottom slope to carry only
50𝑚3 /𝑠 of the discharge at a depth of 3m.

Solution: 𝑄 2 𝑛2 502 (0.012)2

𝑆0 = 4 = 4
𝐴2 𝑅3 (43.5)2 (2.09)3
𝐴 = 43.5𝑚2
= 0.0000712
𝑃 = 20.817m
𝑅 = 2.09𝑚

Example-4.5: A triangular channel with an apex angle of 75° carries a flow of 1.2𝑚3 /𝑠 at
a depth of 0.80𝑚. If the bed slope is 0.009, find the roughness co-efficient of the channel.

𝟕𝟓°
𝒚𝒐

Solution: 𝐴 0.491
𝑅 = 𝑃 = 2.0168
𝑦0 = normal depth =0.08m
= 0.243𝑚
Referring to that fig, 2 1
𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆02
1 75 𝑛=
Area, A = 2 × 0.80 × 2 × 0.8 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑄
2
2 1
= 0.491𝑚2 (0.491)(0.243)3 (0.00)2
𝑛= 1.20
𝑃 = 2 × 0.8 × sec 37.5 °
∴ 𝑛 = 0.0151.
= 2.0168𝑚
Exercise:
1. Describe Equivalent Roughness concept of determining “n” with example.
Page | 44 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet
2. Prove that for narrow deep cross-sections R≈ B/2 and for wide shallow rectangular
cross-sections R≈y.
3. Calculate the uniform water depth of an open channel flow to convey Q=10 m3/sec
discharge with manning coefficient n=0.014, channel slope S0=0.0004, and channel width
B=4 m. Use Rectangular cross-section and Trapezoidal Cross-Section. (Ans: 1.81 m and
1.23 m)
4. A triangular channel with an apex angle of 550 carries a flow of 1.20 m3/sec at a depth of
0.50 m. If the bed slope S0 = 0.009, find the roughness coefficient n of the channel.
5. Sub: exam: 3.8, pp-111.

Page | 45 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 CHAPTER 2: DESIGN OF CHANNEL

2.1 Design of channel for uniform flow

2.1.1 Hydraulically Efficient Channel Section:

Best Hydraulic Cross-Section
a) The best hydraulic section, also called most efficient cross-section for a given Q, n, and
S0 is the one with a minimum excavation and minimum lining cross-section. A = Amin
and P = Pmin. The minimum cross-sectional area and the minimum lining area will reduce
construction expenses and therefore that cross-section is economically the most efficient
one.
𝑄 𝑄 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 → 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉= → = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑅 = 𝐴/𝑃
1 2⁄ 1
𝑣 = . 𝑅 3 . 𝑆𝑜 ⁄2 = 𝐶𝑅 2/3 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 → 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑛
b) The best hydraulic cross-section for a given A, n, and S0 is the cross-section that
conveys maximum discharge.
1 2 1 𝑄 = 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 → 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑄 = 𝐴 . 𝑅 ⁄3 . 𝑆𝑜 ⁄2 = 𝐶 ′ 𝑅 2/3
𝑛 𝑅 = 𝐴/𝑃
𝐶 ′ = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 → 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛

The cross-section with the minimum wetted perimeter is the best hydraulic cross-section
within the cross-sections with the same area since lining and maintenance expenses will
reduce substantially.
Summary
The conveyance of channel section of a given area increases with a decrease of its
perimeter. For fixed slope, roughness coefficient and area with a minimum perimeter
section will represent the hydraulically efficient section.
Note: Semicircular has the least section.

Page | 46 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

2.1.2 Determination of Section Dimensions:
Read: Sub. Table: 3.3, pp-123
Rectangular Channel Section:

𝐵𝑒 𝑦𝑒
𝑦𝑒 = , 𝑅𝑒 =
2 2

Half square channel section.

Trapezoidal Channel Section: 2

𝐵𝑒𝑚 = 𝑦
√3 𝑒𝑚

𝐵𝑒 = 2𝑦𝑒 (√1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚)

𝑃𝑒 = 2𝑦𝑒 (2√1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚)
𝑦𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = 2

Wetted perimeter is a function of side

slope m and water depth y of the cross-
section.
Here,
𝑒 = Hydraulically efficient
𝑒𝑚 = Most efficient section

𝑃𝑒𝑚 = 2√3𝑦𝑒𝑚

Note: For all best hydraulic cross-sections, the hydraulic radius should always be R = y/2
regardless of their shapes.

Example-5.1: For a channel section having,𝑄 = 25 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 , 𝑆 = 0.0004, 1.5𝐻: 1𝑉, 𝑛 =

0.017. Analyze proportion of an efficient trapezoidal section.

Page | 47 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Solution:
𝑦𝑒
𝐴 = (2√1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚)𝑦𝑒 2 , 𝑅𝑒 = 2

By Manning’s formula,
1 2⁄ 1⁄
𝑄 = 𝑛 𝐴𝑅 3𝑆 2

2⁄
1 𝑦 3 1⁄
⇒ 𝑄 = 𝑛 (2√1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚)𝑦𝑒 2 × ( 2𝑒 ) 𝑆 2

Putting the value of 𝑄, 𝑚, and 𝑆, we get,

𝑦𝑒 = 2.830 𝑚
And,
𝐵𝑒 = 2𝑦𝑒 (√1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚) = 1.714 𝑚

Example 5.2: Calculate the best hydraulic rectangular cross-section to convey Q=10
m3/sec discharge with n= 0.02 and S0= 0.0009 canal characteristics.
Solution:
For the best rectangular hydraulic cross- 1
𝑄 = 𝑛 𝐴𝑅
2⁄ 1⁄
3𝑆 2

section,
y8/3 = 5.29
2
A=2y and R= y/2
Hence, y=1.87 m
B=2*y=2.1.87=3.74 m
Example 5.3: A slightly rough brick-lined trapezoidal channel (n = 0.017) carrying a
discharge of Q = 25 m3/sec is to have a longitudinal slope of S0 = 0.0004. Analyze the
proportions of,
a) An efficient trapezoidal channel section having a side of 1.5 horizontal: 1 vertical,

b) the most efficient-channel section of trapezoidal shape.

Solution:
Case a): m = 1.5
For an efficient trapezoidal channel section
A= 𝑦 2 (2√1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚)
𝐴 = 2.106 𝑦 2
𝑦
𝑅 = , 𝑄 = 25𝑚3 /𝑠
2
Now

Page | 48 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 1 2⁄ 1⁄
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆 2
𝑛
1 2 1
25 = 2.106 𝑦 2 (𝑦/2) ⁄3 0.0004 ⁄2
0.017
y=2.83 m

𝐵𝑒 = 2𝑦𝑒 (√1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚) = 1.72 𝑚

Case b): For the most-efficient trapezoidal channel section

1
𝑚= = 0.577
√3
𝐴 = √3𝑦 2 [Can be proved for most economic section]
𝐴 = 1.732𝑦 2
1 2 1
25 = × 1.732 𝑦 2 × (𝑦/2) ⁄3 × 0.0004 ⁄2
0.017
𝑦 = 3.05 𝑚
2 2
𝐵= ×𝑦 = × 3.05 = 3.52 𝑚
√3 √3
Exercise:
1. For a given side slope m, what will be the water depth y for best hydraulic trapezoidal
cross-section? B-N4-P29 (Ans: )
2. For a given water depth y, what will be the side slope m for best hydraulic trapezoidal
cross-section? (Ans: 1/√3)
3. Prove that the best trapezoidal hydraulic cross-section is half of the hexagon.
4. Design the trapezoidal channel as best hydraulic cross-section with Q= 10 m3/sec, n=
0.014, S0= 0.0004, and m= 3/2.
5. Determine best hydraulic section for Half a Circular Conduit and Circular Conduit with
a Free Surface

2.2 Compound section and design of irrigation channel

2.2.1 Compound Sections

Some channel sections may be formed as a combination of elementary sections. Typically
natural channels, such as rivers, have flood plains which are wide and shallow compared to
the main channel. Fig. (5.1) represents a simplified section of a stream with flood banks.

Page | 49 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Consider the compound section to be divided into subsections by arbitrary lines. These can
be extensions of the deep channel boundaries as in Fig. (4.16). Assuming the longitudinal
slope to be same for all subsections, it is easy to see that the subsections will have different
mean velocities depending upon the depth and roughness of the boundaries. Generally,
overbanks have larger size roughness than the deeper main channel. If the mean velocities
Vi in the various subsections are known then the total discharge is ∑ViAi.

Figure 5.1: Compound section

If the depth of flow is confined to the deep channel only (y < h), calculation of discharge
by using Manning’s equation is very simple. However, when the flow spills over the flood
plain (y > h), the problem of discharge calculation is complicated as the calculation may
give a smaller hydraulic radius for the whole stream section and hence the discharge may
be underestimated. The following method of discharge estimation can be used. In this
method, while calculating the wetted perimeter for the sub-areas, the imaginary divisions
(FJ and CK in the Figure) are considered as boundaries for the deeper portion only and
neglected completely in the calculation relating to the shallower portion.
1. The discharge is calculated as the sum of the partial discharges in the sub-areas; for e.g.
units 1, 2 and 3 in Fig. (4.16)

𝑄𝑝 = ∑ 𝑄𝑖 = ∑ 𝑉𝑖 𝐴𝑖

2. The discharge is also calculated by considering the whole section as one unit,
(ABCDEFGH area in Fig.4.16), say Qw.
3. The larger of the above discharges, Qp and Qw, is adopted as the discharge at the depth
y.
For determining Qi and hence Qp , two methods are available:
1. Posey’s method
2. Zero shear method
H. W.: Sub. Exm. 3.17, pp-129

Page | 50 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 Example 5.4: For the compound channel shown in the Figure, determine the discharge for
a depth of flow 1.20 m. n = 0.02, S0 = 0.0002. Use posey’s method for computing partial
discharge.

