United Nations

Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization

Zambia
Education Policy Review:
Paving the Way for SDG 4 –
Education 2030

September 2016
 Zambia
UNESCO
Education Policy Review

September 2016

ED-2016/WS/37
Foreword

Since it achieved independence in 1964, Zambia, in contrast to most of the countries

it borders, has experienced a period of political stability. With strong and sustained
economic growth over the last decade, Zambia is now classed as a lower middle-
income country. The Government’s commitment to education has been clear since
it passed the 1964 Education Act governing the financing and management of
education in Zambia. Education development has been among the Government’s
main priorities, as indicated by the stable share of government spending devoted to
education, as well as successive education sector plans (NIF-I, NIF-II, NIF-III) and
associated policy reforms.

Following a period of decline in education delivery and performance, due to growing

poverty and underinvestment in education between 1980 and 2001, Zambia has
undertaken considerable policy development and reform to meet evolving national
aspirations and social demands to improve its national education system. Free basic
education (FBE) was, for example, introduced in 2002, through the Basic Educational
Sub-sector Investment Programme (BESSIP). Such policy initiatives have resulted
in increased access to basic education, improved infrastructure, and enhanced
equity at primary level. Zambia is not only close to achieving universal primary
education (UPE), but is also approaching universal lower secondary education. The
Government’s current education strategy is to expand investment to develop upper
secondary education, technical education, vocational and entrepreneurship training
(TEVET), and higher education. This strategy is not only in line with the Education
2030 Agenda, but also drives to the country’s vision ‘to become a prosperous middle
income country by 2030’.

It is important to note that Zambia’s sustained economic growth has not yet been
translated into significant poverty reduction. Almost 60 per cent of the population
still live below the poverty line. Wide disparities exist between population strata,
as well as between urban and rural areas, particularly in education. Despite the
improvements made in education, huge challenges remain in terms of education
quality, relevance, internal efficiency, and equity, as well as in the effectiveness and
efficiency of educational service delivery. For example, notwithstanding the progress
made towards UPE, an estimated 195,582 Zambian children were out of school
in 2013 (World Bank, 2015). Furthermore, the transition rate to upper secondary
education has fallen steeply, from 50 per cent in 2007 to 37 per cent in 2014. The
dropout rates are significantly higher for orphans and vulnerable children (OVCs),
students from poorer families, and those attending schools in rural areas. Student

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 performances in national examinations, and national and international large-scale
assessments, are well below expectations, as witnessed by the country’s Southern and
Eastern African Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ) results.
Performance in Zambian schools remains below the minimum standards established
by the Ministry of Education (MoE).

Weak policy implementation, combined with inadequate funding, has undermined

the effectiveness and efficiency of education service delivery in Zambia. This was
particularly evident in the poor implementation of decentralization policy, inefficient
intra-sectoral budget allocation, and the erratic and often late release of the education
budget. All these difficulties have been exacerbated by weak education planning and
management.

More promisingly, however, Zambia is striving to address these challenges, though its
success will depend on how well these efforts are sustained. Under the revised Sixth
National Development Plan (SNDP), the National Implementation Framework (NIF)
III provides a comprehensive sector development plan with clear targets, aligned with
the national Vision 2030 as well as with the fourth Sustainable Development Goal,
to ensure inclusive and quality education for all. Given the recommendations of a
number of recent appraisals, this one included, it is expected that the Government
will make the necessary efforts to ensure an effective and efficient implementation of
its sector development plan.

This education policy review is UNESCO’s contribution to supporting Zambia in

this undertaking. Thanks to the CapED (Capacity Development for Education)
programme, UNESCO will be able to sustain its commitment to helping Zambia
address some of the recommendations of this policy review, particularly those related
to capacity development for the smooth implementation of its sector development
plan.

David Atchoarena
Director
Division for Policies
and Lifelong Learning Systems
Education Sector
UNESCO

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Table of Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1. The education policy review in Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2. Key findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3. Domain-specific issues identified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

System-wide policy and planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Teacher policies and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
TEVET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Youth and Adult literacy and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Monitoring and assessment of learning achievement (MALA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Structure of the report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Review method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Boundaries and limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Chapter 1 – Context of Education Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

1.1 The country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Demography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Societal aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

1.2 Overview of the education system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Constitutional and legal framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Education governance in Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Education decentralization in Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Education policy and planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Status and trends in education provision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

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 Chapter 2 – Education Sector: Overall Appraisal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.1 Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Early childhood care development and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Primary education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Secondary education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Tertiary education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

2.2 Quality and relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Teaching and learning conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Teachers’ qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Teacher education and supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

2.3 Equity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Gender disparities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Orphans and vulnerable children disparities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Out-of-school children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
MoGE’s equity interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Multi-sectoral interventions for inclusive education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

2.4 Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Literacy rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
School-life expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Student performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

2.5 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Public expenditure devoted to education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Performance relative to investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

2.6 Overall appraisal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Chapter 3 – Review of Priority Policy Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

3.1 System-wide policy and planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Policy issue 1: Ineffective implementation of the policy to decentralize education . . . 97
Policy issue 2: Weak budgetary performance: late, erratic, and inadequate funding . . 111
Policy issue 3: Inefficient intra-sectoral budget allocation and utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Policy issue 4: Weak national capacities for effective strategic planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

3.2 Teacher policies and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Current context of teacher education and policies in Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Policy issue 1: Low training capacity and inadequate teacher qualifications . . . . . . . . . . 139

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 Policy Issue 2: Inadequate continuous professional development programmes . . . . . 143
Policy Issue 3: Inadequate policies for remuneration and career opportunities . . . . . . 146
Policy Issue 4: Weak utilization of information and communications technology
for implementing continuing professional development programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Policy Issue 5: Lack of facilities and resources, and weak capacity and
qualifications of staff at teacher education institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Policy Issue 6: Low status, morale, and professionalism of teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

3.3 Technical Education, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Legal and policy framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
System steering and governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Training delivery: registered institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Access to and participation in formal TEVET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Labour market characteristics and employment policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Basic information on labour market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Demand for and supply of labour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Recent trends in labour force and youth employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Policy measures addressing issues of youth employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Private investment and entrepreneurship opportunities and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Key policy Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Policy issue 1: Limited and inequitable access to TEVET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Policy issue 2: The reservation about the roll-out of the two-tier system
being introduced by the Zambian authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Policy issue 3: Lack of public funding for TEVET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Policy issue 4: Weak TEVET responsiveness to the labour market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Policy issue 5: Curriculum development not relevant to labour market
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Policy issue 6: Lack of quality trainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Policy Issue 7: Low quality of training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

3.4 Youth and Adult literacy and education (YALE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Introduction: Context and policy environment of YALE in Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
YALE institutions and provision in Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Brief history, status of and trends in YALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Key issues and challenges in YALE in Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Policy issue 1: Lack of a comprehensive national YALE policy and weak
reflection of lifelong learning perspective in YALE programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Policy issue 2: Limited and inequitable access to YALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Policy issue 3: Inadequate funding, structures and capacity for YALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Policy issue 4: Issues related to quality, results, efficiency, and reputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

7
 3.5 Monitoring and assessment of students’ learning achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
The current status of MALA in Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Policy issue 1: Absence of a formative orientation of the current MALA system . . . . 264
Policy issue 2: Lack of use of MALA data to inform policy-making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Policy issue 3: Inadequate orientation of the current provision of continuous
professional development (CPD) programmes for teachers in MALA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Policy issue 4: Lack of a comprehensive M&E system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

8
List of Tables

Table 1 Trends in GDP growth (2005–2015) 40

Table 2 Development measures – comparator countries/regions 55
Table 3 Gross enrolment rates (%) in pre-school education 57
Table 4 Transition rate from primary to lower secondary education (%) 59
Table 5 Gross enrolment ratio for upper secondary education 61
Table 6 Percentage of 10–14-year-old children attending school by survivorship
of parents 74
Table 7 Percentage of Zambian out-of-school children: Primary (ages 7-13) 76
Table 8 Zambia’s performance: Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels
of adult literacy, 2005–2014 80
Table 9 School life expectancy by sex 82
Table 10 Percentage of repeaters in primary and secondary education 83
Table 11 Trends in public expenditure on education 2006-2015
(nominal ZMW million) 86
Table 12 Trends of education financing by cooperating partners (CP) (US$, millions) 87
Table 13 Consequences of partial release of non-PE component by MoFNP 112
Table 14 Education funding rates and execution rates, 2013 (million ZMW) 113
Table 15 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP in SADC countries 116
Table 16 Share of government expenditure by educational level (2006-2015) 119
Table 17 Trends in government expenditure per student by level of education (ZMW) 120
Table 18 Country comparison in TEVET spending as a % of government spending 121
Table 19 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government
expenditure on education in SADC countries 125
Table 20 A review of planning and management capacity within Zambia’s MoE 128
Table 21 Number of registered institutions by ownership, 2008-2013 171
Table 22 Student enrolment in TEVET by programme, 2008-2012 173
Table 23 Share of intake at public/Government TEVET institutions by NQF Level,
2013 174
Table 24 Percentage distribution of employed population (15 years and older)
by level of education and employment status, Zambia 2012 175
Table 25 Youth (15-35 years) unemployment rate by age-group, sex and rural/urban,
Zambia 2012 176
Table 26 Percentage distribution of employed population (15 years and older)
by industry and employment Sector, Zambia 2012 178
Table 27 Average monthly earnings (ZMK) for paid workers by education level
attained, sex and rural/urban, Zambia 2012 180
Table 28 Number and share of workers by education level, 2005-2012 182

9
 Table 29 Trends in the composition of labour force by economic sector/
industry, 2005-2012 182
Table 30 Zambia’s Doing Business rankings and distance to frontier score, 2015 & 2016 185
Table 31 Overall TVET providers and enrolment in the SADC countries 189
Table 32 Public expenditure on TVET as % of total public expenditure/budget
on education 204
Table 33 Potential contributions to TEVET 208
Table 34 Number and type of TEVET teaching staff 220
Table 35 TVET quality/efficiency indicators 227
Table 36 Enrolment in literacy centres in Zambia in 2014 235
Table 37 Trends in youth and adult literacy in Zambia, 1990-2015 238
Table 38 Domain issues by implications for education system’s outcomes,
effectiveness and efficiency 286
Table 39.1 System-wide Policy and Planning (SWPP) 288
Table 39.2 Teacher Policies and Development 289
Table 39.3 Technical Education, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training (TEVET) 290
Table 39.4 Youth and Adult Literacy and Education (YALE) 291
Table 39.5 Monitoring and Assessment of Learning Achievement (MALA) 292
Table 40 Recommendations by estimated level of priority, difficulty, cost and
time frame 293

10 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

List of Figures

Figure 1 Map of Zambia 37

Figure 2 Pyramid of Zambian population 39
Figure 3 Growth in Zambian population (1960–2015) 39
Figure 4 Governance structure showing different actors at the district level 48
Figure 5 Structure of the Zambia’s education system 51
Figure 6 An outline of Zambia’s education structure 52
Figure 7 GER and adjusted net enrolment ratios (%) in primary education in 2013 58
Figure 8 Trends in primary education completion rate in the SADC countries, 2000-2012 58
Figure 9 Gross enrolment ratios in lower secondary education in 2013 59
Figure 10 Completion rate for lower secondary education 60
Figure 11 Trends in completion rate for upper secondary education, 2000-2012 62
Figure 12 Number of students in higher education per 100,000 inhabitants 64
Figure 13 Pupil-teacher and pupil-trained teacher ratio in primary education, 2013 65
Figure 14 Trends in gender parity index in primary education, 2000-2012 72
Figure 15 Gender parity index in secondary education 73
Figure 16 Percentage of Zambian out-of-school adolescents in 2007: secondary
(ages 14-18) 76
Figure 17 Percentage of primary school-age children (ages 7-13) out of school 77
Figure 18 Percentage of secondary school children (ages 14-18) out of school 77
Figure 19 Adult literacy rate (15 years and above) 80
Figure 20 School life expectancy (years) 81
Figure 21 Public expenditure on education as % of GDP 88
Figure 22 Public expenditure on education as % of total public expenditure 88
Figure 23 National performance on reading and mathematics assessments (SACMEQ III) 89
Figure 24 Proposed Zambia (National) Qualifications Framework 170
Figure 25 Trends in labour force participation rate and unemployment rate,
by age groups (2005, 2008, and 2012) 183
Figure 26 How Zambia and comparator economies rank on the ease of doing business 186
Figure 27 Rankings on Doing Business topics – Zambia 186
Figure 28 Distance to frontier scores on Doing Business topics – Zambia 187
Figure 29 Trends in youth and adult literacy in Zambia, 1990-2015 239
Figure 30 Emerging learning society or lifelong learning system in Zambia
(for discussion) 246
Figure 31 Adults age 15-49 by literacy status and gender 248
Figure 32 Adults age 15-49 by highest level of schooling attended or completed 248
Figure 33 Adult age 15-49 literacy rates by place of residence 249
Figure 34 Adult (15-49) literacy rate by gender and province 249

11
 List of Abbreviations

AATAZ Anti-AIDS Teachers Association of Zambia

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
AEP Alternative education programmes
ALE Adult literacy education
AWPB Annual work plans and budgets
BESSIP Basic Education Sub-Sector Investment Programme
CA School-based continuous assessment
Camfed Campaign for Female Education
CapED Capacity Development for Education
CBA Classroom-based assessment
CBO Community-based organization
CBU Copperbelt University
CPs Cooperating partners
CPD Continuing professional development
CSO Central Statistical Office
DEB District education board
DECC District Education Coordinating Committee
DEMC District Education Management Committee
DFID Department for International Development of United Kingdom
DHS Demographic and Health Survey
DODE Directorate of Distance Education
DOL Division of Labour
DRC Democratic Republic of Congo
EBS Education Broadcasting Services
ECCDE Early Childhood Care, Development and Education
ECZ Examinations Council of Zambia
EFA Education for All
EGMA Early Grade Mathematics Assessment
EGRA Early Grade Reading Assessment
EMIS Education management information system
EPDC Education Policy Data Centre
ESP Education Sector Plan
FNDP Fifth National Development Plan
FTI Fast Track Initiative
G4CT Grade 4 Competency Test
G5NA Grade 5 National Assessment
G9NA Grade 9 National Assessment
GBS General budget support

12
GER Gross enrolment ratio
GNP Gross national product
GDP Gross domestic product
GPE Global Partnership for Education
GPI Gender Parity Index
HIV Human Immuno-deficiency Virus
IBE International Bureau of Education
ICT Information and communication technology
IDDC International Disability and Development Consortium
ILSA International large-scale assessment
INSET In-service Education and Training
IOB Institute of Development Policy and Management of Netherlands
ITN Insecticide-Treated Bed Net
JASZ Joint Assistance Strategy for Zambia
LFFTE Limited Financial Flow Tracking Exercise
LFS Labour Force Survey
LSEN Learners with special educational needs
MCDMCH Ministry of Community Development, Mother and Child Health
MCDSS Ministry of Community Development and Social Services
MoESP Ministry of Education Strategic Plan
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MECES Ministry of Education and Culture under the Examinations Section
MESVTEE Ministry of Education, Science, Vocational Training, and Early Education
M&E Monitoring and evaluation
MoGE Ministry of General Education
MoHE Ministry of Higher Education
MSTVT Ministry of Science, Technology, and Vocational Training
MTEF Medium-Term Expenditure Framework
NAC National AIDS Council
NE National examinations
NER Net enrolment ratio
NGO Non-governmental organization
NatCom National Commission (for UNESCO)
NIF National Implementation Framework
NLSA National large-scale assessment
NSC National Science Centre
ODL Open and distance learning
OVC Orphans and vulnerable children
PBR Pupil-book ratio
PEO Provincial education office
PER Public expenditure review

13
 PPP Public-private partnership
PECC Provincial Education Coordinating Committee
PETS Public Expenditure Tracking Survey
PISA Programme for International Student Assessment
PITC Policy and Implementation Technical Committee
PMTCT Preventing mother-to-child transmission
PRB Primary Reading Programme
PRBS Poverty reduction budget support
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
PS Permanent secretary
PTR Pupil-teacher ratio
READ Russian Education Aid for Development
SACMEQ Southern and Eastern African Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality
SADC Southern Africa Development Community
SBS Sector budget support
SHN School health and nutrition
SNDP Sixth National Development Plan
SNIEU Special Needs Inclusive Education Unit
SPRINT School Programme of In-service for the Term
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
SWAp Sector-wide approach
TBS Target budget support
TDP Teacher Development Programme
TEVET Technical Education, Vocational and EntrepeneurshipTraining
TEVETA Technical Education, Vocational and EntrepeneurshipTraining Authority
TNDP Third National Development Plan
UCLES University of Cambridge Local Examination Syndicate
UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics
UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNZA University of Zambia
USAID United States Agency for International Development
WFP World Food Programme
WHO World Health Organization
ZACODE Zambian College of Distance Education
ZAMREN Zambia Education Research Network
ZESSTA Zambia Education Sector Support and Technical Assistance
Z-EPR Zambian Education Policy Review
ZLS Zambia Library Service
ZNBC Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation

14
Acknowledgements

This UNESCO report is the result of a collaborative effort involving the Government
of Zambia, UNESCO, and a number of independent international experts. Initiated
by Francesc Pedró (UNESCO) and Bruno Mesquita (UNESCO), the education
policy review of Zambia was led by Hilaire Mputu (UNESCO) who supervised and
coordinated the work of the international consultants.