Solution: Hence
a): y = 1.20 m Qp2=2.10 m3/s
Partial area discharge; Sub-area 1 and 3: Total discharge, Q=Qp1+Qp2+Qp3
𝐴1 = 7 ∗ 0.3 = 2.1 𝑚2 =0.648+2.10+0.648=3.396 m3/s
𝑝1 = 0.3 + 7 = 7.3 𝑚 b): By the total-section method:
𝐴1 A=2.10+2.10+3.6= 7.8 m2
𝑅1 = = 0.288𝑚
𝑃1 P= 0.3+7+0.9+3+0.9+7+0.3=19.4 m
3
1 2 1 𝑚 R=A/P= 7.8/19.4=0.402
𝑄𝑝1 = 𝐴1 𝑅1 ⁄3 𝑆0 ⁄2 = 0.648
𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐 1 2⁄ 1⁄
= 𝑄𝑝3 𝑄𝑤 = 𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆 2
𝑛
Sub-area 2: 1 2 1
𝑄𝑤 = 7.8 ∗ 0.402 ⁄3 0.0002 ⁄2
A2=3*1.2=3.6 m2 0.02
= 3.00𝑚2 /𝑠
P2=3+0.9+0.9=4.8 m
Since Qp > Qw, the discharge in the
R2=A2/P2=0.75 m
channel is,
Q=Qp=3.396m3/s

2.2.2 Design of Irrigation Channels

1 2⁄ 1
For a uniform flow in a canal, Q = 𝑛 𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆0 ⁄2

Where A and R are in general, functions of the geometric elements of the canal. If the canal
is of trapezoidal cross-section,
Q= f(n, y0, S0, B, m)
The above equation (function) has six variables out of which one is a dependent variable
and the rest five are independent ones. Similarly, for other channel shapes, the number of
variables depends upon the channel geometry. In a channel design problem, the

Page | 51 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 independent variables are known either explicitly or implicitly, or as inequalities, mostly in
terms of empirical relationships. The canal-design practice given below is meant only for
rigid-boundary channels, i.e. for lined an unlined non-erodible channels.

2.2.3 Canal Section

Normally a trapezoidal section is adopted. Rectangular cross-sections are also used in
special situations, such as in rock cuts; steep chutes and in cross-drainage works.
The side slope, expressed as m horizontal: 1 vertical, depends on the type of canal, i.e.
lined or unlined, nature and type of soil through which the canal is laid. The slopes are
designed to withstand seepage forces under critical conditions, such as;
1. A canal running full with banks saturated due to rainfall,
2. The sudden drawdown of canal supply.
Usually the slopes are steeper in cutting than in filling. For lined canals, the slopes roughly
correspond to the angle of repose of the natural soil and the values of m range from 1.0 to
1.5 and rarely up to 2.0. The slopes recommended for unlined canals in cutting are given in
the following table.
Table 5.1: Side slopes for unlined canals in cutting.
Type of soil m
Very light loose sand to average sandy soil 1.5 – 2.0
Sandy loam, black cotton soil 1.0 – 1.5
Sandy to gravel soil 1.0-2.0
Murom, hard soil 0.75 – 1.5
Rock 0.25 – 0.5

Longitudinal Slope
The longitudinal slope is fixed on the basis of topography to command as much area as
possible with the limiting velocities acting as constraints. Usually the slopes are of the
order of 0.0001. For lined canals a velocity of about 2 m/sec is usually recommended.

Roughness coefficient n
Procedures for selecting n are discussed in literature (See also previous sections and or text
book). Values of n can be taken from given table as discussed earlier.

Page | 52 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Permissible Velocities
Since the cost for a given length of canal depends upon its size, if the available slope
permits, it is economical to use highest safe velocities. High velocities may cause scour and
erosion of the boundaries. As such, in unlined channels the maximum permissible
velocities refer to the velocities that can be safely allowed in the channel without causing
scour or erosion of the channel material.
In lined canals, where the material of lining can withstand very high velocities, the
maximum permissible velocity is determined by the stability and durability of the lining
and also on the erosive action of any abrasive material that may be carried in the stream.
The permissible maximum velocities normally adopted for a few soil types and lining
materials are given in following table.
Table 5.2: Permissible Maximum velocities
Nature of boundary Permissible maximum velocity (m/sec)
Sandy soil 0.30 – 0.60
Black cotton soil 0.60 – 0.90
Hard soil 0.90 – 1.10
Firm clay and loam 0.90 – 1.15
Gravel 1.20
Disintegrated rock 1.50
Hard rock 4.00
Brick masonry with cement pointing 2.50
Brick masonry with cement plaster 4.00
Concrete 6.00
Steel lining 10.00

In addition to the maximum velocities, a minimum velocity in the channel is also an

important constraint in the canal design. Too low velocity would cause deposition of
suspended material, like silt, which cannot only impair the carrying capacity but also
increase the maintenance costs. Also, in unlined canals, too low a velocity may encourage
weed growth. The minimum velocity in irrigation channels is of the order of 0.30 m/sec.

Free Board

Page | 53 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Free board for lined canals is the vertical distance between the full supply level to the top
of lining (Fig. 4.17). For unlined canals, it is the vertical distance from the full supply level
to the top of the bank.

Figure 5.2: Typical cross-section of a lined canal.

This distance should be sufficient to prevent overtopping of the canal lining or banks due to
waves. The amount of free board provided depends on the canal size, location, velocity and
depth of flow. Following table gives free board heights with respect to the maximum
discharge of the canal.
Table 5.3: Free board.
Discharge (m3/sec) Free board (m)
Unlined Lined
Q < 10.0 0 0.50 0.60
Q ≥ 10.0 0.75 0.75

Width to Depth Ratio

The relationship between width and depth varies widely depending upon the design
practice. If the hydraulically most-efficient channel cross-section is adopted,
1 2y0 B
m= →B= = 1.155y0 → = 1.155
√3 √3 y0
If any other value of m is use, the corresponding value of B/y0 for the efficient section
would be
B
= 2(2√1 + m2 − m)
y0
In large channels it is necessary to limit the depth to avoid dangers of bank failure. Usually
depths higher than about 4.0 m are applied only when it is absolutely necessary. For
selection of width and depth, the usual procedure is to adopt a recommended value.

Exercise:

Page | 54 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

1. A trapezoidal channel is to carry a discharge of 40 m3/sec. The maximum slope that can
be used is 0.0004. The soil is hard. Design the channel as, a) a lined canal with concrete
lining, b) an unlined non-erodible channel.
2. Sub: Ex. 3.10, pp-143, Ex. 3.21, pp-144, Ex.3.34, pp-145
3. Sub: Ex. 3.44, 3.46

Page | 55 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 CHAPTER 3: GVF THEROY AND ANALYSIS

3.1 GVF in Open Channel:

 G.V.F is a non-steady uniform flow.
 Losses are negligible, curvature of streamline is negligible and the losses of energy
are due to boundary friction.
 Hydrostatic pressure is taken in G.V.F.
 Almost all hydraulic engineering activities involve computation of G.V.F profile.

3.2 Assumptions for G.V.F analysis:

 Energy slope is computed using uniform flow formula.
 Bottom slope of channel is very small.
 Pressure distribution is hydrostatic.
 Velocity distribution in channel section is fixed.
 The channel is prismatic.

3.3 Dynamic Equation of GVF:

𝑑𝑦 𝑆𝑜 −𝑆𝑓
= 𝑄2
H. W.: Prove that
𝑑𝑥 1− 𝑇
𝑔𝐴3

𝑑𝑦 𝑆𝑜 −𝑆𝑓
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 1−𝐹2

In terms of section factor,

𝑘 2
𝑑𝑦 0{1−( 𝑛 ) } 𝐴3 𝐴𝑐 3 𝑄2
𝑘
= 𝑧 2
Here, 𝑧 2 = & 𝑧𝑐 2 = =
𝑑𝑥 (1− 𝑐) 𝑇 𝑇 𝑔
𝑧

In terms of energy equation,

𝑑𝐸
= 𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆𝑓 → differential energy equation for GVF.
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑣𝑒 → back water curve.
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑣𝑒 → down water curve.

y increasing
y
decreasing

Page | 56 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 Figure 6.1-Back Water Curve Figure6.2 -Down Water Curve

3.4 Channel slope:

Channel slope are classified based on the relative magnitude of
 Bed slopes, so with a critical slope,𝑆𝑐 and
 Normal depth 𝑌𝑛 with a critical depth 𝑌𝑐

Sustaining slope:
A channel bottom slope that falls in the direction of flow is called as the sustain slope .In a
sustaining slope, value of 𝑆𝑜 is always +Ve and therefore it is also called positive slope.
The critical mild (subcritical) and steep (super critical) slopes may be classified as
sustaining slopes.
Critical slope:
The channel bottom slope is termed as critical if the bottom slope 𝑆𝑜 is equal to the critical
slope 𝑆𝑐 .Where, so 𝑆𝑜 is positive.
Mild slope:
Channel is called mild when 𝑆𝑜 < 𝑆𝑐 ,when 𝐾𝑛 > 𝐾𝑐 .since, in general, the value of
conveyance increase with the increase in depth.

Region-
1
𝒚𝒏
Region-2
NDL
𝒚𝒄

Region
CDL
-3

𝑺𝒐
= +𝒗𝒆

Figure 6.3: Mild Slope

Steep slope:
In case of steep channel the 𝑆𝑜 > 𝑆𝑐 , where 𝑆𝑜 is positive. The normal flow in a steep
sloped channel is in supercritical state.

Page | 57 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 Region-1

𝒚𝒄
Region CDL
𝒚𝒏 -2

Regio
NDL
n-3

𝑺𝒐
= −𝒗𝒆

Figure 6.4: Steep Slope

Page | 58 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Horizontal slope:
𝑄
In the case horizontal slope, 𝑆𝑜 = 0 and 𝑄 = 𝐾𝑛 √𝑆𝑜 and therefore, 𝐾𝑛 = = ∞.Hance,
√𝑆𝑜

the normal depth of flow 𝑌𝑛 = ∞ therefore, uniform flow can never occur on a horizontal
bed.

Region-2
C
D
L
Region-3
𝒚𝒄

𝑺𝒐 = 𝟎

Figure 6.5: Horizontal Slope

Adverse slope:
When the channel bottom slope, rises in the direction of flow it is designated as an adverse
slope, therefore, 𝑆𝑜 < 0 or is – 𝑣𝑒.
C
D
L

Regio
n-2

Regio
n-3
𝒚𝒄
𝑺𝒐
= −𝒗𝒆

Figure 6.6: Adverse Slope

Page | 59 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 Table of Classification of Channels and GVF:

Table 6.1:
No. Channel Symbol Characteristics Remarks
category Condition
1 Mild slope M 𝑦𝑜 > 𝑦𝑐 Subcritical flow at
normal depth
2 Steep slope S 𝑦𝑐 > 𝑦𝑜 Supercritical flow at
normal depth
3 Critical C 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑦𝑜 Critical flow at normal
slope depth
4 Horizontal H 𝑆𝑜 = 0 Cannot sustain uniform
slope flow
5 Adverse A 𝑆𝑜 < 0 Cannot sustain uniform
slope flow

Table 6.2:

No. Channel Region Condition Type

1 Mild slope 1 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑜 𝑀1
> 𝑦𝑐
2 𝑦𝑜 > 𝑦 𝑀2
> 𝑦𝑐
3 𝑦𝑜 > 𝑦𝑐 𝑀3
>𝑦
2 Steep slope 1 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑐 𝑆1
> 𝑦𝑜

Page | 60 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 2 𝑦𝑐 > 𝑦 𝑆2
> 𝑦𝑜
3 𝑦𝑐 > 𝑦𝑜 𝑆3
>𝑦
3 Critical 1 𝑦 > 𝑦𝑜 𝐶1
slope = 𝑦2
3 𝑦 < 𝑦𝑜 𝐶3
= 𝑦𝐶
4 Horizontal 2 𝑦 > 𝑦𝐶 𝐻2
bed 3 𝑦 < 𝑦𝐶 𝐻3
5 Adverse 2 𝑦 > 𝑦𝐶 𝐴2
slope 3 𝑦 < 𝑦𝐶 𝐴3
Example-6.1:
For a rectangular channel, 𝑏 = 10 𝑚, 𝑦 = 5 𝑚, 𝑄 = 50 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠, 𝑆𝑜 = 1 𝑖𝑛 4000, 𝐶 = 55.
Find the slope of free water surface.

Solution: ⇒ 50 = 50 × 55 × √2.5 × 𝑆𝑓
Here, ⇒ 𝑆𝑓 = 0.000132
2
𝐴 = 𝑏 × 𝑦 = 10 × 5 = 50 𝑚 And,
𝐴 50
𝑅 = 𝑃 = 20 = 2.5 𝑚 𝑑𝑦
=
𝑆𝑜 −𝑆𝑓
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2
1−
𝑄 50 2𝑔𝑦
𝑣 = 𝐴 = 50 = 1 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑑𝑦 0.00025−0.000132
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 1
We know, 1−
2×9.8×5

𝑄 = 𝐴𝐶 √𝑅𝑆𝑓 = 0.000120

Example-6.2: A rectangular channel with a bottom width of 4m and a bottom slope of

0.0008 has a discharge of 1.5m3/s. In a gradually varied flow in this channel, the depth at a
certain location is found to be 0.30m. Assuming n=0.016, determine the type of GVF
profile.
Solution:
𝑦0
Find normal depth: From table 3A.1 (Sub.) = 0.1065
𝐵
𝑄𝑛
𝜑= =0.021046
√𝑆0 𝐵 8/3
𝑦0 = 0.426𝑚
Page | 61 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet
 Q=Q/B= 0.375
y=0.30m and y0>y>yc Hence M2
𝑞2
3
𝑦𝑐 = √ = 0.243
2𝑔
y0>yc so mild slope

3.5 Control Sections

A control section is defined as a section in which a fixed relationship exists (depth of flow
is known or can be controlled) between the discharge and depth of flow. Weirs, spillways
sluice gates are some typical examples of structures which give rise to control sections. The
critical depth is also a control point. However, it is effective in a flow profile which
changes from subcritical to supercritical flow. In the reverse case of transition from
supercritical flow to subcritical flow, a hydraulic jump is usually formed by passing the
critical depth as a control point. Any GVF profile will have at least one control section.
There are three types of control section-
a. U/S control sections: This occurs in any steep reach at the u/s end.
b. D/S control sections
c. Artificial control sections

3.6 Transitional Depth

The transitional depth is defined as the depth at which the normal discharge 𝑄𝑛 is equal to
the critical discharge 𝑄𝐶 and the slope of the gradually varied flow profile is horizontal. For
such a situation,

Since in a GVF

Page | 62 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 The Equation is the same as the generalized-flow relation (Presented in the box for:
Trapezoidal section) with F = 1.0. For a trapezoidal channel, the non-dimensionalised form
of the above equation will be:

Assignment:
1. Serial Combination of Channel Sections with examples (Hints: Subrahmanya).
2. Analysis of Flow Profile. (Hints: Subrahmanya: Article: 4.6)
3. A 2.0-m wide rectangular channel (n = 0.015), carries a discharge of 4.0 m3/s. The
channel is laid on slope of 0.0162. A downstream sluice gate raises the water surface to 7.0
m immediately behind it. Find the transitional depth.
4. Classify control sections.
Due date: Next Class

3.7 Backwater profile

Back-Water Curve?
The longitudinal profile of the water surface in a non-uniform flow in an open channel,
when this surface is not parallel to the invert due to increased depth of water as a result of
an obstruction, such as a dam or weir.
Drop-Down Curve?
The longitudinal profile of the water surface in a channel in which the depth of water has
been diminished by a sudden drop in the invert and is therefore not parallel to the invert,

Page | 63 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 A classic backwater profile, or backwater curve, results when an obstruction in a channel causes a
pool to form upstream of the obstruction, as shown in Figure.

Figure 6.7: M1 Profile: Bridge Obstruction in Channel

A backwater profile can be computed either directly by integration of the energy equation
or approximately by the so-called step methods. The step methods involve the calculation
of a finite number of points along the profile using the technique of trial and error. In the
direct step method, the water surface elevation is known at the control section, and the
distance is calculated between that section and another known water surface elevation. The
calculation is then repeated along the channel reach. In the standard step method, the water
surface elevation is known at the control section, and the water surface elevation is
calculated at another section of known distance from the control section. The calculation is
then repeated along the channel reach. It is the standard step method that is used in the
HEC-RAS water surface profile software developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

3.8 Method of Computation (GVF)

Almost all major hydraulic-engineering activities in free-surface flow involve the
computation of GVF profiles. Considerable computational effort is involved in the analysis
of problems, such as
(a) determination of the effect of a hydraulic structure on the flow pattern in the channels,
(b) inundation of lands due to a dam or weir construction, and
(c) estimation of the flood zone. Because of its practical importance the computation of
GVF has been a topic of continued interest to hydraulic engineers for the last 150 years.