The review team was composed of five experts, four international consultants and
one UNESCO staff member, to whom UNESCO would like to express its deep
appreciation. The review of system-wide policy and planning was led by Hilaire
Mputu (UNESCO staff) who also prepared the first two chapters of this report and
compiled the inputs from the four international consultants. The review of teacher
policy and development was led by Anil Kanjee (Tshwane University of Technology,
South Africa), with the support of Chinapah Vinayagum and Jared Odero (both of
Stockholm University, Sweden). The review of TEVET was conducted by Roland
Dubois (Consultant, TVET and Youth Employment Programme, Mauritius), with
the support of Hilaire Mputu. The review of youth and adult literacy and education
(YALE) was conducted by Justin Ellis (consultant, Namibia), with the support of
Hilaire Mputu and Inès Boumaiza. The review of monitoring and assessment of
learning achievement (MALA) was conducted by Chinapah Vinayagum, with the
support of Jared Odero.

UNESCO would also like to thank a number of other contributors for their inputs
at different stages of the review’s development process. Mathieu Lacasse (consultant)
contributed as research assistant to the preparation of the report. Inès Boumaiza
(consultant) assisted in summarizing the main findings of the review. A number
of UNESCO staff also provided thoughtful feedback to strengthen the parts of the
review that focused on their own areas of expertise: Hélène Guiol (TEVET), Florence
Ssereo (MALA and teacher), Ulrike Hanemann (YALE), Mari Yasunaga (YALE), and
Mariana Kitsiona (MALA). Lina Jiang and Jyoti Rahaman contributed with proof-
reading of this document.

This report would not have been realized without the support of each of these
contributors. What made the review a rewarding experience for all involved was
the dedication of the national team, headed by Cleophas Takaiza, and the valuable
support of the Zambia National Commission for UNESCO, as well as other team
members from the Ministry of Education, Science, Vocational Training, and Early
Education (MESVTEE). The national team made a substantial contribution, not

15
 only by producing the country’s self-assessment (background report), but also by
facilitating the review process, particularly during the fact-finding mission. In fact,
the most enriching part of the whole process was the five-day mission during which
Zambian professionals and partners had the opportunity to offer their assessment,
and set out their needs and expectations. Their contribution to the identification of
policy issues and formulation of recommendations was a great asset in our work.
In other words, they have set the agenda for the review and, to their credit, have
made it a country-driven undertaking rather than one propelled by UNESCO or by
international experts.

We would like to take this opportunity to thank a number of Zambian officials for
their hospitality and for facilitating the work of the review team. Our deep gratitude
goes to: Chishimba Nkosha (PS, Education), Patrick Nkanza (PS, Science and
Technology), Ndakala Charles (SG, Zambia Natcom), Hendrix Kapaipi (Zambia
Delegation to UNESCO), Cleophas Takaiza (TEVETA), Owen Ngemezulu (Planning
Directorate), Lancelot Mutale (Planning Directorate), David Ndopu (Planning
Directorate), Michael Chilala (ECZ), Heather Munachonga (NatCom), Nondo
Chilonga (NatCom), Esvah Chizambe (Teacher Education) and Dennis Banda
(UNZA), and Gift Masaiti (UNZA).

Last but not the least, UNESCO sincerely thanks all those who consented to be
interviewed for the review. They include representatives from development and
cooperating partners (AfDB, DFID, Irish Aid, JICA, VVOB, UNICEF, ZESSTA), civil
society organizations (CAMFED, People’s Action Forum, ZANEC), teacher unions
(BETUZ, ZNUT), academia (UNZA), and the private sector.

16
Executive Summary

1. The education policy review in Zambia

To support the Zambian Government in achieving the goals of the Education 2030
Agenda, this education policy review offers an analysis of the country’s education
system from a sector-wide perspective, with a focus on Zambia’s five national priority
domains for education:

• System-wide Policy and Planning (SWPP).

• Teacher policies and development.
• Technical Education, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training (TEVET).
• Youth and Adult Literacy and Education (YALE).
• Monitoring and Assessment of Learning Achievement (MALA).

With the aim to sustainably achieve equitable and inclusive access, and quality of
education, including through enhanced efficiency and effectiveness of education
service delivery, key issues and challenges specific to each of priority domains have
been identified. Though, a number of problems identified under the area of system-
wide policy and planning are cross-cutting and overarching issues, including the
performance of the decentralization policy, the level of education financing, the
intra-sectoral budget allocation and use, and the sector capacity for planning and
management. These are structural issues that affect all other strategic policy domains
and that need to be addressed if the educational authorities have to drive Zambia
forward in achieving its educational goals and national Vision 2030. Therefore,
prioritizing these issues will contribute to addressing all other area-specific issues
from a more sector-wide perspective.

2. Key findings
Zambia has achieved remarkable progress in improving access and equity in
education, and provides close to universal education at primary level. In 2014, the
gross enrolment ratio reached 127 per cent for primary education1, with a completion
rate of 99 per cent. In the same year, 89.4 per cent of children completing primary
level education made the transition to lower secondary level, an increase of nearly
36  per cent over 10 years. Zambia has already achieved gender parity at primary
1 Some differences have been noticed between the indicators provided by the Zambia’s MoE and those provided
by UNESCO. We suspect that these discrepancies are due to the difference between the demographic data
used by these two institutions.

17
 level and is rated among the best in sub-Saharan Africa for gender parity at lower
and upper secondary. There is no doubt that Zambia’s efforts to improve access to
education in the past years have, overall, been a success. However, not every initiative
has worked. For instance, the implementation of pre-service and in-service training
programmes for teachers appears to have had little effect.

Despite the achievements and strengths of Zambia’s education system, challenges

remain, among them the need to further improve the quality and relevance, equity,
effectiveness, and efficiency of the education it provides.

With regard to quality and relevance, Zambia still struggles with high teacher-pupil
ratios, which, at 48:1, remain among the highest in sub-Saharan Africa. Furthermore,
the limited classroom space and the prevalence of double or triple shifts among
teachers that have resulted from increased school attendance have also restricted the
number of instructional hours and affected the quality of education. The shortage of
qualified teachers and the failure to recruit, train, and retain a sufficient number of
academically qualified candidates for teaching positions also undermine education
quality.

In terms of equity, Zambia still faces numerous challenges. As noted above, despite
near universal primary education, an estimated 195,582 children were not in school
in 2013 (World Bank, 2015). Many disparities exist with regard to geographical
location, social class, and cultural behaviour, while the plight of orphans and
vulnerable children remains a major obstacle to equity in education.

Although enrolment rates have been increasing throughout the country, the overall
quality of education raises concerns. This is due, in particular, to the poor quality
of teaching, the shortage of qualified teachers, the low standard of education and
training, the ineffective use of curricula, and the lack of textbooks, which have led
to poor performance in national examinations as well as in large-scale national
and international assessments. Zambia has scored below MESVTEE targets in all
national examinations and was ranked 13th out of 14 countries in the SACMEQ III
(2007) study, in both reading and mathematics. Although the adult literacy rate
increased from 69.1 per cent in 2001 to 71.2 per cent in 2010, it remains almost 10
per cent below the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) sub-regional
average. Zambia, therefore, faces significant challenges in enhancing the quality and
effectiveness of its education.

While the system has been able to raise educational attainment at primary and lower
secondary levels, this success has not given rise to a similar increase in upper-secondary
and tertiary level attainment. Nor has it been translated into significant improvements

18 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

in literacy levels among children and adults. Despite the policies implemented by the
Zambian authorities over the past few years, the system continues to underperform
in comparison to countries which invest less in education. This raises questions as to
the efficiency of the system and, importantly, its capacity to achieve the goals of the
Education 2030 Agenda or to contribute to achieving Zambia’s vision of becoming a
prosperous middle-income country by 2030.

The effectiveness and efficiency of the education system has been a recurrent theme
throughout the review of the five national education priority domains.

3. Domain-specific issues identified

The barriers highlighted in this overall assessment of the educational situation in
Zambia – barriers to greater access, higher quality, and inclusive education, as well
as to greater effectiveness and efficiency of education – present multiple aspects that
need to be addressed. Due to the wide variety of alternatives and possible solutions,
the proposals set out in this section are not the only possibilities, but rather a selection
reflecting the five priority domains under examination in this policy review.

3.1 System-wide policy and planning

The four major pillars of an education system, access, equity, quality, and efficiency,
cannot be effectively achieved without informed and evidence-based governance and
policies, effective planning processes, and rigorous implementation strategies and
actions. To this end, the Government of Zambia has established a tradition of strategic
planning, with the national development plan serving as the cornerstone for sectoral
plans, including the education strategic plan (ESP). Zambia’s current development
agenda, as articulated by its national Vision 2030, focuses on the realization of the
revised SNDP and the achievement of the country’s goal of becoming a prosperous
middle-income country by 2030. The education sector’s NIF III (2011–2015) and
the ESP for the period 2016 to 2020 provide a framework for its contribution to the
national development endeavour, as well as to internationally agreed education goals,
in the context of the Education 2030 Agenda.

The review of system-wide policy and planning found that Zambia has in place good
policy and institutional provisions with regard to educational planning, governance,
and management. The challenges concern the implementation of education policies
and programmes, which is often hampered by ineffective accountability mechanisms,
poor regulatory frameworks, weak enforcement of laws and regulations, and, to
some extent, resourcing issues, such as the shortage of skilled staff. These deficiencies
manifest themselves through a number of issues that cut across the five policy domains

19
 analyzed in this review. These include: (i) ineffective implementation of the policy
to decentralize education; (ii) late, erratic, and inadequate funding; (iii) inefficient
intra-sectoral budget allocation and utilization; and (iv) weak national capacities for
effective sector planning and management, including monitoring and evaluation.

The review proposes some policy recommendations to address these key issues.

Policy issues Recommendations

1. Ineffective 1.1 
Establish a clear and strong regulatory framework, backed by
implementation of the renewed political commitment and adequate funding to support the
policy to decentralize implementation of decentralization in education.
education 1.2 Ensure that staff training and profiles match the assignment and expected
performance, namely the operationalization of the regulatory framework
for effective implementation of decentralization. In addition, MoGE should
introduce systematic in-service training for district education board (DEB)
staff to update them with new knowledge and skills in order to enhance
their capacity to innovate and support them to cope with emerging
challenges.
1.3 Promote a management approach that reinforces complementarity
in roles and authority between the centre and the sub-level units
(DEBs, PTAs, communities, schools) in order to counterbalance the risks
associated with abuse of authority within DEBs or excessive control from
the centre.
1.4 Develop and disseminate transparent and clear guidelines on grant
distribution to DEB officers and school principals, with appropriate
training to ensure better understanding and use of the grants.
1.5 Establish a specific monitoring and technical support mechanism to
anticipate and address critical issues. A forum for the communication and
exchange of experience and best practice can be created to serve this
purpose.

2. Weak budget 2.1 Increase the budgetary allocation to education, in line with the SADC
performance: late, erratic, average (around 17 per cent of total government expenditure), and
and inadequate funding ensure that the Ministry of Finance disburses funds in full and in a timely
fashion to MoGE and MoHE in order to effectively implement national
education policies.
2.2 Further strengthen the link between planning and budgeting, particularly
by enhancing outcome-based budgeting, in order to ensure that
education funding is properly targeted and achieves the intended results.
2.3 Develop and/or strengthen mechanisms for permanent monitoring of
sector budget performance through the establishment of an effective
budget information system, with periodic benchmarks and warnings in
order to anticipate problems (e.g. delays in disbursements or execution)
and ensure timely interventions.
2.4 Address the concerns of development partners, in light of declining aid to
education and the departure of some cooperating partners, by enhancing
transparency, efficiency, and accountability in the use of education
resources.
2.5 Further strengthen and modernize the financial management information
system (FMIS), with skilled staff and appropriate software tools, to provide
accurate and timely budgeting and financial information across the
government system and to the education ministries, in particular.

20
 Policy issues Recommendations

3. Inefficient intra-sectoral 3.1 Ensure a harmonized expansion of different education sub-sectors,

budget allocation and through a balanced intra-sectoral allocation, taking into account the
utilization necessary articulation between the education sub-sectors and the
particular roles expected from TEVET and higher education, as key drivers
of the social and economic development to sustain Zambia’s 2030 vision.
3.2 Ensure that the rebalancing of intra-sectoral budget allocations to pre-
primary and post-basic education levels (TEVET and higher education)
is accompanied with effective equity and inclusion policies, in order to
maximize the impact of the limited public resources for education.
3.3 Address structural inefficiencies in resource management in higher
education.
3.4 Increase public expenditure on TEVET to enhance diversified skills training,
needed to sustain economic growth and achieve Zambia’s ambition to
become a prosperous middle-income country by 2030.

4. Weak national 4.1 Conduct a capacity needs assessment in education planning and
capacities for effective management, addressing the main capacity dimensions, i.e. individual,
strategic planning and organizational, institutional, and knowledge base capacities.
management of education 4.2 Based on the findings from the needs assessment, formulate a
development, including comprehensive capacity development strategy for education planning
plans implementation, and management, including all relevant levels of education governance
monitoring, and evaluation (central, province, district, and local).
4.3 Enhance the Planning Directorate’s human resource management
function.
4.4 Further promote the culture of planning, monitoring and evaluation
(M&E), and accountability within the education system. Decision-makers,
partners, learners, and users of education services should be sensitized
to the critical importance of producing reliable data and effectively
implementing the education planning cycle (analysis, strategic planning,
implementation, and M&E).

3.2 Teacher policies and development

Numbering more than 93,000, teachers constitute the majority of Zambia’s civil
servants, and their salaries represent the largest single component of public spending
on education. This means that teaching must be a key area of focus in current
education reform, especially as Zambia has continuously experienced an acute
shortage of qualified teachers due to a combination of factors, including low capacity
of teacher training institutions, high attrition rates, and the impact of HIV/AIDS
(UNESCO, 2015).

In response to these issues and the imperative to achieve education quality targets,
MESVTEE, under NIF III (2011–2015), launched a number of policy actions
intended to produce a quantitative and qualitative improvement in teacher supply
and management. These included: (i) improving the quality and relevance of teacher
education; (ii) increasing the output of pre-service teacher education in order to
achieve Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and EFA goals; (iii) improving

21
 efficiency and effectiveness in college education; and (iv) improving equity in teacher
training.

To complement teachers’ pre-service training, continuing professional development

(CPD) and leadership development programmes were established to enhance the
quality of education by providing teachers with opportunities to upgrade their
qualifications, support curriculum development, and advance their careers. It
is in this context that the Government developed the Teaching Skills Book, based
on experiences of school-based CPD through lesson study, to help teachers and
educators develop learner-centered lessons. The country’s commitment to supporting
and improving teachers’ skills is evident through the various teacher professional
development programmes provided by organizations such as public and private
teacher training colleges, public and private universities, and non-governmental
organizations (NGOs). Teacher resource centres represent another avenue for
providing professional development programmes for teachers. These centres have
been established at different levels of the system and are operational at the provincial,
regional, and district levels.