3.8.1 The Direct Step Method:

- Suitable for prismatic channel and simplest method.
-The differential energy equation for GVF

Page | 64 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 𝑑𝐸
= 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
𝑑𝑥
Writing finite difference form
∆𝐸
= 𝑆0 − 𝑆̅𝑓
∆𝑥
𝑆̅𝑓 = 𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ ∆𝑥
∆𝐸
∴ ∆𝑥 =
𝑆0 − 𝑆̅𝑓
For two section 1 & 2
𝐸2 − 𝐸1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = ∆𝑥 =
1
𝑆0 − 2 (𝑆𝑓1 + 𝑆𝑓2 )

When manning formula is used frictional slope is expressed by:

𝑛2 𝑉 2
𝑆𝑓 =
2.22𝑅 4/3

Example-6.3: A trapezoidal channel having 𝑏 = 20𝑓𝑡, 𝑧 = 2, 𝑆0 = 0.0016, 𝑛 =

0.025 carries a discharge of 400 𝑐𝑓𝑠. Compute the backwater profile created by a dam
which backs up the water to a depth of 5 𝑓𝑡 immediately behind the dam. The upstream
end of profile is assumed at a depth equal to 1% greater then the normal depth .the energy
coefficient 𝛼 = 1.10

Solution:
Given, (10 + 𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐
=
𝑄 = 400 𝑐𝑓𝑠 10 + 2𝑦𝑐
𝐴 (20+2𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐
𝑛 = 0.025 Hydraulic radius, 𝑅 = 𝑃 =
2𝑦𝑐 (√1+𝑚2 )+𝑏
𝑆𝑜 = 0.0016 (10 + 𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐
=
𝛼 = 1.10 10 + 𝑦𝑐 √5
𝑄 400
Critical velocity, 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐴 = (20+2𝑦
1 𝑐 𝑐 )𝑦𝑐
Area , 𝐴𝑐 = 2 (20 + 20 + 2 × 2 × 𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐
Now, for critical state of flow,
= (20 + 2𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐 𝑉𝑐 2 𝐷
=
𝐴 (20+2𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐 2𝑔 2
Hydraulic depth, 𝐷 = 𝑇 = 20+4𝑦𝑐

Putting the value of 𝑉𝑐 and 𝐷 and simplifying the above equation, we get,

Page | 65 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 2484(5 + 𝑦𝑐 ) = [𝑦𝑐 (10 + 𝑦𝑐 )]3
Solving the above equation for 𝑦𝑐 by a trial and error procedure,
𝑦𝑐 = 2.22 𝑓𝑡, 𝐴𝑐 = 52.2 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑐 = 7.66 𝑓𝑝𝑠.
For normal depth and velocity,
Putting the value of 𝑉𝑐 and 𝑅 in Manning formula, we get,
1 2⁄ 1⁄
𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅 3𝑆 2

2⁄
400 1 (10+𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐 3 1⁄
⇒ (20+2𝑦 = [ ] 0.0016 2
𝑐 )𝑦𝑐 0.025 10+𝑦𝑐 √5

⇒ 7680 + 1720𝑦𝑐 = [𝑦𝑐 (10 + 𝑦𝑐 )]2.5

Solving the equation for 𝑦𝑐 by a trial and error procedure,
𝑦𝑐 = 3.36 𝑓𝑡, 𝐴𝑐 = 89.8 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑐 = 4.46 𝑓𝑝𝑠.

Table: Computation of the Flow Profile by the Direct Step Method.

4 )
)

)
2.22𝑅 ⁄3
2𝑔
𝑉2

𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆𝑓
𝑆0 − 𝑆̅𝑓
𝑉( )
𝑅( )

∆𝑋 =
2𝑔

𝑛2 𝑉 2
𝑉2

𝐸=
𝑄
𝐴
𝑃

𝐴
4
𝑅3

∆𝐸

∆𝐸
𝑆𝑓

𝑆̅𝑓
𝐴

𝑋
𝑌

(𝑦+∝
∝

(
(
0.000370

……….

……….
………

………
150.00

0.1217

5.1217

……..
2.667
5.00

3.54

5.40

0.000433

0.000402

0.001198
142.08

0.1356

4.9356

0.1861
2.819
4.80

3.43

5.17

155

155
0.000507

0.000470

0.001130
134.32

0.1517

4.7517

0.1839
2.979
4.60

3.31

4.94

163

318
0.000598

0.000553

0.001047
126.72

0.1760

4.5706

0.1811
3.156
4.40

3.19

4.70

173

491

Page | 66 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 3.40 3.42 3.44 3.47 3.50 3.55 3.60 3.70 3.80 4.00 4.20

91.12 91.80 92.45 93.48 94.50 96.21 97.92 101.38 104.88 112.00 119.28

Invert

Page | 67
2.59 2.60 2.61 2.63 2.65 2.68 2.71 2.77 2.48 2.96 3.08

3.55 3.57 3.59 3.63 3.68 3.72 3.78 3.88 4.02 4.25 4.50

4.388 4.357 4.326 4.278 4.233 4.158 4.085 3.948 3.814 3.372 3.354

0.3292 0.3246 0.3202 0.3131 0.3067 0.2958 0.2856 0.2664 0.2490 0.2184 0.1925

3.7292 3.7446 3.7602 3.7831 3.8067 3.8458 3.8856 3.9664 4.0490 4.2184 4.3925

0.0154 0.0156 0.0229 0.0236 0.0391 0.0398 0.0808 0.0826 0.1694 0.1741 0.1781

0.001535 0.001500 0.001471 0.001427 0.001382 0.001310 0.001244 0.001132 0.001020 0.000850 0.000705

0.001518 0.001486 0.001449 0.001405 0.001346 0.001277 0.001188 0.001076 0.000935 0.000778 0.000652

0.000082 0.000114 0.000151 0.000195 0.000254 0.000323 0.000412 0.000524 0.000665 0.000822 0.000948

188 137 152 121 154 123 196 158 255 212 188

2375 2187 2050 1898 1777 1623 1500 1304 1146 891 679

Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 The base of a tunnel on which the road or railway may be laid and used when construction
is through unstable ground. It may be flat or form a continuous curve with the tunnel arch.
invert (in'‑vert) The floor or bottom of the internal cross section of a closed conduit, such
as an aqueduct, tunnel, or drain - The term originally referred to the inverted arch used to
form the bottom of a masonry‑lined sewer or tunnel (Jackson, 1997) Wilson, W.E., Moore,
J.E., (2003) Glossary of Hydrology, Berlin: Springer

3.8.2 The Slope-Area Method:

Figure 6.8: Slope-Area Method

Consider two sections (𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖). Now applying the energy equation to section (𝑖) and
(𝑖𝑖), we get,

Page | 68 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2
𝑍1 + 𝑦1 + = 𝑍2 + 𝑦2 + + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔

Consider head loss, ℎ𝐿 = frictional loss ℎ𝑓 + eddy loss ℎ𝑒 and denoting 𝑍 + 𝑦 = ℎ

So,
𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 + + ℎ𝑒 + ℎ𝑓
2𝑔 2𝑔

1 𝑉2 𝑉2 2
⇒ ℎ𝑓 = (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) + ( 2𝑔 − ) − ℎ𝑒
2𝑔

If 𝐿 = length of the reach, by Manning’s formula for uniform flow,

ℎ𝑓 𝑄2
= 𝑆𝑓 = energy slope =
𝐿 𝐾2
1 2⁄ 1 2⁄
Where, 𝐾 = √𝐾1 𝐾2 ; 𝐾1 = 𝑛 𝐴1 𝑅1 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾2 = 𝑛 𝐴2 𝑅2 3
1 2

𝑛 = Manning’s roughness coefficient.

Example 6.4: During a flood flow the depth of the water in a 10 m wide rectangular
channel was found to be 3.0 m and 2.9 m at two sections 200 m apart. The drop in the
water surface elevation was found to be 0.12 m. Assuming Manning’s coefficient to be
0.025, estimate the flood discharge through the channel.

Solution:
Section-1 Section-2
𝑦1 = 3.0 𝑚 𝑦2 = 2.9 𝑚
𝐴1 = 30 𝑚2 𝐴2 = 29 𝑚2
𝑃1 = 16 𝑚 𝑃1 = 15.8 𝑚
𝑅1 = 1.875 𝑚 𝑅2 = 1.835 𝑚
1 2 1 2
𝐾1 = × 30 × (1.875) ⁄3 = 1824.7 𝐾1 = × 29 × (1.835) ⁄3 = 1738.9
0.025 0.025

Average 𝐾 for the reach = √𝐾1 𝐾2 = 1781.3

To start with ℎ𝑓 = fall = 0.12 m is assumed
Eddy loss ℎ𝑒 = 0
Now using the relation the following table is prepared,
ℎ𝑓 ℎ 𝑓
𝑆𝑓 = = 200
𝐿

Page | 69 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 𝑄 = 𝐾√𝑆𝑓̅ = 1781.3√𝑆𝑓̅

𝑄 2 𝑄 2
2 ( ) 2 ( )
= 30 ⁄19.62 , = 29 ⁄19.62
𝑉1 𝑉2
2𝑔 2𝑔

1 𝑉2 𝑉2 2
And, ℎ𝑓 = 0.12 + ( 2𝑔 − )
2𝑔

Trial ℎ𝑓 𝑆𝑓 𝑄 𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2 ℎ𝑓
2𝑔 2𝑔
(trial) (units of 𝑚3 /𝑠 By
(𝑚) (𝑚)
10−4) equation
1 0.1200 6.000 43.63 0.1078 0.1154 0.1124
2 0.1124 5.622 42.24 0.1010 0.1081 0.1129
3 0.1129 5.646 42.32 0.1014 0.1081 0.1129

So, the discharge in the channel is 42.32 𝑚3 /𝑠.

Example 6.5: A trapezoidal channel has a width of 20′, a top width of 44′, section factor,
𝑧 = 2 and carrying a discharge of 400 𝑐𝑓𝑠. Compute the normal depth, critical depth and
critical velocity and normal velocity.