Despite these efforts, Zambia still faces challenges and issues concerning teachers
and teaching. The review team tried to identify and address them, providing
recommendations which are listed below and further described in Section 3.2 of the
report.

Policy issues Recommendations

1. Low teacher training 1.1 Set up an integrated implementation plan with a road map to expand and
capacity and inadequate improve the access to and quality of teacher training programmes in light
teacher qualifications of the newly revised curriculum for pre-service and in-service provision.
Institutions involved in teacher education should be properly consulted
on the implementation process.
1.2 Improve the capacity of teacher training institutions to absorb more
trainees, focusing on both facilities and the knowledge and skills of
lecturers and trainers.
1.3 Implement targeted recruitment strategies to enrol higher numbers of
students into mathematics, science, and technology teacher education
programmes.
1.4 Provide greater training opportunities for teachers from community
schools, including specialized programmes that account for the unique
needs of these teachers.

22 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 Policy issues Recommendations

2. Inadequate continuous 2.1 Institutionalize a system to improve coordination and harmonization

professional development among providers and evaluators of teacher training programmes in
(CPD) programmes order to improve teaching and learning processes, and students’ learning
outcomes.
2.2 Prioritize the improvement of teacher resource centres at the different
levels of the system to support effective teacher development
programmes, and restructure continuing professional development
programme to reflect the reality of classroom conditions.
2.3 Further develop capacities at national and sub-national levels for
monitoring and evaluation of teaching and learning processes, through
improved teaching practice opportunities in pre-service programmes and
in-service CPD.
2.4 Strengthen monitoring and evaluation of CPD programmes to better
understand its impact on teachers’ performance and behaviour, as well as
on the quality of education.

3. Inadequate policies for 3.1 Revisit existing salary scales and incentive structures to encourage
teacher remuneration and and facilitate improvements in the status and conditions of teachers
career opportunities and teacher educators and to re-invigorate the teaching profession.
Specifically, practices, which lead to primary school teachers being
considered inferior to secondary school teachers should be discouraged by
ensuring that teachers are remunerated according to their qualifications
and experience.
3.2 Develop specific career pathways for the teaching profession at the
different levels of the education sector through appropriate training,
deployment, and remuneration schemes to ensure that the most qualified
teachers continue to address the challenge of improving learning for
all children. Specifically, teachers should be encouraged to obtain the
highest qualifications possible, including diplomas and degrees (post-
graduate or masters), including in primary education, and be rewarded
accordingly. Primary teachers should not have to enter secondary schools
to improve their salaries.

4. Weak utilization 4.1 Equip schools and teacher training centres with modern ICT tools to
of information and support teaching and learning, as well as teacher CPD, and provide
communication technology technology-skilled personnel to support schools in enhancing their use of
for implementing ICT.
continuous professional 4.2 Make available effective programmes, and increase access to ICT tools,
development programmes to improve teachers’ and instructors’ use of basic ICT and pedagogical
skills for improving learning and teaching, and develop teacher CPD.
Specifically, support networks are required so that teachers can benefit
from face-to-face and virtual discussion platforms, and share experiences
and learning materials.
4.3 Encourage the combination of online and offline teaching and learning
resources among teachers and students. When there is no internet
connection, it is still possible to access offline applications. Including non-
digital resources is equally important for interaction.
4.4 Promote consultations among users in order to agree on the best ICT
solution. Some low-cost ICT solutions are as effective as some more
expensive platforms.
4.5 Increase access to ICT tools by improving infrastructure in rural teacher
training institutions. This enhances the capacity of users since it increases
access points.

23
 Policy issues Recommendations

5. Lack of facilities and 5.1 Greater investment is required to improve facilities and provide relevant
resources and weak resources for all teacher training institutions to support INSET. To this
capacity and qualifications end, the national education budget should include line items for INSET
of staff at teacher programmes.
education institutions 5.2 Effective capacity development programmes should be put in place to
enhance the capacity and skills of current academic and support staff. An
academic staff development unit should be created, either centrally or
locally in all training colleges.
5.3 Strengthen existing capacity by employing competent staff to manage
and coordinate INSET activities.
5.4 Monitoring and evaluation of CPD is necessary to understand capacity
limitations and to develop mechanisms for sustainability.
5.5 Establish regulatory frameworks at decentralized levels with authority,
management, and funding to support quality training for staff at teacher
training institutions.

6. Low status, morale, and 6.1 Prioritize the effective functioning of the Teaching Council of Zambia (TCZ)
professionalism of teachers by ensuring the availability of funds as well as staff. Specifically, efforts
should focus on sensitizing teachers to the roles and responsibilities of the
TCZ and encouraging them to begin the process of registration.
6.2 Ensure that an integrated policy framework for providing continuing
professional development programmes is aligned with the systems and
policies of the TCZ. Specifically, this framework should be aligned to a
revised salary structure that rewards teachers’ efforts towards CPD.

3.3 TEVET

Zambia recognizes the need to promote TEVET as a means of providing young

people and adults with the practical knowledge and skills necessary for economic
and income growth, poverty reduction, employment, productivity, and human
development. Public TEVET programmes are managed by a range of ministries,
while non-formal TEVET programmes are run by private-sector and community-
based providers. The principal challenge is to improve access to high-quality, relevant
programmes taught by qualified teachers. In order to improve TEVET in Zambia, the
review team identified a series of pressing issues that must be addressed, including:
(i)  limited access to TEVET programmes; (ii)  unpreparedness of young people
for the world of work; (iii) a lack of financial support and funding; (iv) the need
to improve quality and responsiveness to labour market needs; (v) the need for a
curriculum better-aligned with labour market requirements; (vi) a lack of quality
trainers; and (vii) a lack of quality training programmes. The review team set out a
series of recommendations to address these issues, summarized below and expanded
upon in Section 3.3 of this report.

24 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 Policy issues Recommendations

1. Limited and inequitable 1.1 Expand the delivery facilities of TEVET by: (i) promoting collaboration with
access to TEVET employers in the delivery of TEVET by devising adequate incentives; (ii)
constructing new TEVET institutions, the rehabilitation of existing ones,
and the maintenance of appropriate infrastructure.
1.2 Re-brand TEVET so that it is viewed more positively and provide pathways
to further training. To achieve this: (i) Students should be well-informed
of the opportunities that TEVET can offer and view TEVET as an attractive
pathway. Students should also have access to a variety of innovative,
industry-led programmes that prepare them for the workplace. In
addition, the qualifications framework should be made fully operational
and appropriate counselling services should be introduced to provide
young people with relevant information on existing training and their
future career; (ii) Centres of excellence should be established for different
trades/fields within urban areas. These centres can offer a higher level of
training for those who are interested in pursuing higher level training or
upgrading their skills.
1.3 Expand TEVET training opportunities to ensure inclusiveness and equity
by: (i) promoting trade tests and recognition of prior learning for young
people already at work; (ii) identifying a number of training centres in rural
areas to become leading training centres and providing them with fully
equipped mobile training units so that they can move from place to place,
also interchanging equipment depending on the needs of these areas; (iii)
providing incentives to attract potential students from the most vulnerable
groups as they are less likely to enrol in education and are more likely to
drop out of school; (iv) revitalising traditional apprenticeship training as
it is a means to improve the skills of large numbers of young people in
rural sectors of the economy; (v) ensuring safety in TVET institutions and
other learning settings for all students and teachers, particularly females,
who are the most vulnerable group. These institutions must cater to the
specific needs of the learners, particularly the needs of girls and people
with physical disabilities.

2. The reservation about 2.1 It is recommended that the pilot be carefully studied and analysed, taking
the roll-out of the two-tier into account labour-market demand and the resources available at every
system being introduced stage, before any clear decision is taken as to whether the two-tier system
by the Zambian authorities should be extended to other schools.
2.2 Provide proper and early counseling services and career guidance for
students in order to help them make informed decisions, particularly
during their transition from lower to upper secondary school, so that they
can choose an appropriate stream according to their abilities and desires.
2.3 Promote/develop effective cooperation between general education
schools and TEVET institutions by ways of sharing teachers, programmes
and facilities, as well as the institutional arrangements for awarding
relevant certificates to those students who successfully complete
vocationalised programmes.

25
 Policy issues Recommendations

3. Inadequate public 3.1 Improve funding to TEVET institutions in order for them to produce
funding for TEVET adequate number of quality skilled workers needed to achieve the
country’s social and economic development vision. Budget allocated
must be commensurate with the number of TEVET graduates that need
to be produced. In light of the international trends and the SADC average
public expenditure to TVET, Zambia should increase its funding of TEVET
to at least between 3 per cent and 4 per cent of its education budget.
3.2 Develop and implement a mechanism for sustainable financing of TEVET.
In this context, further policy discussion and, if necessary, international
technical assistance would be required to revisit the current funding
system (institutional grants and TEVET Fund) to make it more transparent
and inclusive. A competitive funding system can be introduced to direct
the development of public and private TVET institutions in response to
demand from enterprises and individuals.
3.3 Consider the introduction of a more realistic costing structure where
the students pay a smaller proportion of actual training costs in public
institutions. As realistic fees could exclude those who are unable to
pay, Government should introduce targeted programmes, such as
scholarships, reduced subsidized fees, or soft loans for learners who can
not afford to pay the fees. Training voucher schemes might be considered
for students from vulnerable groups, including, specifically, those from
rural areas.
3.4 Explore the possibility of introducing a training levy grant scheme on a
sectoral basis, as a means of building up a pool of funds to support TEVET
provision. Prior consultation with employers should take place to decide
on a pilot sectoral scheme. These employers could either directly sponsor
the training of their employees or contribute to a training levy based on
a percentage of their enterprise payrolls. In return, they can be refunded
part of the training costs incurred.
3.5 Provide incentives and strengthen partnerships with non-public
stakeholders and industry to leverage more funding from the private
sector, bring on board more private investors, and seek external grants
and other contribution, such as equipment and new technologies.

4. Weak TEVET 4.1 TEVETA should develop a closer and mutually beneficial collaboration
responsiveness to labour between TEVET providers and industry, with effective participation of
market industry representatives in all stages of TEVET planning, including in
curriculum design, delivery, and assessment.
4.2 Government should provide incentives to further encourage workplace
experience learning for TEVET students in order to ensure an effective
transfer of relevant skills.
4.3 TEVETA should set up effective mechanisms to ensure that TEVET is aligned
with the needs of employers and learners by carrying out employment
trend survey, training need analysis, and tracer studies.
4.4 TEVETA should enhance the quality and the sustainability of the TEVET
management information system (TEVET-MIS), and develop/reinforce
its linkages with Zambia Statistics Office and the labour market data
systems. This implies adequate funding, skilled staff and enabling working
conditions, in terms of technological equipment and facilities, staff salaries
and development.

26 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 Policy issues Recommendations

5. Curriculum not relevant 5.1 Ensure that TEVETA policy of regular curriculum review is effectively
to labour market implemented. This will contribute to addressing emerging problems
of graduates entering the labour market without required skills. In this
context, more resources should be placed at the disposal of TEVETA.
5.2 TEVETA should ensure that design and delivery of curriculum are informed
by industry’s needs and trends. Industry, TEVET providers, and TEVETA
should collaborate throughout the different processes of curriculum
design, implementation and review.
5.3 TEVETA should ensure that entrepreneurship is effectively integrated in
TEVET curricula and that trainers are trained in use of entrepreneurial
pedagogies.
5.4 TEVETA should ensure that TEVET curricula are also informed by
international trends, in addition to employers' requirements in order to
integrate updated and modern training skills on sustainable development,
on business support, and social and life skills.

6. Lack of quality trainers 6.1 The Ministry of Higher Education should strengthen the systems, of initial
training, and review the Initial Training of Trainers Programme to better
prepare and equip trainers to handle new emerging situations.
6.2 Government should strengthen the systems for continuous professional
development, management, and support of TEVET trainers.
6.3 Government should restore public trainers to its payroll and pay them a
decent salary in order to raise their status and morale, and support efforts
to recruit and retain the best trainers.
6.4 TEVETA should review and enhance the standards of accreditation for
trainers, assessors, moderators, and examiners.

7. Low quality of training 7.1 Government should reinforce TEVETA to prioritise and direct financial
resources for the revitalization of the TEVET institutions through adequate
investments in the state of the art technical equipment, modern
workshops, computer labs and ICT infrastructure, in all the TEVETA
colleges.
7.2 Government should support TEVETA in enhancing its quality control
mechanisms to ensure that all public and private institutions meet quality
standards.
7.3 TEVETA should strengthen the TEVET Management Information System
(TEVET-MIS) to ensure that data on system efficiency and quality are
collected, analyzed and used for TEVET policy and planning.
7.4 TEVETA should ensure that the grading of training centres is regularly
updated and made available to all relevant stakeholders and the large
public.
7.5 Government should support TEVETA to carry out regular and
comprehensive tracer studies and publish the findings.

3.4 Youth and Adult literacy and education

In recent decades, Zambia has demonstrated its commitment to improving youth and
adult literacy education by implementing education programmes that address the
needs of these groups. Unfortunately, these programmes do not go far enough and
fail either to address demand or to provide the assistance serious shortages of funding
have made necessary. Youth and adult literacy and education (YALE) programmes
are essential for those 7.2 million Zambian young people and adults, aged 15 years

27
 or more, who cannot go back to school, but who lack educational qualifications at
primary or secondary level. This represents a serious constraint on the achievement
of Zambia’s Vision 2030. The review team noted a number of challenges that must
be overcome in order to address the learning needs of these youth and adults. These
concern: (i) the need for a lifelong learning policy for YALE and appropriate policy
provision; (ii) limited access to YALE programmes; (iii)  the need for improved
structures and capacity for YALE; and (iv) the need to focus on quality, results,
efficiency, and reputation. Various issues related to these challenges are discussed
in Section 3.4 of this report, where the recommendations too are presented. The
following table summarizes the issues and the associated recommendations.

Policy issues Recommendations

1. Lack of a 1.1 The education policy currently being written by MoGE (and the related
comprehensive national revised education bill) should contain enabling provisions concerning
YALE policy and weak YALE at both primary and secondary level.
reflection of lifelong 1.2 MoGE should frame its new education policy within a lifelong learning
learning perspective in paradigm in line with the requirements of the Sustainable Development
YALE programmes Goals.
1.3 Government, through MoGE, should support the finalization of the
Youth and Adult Literacy Policy drafted in 2009, in collaboration with
key stakeholders, including CSOs and FBOs. This policy should address
the problems related to regulation, coordination, standardisation and
funding, as well as issues regarding data, monitoring and evaluation of
YALE in Zambia.
1.4 Provision should also be made for the creation of a national council on
YALE, to be appointed by the minister, with the main function of bringing
together all actors in YALE in a think tank, and for this council to produce an
annual report on YALE activities (not just on its own activities).

2. Limited and inequitable 2.1 MoGE should convene a meeting (or meetings) with leading figures in the
access to YALE private sector, and leaders of other large corporations, encouraging them
to mount YALE programmes for their staff members.
2.2 DODE should enter into discussions with NGOs and FBOs engaged in YALE
with a view to enabling them to expand their YALE programmes. The basis
for discussion might be that the government would pay a certain amount
for each learner who is able to achieve a certain level of education, subject
to testing at the end of the course.
2.3 DODE should conduct or commission a gender survey concerning YALE
to better understand how gender relations affect participation in YALE
programmes, and the interests of men and women that would motivate
them to participate in YALE in greater numbers.
2.4 DODE should devise a plan for expanded access to YALE, considering
all recommendations made in this policy review concerning YALE. Due
weight should be given to rural areas and to provinces with the lowest
literacy rates.
2.5 MoGE should approach Cabinet with a submission on YALE, advocating
the various changes that are needed. Part of the submission should be a
plan to increase access to YALE. It should also be proposed that funding
for YALE should increase in phases to reach 3 per cent of the education
budget.
2.6 Government should ensure that participants in government YALE
programmes equivalent to primary-level education should not be
charged user fees.

28 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 Policy issues Recommendations

3. Inadequate funding, 3.1 MoGE should be capacitated, with adequate human and financial
structures and capacity for resources, to ensure policy development and implementation, drafting of
YALE laws, regulation, development and enforcement of standards, collection
and analysis of data on programmes, negotiation of agreements
with other bodies, quality control, coordination of various providers,
planning, budgeting, and financial control, grant-making, monitoring and
evaluation, and the supervision or carrying out of research. Structures
at sub-national levels also need strengthening to ensure effective
programme implementation and monitoring.
3.2 MoGE should undertake the profiling of the staff in place for YALE and
the restructuring of DODE (and perhaps also MCDMCH, since they do
most literacy work) to ensure that there is sufficient management and
professional posts for YALE to carry out what is expected of it, considering
the large number of youths and adults in need of learning.
3.3 Once new structures are put in place, a training plan should be developed
and implemented to ensure that staff members have the skills that are
required of them.
3.4 The Zambian Government should request assistance from the
Commonwealth of Learning in re-structuring ZACODE as a semi-
autonomous college of open learning with a clear mandate and funding
arrangements.
3.5 The University of Zambia, in collaboration with the MoGE, should conduct
a tracer study of graduates in adult education from the university over,
say, the past ten years. A forum for consultation between the university
and the ministry should be established and both parties should seek to
identify research projects that can be carried out in the field of YALE.
3.6 Infrastructures for YALE should be rehabilitated, expanded and
constructed. A particular attention should be paid to ensure that all
infrastructures respond to the needs of Learners with Special Education
Needs so as to enhance access to literacy programmes for vulnerable
groups.

29
 Policy issues Recommendations

4. Issues related to 4.1 MoGE should be empowered, within the usual public-service constraints,
quality, results, efficiency, to employ full-time and part-time staff, to develop curricula and study
and reputation materials, to monitor and evaluate programmes, and to transfer funds
(based on agreements) to other ministries, NGOs, the private sector,
and universities and research institutes so that such bodies can carry
out agreed YALE programmes, engage in public advocacy of YALE, carry
out research concerning YALE, provide technical support for partner
organizations, and charge fees or exempt categories of learners from
paying such.
4.2 Government should conduct an evaluation of all literacy work and YALE
centres under government auspices (for all the ministries involved).
Private programmes could be included if the owners agree.
4.3 Government should make it possible for participants in YALE programmes to
be assessed and awarded certificates. Such certificates should be registered
on the national qualifications framework. At secondary level, national
examinations can still be used, for the time being.
4.4 MoGE should establish a robust database on all YALE programmes in
the country and, through EMIS, integrate the main data gathered in the
annual statistical bulletin of the ministry. The proposed national council
on YALE should also play a role here.
4.5 MoGE should formulate national standards for YALE professional
educators through a participatory process and, in due course, obtain
acceptance of these standards by the qualifications authority. Make YALE
part of the professionalisation of the teaching profession.
4.6 MoGE should cultivate links, contacts, and exchanges with international
and foreign organisations with a specialisation in YALE.
4.7 MoGE should employ as many graduates in YALE as possible to lead
YALE programmes and gradually replace volunteers with staff members
who are paid on the same salary scales as those used in the teaching
profession. Those who work part-time or on short-term contracts should
be paid pro-rata.
4.8 MoGE should give awards and recognize in every way possible those who
do excellent work.

3.5 Monitoring and assessment of learning achievement (MALA)

In Zambia, the capacity for assessment is well developed. The country has a
long-running, secure examinations and assessment programme managed by
the Examination Council of Zambia (ECZ). Zambia is known for its regular and
continuous efforts to assess, examine, and monitor students’ learning achievements
over the past several decades. The ECZ has experience of both national and
international large-scale assessments. Over the years, Zambia has undertaken many
reforms and made adjustments in order to improve its national education system. With
regard to this priority domain, there is an urgent need in Zambia for coordination
and harmonization of all MALA structures, programmes, projects, and activities
under a common MALA umbrella. The review team identified a number of pressing
concerns that need to be addressed in order to achieve this and improve MALA in
Zambia. These include: (i) the need for a built-in comprehensive and complementary
MALA system of both a summative and a formative nature; (ii) the problematic use,

30 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

analysis, and dissemination of MALA data and results for informed policy-making
and implementation; (ii) the requirement of continuous professional development
programmes for teachers in MALA; and (iv) the establishment of a generic M&E
system to systematically monitor and produce feedback from all assessment systems
for teachers, learners, examiners, curriculum and textbook developers, and school
leaders. To this end, the review team has identified key issues and presented a series
of recommendations, summarized below and amplified in Section 3.5 of this report.

Policy Issues Recommendations

1. Absence of a formative 1.1 Establish a comprehensive MALA framework and built-in system to
orientation of the current complement the current summative assessment model with a formative
MALA system one.
1.2 Promote formative assessment at school level by offering in-service
training to teachers and school leaders, as well as toolkits with a wide
variety of examples.
1.3 Improve the capacity of individuals tasked with administering
examinations, developing tests, and analysing examination results to
understand the value of formative assessments by offering them regular
and sustainable capacity-building programmes.

2. Lack of use of MALA 2.1 The main stakeholders concerned with educational planning, teacher
data to inform policy- training, curriculum development, and quality control should work in
making tandem with ECZ and other national and international bodies involved in
carrying out MALA surveys in Zambia, to make effective and optimal use
of MALA results to improve the quality of learning.
2.2 Monitor the impact of national large-scale assessment (NLSA) results on
policy-making and implementation and provide funding for independent
studies involving researchers from higher education institutions, so that
these results can be optimally used locally and disseminated nationally
and internationally.
2.3 A formal national policy document should be written to systematize the
effective use of ILSA results in the education policymaking and policy
implementation processes. Steady government funding should be made
available for ILSA activities, research, and development.
2.4 Coordinate and harmonize the use, analysis, and dissemination of
assessment and survey results to design appropriate policies and actions
that are directly concerned with effective learning, teacher training,
classroom instruction, and general assessment.
2.5 Use MALA results effectively to create alternative career pathways
to increase equality of participation and to improve the results of
disadvantaged students, and girls in rural areas, in particular.
2.6 MALA results should be provided in an accessible manner to reach major
educational stakeholders: the learners, the teachers, the parents, and
the front-line implementation agents. Media coverage of the results is
indispensable for such a need and purpose.
2.7 Key stakeholders should contemplate the implications of national
assessment verdicts. Multiple stakeholders, such as civil society, teachers’
unions, teachers, and mass media, need to receive the assessment results
and national public awareness campaigns should be launched before
international survey results are reported from a worldwide league of
nations’ perspective. The results of international assessments should be
broadcast first and foremost in national media and be disseminated to
national and local key stakeholders and teachers before they reach the
international media and international educational community.

31
 Policy Issues Recommendations

3. Inadequate orientation 3.1 Institutionalize CPD programmes for teachers to effectively implement
of the current provision of MALA at national, regional, district, and school levels, following the
Continuous professional establishment of a legal framework for its application.
development CPD) 3.2 Increase internal capacity (through further training of human resources)
programmes for teachers at the MoE with a view to bolstering classroom and school-based
in MALA assessment. Teachers need training too in all MALA programmes, projects,
and activities. Increase monitoring by school officials at district level.
3.3 Increase the possibilities for teachers, especially those in the rural areas,
to actively participate in the improvement of MALA through different
capacity-building programmes. This is to strengthen and sustain their
knowledge, skills and competencies in this field and to ensure effective
implementation at school and classroom levels on a continuous basis.
3.4 Promote CPD through workshops, seminars, educational fora, and
university-based certificates, diplomas, and degrees in assessment. ICT
and other media outlets should be used to disseminate CPD activities. This
can widen access to knowledge-sharing. Strengthen in particular locally
driven CPD activities for teachers and mobilize more funds for allocation
to CPD activities at schools and resource centres.
3.5 Develop and sustain capacity-building programmes for head teachers in
CPD activities to improve their knowledge of MALA programmes, projects,
and activities. School leadership should be involved in CPD activities to
promote teacher practice in knowledge and skills acquisition so as to
improve student performance.

4. Lack of a 4.1 Strengthen the country-specific monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system
comprehensive M&E for MALA in close cooperation with all major stakeholders at ministry,
system. departmental, regional, district, and school levels.
4.2 Explore and analyse good and cost-effective M&E practices for MALA,
regionally and internationally, with a view to institutionalizing and
strengthening the Zambian MALA system with relevant M&E performance
indicators as related to inputs, processes, outputs, outcomes, and impacts.
4.3 Further develop and strengthen the MALA M&E system with democratic
structures and institutions, participatory governance, and the
empowerment of civil society organizations, local educational managers,
planners, and administrators to ensure broad-based commitment to
quality education.

4. Conclusion

While this report is based on extensive research and a number of interviews

undertaken, in the course of the field mission, by international consultants and
UNESCO experts, the review, by no means, offers an exhaustive analysis intended
to explore and expose all of the underlying issues at play. Indeed, it should be
acknowledged that a number of limitations were identified by the review teams,
including the limited timeframe, restricted representation of stakeholders, and a lack
of current data. While the report provides an overview of the underlying issues and
makes a number of recommendations to the Zambian Government, it leaves room
for much greater analysis and cooperation in implementing the recommendations.

32 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

As the report indicates, Zambia is committed to improving its national education
system. It has made remarkable progress in improving access and equity, of which
the Zambian Government and, indeed, the people of Zambia should be proud. No
system can be perfect, however, and despite these achievements and strengths, it
should also be acknowledged that challenges remain. In particular, the country must
not only continue to improve access and equity, but also further enhance the quality
and relevance, effectiveness and efficiency of its education system.

Obviously, much remains to be done, but there are already encouraging signs
of progress within institutions. Given the commitment of the Government to
improving education and the achievements it has already made, it is more than likely
that Zambia will continue its work in order to address the many challenges ahead.
Although there remains much to do in terms of implementation, Zambia has already
taken concrete steps in addressing the Education 2030 agenda.

33
Introduction

1. Background
The Government of the Republic of Zambia, through its ministries in charge of
education (MoGE and MoHE), has joined forces with UNESCO to evaluate the
aims, strategies, and achievements of the Zambian education system in relation to
its national, regional, and international contexts. This education policy review is
intended as a pilot within the framework of the CapED programme, which aims to
help education authorities in member states to strengthen their national capacities
in order to achieve their educational objectives and targets. Given CapED’s strong
focus on national capacity development, such an activity represents an opportunity
to support Zambia’s efforts to improve its policies across a range of national
priority domains, in line with its education plans and wider national development
framework.

Following consultation with the Zambian education authorities, UNESCO was invited
to review five national priority domains and to provide policy recommendations to
help strengthen education development in Zambia, within the framework of the
Education 2030 agenda.

The priority domains are:

• System-wide policy and planning (SWPP).

• Teacher policies and development.
• Technical Education, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training (TEVET).
• Youth and adult literacy and education (YALE).
• Monitoring and assessment of learning achievement (MALA).

At the request of Zambia’s education authorities, the review was conducted from a
sector-wide perspective, including overarching aspects related to the planning and
management of the education sector. The findings from the review were drawn from
three different sources:

• A national background report, produced by the national team, including senior

officials from the education ministries, depicting the context and performance of
the education sector, especially in the priority areas.

35
 • A detailed literature review, compiled by UNESCO, based on recent work
identified through desk research, and drawing on available documentation and
data as well as international perspectives on education policy in Zambia gathered
from the government, UNESCO, and other international organizations and
donors, as well as academia.

• Two field missions: (i) a scoping mission by UNESCO, which included consultation
with Zambian educational authorities to identify the priority domains to be
reviewed; and (ii) a fact-finding mission, undertaken by a UNESCO expert with
four international consultants, to collect primary data and information through
meetings and interviews with the main educational stakeholders, including:
government officials, development partners, the private sector, as well as NGO
and civil society organization representatives. Data were also collected through
visits to educational institutions (the University of Zambia and the Examinations
Council of Zambia) and some schools.

2. Structure of the report

This report is composed of three chapters, the first two of which provide the
background and context for the review of the five national priority domains selected
by the Zambian authorities.

The first part of Chapter 1 sets the scene by describing some of the characteristics of
Zambia, focusing particularly on those most relevant to the review. The second part
presents an overview of the Zambian education system.

Chapter 2 provides an analysis of education system performance, especially in terms

of access, quality and relevance, equity, and the efficiency and effectiveness of the
school system.

Chapter 3 presents an in-depth assessment of the five national priority domains,

namely: (i) system-wide policy and planning; (ii) teacher policies and development;
(iii)  TEVET; (iv) adult literacy and education; and (v) student assessment and
monitoring of learning achievement. For each area, the main policy issues are
explored, alongside their corresponding supporting evidence and a discussion of
their relevance. Each part concludes with policy recommendations for the relevant
departments.

36 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

3. Review method
While the country background report (a self-assessment by the national team) and
the literature review (by UNESCO) served as background documents for the review,
the international experts were instructed to follow UNESCO’s approach in identifying
and analyzing issues at stake in the different policy domains and elaborating
preliminary recommendations. With the support of ministries’ officials and other
stakeholders, the review adopts an external perspective to identify achievements,
relative strengths, weaknesses, and challenges in the Zambian education system. The
methodology is based on an empirical research approach using a variety of sources,
both quantitative and qualitative, and adopting an international comparative
perspective by assessing Zambia’s educational performance against that of countries
with similar geographical, cultural, social, and economic contexts. This has involved
analysis of policy documents, national background papers, media reports, and
international comparative research, etc. The outcomes of this research have been
enhanced and verified primarily through interview and consultation with ministries’
officials, cooperating partners, teachers’ unions, the private sector, and NGO and
civil society organization representatives.

Building on prior research, field data elicited from each of these stakeholders provided
the foundation for identification of the main issues in each priority domain, without
the imposition of any explicit theories for interpreting the data and information.

Preliminary findings were interactively examined through a series of exchanges

with ministry officers and other stakeholders, allowing observations to be validated
while deepening analyses of potential domain-specific issues. Through triangulation
between contextual elements (demography, economy, culture, and society), analysis of
the education system performance, and verification of findings through stakeholder
interviews, the review resulted in a series of recommendations to address the issues
identified in each policy domain.

4. Boundaries and limitations

This review is based on, but not limited to, evidence-based research and the
numerous consultations and interviews that took place during the field missions,
and via telephone and email. The review was designed to explore the five national
priority domains and to present a realistic and objective portrait of it. This type of
analysis requires significant access to primary data, a long timeframe, and several
opportunities to meet stakeholders.

It should be acknowledged that a number of limitations have been identified by the

review team, including:

37
 Short time frame
The field visits were conducted over a very short timeframe. In fact, for the fact-
finding mission, the time spent in interviews equated to only five days. This limited
timeframe for interviews significantly limits the scope of the review.

Limited coverage of stakeholders

Due to the limited timeframe, the scope of consultations and visits was also restricted.

The interviews were mainly conducted from the capital city, Lusaka. While the review
team met almost all the main educational stakeholders working in Lusaka, no visits
have been conducted at sub-national level. Even in Lusaka, school visits were limited
to two sites only.

Interviews mostly involved government officials, which may have introduced a bias
in the information collected.

Data limitation
The review team found it difficult to gain access to current data. While some recent
data were found in country documents, Zambia has not submitted them to UNESCO’s
Institute for Statistics, which makes it difficult to compare Zambia’s situation with
that of other countries. This meant that the review team often had to rely on old
data and documents. However, it is important to note that discussions with different
stakeholders, during the review mission, suggested that, in many cases, the trends
and findings from most of these documents are still valid. Nevertheless, this lack
of up-to-date data may have affected the analysis of policy achievement and the
possibility to draw reference to specific data or information to validate the review’s
findings. This remains an area for improvement, as addressed in-depth in Chapter 3.