Solution:
1
Area, 𝐴𝑐 = 2 (20 + 20 + 2 × 2 × 𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐 = (20 + 2𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐
𝐴 (20+2𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐 (10+𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐
Hydraulic depth, 𝐷 = 𝑇 = =
20+4𝑦𝑐 10+2𝑦𝑐
𝐴 (20+2𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐 (10+𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐
Hydraulic radius, 𝑅 = 𝑃 = =
2𝑦𝑐 (√1+𝑚2 )+𝑏 10+𝑦𝑐 √5
𝑄 400
Critical velocity, 𝑉𝑐 = = (20+2𝑦
𝐴𝑐 𝑐 )𝑦𝑐
Now, for critical state of flow,
𝑉𝑐 2 𝐷
=
2𝑔 2
Putting the value of 𝑉𝑐 and 𝐷 and simplifying the above equation, we get,
2484(5 + 𝑦𝑐 ) = [𝑦𝑐 (10 + 𝑦𝑐 )]3

Solving the above equation for 𝑦𝑐 by a trial and error procedure,

𝑦𝑐 = 2.22 𝑓𝑡, 𝐴𝑐 = 52.2 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑐 = 7.66 𝑓𝑝𝑠.

For normal depth and velocity,

Putting the value of 𝑉𝑐 and 𝑅 in Manning formula, we get,
1 2⁄ 1⁄
𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅 3𝑆 2

Page | 70 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 2⁄
400 1 (10+𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐 3 1⁄
⇒ (20+2𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐
= 0.025 [ 10+𝑦 ] 0.0016 2
𝑐 √5

⇒ 7680 + 1720𝑦𝑐 = [𝑦𝑐 (10 + 𝑦𝑐 )]2.5

Solving the above equation for 𝑦𝑐 by a trial and error procedure,

𝑦𝑐 = 3.36 𝑓𝑡, 𝐴𝑐 = 89.8 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑐 = 4.46 𝑓𝑝𝑠.

Exercise:
1. Explain Leach diagram. (V T Chow, pp-271)
2. Describe stage-fall-discharge method for natural channels with examples. (V T chow,
pp-
280)
3. Describe Q-constant curve. (V T Chow, pp-300)

Page | 71 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

3.9 PRACTICAL PROBLEM (GVF)

3.9.1 Flow Passing Islands:

 Division of flow in two channels may be roughly determined by computing flow
profile.
 Assumptions for the illustrated figure.
Chapter 1 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄 .
Chapter 2 Flow throughout the all channel is subcritical.

Channel-1

𝑸𝟏

A Island
𝑸
B
𝑸𝟐

Channel-2

Figure 6.9: Flow Passing Islands

Analysis procedure:
 Divided flow 𝑄1and 𝑄2 .
 Compute flow profile for each channel at point A .
 Continue to point B. (u/s to d/s)
 Use rating curve to determine water surface elevation at B.
 Plot computed water surface elevation for channel -1 VS channel -2.
 Since the flow divided at the two computed water surface elevation at this point
should be same if assumed division of flow correct.

Page | 72 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

  The elevation at point A corresponding to this correct division of flow may be
obtained from the plotted curve (point at which the curve is intersected by a dashed
line bisecting the coordinate axes)
 The doubled line represents the condition that the two compute elevation are equal.
 Plot elevation (computed) at 𝐴 𝑣𝑠. 𝑄1 . Correct discharge for corrected elevation is
found from this curve.
 𝑄2 = 𝑄 − 𝑄1 .
If divided flows are super critical control point will be at A, hence division of division of
flow will depend on the entrance condition of divided channel.
 During normal flow condition all flow can be assumed as uniform and division of
flow can be as 𝑄1 = 𝐾1 √𝑆1 ,𝑄2 = 𝐾2 √𝑆2 , 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 , S=channel Slope

Current W.S.E. at
A
W.S.E at A from computation for
Channel-1

𝟒𝟓°

W.S.E at A from computation Discharge, 𝑸𝟏

for Channel-2

Figure 6.10: Solution Diagram for Flow Passing Island

Exercise:
1. Exm.11.1 (V T Chow,pp-306)
2. Explain backwater effect of dam with necessary figure. (V T Chow,pp-319)
3. Discuss about River confluence. (V T Chow,pp-321)

Page | 73 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 CHAPTER 4: RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW (Hydraulic Jump)

4.1 The Hydraulic Jump

General
 First investigate by Bindone, Italian ,1818
 In step channel, hydraulic jump is frequent by produced by a barrier in originally
uniform flow.
 The hydraulic jump is defined as the sudden and turbulent passage of water from a
supper critical state to a subcritical state.
 The flow is a hydraulic jump is accomplished by the formation of extremely turbulent
rollers and there is a considerable dissipation of energy.
 Velocity distribution co-efficient 𝛼 and 𝛽 is much greater than unity and cannot be
accurately measured.
 Example: Canal below in a regulating sluice.

Definition
If the flow at the upstream of a cross section is subcritical (y1<ycr) but supercritical
(y2>ycr) at the downstream of that cross section, the transition from subcritical flow to
the supercritical flow will be abrupt with a jump called Hydraulic Jump. The supercritical
stream jumps up to meet its alternate depth. While doing so it generates considerable
disturbances in the form of large-scale eddies and a reverse flow roller with the result that
the jump falls short of its alternate depth. Figure 7.1 is a schematic sketch of a typical
hydraulic jump in a horizontal channel.

Page | 74 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 Figure 7.1: Definition sketch of a hydraulic jump.
Section 1, where the incoming supercritical stream undergoes an abrupt rise in the depth
forming the commencement of the jump, is called the toe of the jump. The jump proper
consists of a steep change in the water-surface elevation with a reverse flow roller on the
major part. The roller entrains considerable quantity of air and the surface has white, frothy
and choppy appearance. The jump, while essentially steady, will normally oscillate about a
mean position in the longitudinal direction and the surface will be uneven. Section 2, which
lies beyond the roller and with an essentially level water surface is called the end of the
jump and the distance between Sections 1 and 2 is the length of the jump, Lj. The initial
depth of the supercritical stream is y1 and y2 is the final depth, after the jump, of the
subcritical stream. The two depths y1 And y2 at the ends of the jump are called sequent
depths. Due to high turbulence and shear action of the roller, there is considerable loss of
energy in the jump between Sections 1 and 2. In view of the high energy loss, the nature of
which is difficult to estimate.
For mathematical derivation of hydraulic jump, the following assumptions are made,
a) Rectangular channel with horizontal bottom slope,
b) Before and after the hydraulic jump, velocity distributions are uniform and the pressure
distribution over the cross sections are hydrostatic,
c) Friction losses are neglected.

Page | 75 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

4.2 Application of Hydraulic Jump
 To raise water level in down step of maintain high water level in the channel for
irrigation.
 To dissipate energy in water flowing over spillway and other hydraulic structure.
 To increase the discharge of sluice by holding back tail water.
 To increase the weight on an apron for reducing uplift pressure.
 To mix chemical in water at treatment or purification plant.
 To aerate water for city water supply.

4.3 The Momentum Equation Formulation for the Jump

The definition sketch of a hydraulic jump in a prismatic channel of arbitrary shape is
presented in following Figure 7.2. The channel is inclined to the horizontal at an angle θ.
Sections 1 and 2 refer to the beginning and end of the jump respectively. A control volume
enclosing the jump as shown by dashed lines in the figure, is selected. The flow is
considered to be steady.

Figure 7.2: Definition sketch for the general momentum equation

Applying the linear momentum equation in the longitudinal direction to the control
volume,

Page | 76 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

4.4 Types of Hydraulic Jump:
Incoming water 𝐹𝑟 > 1 for hydraulic jump.
Undular:
 𝐹𝑟 = 1 to 1.7, water surface shows undulation.

Weak jump:
 𝐹𝑟 = 1.17 to 2.5
 Velocity is fairly uniform and small energy dissipate.
 A series small rollers forms on the jump surface but down step water surface remain
quite smooth.

Oscillating Jump:
 𝐹𝑟 = 2.5 to 4.5
 The entering jet of water oscillates back and forth from the bottom the surface to the
and back again.
 These oscillations are common in canal and can travel to a considerable distance
damaging earth bank.

Steady jump:
 𝐹𝑟 = 4.5 to 9.0
 The jump is well stabilized.

Page | 77 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

  Energy dissipation ranges from 45 to 70%

Strong jump:
 𝐹𝑟 = 9 or greaterer.
 A rough surface prevails, which continues to down step for along distance.
 The jump action is quite rough but effective.
 Energy dissipation may reach 85%

Assumption of Hydraulic Jump:

 The portion of the hydraulic jump is considered as the control volume and it is
assumed that before and often the jump the is uniform.
 The length of jump is small so that loss due to friction is small.
 The channel slope is gentle and channel floor is horizontal.