Given the above limitations, the review necessarily leaves room for much deeper
analysis. Indeed, further areas for research have been identified by the review team.
The review is thus designed to contribute to the Zambian vision for education and the
national agenda for achieving the Education 2030 goals, by providing a solid platform
on which updated and ongoing analysis of the most pertinent issues identified here
can be built. With a window open to potential reform opportunities, it is hoped that
the review provides the necessary impetus for national actors to address fundamental
issues and press forward in achieving Zambia’s national vision.

38 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

■■ Chapter 1
Context of Education Development

This section provides a short overview of the key national characteristics that shape
the configuration and development of Zambia’s education system. First, it presents a
brief account of the most salient contextual characteristics of Zambia in relation to its
demography, economy, and society. Second, it outlines the political and institutional
configuration of the Zambian education system.

1.1 The country

Zambia, known officially as the ‘Republic of Zambia’, is a landlocked country in the
southern part of Africa with a total surface area of 752,618 square kilometres.

It shares its borders with eight countries, namely: the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (1,930 km) and Tanzania (338 km) to the north, Malawi (837 km) and
Mozambique (419 km) to the east, Zimbabwe (797 km) and Botswana (0.1 km) to
the south, and Angola (1,110 km) and Namibia (233 km) to the west. Zambia is
divided into 10 administrative provinces: Central, Copperbelt, Eastern, Luapula,
Lusaka, Muchinga, Northern, North-Western, Southern, and Western. Lusaka is the
capital city and also the polit-
ical and administrative centre
of Zambia. It is home to the
legislative, executive, and judi-
cial branches of the Zambian
government.

Political activity in Zambia

takes place within the
framework of a presidential
repre­sentative democratic
republic, within which the
president is both head of state
and head of government.
Executive power is exercised
by the government, while
legislative power is vested
in both the government and Figure 1 Map of Zambia

39
 the parliament. The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term (to a
maximum of two terms). The vice president is automatically appointed as the
winning presidential candidate’s running mate in the elections. The legislative branch
consists of a single-chamber national assembly (with 164 seats: 156 members elected
by popular vote and eight appointed by the president, all serving five-year terms).
The judicial branch comprises a constitutional court, a supreme court (comprising
nine judges), a court of appeal and subordinate courts (high court, magistrates’
courts, and local courts). The judges are appointed by the president and ratified by
the national assembly.

Since achieving independence, Zambia has been known as a peaceful and generally
trouble-free country, certainly compared to most of the eight countries with which it
shares the borders. Zambia has also striven to strengthen governance and democratic
processes, with government institutions developing and reinforcing transparency
and accountability efforts.

Demography
Zambia has witnessed significant growth in population over the last five decades,
from 3.1 million in 1960 to 15 million people in 2015 – an estimated increase of 388
per cent (Zambia Central Statistical Office, 2014). With an average annual growth
rate of about 3 per cent, the Zambian population doubled between 1988 and 2015.
Males represent 49.3 per cent and females 50.7 per cent of the total population.
Current population density is 20.5 people per square kilometer. According to the
2010 census of population and housing, some 61 per cent of the population live in
rural areas while 39 per cent are in urban areas.

Zambia’s population is young and distributed as follows: below 15 years (46.2 per
cent); 15–24 years (20 per cent); 25–54 years (28.5 per cent); 55–64 years (2.9 per cent);
and 65 years and over (2.4 per cent). The median age is 16.7 years. This distribution is
illustrated by the population pyramid below, which indicates a very high dependency
ratio of 96.4 per cent (the youth dependency ratio is 91.3 per cent, compared to an
elderly dependency ratio of 5.1 per cent). Such a population structure is the result
of a combination of a high birth rate (42.46 births/1,000 population) and a very low
life expectancy at birth (51.83 years). The resulting high youth dependency ratio
constitutes a huge challenge for education provision.

Zambia is among the countries most affected by HIV/AIDS, with an adult prevalence
rate of 12.7 per cent. It is estimated that 1,106,400 people live with HIV/AIDS in the
country. In 2012, the number of deaths due to HIV/AIDS was 30,300.

40 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Figure 2 Pyramid of Zambian Figure 3 Growth in Zambian
population population (1960–2015)
Male Zambia - 2014 Female
Zambia Population 1960-2015

Population (in millions) Age Group Population (in millions)

Economy

Zambia’s economy has experienced mixed development in the years since

independence in 1964. The first 10 years following independence were notable for
considerable social and economic expansion. The following years were characterized
by slow economic growth, up until the mid-1990s, mostly due to a massive increase
in the oil price in 1973, followed by a slump in copper prices in 1975, which resulted
in a reduction of export earnings and a huge external debt. The GDP growth rate
averaged 3.5 per cent between 1995 and 2000, and reached 5.8 per cent for the period
2000–2005.

Table 1 Trends in GDP growth (2005–2015)

2005 2007 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

GDP growth
7.2% 8.4% 9.2% 5.6% 7.6% 5.1% 5.0% 3.6% 3.4%
rate (%)

GDP per capita, current

691.8 1,103.5 1,134.8 1,635.5 1,724.7 1,839.5 1,726.0 1,350.2 1,143.6
prices (US$)

Population (millions) 12.0 12.7 13.5 14.3 14.8 15.2 15.7 16.2 16.7

Note: Shaded cells indicate IMF staff estimates.

Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, April 2016.

Economic performance has also been impressive over the past decade, with an
average annual real GDP growth rate surpassing 7 per cent during this period. This
has largely been driven by growth in construction, transport, communications,

41
 the public sector, trading, and mining. Mining remains a driver of investment to
other sectors, especially construction, transport, and energy. Copper is the country’s
mainstay, contributing about 70 per cent to export earnings. However, over the
last few years, non-traditional exports have grown substantially. Over the last
two years, the pace of economic activity has been dampened due to lower copper
prices, electricity shortages, and poor rainfall, putting the Zambian economy under
intense pressure. The real GDP growth has been revised downwards at 3.6 per cent
in 2015, and projected to 3.4 per cent in 2016 (IMF, 2016). However, according to
an IMF recent mission (March 2016), Zambia’s current economic challenges can be
overcome with resolute policy action, allowing a resumption of growth in line with
the country’s abundant potential.

The Zambian economy has been relatively resilient to the global crises of recent
years, and its performance has allowed the country to move from a low-income
country to a prospering lower-middle income country. Agriculture remains the most
important sector from a socio-economic point of view, accounting for 18 per cent of
the country’s GDP and providing work opportunities for 60 per cent of the country’s
informally employed population of 4.9 million and 8 per cent of the 625,000 formally
employed (Rasmussen et al., 2014). Increasing youth employment remains one of the
biggest challenges.

Despite this robust economic performance, poverty remains widespread, with

60.5 per cent of the population below the poverty line. Although this indicator shows
steady decline, from 69 per cent in 1996 and 64 per cent in 2006, these improvements
have mostly benefitted urban areas (Rasmussen et al., 2014). Only a quarter of urban
dwellers are poor, compared to three-quarters of rural Zambians who live in poverty.

Societal aspects
Zambia’s population comprises more than 70 Bantu-speaking ethnic groups, with
language, and, often, sense of national identity, determined largely by geographical
location. Zambia’s Bantu languages were introduced and developed gradually
through migration, language contact, and other changes, over a period of 2,000 years.
From the late 19th century on, missionary activity and colonization by the British led
to European languages being introduced in Zambia. English still plays an important
role in Zambian national culture. For nearly three decades following independence,
English was the only official language. This situation remained unchanged until the
introduction of multi-party democracy in 1991, when emphasis shifted towards
the promotion of Zambia’s seven national languages: Bemba, Nyanja, Tonga, Lozi,
Lunda, Luvale, and Kaonde, which serve also as official languages.

42 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Religion has a significant role in Zambian society. According to the Bureau of
Democracy, Human Rights, and Labour (2013),2 approximately 87 per cent of the
population are Christian, less than one per cent are Muslim, and 12 per cent adhere
to other belief systems, including indigenous religions. Many people combine
Christianity with indigenous beliefs.

Muslim communities are primarily concentrated in Lusaka and in the Eastern and
Copperbelt provinces. Many are immigrants from Somalia, the Middle East, and
South Asia, who have acquired citizenship, and a small minority are indigenous.
Somali immigration has increased significantly in recent years, with the majority
living in Ndola and Lusaka. Small communities of Hindus, Buddhists, Jews, and
Sikhs also can be found nationwide.

Questions of language and belief have played an important role throughout modern
Zambian history. Following independence, the question of national identity of the
new state took centre stage and language and belief became central elements in this
debate, as well as for communication, culture, and education.

1.2 Overview of the education system

This section provides an overview of the Zambian education system’s regulations,
governance, and organizational arrangements, with particular emphasis on school
provision. Three aspects, in particular, are described: the constitutional and legal
framework; the governance structure, in terms of decentralization and liberalization
as well as education policy and planning; and, finally, the organization and main
characteristics of the national system of education.

Constitutional and legal framework

Zambia’s constitution of 1964 makes provision for equal and adequate educational
opportunities in all fields and at all levels in the form of directive principles. This
legal provision for education was also contained in the Education Act of 1964, and
the Education Act of 2011, which now governs the financing and management of
education in Zambia. This Act:

• Firmly asserts a person’s right to early childhood care, development and

education, as well as basic education, including adult literacy education and high
school education.

2 http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm?dlid=148728&year=2010#wrapper

43
 • Recognizes a child’s right to free basic education, makes it compulsory, and
places the burden of responsibility on the parent to ensure that a school-age child
attends school.

The Act provided a firm legislative basis for implementation of the Government’s free
basic education policy. Under this legislation, the Government is obliged to make
general and vocational education progressively more available and accessible to all
people.3

The new Education Act has enough protection and provision for education to ensure
progress towards national and international goals. In addition to providing every
individual with a right to education, the Act also guides authorities in ensuring
equality of access to education for children with special educational needs (SEN)
and promotes affirmative action in relation to this category of learners, including
identification, diagnosis, and assessment for the placement of SEN learners. Other
matters, for example the decentralization of education services and MoE policy
instruments such as re-entry policy, were also included in the new Education Act.

Zambia is also signatory to many international conventions that have guided the
country’s approach to the provision of social services such as education. These
include the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the African Charter on the Rights
and Welfare of the Child, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and
Cultural Rights, among others. Zambia has also been party to the 1989 UNESCO
Convention on Technical and Vocational Education since 26 April 1995.

Despite this favourable legal framework, Zambia remains outside the 1960
UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education, and subsequently
did not report to UNESCO on measures taken to implement the 1960 UNESCO
Recommendation against Discrimination in Education within the framework of
the sixth (1994–1999), seventh (2000–2005), or eighth (2006–2011) consultations
of member states on this matter. Nor did Zambia report to UNESCO on measures
taken for the implementation of the 1974 UNESCO Recommendation on Education
for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education Relating
to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, within the framework of the fourth
(2005–2008) or fifth (2009–2012) consultations of member states.

However, while Zambia did not report to UNESCO on measures taken to implement
the 1976 UNESCO Recommendation on the Development of Adult Education within

3 National report submitted to Universal Periodic Review in 2012, p 4: http://www.upr-info.org/sites/default/

files/document/zambia/session_14_-_october_2012/ahrcwg.614zmb1e.pdf.

44 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

the framework of the first consultation of member states (1993), it did report within
the framework of the second consultation (2011).

Education governance in Zambia

Brief overview of governance in Zambia
As a unitary State and constitutional democracy, Zambia acknowledges the
supremacy of the constitution in its governance. In terms of governance practice, a
situational analysis by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 2012)
indicated a gap between public expectations and the provisions of the constitution,
particularly in relation to inclusive governance. This analysis also revealed that public
sector service delivery has, over the years, been sub-optimal despite the fairly high
technical skills base and the existence of implementable policy frameworks and
national plans. Very low public participation/engagement in national processes was
also observed, despite the existence of national and local government policies and
legal frameworks for broad-based participation. The main factors inhibiting public
participation/engagement were found to include poor access to information, a weak
civil society, and general public apathy due to limited civic education. Because of
these factors, low levels of public participation/engagement in national processes
affects the sense of ownership and the effectiveness of public policy and programme
formulation and implementation, as well as accountability for results (UNDP, 2012).
This review focuses on issues related to education governance in Zambia.

Education governance
Education governance refers to the way that the funding, provision, ownership, and
regulation of education and training systems are managed at local, regional, national,
and supranational levels (NESSE, 2015). While, in many countries, the central
government continues to be the major actor in coordinating education service
delivery, there is a global trend towards the devolution of responsibilities in this area,
with a view to addressing issues related to efficiency, effectiveness, accountability,
and democracy. To this end, most countries have developed policy frameworks that
allow different stakeholders (parents, communities, private actors, NGOs, etc.) to be
involved in different aspects of education governance.

The 1996 Zambian national policy on education included, among the general
principles of education governance, liberalization and decentralization. Liberalization
means that private organizations, individuals, religious bodies, non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), faith-based organizations (FBOs), community-based
organizations, and local communities have the right to establish and control their
own learning institutions. Decentralization involves the ministry devolving power

45
 from the centre to local levels to allow various stakeholders to share in decision-
making and take responsibility for education at local level.

Liberalization of education and supervision of private educational institutions

While the liberalization of the education sector has led to a proliferation of private
educational institutions at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels, these institutions
still lack a planning, regulatory, and monitoring framework and structure, at both
legal and administrative levels. The Education Act merely provides guidelines for
registration and rules for the establishment and administration of private educational
institutions. While the ministry defines the minimum requirements for registration
and grants certificates to eligible private institutions, it expects these institutions to
provide their own educational materials and determine their own standards and
level of certification. Although many private schools operate in an environment
unconducive to quality learning, do not meet minimum standards, and employ
teachers with inappropriate qualifications, the ministry lacks the legal remit to
supervise or monitor them (Beyani, 2013).

Evidently, in a liberalized school system, the ministry should not attempt to control
and manage private institutions. Nevertheless, legal provision should be made for
the education authority to ensure that national and international standards are
guaranteed and learners’ rights are well protected. This is a major challenge for the
ministry, particularly in the context of staff shortages which affect its capacity to
provide proper supervision of private institutions.

According to UIS (2015), the share of private enrolment in primary schools stood at
three per cent, which is well below the sub-Saharan African average of 11 per cent.

Education decentralization in Zambia

Overview of decentralization policy in Zambia
Since independence in 1964, Zambia has undergone five rounds of policy reforms
intended to bring about greater decentralization of public services, including
education. The reforms have involved a combination of deconcentration, delegation,
and devolution (Mukwena, 2001). The results have been mixed. A number of
studies have found that the anticipated outcomes have not been achieved, since no
meaningful improvements have been recorded in public service delivery as a result of
decentralization policy. The failure has mostly been attributed to the lack of resources,
poor accountability mechanisms, weak institutional capacity, and worsening fiscal
bottlenecks at district level (Sikayile, 2011). According to Mukwena (2001), the
decentralization reforms appear to have been driven more by political expediency
than by the need to improve the administrative performance of local government.

46 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

This helps explain why some of the decentralization measures have not lived up to
their officially stated objectives.

The current (fifth) set of decentralization reforms, adopted in 2002, was integrated
into the national development agenda in the framework of PSRP (2001-2002), while
keeping consistency with the 1996 National Education Policy, which guided the
‘Restructuring and Decentralisation of the Ministry of Education in 2000’. The policy
was designed as a gradual process, suggesting awareness of the complexity inherent
in decentralization policy reforms, as indicated by experiences throughout the
world. According to Sikayile (2011), the fact that decentralization was part of a wider
political and economic reform process makes it unlikely that due attention was given
to choosing the most appropriate approach for Zambia or to assessing what are likely
to be its far-reaching implications.

Foundation for educational decentralization

The current form of educational decentralization in Zambia is based on the national
education policy of 1996 , the objectives of which included the restructuring of the
Ministry of Education in order to address the challenges inherent in a centralized
system, namely high levels of inefficiency and marginalization of communities in
planning and decision-making. The process was consolidated with BESSIP in 1999
and through the establishment of district education boards (DEBs) in 2003, in order
to implement the policy and create synergy between central government and local
communities in education service delivery. It was through BESSIP that government
provided operational structure, funding modalities, and strategic directions for
the implementation of the decentralization policy. These mechanisms were further
reinforced by the development of the MoE Strategic Plan (MoESP) 2003–2007.
Educational decentralization was also adopted as a strategy to accelerate progress
towards EFA, by improving access to basic education and its quality, especially in
rural areas.

The need for effective decentralization in the education sector was further emphasized
in both the FNDP of 2006 and the SNDP of 2010, which emphasized a participatory
approach to planning and decision-making as a means of improving education service
delivery, particularly at the local level. This has led, for example, to the creation, by
the MoE, of education management committees at provincial and district levels, in
order to facilitate the deconcentration and devolution of educational responsibilities
(GRZ, 2006). Similarly, the education component of the SNDP gave renewed impetus
to educational decentralization, particularly with the development of the MoE Sector
Devolution Plan (MoE, 2010).

47
 Zambia’s decentralized governance structure
Through the decentralization policy, the Zambian Government established three
levels of educational governance: the national MoE headquarters in Lusaka; nine
provincial education offices (PEOs); and 72 district education boards (DEBs).
According to Educating Our Future, the MoE is responsible for enacting laws,
developing policies, formulating national plans, procuring and allocating resources,
developing curricula, setting national standards, and conducting monitoring and
evaluation (MoE, 2012a).

The concrete manifestation of education decentralization in Zambia was the

establishment of DEBs, which constitute the administrative epicentre for transforming
policy intention into practice. The adoption of education decentralization entailed
re-structuring the MoE at different levels (national, provincial, and district) to
re-align it with the objectives of decentralization and to allow effective and efficient
functioning of DEBs.

Each DEB is composed of two teams: (i)  the management team, whose members
are MoE employees by virtue of the institutional line of command; and (ii)  the
governance team, comprised of members appointed or co-opted to the board by the
Minister of Education.

The management team forms the administrative wing and is expected to carry out the
day-to-day management functions on behalf of the board. The governance manual
stipulates that the Management Team includes the DEB secretary, who is accountable
to the Provincial Education Officer (PEO). The DEB secretary is the head of the district
education department to whom all junior officials within the management team, such
as the planning, accounts, infrastructure, and human resource officers report. The
District Education Standards Officer (DESO), the senior inspector of standards in
basic schools, is second in command to the DEB secretary (MoE and SNV, 2008).

The governance team is headed by the board chair who serves ex-officio on behalf of
the entire DEB body. Its membership includes appointed officials from the district
council, community-based organizations, the private sector, and traditional leaders.
The governance team is the policy-making body of the DEB, while serving also as
a community mouthpiece to influence management decisions within the board.
Because funding from the government is inadequate, governance members are also
expected to mobilize local resources to support the operation of the board.

According to the policy, the two DEB bodies are expected to work together to carry
out the responsibilities delegated to them by MoE headquarters. Their collective
action is mostly in evidence during quarterly full board meetings and through

48 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

participatory planning and monitoring of school operations. The diagram below
illustrates the Zambian education governance structure and DEBs’ links to high- and
low-level units and actors.

An in-depth review of Zambia’s decentralization policy is provided in the third

chapter of this report, in the context of system-wide policy and planning.

Figure 4 Governance structure showing different actors at the district level4

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
(Ministry of Education/Department)

PROVINCE
Provincial Education Officer (PEO)

LOCAL AUTHORITIES
Provincial Education Standards Officer (PESO)
Provincial Education Management Committee (PEMC)

DISTRICT
District Education Board (DEB)
District Education Management Committee

MANAGEMENT TEAM GOVERNANCE TEAM

• DEB Secretary • DEB Chairperson
• DESO • Council representative
• Planning Officer • PTA representative
• Human Resource Officer • Community representative
• Finance Officer • Traditional Ruler (Chief )
• I nfrastructure Development • NGO representative
Officer

SCHOOL
Parent Teacher Association (PTA),
Head Teacher, Deputy Head Teacher, NGO representative,
Community representative, pupils’ representative

Source: Sikayile, 2011.

4 This governance structure shows a clear distinction between the management team members as well as the
governance board. In terms of functions, the management team members are the administrative organ, while
the governance team members save as the policy making body of the board. Despite their distinctive roles,
both the board secretary and the chairperson are in practice support to work hand in hand in providing
leadership for the board.

49
 Education policy and planning
Education policy development in Zambia has evolved with the political history of the
country. According to Beyani (2013), four major periods can be identified:

(i) Colonial era education policies (1890–1963): During the early phase of this period,
policy was limited to the provision of rudimentary education for Africans, by
missionary pioneers, with the aim of facilitating the spread of Christianity. After the
Second World War, education policy objectives expanded to meet the basic needs of
state institutions such as the police, the colonial military, and primary schools.

(ii) The United National Independence Party or Kaunda era (1964–1990): To mitigate
years of colonial neglect, government policy committed to providing free education
up to tertiary level, with the aim of reducing the country’s dependence on expatriate
manpower. The only policy guides were the ruling party manifesto and the Education
Act of 1964, both of which had no precise targets other than to provide free education
for all citizens. This period witnessed remarkable developments in terms of education
infrastructure, increased enrolment, the foundation of the University of Zambia, and
the establishment of a number of technical schools.

(iii) The era of liberalization under the movement for multi-party democracy (1990–
2011): While much of the school system remained in public hands, the government
lost its monopoly of control over education. Private and community schools were
allowed to deliver education services, alongside public and church schools. This period
was also marked by growing poverty and underinvestment in education (particularly
between1991 and 2001), following a period of steady economic decline due to the
fall of copper prices in 1976 and subsequent structural adjustment in the 1980s. In
response to declining trends in education delivery and performance, the government
undertook considerable policy development and reform efforts, including: (a) the
Educating Our Future education policy (1996) to give direction to education service
delivery; (b) the Basic Education Sub-Sector Investment Programme (BESSIP) to
address declining standards and infrastructure in primary/basic schools; (c) a science
policy, developed in 1996, to encourage science education in schools; (d) free basic
education in 2003; and (e) an infrastructure development plan developed in 2009.

The international environment gave further impetus to policy reform by shifting

focus to specific targets in education within the framework of MDGs and the EFA
goals.

While these policy initiatives yielded significant results in terms of increased

enrolment, improved infrastructure and teaching materials, and recruitment of
trained teachers, challenging issues remained, particularly with regard to education

50 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

quality and learning outcomes. With the elimination of school fees in 2002, many
schools have been unable to cover their operational costs through the new government
grant scheme, affecting the quality of education delivered. Because of this, a number
of schools have continued to charge a variety of user fees, despite the free education
policy. Another issue has been that the education reforms of 1996, which proposed
the transformation of primary schools (Grades 1–7) into basic schools (Grades 1–9),
and secondary schools (Grades 8–12) into high schools (Grades  10–12), did not
achieve the expected results, since only 37 per cent of primary schools and 36 per
cent of secondary schools complied with the directive. These reforms have also
resulted in challenges in terms of the demand for suitably qualified teachers (for
Grades 8–9 that require specialised teachers) as well as for appropriate infrastructure
such as laboratories, workshops, desks, and other specialized rooms and facilities for
high school Grades 10 to 12. All these challenges have compromised the quality of
teaching and learning, as evidenced by the results of the national assessment surveys
between 2003 and 2008, which showed that learners’ performance levels remained
stable at 40 per cent (NIF III, 2011–2015).

(iv) The Patriotic Front (PF) government era (2011–present): The policy changes in
this era were a direct response to the challenges encountered in the previous period,
namely issues of quality and relevance of education. Within the framework of NIF
III, government policy is seeking to address the challenges that have contributed to
the failure of previous initiatives. These include low level commitment among many
education providers, inadequate preparation, and insufficient financial, material, and
human resources. With the government committed to allocating more resources to
the education and skills sector, the policy shift outlined in the 2011–2015 education
sector plan (NIF III) seeks to expand early childhood education, re-introduce free
basic education and make it compulsory, upgrade teacher qualifications to meet
minimum standards, and promote equitable access to quality education and skills
training to enhance human capital for economic development.

With regard to education structure, the old primary (Grades 1–7) and secondary
(Grades 8–12) education system was reintroduced in 2011 in order to address the
constraints related to infrastructure and teacher deployment. On the administrative
side, the two ministries (MoE and MSTVT), which operated separately up to 2010,
were merged to form the MESVTEE. The public financing system has also been
reformed with the introduction of output-based budgeting (OBB).

It is important to note that, since November 2015, the MESVTEE was reorganized
and separated into two Ministries: the Ministry of General Education (MoGE) and
the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE).

51
 Status and trends in education provision
Like many other developing countries, Zambia’s education system is characterized
by a broad base (representing primary level) and a sharp apex (representing higher
education). The Zambian formal education system consists of five levels: pre-school,
primary education, lower secondary education, upper secondary education, and
tertiary education (see Figure 5).

Figure 5 Structure of the Zambia’s education system

Boys Girls

Higher Education
229 st./100,000 inhab.
Theoretical
Ages
Secondary
Upper
Secondary
Lower
Primary

Source: UNESCO, IIPE/Pôle de Dakar, 2013.

The education system starts with four years of pre-school education, which are optional
for children aged between 2 and 6. The core education system has a 7-5-4 structure,
meaning seven years at primary school for children aged 7–13, two and three years at
lower (ages 14–15) and upper (ages 16–18) secondary school, respectively, and four
years at university for undergraduate degrees. Progression from one level to another
depends on national examinations, overseen by the government, at Grades 7, 9 and
12. This means that not all children are expected to proceed to secondary education.

As illustrated in Figure 6, after completing lower secondary education (Grade 9),

all students take an examination to receive their certificate of lower secondary
education. Based on the results of this examination, students are then enrolled in
upper secondary education or in TEVET schools.

52 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Figure 6 An outline of Zambia’s education structure

Education
Age Structure Type of schooling Others
year

25 19

24 18

23 17
4 Tertiary education
22 16 YEARS (doctorate, master’s,
(Minimum) and bachelor’s degrees)

E D U C AT I O N
Various training
21 15
programmes
20 14

19 13

18 12
Various vocational
17 11 Upper secondary
3 training
education
YEARS programmes
(Grades 10-12)
(TEVET)
16 10

CONTINUING
15 9
2 Lower secondary education
YEARS (Grades 8-9)
14 8

13 7

12 6

11 5
PR IMA RY

7 YEA RS

Primary education
10 4
(Grades 1-7)
9 3

8 2

7 1

2-6 Pre-school education

Source: Educational Statistical Bulletin (Ministry of Education, 2004).

Currently, however, the government is striving to ensure the provision of free and
compulsory primary education. The enrolment patterns described in Figure  5
illustrate the structure of Zambia’s education system, indicating entrance age,
duration of each level of education, and the enrolment status for each level.

53
 After experiencing serious educational challenges in the form of declining enrolment
rates, low quality, inadequate infrastructure, shortage of qualified teachers, and lack
of learning materials during the 1980s and 1990s, Zambia’s education sector has
achieved noticeable improvements in its key indicators, at all levels. Since 2002, when
the government announced its free primary education (FPE) policy, the Ministry
of Education, Science, Vocational Training and Early Education (MESVTEE) has
registered over 1.2 million more learners, increasing Zambia’s net enrolment from 71
per cent in 1999 to over 97 per cent in 2013 (Zambia EFA 2015 Review, 2014).

54 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

■■ Chapter 2
Education Sector: Overall Appraisal

This chapter provides a comparative analysis of the education system in Zambia,

benchmarking it internationally in relation to five key performance criteria, namely
access, quality and relevance, equity, effectiveness, and efficiency. The assessment of
achievements against each of these criteria is obviously constrained by the availability
of international comparative data. A number of neighbouring countries have been
selected for the purposes of comparison: Botswana, the Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC), Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia,
Seychelles, South Africa, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. Regional comparisons are also
drawn. As Table  2 illustrates, Zambia occupies a lower-middle position in terms of
GDP per capita and the EFA Development Index, ranking well above the average for
sub-Saharan countries.

Table 2 Development measures – comparator countries/regions

Country/Region GDP per capita Human Development EFA Development Index
Index
US $ Rank (1 to 187) %
(World Bank, 2014) (UNDP, 2013) (2011/2012)
Malawi 253.0 174 51
Madagascar 449.4 155 60
DRC 475.2 186 34
Mozambique 619.0 178 44
Zimbabwe 935.9 156 76
Lesotho 995.5 162 73
Tanzania 998.1 159 58
Zambia 1,801.9 141 77
Swaziland 2,682.3 148 72
Namibia 5,719.6 127 84
Angola 5,935.7 149 44
South Africa 6,477.9 118 89
Botswana 7,757.0 109 85
Mauritius 10,005.6 63 91
Seychelles 15,359.2 71 91
Sub-Saharan Africa 1,781.0 57

55
 2.1 Access
This section assesses access to and participation in education in Zambia. Access to
education concerns the extent to which educational facilities and opportunities are
available to the people who need them. It is commonly measured by indicators such
as apparent intake rate and net intake rate, and, for secondary education, by transition
rate. Participation in education concerns the degree to which the population takes
part in and makes use of the available education services. Common indicators of
participation include gross enrolment ratio, net enrolment ratio, and age-specific
enrolment ratio.

Early childhood care development and education

Government investment in early childhood care development and education
(ECCDE), through MoGE and the Ministry of Community Development, Mother
and Child Health (MCDMCH), complements that of the private sector, which
continues to play a vital role in the delivery of ECCDE services. Despite government
efforts, in the form of the construction of 20 model ECCDE centres in 2014 (with
another 60 projected under the 2015 budget), the hiring of 1,000 teachers, and the
development of an ECCDE curriculum, Zambia has not been able to achieve the EFA
goal related to ECCDE.

In fact, the proportion of Grade 1 entrants with ECCDE experience declined from
15.9 per cent in 2004 to 14.8 per cent in 2013, far away from the EFA target of
50 per cent agreed in Dakar (2000). As Table 3 shows, from a regional perspective,
participation in ECCDE in Zambia is below average (based on the data available).
It is not only below the values found in the group with higher GDP per capita than
Zambia, but also in Lesotho and Tanzania, which have lower GDP per capita (see
Table 2).

The provision of ECCDE is threatened by weak policy direction and the government’s
long-standing non-participation in the sub-sector. The fact that responsibility for
ECCDE is spread across two ministries has created additional bottlenecks and
policy dissonance. The ECCDE sub-sector, furthermore, faces a number of specific
challenges, including: (i) a low participation rate further compounded by non-
participation of the government, adversely affecting poor families in particular;
(ii)  the absence of a centrally developed common curriculum; (iii) inadequate
infrastructure with no standard prescribed curriculum suitable for young children
and learning purposes; (iv) inadequate funding for early childhood education; and
(v) under-qualified teachers (Zambia EFA 2015 National Review).

56 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Table 3 Gross enrolment rates (%) in pre-school education

Country/region 2011 2012 2013

Madagascar - - 12.3

DRC 3.9 4.3 4.3

Zimbabwe 34.1

Lesotho 40.5 40.7 36.8

Tanzania - 34.3 32.9

Zambia - - 14.8

Swaziland 25.3 - -

Namibia - 15.9 -

Angola 86.5 - -

South Africa 72.0 76.5 75.8

Botswana - 16.0 -

Mauritius 113.3 113.7 112.8

Seychelles 109.5 113.4 111.4

Sub-Saharan Africa 17.7 19. 6 17.9

Primary education

More than a decade of concerted action has yielded significant improvements in

access to and participation in basic education, though some challenges remain. The
improvements resulted largely from the implementation of a number of government
policies and programmes: free primary education (implemented since 2002); the
Basic Education Sub-sector Investment Programme (BESSIP), 1999–2005; and
the Ministry of Education Strategic Plan (MoESP), 2003–2007. These efforts were
reinforced by the 2011 Education Act, which made primary education compulsory
for all school-age children, outlawed the giving into marriage of school-age children,
recognized community schools, implemented the re-entry policy for girls and
vulnerable children, abolished the Grade 7 national examination fee, and introduced
a school nutrition project in collaboration with the World Food Programme (WFP).