4.5 Basic Characteristics of the Jump for rectangular channel:

Figure 7.3: Characteristics of the Jump

 At section 1 the flow is supper critical with uniform flow depth 𝑦1 . 𝑦2 < 𝑦𝑐 is called
initial depth.
 At section 2 the flow is supercritical with uniform flow depth 𝑦2 . 𝑦2 > 𝑦𝑐 is called
sequent depth.
 From continuity equation, 𝑣1 𝑦1 = 𝑣2 𝑦2 = 𝑞
𝑞 𝑞
∴ 𝑣1 = 𝑦 , 𝑣2 = 𝑦
1 2

 The section pressure force, 𝑃 = 𝛾𝐴𝑦̅

Page | 78 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 𝑦̅ = centroid of wetted area.
𝜌𝑔(𝑦1 ×1)×𝑦1 1
 Hence 𝑃1 = = 2 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 2
2
1
∴ 𝑃1 = 2 𝜌𝑔𝑦2 2

 From impulse- momentum equation,

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = change in linear momentum = 𝜌𝑞(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
1 1 1
⇒ 2 𝜌𝑔(𝑦1 2 − 𝑦2 2 ) = 𝜌𝑞 2 (𝑦 − 𝑦 )
2 1

Solving the above equation, we get,

2𝑞 2
(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) {(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) − }=0
𝑔𝑦1 𝑦2

Here, 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = 0 is not acceptable

So,
2𝑞 2
{(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) − }=0
𝑔𝑦1 𝑦2

Multiplied both side by 𝑦1 , we get,

2𝑞 2
𝑦1 2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 − 𝑔𝑦 = 0
2

Simplifying the above equation,

𝑦2 𝑦2 2 2𝑞 2
𝑦1 = − +√ + 𝑔𝑦
2 4 2

𝑦2 8𝑞 2
Or, 𝑦1 = {√1 + 𝑔𝑦 3 − 1}
2 2

In terms of Froude number,

𝑦2
𝑦1 = {√1 + 8𝐹𝑟2 2 − 1}
2

𝑦 1
⇒ 𝑦2 = 2 {√1 + 8𝐹𝑟1 2 − 1}
1

4.6 Location of jump

A hydraulic jump is formed whenever the momentum equation presented at section 8. is
satisfied between the supercritical and subcritical parts of a stream. If a jump exists in a
stretch of a channel, its location will satisfy three requirements, viz. (a) the inlet depth y1 is
part of the upstream GVF profile, (b) the sequent depth y2 is part of the downstream GVF
profile, and (c) the depths y1 and y2 satisfy the momentum equation and are separated by a

Page | 79 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

distance Lj. Location of hydraulic jump are discussed in the preceding section for a sluice
gate.
 For closer estimate of the jump position however, length of the jump should be
considered.
 Considering the flow downstream of a sluice gate, the flow depth at the sluice outlet
be y1 and the sequent depth corresponding to this depth be y2. There are several
different possibilities for the formation of jump, depending upon the tail water depth,
yd.
 The jump is formed on the apron if the downstream depth, yd, is equal to the depth y2
required by the sequent depth ratio shown in Fig.a.

 If yd is less than y2, then the jump moves downstream to a point where the

upstream depth y1 is the sequent depth to yd, (Fig. b). In this figure, broken line is
used to show the sequent depth y2 required for the depth y1 at the sluice outlet.

 If the tail water depth is higher than the required amount, then the jump is pushed
back, as shown in Fig.c. This is called submerged, or drowned jump

Page | 80 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

  Tail water level plays a significant role in the formation of jump at a particular
location. In most practical situations, the tail water level depends upon the channel
discharge, Q.
 A curve between Q and the tail water level is referred to as the tail water-rating
curve. A curve between y2 and Q, is known as the jump curve. Depending upon
these two curves, five different flow situations are possible [Leliavsky, 1955].
 When the tail water-rating curve coincides with jump curve for all values of Q
then the requirement for the sequent, depths are always satisfied and the jump
forms at the same location. This is an ideal situation and rarely occurs.

Figure: TWC and JWC coincides

 When the jump curve is above the tail water curve, as shown in figure below. The
downstream depth is less than the required sequent depth and therefore, the jump
moves further downstream. However, to ensure that jump forms on the apron, a sill
may be provided.

Page | 81 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 Figure: JWC is above TWC
 When the tail water curve is always above the jump curve, the downstream depth is
more than that required by the sequent depth. The jump moves upstream and may
drown. The jump may be controlled at the desired location by providing drop in the
channel bottom or by letting the jump form on the sloping apron.

Figure: TWC is above JWC

 When the tail water curve is below the jump curve at low discharges and above it for
higher discharges. The stilling basin may be designed so that the jump is formed in
the basin at low rates of discharges and the jump moves on to a sloping apron at
higher discharges.

Figure: TWC below JWC at low discharges

 When the tail water curve is above the jump curve at low discharges and below the
jump curve at high discharges, a stilling pool may be designed in this case to form the
jump at high discharges.

Figure: TWC above JWC at low discharges

Page | 82 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

4.7 Length of the Jump in rectangular channel:

6
5

𝑳 Transition Best Acceptable Less

𝒚𝟐
4

Jump Jump Acceptable Jump

3
7

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

𝑭𝒓𝟏

Figure 7.4: Length of the Jump

 The length of a jump may be defined as the distance measured from front face of the
jump to a point on the surface immediately down steam from the roller .It is the point
on the d/s where the flow just stabilizes again .The length of a jump is required while
selecting the apron length and the height of the sidewalls of a stilling basin.
 The length of jump cannot be determined easily by theory, but it has been investigated
experimentally.
 For a rectangular channel with horizontal floor ,the length of the jump has been found
to vary between 5 to 7 the heights of jump.
 The experimental data on length of jump can be plotted conveniently with 𝐹1 against a
𝐿
dimensionless ratio .Although satisfactory correlation has been observed for
𝑌1
𝐿
,considerable amount of disagreement exists between the data reported by different
𝑌1
𝐿
researchers for 𝑌 .
2

𝐿
 For practical, however the plot of 𝐹1 vs is desirable because the resulting curve
𝑌2

shows regularity for range of well established jumps. experimentally it has been found
out that 𝐿𝑗 = 6.9(𝑌2 − 𝑌1 ).
 Hager developed the following equation for the length of the jump,
𝐿 𝐹1 − 1
= 220𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ
𝑌1 22
Page | 83 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet
 Or, simply 𝐿 = 6𝑌2 for 4 < 𝐹1 < 12.The above equation gives good result if
𝑌1 < 𝐵 < 0.1 .
 Pressure at the toe of the jump and at the end of the jump fallow hydrostatic pressure
distribution, Inside the body of the jump , a strong curvature of the streamlines cause
the pressure to deviate from the hydrostatic distribution.
 The defect from the hydrostatic pressure increase with an increase in the initial
Froude number.

4.8 Profile of the Jump:

 The jump profile is required to determine the weight of water in a dissipater in order
to counteract the uplift force if the basin floor is laid on a permeable foundation.
While designing the height of the side walls, the water profile is required.
 Bakhmetoff and Metzke represented the surface profile of the jump by dimensionless
curves for various 𝐹1 value.
 Hager develop the following empirical relationship for the depth, y at the distance x
from the beginning of the jump.
𝑌 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑋)
Where,
𝑥 (𝑦−𝑦1 )
𝑋 = 𝐿 and 𝑦 = (𝑦
𝑟 2− 𝑦1 )

And 𝐿𝑟 = length of the roller.

4.9 Length and Jump on a Sloping Floor:

Jump on a sloping floor:
 Hydraulic jump occurring on the sloping floor can be described by the momentum
equation. The equation for sequent depth ratio is given by
𝑦 𝑘𝐿𝑗 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑦𝑡 2 𝑘𝐿𝑗 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 2𝐹1 2 𝑦 2𝐹 2
(𝑦𝑡 )3 − (𝑦 ) − (1 + ) (𝑦𝑡 ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1
= 0.
1 𝑦1 1 𝑦1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1

 The above equation can be used to estimate the sequent depth ratio by a trial and error
procedure if the term 𝑘𝐿𝑗 is known. In general, 𝑘𝐿𝑗 can be expected to be a function of
𝐹1 and experimental study.

Page | 84 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

  Sequent depth the sequent depth 𝑦𝑡 is found to be released to 𝑦2 .that is equivalent
sequent depth to 𝑦1 in a horizontal floor jump.
𝑦𝑡 𝑦
 The variation of with 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 has been occurred. It can be seen that 𝑦𝑡 increased with
𝑦2 2

the slope of the channel.

Figure 7.5: Jump on a Sloping Floor

Length of the jump on sloping floor:
 The length of the jump on a sloping floor is longer than the corresponding length of a
jump on a horizontal floor.
𝐿
 In the range of 4.0 < 𝐹1 < 12,𝑌𝑗 is essentially independent of 𝐹1 and is a function of
2

𝐿
𝜃 only.The variation can be approximately expressed as 𝑌𝑗 = 6.1 + 4.0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
2

Page | 85 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 Figure 7.6: Length of the Jump on Sloping Floor

4.10 Jump as Energy Dissipaters:

 The high energy loss that occurs in a hydraulic jump has led to its adoption as a part
of high energy dissipater system below a hydraulic structure.
 Three types of energy dissipaters have been commonly used: stilling basins, flip
bucket and roller buckets. Each dissipater has certain advantages and disadvantages
and may be selected for a particular project depending upon the site characteristics.