57
 Figure 7 GER and adjusted net enrolment ratios (%) in primary education in 2013
SSA 80%
101%
SADC 90%
114%
Madagascar 145%
Malawi 141%
Angola 86%
140%
Swaziland 114%
DRC 113%
Namibia 89%
109%
Zimbabwe 94%
109%
Zambia 93%
108%
Seychelles 99%
108%
Botswana 91%
108%
Lesotho 80%
108%
Mauritius 98%
108%
Mozambique 88% ANER
105%
South Africa GER
101%
Tanzania 85%
90%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 140% 160%

Source: EFA Global Monitoring Report 2015.

In terms of enrolment, Zambia has made considerable progress5 over the past decade.
The primary gross enrolment ratio (GER) was estimated at 108 per cent and the
adjusted net enrolment ratio at 93 per cent in 2013, moving the country closer to
universal primary education, and justifying its ranking among the top 10 African
countries in the EFA Development Index. As Figure 7 and Figure 8 illustrate, Zambia’s
primary-level GER and completion rates are above average for sub-Saharan Africa.

Figure 8 Trends in primary education completion rate in the SADC countries, 2000-2012
Mauritius 99%
104%
South Africa 95%
87%
Botswana 95%
91%
Zambia 94%
63%
Namibia 90%
77%
Tanzania 88%
63%
Zimbabwe 80%
89%
Sawaziland 76%
62%
DRC 73%
29%
Lesotho 71%
63%
Madagascar 70%
36%
Mozambique 55%
17% 2011/2012
Angola 49%
37%
Malawi 48%
63%
Western Africa 68%
43%
Eastern Africa 63%
45%
Southern Africa 76%
69%
Central Africa 64%
34%
SSA 67%
47%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

Source: UNESCO/Pôle de Dakar.

5 According to Zambia EFA 2015 National Review, the primary gross enrolment ratio (GER) increased from
105 per cent in 2004 to 127 per cent in 2014, and the completion rate is now close to 100 per cent.
58 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia
As more and more children graduate from primary education, the focus of the
education system shifts increasingly to lower secondary. Zambia is one of a growing
number of countries in sub-Saharan Africa aiming for universal basic education,
giving all children access to a full cycle of primary and lower secondary education.

Secondary education
Zambia’s focus on basic education in recent decades has resulted in the relative
neglect of the secondary school sub-sector. The expansion of secondary education
has, therefore, been constrained by limited investment and resources, which have, in
turn, reduced transition rates.

Almost 9 out of 10 children completing primary education transition into lower

secondary education in Zambia

The proportion of children completing primary education (Grade 7) who made the
transition into lower secondary education (Grade 8) increased from 53.5 per cent in
2004 to 89.4 per cent in 2014. A high transition rate is also observed in some of Zambia’s
neighbouring countries (Table 4). Given the general increase in primary completion
rates and transition rates, more children are participating in lower secondary education,
which explains the large increase in lower secondary gross enrolment rates. In fact,
enrolment in lower secondary education (Grades 8 and 9) increased by 93  per cent,
from 234,059 students in 2004 to 451,163 students in 2013. According to UNESCO, the
estimated GER in lower secondary was 65 per cent in 2013 (Figure 9).
Table 4 Transition rate from primary to Figure 9 Gross enrolment ratios in lower
lower secondary education (%) secondary education in 2013
Country/Region 2012
Angola 44
Benin 79
Burkina Faso 51
Burundi 50
Cameroon 55
DRC 68
Lesotho 75
Madagascar 60
Malawi 73
Mauritius 72
Mozambique 52
Namibia (2009) 94
Swaziland 91
Tanzania 56
Zambia 59
Sub-Saharan Africa 68

Source: EFA Global Monitoring Report 2015. Source: EFA Global Monitoring Report 2015.
59
 The Zambian Government’s goal in promoting upper basic education is to ensure
that more children complete a learning phase that equips them with productive skills.
To achieve this goal, it must address key bottlenecks in terms of access to Grade 8,
namely inadequate school infrastructure and the Grade 7 national examination that
allows the rationing of the limited space available by pushing out children who do
not achieve the required marks.

The completion rate for lower secondary has increased considerably, from 25.9 per
cent in 2000 to 62.4 per cent in 2012, placing Zambia among the high performers in
sub-Saharan Africa, where the regional completion rate was 35.3 per cent in 2012,
and in the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) sub-region, where the
average was 34 per cent (Figure 10).

While transition from primary to lower secondary and the completion rate have
increased, transition into upper secondary (Grade 10) remains a critical challenge.
The available data show that the transition rate into senior secondary education has
sharply decreased, from 50 per cent in 2007 to around 33 per cent in 2013, indicating
that Zambia is having difficulty preventing children from dropping out. In other
words, enrolment has increased, but many children still drop out before completing
lower secondary education.

Figure 10 Completion rate for lower secondary education

Source: UNESCO/Pôle de Dakar.

For senior secondary education, the completion rate increased from 12 per cent
in 2000 to 28.1 per cent in 2011 (UNESCO, Pole de Dakar, 2014), suggesting that

60 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

roughly 28 per cent of all children who enter the school system go on to complete
secondary education.

Table 5 Gross enrolment ratio for upper secondary education

Country/Region 2002 2012 2013

Malawi 13.4 16.9 19.4

Madagascar – 19.3 22.2

DRC – 37.2 36.9

Mozambique 2.7 12.4 12.9

Zimbabwe 30.7 36.6 –

Lesotho 22.9 39.3 –

Tanzania – 10.2 9.2

Zambia – 32.9* 32.6*

Swaziland 29.3 47.8 –

Namibia 31.7 – –

Angola 11.1 – –

South Africa 77.3 96.0 106.0

Botswana 58.8 – –

Mauritius 71.0 89.2 –

Seychelles 51.0 63.1 48.1

Sub-Saharan Africa 22.9 34.4 34.9

Source: UIS estimates. * Zambia Educational Statistical Bulletin 2013.

While this result places Zambia above many countries in the region, some other
countries do significantly better. The average completion rate for African countries
was 17.2 per cent, while the average for the SADC sub-region was 17.7 per cent in
2012 (Figure 11).

61
 Figure 11 Trends in completion rate for upper secondary education, 2000-2012

Seychelles 87%
88%
Botswana 54%
45%
Mauritius 52%
28%
South Africa 44%
48%
Namibia 37%
29%
Sawaziland 34%
24%
Lesotho 29%
14%
Zambia 28%
12%
DRC 22%
16%
Malawi 15%
17%
Madagascar 15%
5%
Mozambique 10%
1%
Tanzania 5%
3%
Western Africa 20%
9%
Eastern Africa 10%
10%
Southern Africa 18% 2011/2012
10%
Central Africa 20% 2000/2001
12%
SSA 17%
10%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Source: UNESCO/Pôle de Dakar.

Secondary education in Zambia still faces a number of challenges, including limited

infrastructure and space, a shortage of qualified teachers, and a lack of equipment,
especially for the teaching of sciences and practical subjects (Zambia EFA 2015
Review, 2014). To address these challenges, the Zambian Government has shifted the
focus of attention to secondary education in recent years. As part of NIF III, it has
implemented ambitious policy reforms to revitalize the sub-sector, mostly through
ensuring quantitative and qualitative improvements in service delivery. The policy
reforms initiated under NIF III include the: (i) re-introduction of free and compulsory
secondary education up to Grade 12; (ii) upgrading of community schools offering
secondary education to fully fledged secondary schools; (iii) phasing out of upper
basic education (Grades 8 and 9) from basic schools and the reintroduction of the
conventional secondary education offering Grades 8 to 12; (iv) introduction of two-
tier secondary education, with academic and technical routes; (v)  re-orientation
of the curriculum for secondary schools, putting emphasis on life skills subjects to
enable learners to cope with the demands of self-employment and the labour market;
(vi) upgrading of non-degree or diploma-holder teachers through in-service training
(re-introducing the apprenticeship system); (vii)  promotion of the teaching of
science, mathematics, and technology; and (viii) improvement of learning outcomes
(NIF III 2011–2015).

62 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Tertiary education
In Zambia, tertiary education includes two groups of institutions: (i) the University
of Zambia, the Copperbelt University, the Mulungushi University and 14 teacher
training colleges, which fall within the purview of the Ministry of Education;
and (ii)  colleges registered under the Technical Education, Vocational and
Entrepreneurship Training Authority (TEVETA). There are 151 TEVETA colleges
offering diplomas in various fields. Nearly half are private, with the rest run by the
government, religious organizations, or communities.

Universities are regulated by act of parliament and are autonomous in operation,

though they are overseen and funded by the MoHE. Private universities, which have
emerged since the 2000 reforms, seek accreditation from the MoHE. As of 21st March
2013, the parliament of Zambia enacted the 2013 Higher Education Act which provides
for: (i) the establishment of the Higher Education Authority and define its functions
and powers; (ii) quality assurance and quality promotion in higher education; (iii)
the establishment, governance and regulation of public higher education institutions,
and; (iv) the registration and regulation of private higher education institutions.

The structure of the Zambian education system raises concerns about access to higher
levels of education, including secondary and tertiary (see Figure 5). The heavy base
of the pyramid, reflecting the millions of children enrolled at primary level, sharply
narrows to a pinpoint at the apex, suggesting low rates of transition from primary to
secondary and from secondary to tertiary education. Indeed, only roughly 28 per cent
of all children who enter the school system go on to complete secondary education.
And only a small number of those who do also go on to complete tertiary education.
It is estimated that only 8 per cent of primary school leavers access public universities
(NIF III, 2011).

With only an estimated 229 students per 100,000 inhabitants, Zambia ranks among the
African countries with the lowest rates of participation in higher education (Figure 12).
To address this challenge, the Government of Zambia has begun to encourage private
sector involvement in tertiary education. This has led to the emergence of 14 private
universities, alongside one new public university, the Mulungushi University. As a
result of this expansion, enrolment at university has increased from 14,000 students
in 2008 to 20,000 students in 2010 (MESVTEE, NIF III, 2011).

Despite this increase in enrolment, educational opportunities beyond secondary

school remain limited for young people who cannot access tertiary education either
due to a lack of places or to inadequate bursary schemes. The competition for places
is intense although, in principle, students are selected on the basis of ability. The
bursary schemes, though desirable, are inadequate, unsustainable, and cumbersome

63
 to access. Hence, the focus in this sub-sector is on infrastructure development and
the introduction of loan schemes. A loan system is seen as a much more sustainable
option, since money paid back by those who have graduated can be used as a revolving
fund to support future students (ZANEC, 2012).

Figure 12 Number of students in higher education per 100,000 inhabitants

Mauritius 3 240
1 024
South Africa 1 536
1 420
Lesotho 1 243
241
Namibia 934
691
Botswana 857
608
DRC 778
214
Sawaziland 735
445
Zimbabwe 685
371
Mozambique 462
64
Madagascar 405
198
Tanzania 374
68
Angola 339
84
Zambia 229 2011/2 012
243
Seychelles 114 2000/ 2001
Malawi 79
34
Western Africa 719
338
Eastern Africa 609
160
Southern Africa 444
203
Central Africa 680
224
SSA 636
217
0 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 2 500 3 000 3 500

Source: UNESCO/Pôle de Dakar.

According to Beyani (2013), the tertiary sub-sector in Zambia suffers from inadequate
faculty quality, insufficient classroom space, and poor curriculum relevance. Many
institutions are in a state of disrepair, with broken down workshops and laboratories.
Despite a decent nationwide student–lecturer ratio of 18:1, the quality of education
delivery remains quite poor. The quality of teachers also raises concerns and poor
living and working conditions often leave them dispirited (Beyani, 2013). While these
challenges are noted in the Sixth National Development Plan (SNDP), it remains to
be seen how far they have been addressed in implementation.

2.2 Quality and relevance

While significant progress has been achieved over the past 15 years, in terms of both
access and participation, the quality and relevance of the education provided remain
major challenges. Government efforts to expand access to school have sometimes
come at a cost to educational quality. This is the case, for example, in the practice
of multiple shifts, which reduces teacher-pupil contact time and related learning

64 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

activities, while leading to a deterioration in the school environment. Because of lack
of space, teachers often do not have space for preparation and, consequently, spend
barely a few hours in public schools. This practice has reduced their commitment to
building robust learning environments (Zambia EFA 2015 Review, 2014).

Teaching and learning conditions

Pupil-teacher ratios and average class sizes
While the pupil-teacher ratio has been stable in Zambian primary education (48:1 in
2002 and 2013), it remains higher than the average for SADC (38:1), the average
for sub-Saharan Africa (42:1) and the international benchmark of 40:1 (UNESCO,
2015).6 It is striking to note that, when considering the number of trained teachers,
the ratio increases to 53:1 (Figure 13). In Zambia, the ratio suggests that classrooms
are overcrowded, affecting teaching/learning conditions and quality. In addition,
there are huge variations across localities and schools, with urban and peri-urban
areas reporting ratios exceeding 100:1.

Figure 13 Pupil-teacher and pupil-trained teacher ratio in primary education, 2013

SSA 54
42
SADC 51
38
South Africa 32
Madagascar 210
40
Angola 90
43
Malawi 76
69
Mozambique 62
55
Zambia 53
48
Lesotho 45
33
Tanzania 44
43
Swaziland 43
29
Zimbabwe 41
36
DRC 37
37
Comoros 37
28 Pupil/trained teacher ratio
Botswana 24
23
15 Pupil/teacher ratio
Seychelles 13
0 20 40 60 80 100

Source: EFA Global Monitoring Report 2015.

In Zambia, the same ratio (48:1) applied to lower secondary education in 2013.
Zambia’s lower-secondary class sizes were nearly twice as large as the average for
sub-Saharan African countries (27:1).

6 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002327/232721E.pdf.

65
 Instruction hours
The use of double- and even triple-shifting has led to concerns about the amount
of instructional time in Zambia’s schools, especially in highly populated schools
in urban areas. These schools use instructional times that range from 2.30 hours
to 3 hours for Grades 1-4. It means that not all subjects can be taught to the full
achievement of educational goals. The new requirement, under the revised national
curriculum, to increase instructional time from three to four hours for Grades 1 to 4,
remains a challenge because of limited classroom space.

Teachers’ qualifications
In 2010, about 97 per cent of government-employed teachers had the minimum
academic qualification of a Form 5 or Grade 12 Certificate. The minimum
qualification required at basic education level is a certificate in teaching. At this
level, only 7.8 per cent of teachers were professionally unqualified, while about
2.5 per cent only had the preschool teacher’s certificate. However, with regard to
professional qualifications at secondary school, only 14.6 per cent of teachers were
qualified to teach (i.e. they had Bachelor’s degree qualifications). At preschool level,
the largest number of unqualified teachers was found in the main urban provinces
of Lusaka and Copperbelt. This is probably due to the need to recruit large numbers
of ECCDE teachers to meet the expanding demand for preschool in these provinces.
Furthermore, as the preschool sub-sector has only recently integrated with MoGE, its
teachers’ standards and qualifications have yet to be enforced. Another explanation
may be that this part of the sector is mostly under private ownership (Beyani, 2013).

Subject-wise, the shortage of qualified teachers is most acute in mathematics and

the sciences. Data show that, in 2010, only 183 graduate teachers specializing in
mathematics were available to fulfil a requirement for 1,709, while only 607 graduate
teachers specialized in the sciences were available, which is short of the 2,509 required.
Similarly, only 885 teachers with degree qualifications in social science were available,
compared to a requirement for 6,508. The 120 social science graduates produced
each year by universities in Zambia is far from meeting the national demand for
social science teachers at secondary school level (NIF III, 2011).

To address these challenges, MoGE has launched the Fast Track Training initiative
for teachers of science and mathematics. MoGE also has commenced converting a
number of colleges of education into universities of education, in order to increase
the output of teachers with degree qualifications in mathematics, science, and social
sciences.

66 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Teacher education and supply
Pre-service training programmes
In Zambia, initial teacher training is provided at tertiary level, through teacher
training colleges. The Government now requires all teachers to possess diplomas and
degrees appropriate to their teaching positions. Teacher training colleges deliver pre-
service training at certificate, diploma, and degree levels (Mubanga, 2012). In terms
of teacher training capacity, there are 14 public colleges of education, ten of which
train teachers for primary school (grades 1–7), and two for junior secondary (grades
8–9), while two provide in-service training. Teachers for senior secondary (grades
10-12) are trained at degree level in universities.