4.11 Control of Jump:

 The hydraulic jump can be controlled or affected by sills of various designs such as
sharp crested weir, broad crested weir.
 The function of the sill is to ensure the formation of a jump and to control its position
under all probable operating conditions
 Typically, the flow near these appurtenances is rapidly varied and the velocity
distribution is not uniform. Therefore becomes difficult to apply the momentum
equation in order to analyze accurately the formation of jump.
 Therefore laboratory experiment are done to develop empirical relationship for
universal for specific projects.
 Interesting experiments have shown that the forces acting on the sill in a jump
decrease rapidly to minimum as the downstream end of the jump is moved upstream
to a position approximately over the sill.
 The forces then increase slowly to a constant value as the jump is moved farther
upstream.

Page | 86 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

  As a result, the momentum in the non-uniform distribution section is greatly
increased.
 Dimensional analysis shows that,
ℎ 𝑥 𝑦
= 𝑄(𝐹, 𝑦 , 𝑦3)
𝑦1 2 1

 This function can be determined Quantitatively by model studies.

 The exact position of the jump as controlled by the sill however can not be
determined analytically.

4.12 Stilling Basin:

 The downstream portion of the hydraulic structure where the energy dissipation is
deliberately allowed to occur so that the outgoing can be safely conducted to the
channel below is known as a stilling basin.
 The hydraulic jump is used for energy dissipation in a stilling basin. Typically his
basin may be used for heads less than 50m.
 Long apron lengths and low apron levels are needed for such a stilling basin. Low
apron levels require amount of excavation and concrete. Other device may be provide
to stabilize the jump. These device include chute blocks etc.
 Stilling basin are so designed that not only a good jump with high energy dissipation
characteristics is formed within the basin but it is so stable.
 The chute blocks separate the flow entering the basin lift up part of the jet. The
produces more eddies increasing energy dissipation the jump length is deceased.
 The baffle blocks stabilize the jump and dissipate energy due to impact.

4.13 Flip Buckets:

 The flip bucket energy dissipater is suitable for sites where the tail water depth is low
(which would require a large amount of excavation if a hydraulic jump dissipater
where used) and the rock in the downstream area is good and resistant to erosion.
 The flip bucket also called ski-jump dissipater throws the jet at a sufficient distance
away from the spillway where a large scour hole may be produced.
 A small amount of the energy of the jet is dissipated by the internal turbulence and the
shearing action of the surrounding air as travel in the air.

Page | 87 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

4.14 Roller Buckets:
 A roller bucket may be used for energy dissipation if the downstream depth is
significantly greater than that required for the formation of a hydraulic jump.
 Two types of roller buckets solid and slotted have been developed through hydraulic
model studies and used successfully on several projects.
 In a solid bucket the ground roller may bring material towards the bucket and deposit
it in the bucket during period of unsymmetrical operation.
 In a slotted bucket part of the flow passes through the slots spreads laterally and is
distribution over a greater area therefore the flow concentration is less then that in a
solid bucket.

Example-7.1: A rectangular channel is 3.50 𝑚 wide conveys a discharge of 15 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 at a

depth of 2.0 𝑚. It is proposed to reduce the width of the channel at a hydrostatic depth
structure. Assume the transition to be horizontal and the flow to be frictionless. Determine
the water surface elevations upstream and downstream of the constriction when the
constricted width is a) 2.50 𝑚 and b) 2.20 𝑚.

Solution:
Let suffixes 1 and 2 denote sections upstream and downstream of the transition
respectively,
𝑄 = 𝐵1 𝑉1 𝑦1
𝑄 15
⇒ 𝑉1 = 𝐵 = 3.5×2 = 2.14 𝑚⁄𝑠
1 𝑦1

𝑉1 2.14
𝐹𝑟1 = = = 0.48
√𝑔𝑦1 √9.81×2

The upstream flow is subcritical and the transition will cause a drop in the water surface.
𝑉1 2
𝐸1 = 𝑦1 + 2𝑔

2.142
= 2 + 2×9.81 = 2.23 𝑚

Let 𝐵2𝑚𝑖𝑛 = minimum width at section 2, which does not cause choking.
𝐸𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸1 = 2.23 𝑚
2 2
∴ 𝑦𝑐 = 3 𝐸𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 3 × 2.23 = 1.49 𝑚

Page | 88 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 𝑄2
𝑦𝑐 3 = 𝑔𝐵 2
2𝑚𝑖𝑛

0.5 0.5
𝑄2 152
⇒ 𝐵2𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (𝑔𝑦 3 ) = (9.81×1.493) = 2.63 𝑚
𝑐

a) When 𝐵2 = 2.50 𝑚
𝐵2 = 2.50 𝑚 < 𝐵2𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2.63 𝑚. and hence choking conditions prevail. The depth at
section 2 = 𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑐2 . The upstream depth 𝑦1 will increase to 𝑦2 .
15
𝑞2 = 2.5 = 6 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠
1⁄3 1⁄3
𝑞2 2 62
𝑦𝑐2 = ( ) = (9.81) = 1.54 𝑚
𝑔

𝐸𝑐2 = 1.5𝑦𝑐2 = 1.5 × 1.54 = 2.31 𝑚

At the upstream section 1:
𝐸1 ′ = 𝐸𝑐2 = 2.31 𝑚
𝑄 15
𝑞1 = 𝐵 = 3.50 = 4.29 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠
1
2
𝑉1 ′
𝐸1 ′ = 𝑦1 ′ + 2𝑔

𝑞1 2
⇒ 𝐸1 ′ = 𝑦1 ′ + 2
2𝑔𝑦1 ′

4.292
⇒ 2.31 = 𝑦1 ′ + 2
2×9.81×𝑦1 ′

Solving by trial and error and selecting positive subcritical flow depth root,
𝑦1 ′ = 2.10 𝑚
b) When 𝐵2 = 2.20 𝑚
𝐵2 = 2.20 𝑚 < 𝐵2𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2.63 𝑚. and hence choking conditions prevail. The depth at
section 2 = 𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑐2 . The upstream depth 𝑦1 will increase to 𝑦2 .
15
𝑞2 = 2.20 = 6.82 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠
1⁄3 1⁄3
𝑞2 2 6.822
𝑦𝑐2 = ( ) = ( 9.81 ) = 1.68 𝑚
𝑔

𝐸𝑐2 = 1.5𝑦𝑐2 = 1.5 × 1.68 = 2.52 𝑚

At the upstream section 1:
𝐸1 ′ = 𝐸𝑐2 = 2.52 𝑚
𝑄 15
𝑞1 = 𝐵 = 3.50 = 4.29 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠
1
2
𝑉1 ′
𝐸1 ′ = 𝑦1 ′ + 2𝑔

Page | 89 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

 𝑞1 2
⇒ 𝐸1 ′ = 𝑦1 ′ + 2
2𝑔𝑦1 ′

4.292
⇒ 2.52 = 𝑦1 ′ + 2
2×9.81×𝑦1 ′

Solving by trial and error and selecting positive subcritical flow depth root,
𝑦1 ′ = 2.35 𝑚

4.15 Energy Loss

𝐸𝐿 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2
𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑣2
= (𝑦1 + 2𝑔𝑦 2 ) − (𝑦2 + 2𝑔𝑦 2 ) [𝐸 = 𝑦 + 2𝑔]
1 2

1 𝑞2 𝑦2 2 −𝑦1 2
= (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + 2 ( ) 𝑞 = 𝑦𝑣 →
𝑔 𝑦1 2 𝑦2 2

𝑞2
𝑣 2 = 𝑦2
𝑞2
Substituting and simplifying,
𝑔

(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )3
𝐸𝐿 = 4𝑦2 𝑦1
𝐸𝐿
→ = Relative loss
𝐸1
𝐸 𝐸1 −𝐸𝐿
→ Efficiency of a jump 𝐸2 = 𝜂 = = 1 − relative loss
1 𝐸1

Equation for Math

Height of 𝐻𝑗
𝐻𝑗 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝐻𝑗
→ = Relative height
𝐸1
𝑦
→ 𝐸2 = Relative sequent depth
1

Power lost, 𝑃 = 𝛾𝑄𝐸𝐿 𝑘𝑤

Example-7.2: An open channel having 3m width carry a discharge 𝑄 = 7.8 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 ,
and 𝑦1 = 0.28 𝑚. Find sequent depth and 𝐸𝐿 .

Solution: 𝐹1 =
𝑉1
√𝑔𝑦1
𝑄
𝑉1 = 𝐴 9.286
1 =
√9.8×0.28
7.8
= 3×0.28 = 5.603
= 9.286 𝑚⁄𝑠 Now,
Page | 90 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet
 𝑦2 1 And,
= 2 {√1 + 8𝐹𝑟1 2 − 1}
𝑦1 (𝑦2 −𝑦1 )3
𝐸𝐿 =
𝑦 1 4𝑦2 𝑦1
⇒ 𝑦2 = 2 {√1 + 8 × 5.6032 − 1}
1 (2.08−0.28)3
= = 2.503 𝑚
𝑦2 4×2.08×0.28
⇒ 𝑦 = 7.424
1

⇒ 𝑦2 = 7.424 × 𝑦1
⇒ 𝑦2 = 7.424 × 0.28 = 2.08 𝑚

4.16 RVF Application

4.16.1 Flow through Culverts

 A culvert is unique type of constriction and its entrance is a special kind of
contraction.
 A culvert is an open channel, if partially full.
 Due to many flow controlling variables, flow characteristics are complicated.
 Flow controlling is complicated.
 Flow controlling variables are
a) Inlet geometry
b) Slope
c) Size
d) Roughness
e) Approach
f) Tail water condition
 A culvert may flow full if outlet is submerged
 The entrance of an ordinary culvert will not be submerged, if the head water is less
than a certain critical value H*.
 H* varies from 1.2 -1.5 times of height of culverts; upper limit is 1.5 d; 𝑑 = height
Hydraulically short culvert:
 A culvert usually with a square edge at the top of the entrance will not flow full even
if the entrance is below heard water level when the out let is not submerged.
 At such condition the flow entering the culvert will extract to a depth than the height
of the culvert barrel is a manner likely to the contraction of flow in the form of a jet
under sluice sate.
 This height velocity jet will continue through the barrel length but slowly due to
friction.
Page | 91 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet
  If the culvert is not long enough to allow the expanding depth of the flow the
contraction to rise and fill the barrel, it will never flow full.
 Such culvert is called hydraulically short, if allow called long.
Factor affecting hydraulically short or long culvert:
a) Barrel length d) Entrance geometry
b) Slope e) Heard water
c) Size f) Extract and outlet condition etc
Types of culverts flow:
 Culverts flow may be classified into six types
 A – Outlet submerged- type 1 (Like pipe flow)
 B – Outlet in submerged
1) Heard water greater than critical value
a) Hydraulically long- type 2 (Like pipe flow)
b) Hydraulically short- type 3 (Like orifice flow)
2) Hard water less than the critical value
a) Tail water higher than critical depth –type 4 (Like weir flow)
b) Tail water lower than critical depth
i. Slope subcritical-type 5 (Like weir flow)
ii. Slope supercritical-type 6 (Like weir flow)

4.16.2 Flow between Bridge Piers

 Flow passing through the obstruction is classified as least, moderate and complete
turbulent.
 More useful classification is subcritical and supercritical.
Nagler formula for discharge:

𝑉32 𝑉12
𝑄 = 𝐾𝑁 𝑏2 √2𝑔 (𝑦3 − 𝜃 ) √ℎ3 + 𝛽
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝐾𝑁 = a coefficient which depends on degree of channel construction and type of

obstruction. 𝜃 = adjustment factor to reduce depth 𝑦3 𝑡𝑜 𝑦2 .
𝛽 = velocity correction factor.
ℎ3 = back water, can be represented by h*
𝜃 → 0, for zero contraction effect.
𝜃 → high for shooting and turbulent flow. Ordinary value=0.3

Page | 92 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Page | 93 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet
 𝟏
𝑩
𝟐 𝟐

𝑩𝟏 𝑩𝟑
𝟏
𝑩
𝟐 𝟐

2
𝟏 3

𝒉𝟐

𝒉𝟑 = 𝒉

𝒚𝟏
𝒚𝟑
Q 𝒚𝟐

Figure 11.1: Flow through Obstruction (Definition Sketch)

The value of 𝛽 varies with conveyance ratio.

d’ Aubuisson formula for discharge:
𝑄 = 𝐾𝐴 𝑏2 𝑦3 (= 𝑦2 )√2𝑔ℎ3 + 𝑣12 ℎ∗ = ℎ3 = ℎ2
The assumption of 𝑦3 = 𝑦2 is not always true. For this reason this formula is called
empirical & approximate formula.
Yarnell’s Findings:
The following are extracted from the results of Yarnell’s investigation on bridge piers of
various shapes and sizes:
 The height of backwater due to the bridge piers varies directly with the depth of the
unobstructed channel.
 The Nagler, d’Aubuisson and Rehbok formulas give approximately correct results for
ordinary velocities when the proper coefficients are used, but they do not hold for
extremely high velocities.
 For flow of low velocities and least turbulence, the more efficient shape are lens-
shaped nose and tail, lens-shaped nose and semicircular tail, semicircular nose and
lens-shaped tail, convex nose and tail, semicircular nose and tail.
 Application of batter to the ends of piers slightly increases their hydraulic efficiency,
that is raises the value of 𝐾𝑁 and 𝐾𝐴 .

Page | 94 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

  Increasing the length of 4 times the width to 13 times the width has comparatively
little effect on its hydraulic efficiency. The optimum length-width ratio probably
varies with velocity and is generally between 4 and 7.
 Placing the piers at an angle with the current has an insignificant effect on the amount
of backwater if the angle is less than 10°. Placing the piers at 20° or more materially
increases the amount of backwater; the increase depends upon the quantity of flow,
the depth and the degree of channel contraction. In general, the values of 𝐾𝑁 and 𝐾𝐴
will decrease about 7% at 20°.

CHAPTER 5: STREAM DISCHARGE AND COASTAL ZONE

5.1 Introduction
It is far easier to measure the stage (or water height) of a stream than its discharge.
Discharge is measured by determining velocity profiles across the width and depth of the
stream and adding the discharge from each segment. An example was given in lab 1, where
you also found.
1. The wetted perimeter, 𝑝𝑤𝑒𝑡, or the length of the stream bed.
2. The cross section area, 𝐴 of a stream.
𝐴
3. The stream’s hydraulic radius, 𝑅 = 𝐴 .
𝑤𝑒𝑡

These quantities will be useful in Manning’s Equation for stream flow.

The stream discharge is measured for a large range of different stages (this may take
months to ensure a sufficient range of stages) so that in the future (provided the stream bed
does not change) discharge is found by measuring the stage and using the rating curve.

This rating curve is a way to estimate the discharge from the stage and to forecast higher
discharges on the basis of higher stages. Of course, the rating curve may not apply when
extrapolated beyond the range of observations. Thus discharge cannot be accurately
assessed for some record floods.
Each point on a stream has its own equation to relate discharge to stage. This equation has
the form,
𝑞 = 𝐾(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑏
Where 𝑞 is the discharge (𝑚3 𝑠 −1), 𝑍 is the stage. 𝐾, 𝑏 and 𝑧𝑜 are constant that have to be
determined. Thus, there are three unknowns.
Page | 95 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet
 In general, the higher the stage the faster the flow and the greater the cross-sectional area of
the stream. This implies that b>1. The stream basically stops flowing when it gets so
shallow that it is 𝑧0 .

5.2 Technique for Determining Rating Curve

The rating curve is based on data that includes the discharge at a number of different
stages. For example,
Stage, 𝑧(𝑚) Discharge, 𝑄(𝑚3 𝑠 −1 )
0.75 32.4
1.0 75.8
1.5 187.4
2.0 323.2
3.0 …………..

First, find 𝑧0 by graphing 𝑧 vs. 𝑞 and finding the value of z when 𝑞 = 0.

This yields 𝑧0 ≈ 0.45
Then to find 𝑘 and 𝑏 it is best to take the natural log of the rating curve,
log( 𝑞) = log( 𝑘) + 𝑏 log( 𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
This can be expressed in the form of,
𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥
Which is the equation of a straight line.
The technique (from elementary algebra) is to find the slope (𝑏) and intercept (log[ 𝑘]) of
this line by substituting two pairs of values of (𝑞, 𝑧) or
log( 323.2) = 5.78 = log(𝑘) + 𝑏 log( 1.55) = log(𝑘) + .44𝑏
log(75.8) = 4.33 = log(𝑘) + 𝑏 log 0.55) = log(𝑘) − 0.60𝑏
Solving yields 𝐾 = 175 and 𝑏 = 1.4. thus the rating curve is,
𝑞 = 175(𝑧 − 0.45)1.4
This can now be used to compute the discharge when 𝑧 = 3.0
𝑞 = 175(3.0 − .45)1.4 = 648.9 𝑚3 𝑠 −1

5.3 Coastal Zone

Definition and Profile

Page | 96 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Coastal zone is zone where the land meets the sea that strongly influenced by each other
process. This has broad term for area included the water and the adjacent shorelands.
Profile for coastal zone can be illustrated by some other feature’s definition (Arnott, 2010):
Offshore zone is portion of the profile where there is no significant transport of sediment
by wave action. The landward boundary is often defined as the outer limit of the breaker
zone.
Littoral zone is portion of the coastal profile where sediment can be transported by wave
action. The seaward limit is defined by the water depth at which significant sediment
transport by wave action ceases and the landward limit is the limit of (normal) wave action.
Nearshore zone is portion of the profile extending from the limit of significant sediment
transport by waves to the low tide line.
Shore or beach is portion of the profile subject to wave action and which is exposed as sub
aerial at least some of the time.
Foreshore is portion of the beach subject to wave action during non-storm conditions.
Backshore is portion of the beach subject to wave action only during storms.
Surf zone is zone of broken waves extending from the breaker zone to the foreshore.
Swash zone is zone of wave run-up on the beach and return of water in the form of
backwash. It varies with wave and slope conditions.
Intertidal zone is zone between high and low water (tide).
Shoreline is defined instantaneously as the intercept of the mean water level along the
beach.

Page | 97 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet

Source: Arnott, Robin.D. 2010. Introduction to Coastal Processes and Geomorphology,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

REFERENCES
1. Open Channel Hydraulics-V.T. Chow
2. Lecture notes of Dr. Atil Bulu
3. Flow in Open Channels- K. Subramanya

Page | 98 Sheikh Hefzul Bari, Lecturer, CE Dept., LU, Sylhet