The entry requirements for primary teacher training include a Grade 12 certificate
with at least three credits and two passes, including at least a pass mark in English
and mathematics. The requirements and duration of secondary-level teacher training
vary: (i) for diploma level, a three-year diploma (since 2005); (ii) for degree level, a
four-year degree. It has been reported that most of the graduates from degree-level
courses in education do not join the teaching profession. Hence, in 2010, the total
number of teachers with university degrees was less than 2.5 times the annual output
of graduates with education degrees from the university.

Despite some improvements in teacher supply in recent years, the annual average
output from teacher colleges and universities does not meet the demand for teachers
at different levels within the education system, due particularly to recent increases
in the number of classrooms and pupil enrolment. In 2009, for example, the
teacher shortage for primary and secondary schools amounted to 32,592 teachers,
representing a shortfall of 68.8 per cent at primary level and 80 per cent at secondary
level. Teacher shortages are more acute at senior secondary school level where
teachers are expected to have a degree qualification in their teaching subjects. In
2010, only 16.5 per cent of 14,207 teachers in secondary school had a degree (NIF III
2011–2015, 2012).

In-Service education and training

In addition to teachers’ pre-service education, there is a system of in-service education
and training (INSET) or continuing professional development (CPD) for teachers.
Its aim is to upgrade teachers’ capacity, and sensitize and train them to implement
new interventions, such as the introduction of a new curriculum. Two forms of
INSET programme are offered: long-term and short-term. Long-term professional
courses for school teachers are provided by the National In-service Training College
(NISTCOL), the Zambia Institute of Special Education (ZAMISE), and the University
of Zambia. Short-term INSET, in the form of capacity-building programmes, is

67
 mostly provided through workshops and seminars in school or at teacher resource
centres, with the aim of improving teachers’ professional and classroom practice.

MoGE’s CPD framework, the School Programme for In-service Training (SPRINT),
is based on the government policy document Educating Our Future (MoE, 1996). The
related strategic approaches for in-service teacher education include: programmes
which are demand driven, responding to identified needs; programmes which focus
on need and are based in schools or at resource centres; cost-effective programmes
which enable large numbers of teachers to have opportunities for learning;
and programmes which include not only studies on subject contents but also
methodologies, use of materials, and management approaches in classrooms.

SPRINT was launched in 2000 by the MoE as a framework for lifelong learning
for teachers in both basic and high schools. It involves: a teachers’ group meeting,
a headteachers’ in-service meeting, a grade meeting at a resource centre, a subject
meeting at a resource centre, and school in-service and monitoring. The programme
has, however, proved weak, especially in the context of high school (Mubanga, 2012).

It is also important to note that, in addition to INSET programmes for teachers, the
Ministry has introduced Education Leadership and Management training programme
to strengthen effective school management. In fact, in relation to Zambia’s intention
to enhance the quality of education, the leadership role of head teachers cannot be
more emphasized, as it can improve teacher attendance and performance, influence
student behaviour, and relationships with stakeholders, including parents. How head
teachers are selected, prepared, and supervised will determine the effectiveness of
their leadership practices.

Teacher management and deployment

The acute and persistent teacher shortage suggests a need for improved teacher
management, particularly through sound planning and regulation of teacher training,
effective annual monitoring of attrition, and adjustment of entry requirements in
teaching to meet projected needs. While MoGE oversees teacher training colleges, it
cannot regulate teacher supply, since intake to each college and subject is determined
by historical patterns, rather than in response to projected teacher requirements
(Mulkeen, 2010).

Zambia uses a location-specific recruitment and planned deployment system,

allowing teachers some choice of location. The recruitment system appears
transparent as, each year, the available posts are advertized nationally in newspapers
and on radio and television, with an indication of the number of posts available in
each district. Candidates are allowed to apply directly to the district in which they

68 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

wish to work, but not to the specific school. This recruitment/deployment approach
allowed Zambia to fill most of its available posts, while ensuring a high level of local
recruitment of teachers. However, it resulted in an uneven distribution of the best-
qualified teachers.

There are a number of challenges to teacher deployment, including a reluctance to

work in hardship areas, insufficient housing provision, the medical requirements of
teachers with health issues, and some communities’ aversion to unmarried female
teachers. Teachers’ reluctance to work in hardship areas has resulted in wide variation
in pupil-teacher ratios in rural districts. For example, pupil-teacher ratios in the 115
government schools of the Chibombo district ranged between 22:1 and 210:1. Some
districts use innovative schemes to attract and retain teachers. The Gwembe district,
for example, offers a loan to female teachers in the most rural schools to purchase
solar panels (Mulkeen, 2010).

The absence of suitable housing appears to be a major barrier to teacher transfer

to rural areas. It has been reported that housing is provided for some, but not all,
teachers. According to Mulkeen (2010), housing provision is sufficient for only one-
quarter or less of teachers, and even this was often ‘temporary’ housing, sometimes
in poor condition.

Medical conditions are taken into account when deploying teachers, particularly
those affected by HIV/AIDS. The deployment system allows teachers who are ill to
be transferred to a school close to a health clinic if they are not near one already.
Teachers already located near medical facilities can also avoid redeployment to more
remote locations. Many sick teachers are referred to the University Teaching Hospital
in Lusaka and this area has seen a number of transfers as a result. However, the most
seriously ill teachers are nursed at home.

Deployment of female teachers is particularly challenging in some African countries,

including Gambia, Malawi, and Zambia. In Zambia, some rural communities are
reluctant to accept unmarried young female teachers, citing a variety of reasons,
including religious and cultural ones.

Policies allowing female teachers to transfer close to where their husbands work have
resulted in the migration of female teachers to urban areas, as they are often married
to other educated professionals employed in urban locations. This robs rural areas of
female teachers, who might otherwise serve as role models for girls’ education.

69
 Teacher attrition
While the Zambian Government is striving to improve the supply of trained
teachers, its efforts are undermined by a very high teacher attrition rate. Out of the
93,200 teachers registered in 2013, 8,800 (9.4 per cent) left their positions in that year;
a significant increase on the 6,400 who left in 2012. The main reasons for the high
rate of attrition include retirement, upward movement into administrative positions,
contract expiration, death, dismissal, illness, and so on. It is striking that the highest
number (4,036) of leavers in the 2013 statistical bulletin indicated ‘other’ when asked
to highlight their reason for leaving, suggesting a need for further research.

In general, considering the outputs of teacher colleges and universities, it seems that
more teachers are leaving the profession than are joining it. However, some urban
schools experience ‘excess’ teachers due to classroom shortages. Deploying teachers
from these overstaffed schools is a big challenge, though most of ‘excess’ teachers
have been reassigned to community schools while maintaining their previous payroll
status. Female teachers are concentrated in urban areas (70 per cent), due to requests
for transfer from rural areas. This means that the take-up of teachers’ maternity leave
is much more significant in urban schools (Zambia EFA 2015 Review, 2014). Also,
in general, teachers prefer to teach in urban areas where living conditions are better
than in rural areas. Low teacher salary is perceived as an attrition factor, especially
given the improvement of the economic climate, which has meant increased job
opportunities for educated people (Beyani, 2013).

Remuneration, incentives, and motivation

Although the remuneration package for MoGE staff includes housing and pension
contributions, the general opinion is that the civil service is underpaid in Zambia,
especially at the lower ranks. The starting annual pay for a qualified primary teacher
in Zambia was USD3,292 in 2010, which allows a modest standard of living, though
it represents only two-thirds of the cost of meeting the basic needs of a family of six
people (Mulkeen, 2010).

The general perception is that teachers’ salaries are low and the payroll inefficiently
managed, causing delays in payment of salaries. Low pay, combined with a shortage
of teaching materials, especially in rural schools, explains why many teachers have
a preference for teaching in towns where living conditions are more favourable than
those found in rural areas.

Financial incentives are used to encourage teachers to work in rural schools and
those in disadvantaged urban areas where working conditions are difficult. Teachers
in rural schools are paid an incentive of 20 per cent of their basic salary, while those
practising double shifts in crowded urban schools receive the same level of allowance

70 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

(20 per cent of the salary). The ministry has envisaged the introduction of a two-tier
system, with an additional allowance for teachers working in the least accessible rural
schools. A basket of indicators, such as distance from a main road, post office, bank,
or clinic, would be used to select eligible schools.

2.3 Equity
Since the publication of the policy document Focus on Learning (1992), which
emphasised the need for resource mobilisation to develop schools, the Government
of Zambia has expressed a commitment to its principles and to observing the
spirit of equity in its education policies. Through Educating Our Future (1996), the
Ministry of Education upholds the principle that every individual has an equal right
to educational opportunities. This means that every individual child, regardless of
personal circumstances or capacity, has a right of access to, and participation in, the
education system.

The Government, through MoGE, has developed an equity strategy that advocates
and promotes fairness and inclusion by creating conditions that equalize learning
opportunities and access to education for everyone. To this end, the NIF’s approach
ensures consistency between policies aimed at improving equity and the actions
and initiatives undertaken to achieve this objective. This approach, which seeks to
be both inclusive and adapted to Zambians’ needs, ensures that equity issues, such
as those concerning gender, orphans and vulnerable children, community schools,
adult literacy, special educational needs, HIV/AIDS, and school health and nutrition,
are well supported. In considering the scope of its engagement for equity, Zambia has
translated its vision into various national practices and programmes.

Gender disparities
Zambia’s political commitment to ensuring gender parity in education is reflected in
a number of measures and actions, such as the Programme for the Advancement of
Girls’ Education (PAGE) in the mid-1990s, the fifty-fifty enrolment policy at Grade 1,
the free primary education policy, bursary support, and the re-entry policy for pupils
seeking to take leave from school on becoming pregnant. In addition to legislation
put in place to ensure that girls and other vulnerable children are enrolled and
remain in school, there is a requirement that every policy, strategy, and programme
on education should have a specific component addressing the needs of girls and
marginalized children.

These efforts enabled Zambia, in 2012, to achieve a gender parity index (GPI) of
1.00 for primary education. It was found that the same proportion of girls and boys

71
 enter the school system, but there remains a challenge in retaining girls in school,
particularly in the rural areas where GPI stood at 0.96, compared to 1.05 in urban
areas. Zambia’s GPI of 1.00 is among the highest in the comparison group (Figure 14).

Figure 14 Trends in gender parity index in primary education, 2000-2012

1.06
Seychelles 1.01
Malawi 1.04
0.96
Tanzania 1.04
0.99
1.00
Madagascar 0.96
Zambia 1.00
0.93
Mauritius 0.99
1.00
0.99
Zimbabwe 0.97
0.97
Lesotho 1.04
Namibia 0.97
0.98
0.96
Botswana 1.00
South Africa 0.95
0.95
Mozambique 0.92
0.75
Sawaziland 0.90
0.94
DRC 0.89 2011/2012
0.78
0.93 2000/2001
Western Africa 0.77
Eastern Africa 0.95
0.90
0.97
Southern Africa 0.95
0.82
Central Africa 0.84
SSA 0.94
0.85

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20

Source: UNESCO/Pôle de Dakar.

Available data show that while opportunities for boys and girls to enter the school
system are equal, girls are more likely to drop out, most notably by the fifth grade. This
explains the low level of the national GPI for lower secondary education, estimated
at 0.84 in 2012 (see Figure 15). This breaks down as 0.75 for rural areas and 1.00 for
urban areas. The GPI for upper secondary, in contrast, stands at 0.94 (Figure 15).

72 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Figure 15 Gender parity index in secondary education

Lower secondary Upper secondary

According to Campaign for Female Education (Camfed, 2015), Zambia’s girls

experience high rates of exclusion from education because of the extreme poverty,
most prevalent in the rural areas of Western, Luapula, and Northern provinces.
These provinces fare much worse than others in government assessments of income
levels, education, and health. Girls are far more likely to drop out of school, with
the biggest disparities measured in rural communities, where 27 per cent of females
have no education compared to 18 per cent of males. Pregnancy, unsafe learning
environments, long distances to school, early marriage, and poverty are intrinsically
linked and are the main challenges Zambian girls face in staying in school, particularly
in rural areas.

Teenage pregnancy has been a big concern in relation to girls’ participation in

school over the past decade. For the five past years, over 15,000 pregnancies have
been reported annually by MoGE, with 80 per cent of those pregnancies occurring
in rural areas. This situation not only affects girls’ participation in school, but also
endangers their lives, as some do not survive the complications of birth, or, indeed,
of unsafe abortions. They also run a risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases,
particularly HIV. Their children face a challenge to survive and most grow up to
continue the cycle of poverty. According to MoGE, Zambia has one of the highest
maternal mortality rates in Africa, a figure closely linked to the high rate of maternal
mortality within the school-age group (Zambia EFA 2015 Review, 2014).

Despite a slight decline in fertility rate among 15–19-year-old adolescents, from

134 births per 1,000 women in 2009 to 122 births per 1,000 women in 2013 (World
Bank, 2015), Zambia’s fertility rate is still well above the sub-Saharan African average
of 106 births per 1,000 women. Teenage pregnancies exacerbate gender equity issues
that are still to be fully addressed.

MoGE also faces multiple challenges in addressing social and cultural norms that
affect the educational attainment of both boys and girls. As a result of some of these
social and cultural norms, teenagers who have fathered children are often valued in

73
 the community, which may contribute to the phenomenon of early pregnancy and
lead to school dropout; an issue compounded, according to MESVTEE (2010), by
low re-admission rates. Such norms have a much greater impact in rural areas.

The Zambian Government is striving to address these challenges, including through

the construction of schools with safe boarding facilities and the creation of safe
learning environments, as well as through the promotion of reproductive education
to inform girls of the risks of early sexual activity.

Orphans and vulnerable children disparities

An estimated 1.4 million children are orphaned in Zambia, having lost one or both
parents (UNICEF, 2013), and hundreds more are vulnerable due to the effects of
illness and poverty. According to the 2013-14 DHS, the proportion of Zambian
children under age 18 with one or both parents dead is 11 per cent. Orphanhood
increases with children’s age, from 2 per cent of children under age 2 to 24 per cent
of children aged 15-17. The proportion of orphans is higher in urban areas (13 per
cent) than rural areas (10 per cent). In past decades, the impact of the HIV pandemic
has contributed significantly to the increase in the number of orphans and other
vulnerable children. In 2012, 670,000 children were considered orphaned by HIV
and AIDS in Zambia, corresponding to 48 per cent of the total number of orphaned
children in the country. These children, like other vulnerable and orphaned children,
experience stigma and discrimination, often leading to negative outcomes in terms
of child development, social integration, health, and education.

Thousands of children are also considered vulnerable due to the effects of poverty,
orphanhood and illness. These children are at high risk of school dropout (Table 6),
often leaving the education system to earn a salary or help the family with household
duties (CSO Zambia et al., 2015). Without education, they miss out on the opportunity
to acquire key learning skills and are likely to end up perpetuating inter-generational
cycles of low economic status.
Table 6 Percentage of 10–14-year-old children attending school by survivorship of
parents

Sex Area of residence Total

Male Female Urban Rural

Both parents deceased 78.7% 78.3% 86.2% 72.6% 78.5%

Both parents alive and living 90.5% 91.5% 95.0% 89.1% 91.0%
with at least one parent

Source: CSO Zambia, 2015.

74 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

For orphans and vulnerable children (OVCs), bursary support is often required to
access school and pursue education to a higher level. MoGE has borne this in mind in
designing its policies, strategies, and programmes (Zambia EFA 2015 Review, 2014).
Financial support and the abolition of the fee to access Grade 7 national examinations
are two MoGE interventions which support vulnerable children. Additional financial
support for OVCs is provided by a number of stakeholders, including FAWEZA,
Camfed, CHANGES22, international organizations and agencies, and community
based organizations. However, given the increasing number of OVCs across the
country and the growing proportion accessing school, the level of bursary support
is insufficient to cater for all children who need it (Zambia EFA 2015 Review, 2014).

Since 2000, more than 600,000 new school places have been created in
2,758  community schools to strengthen equity and access to education for all
(Zambia EFA 2015 Review, 2014). In total, more than 3,000 communities in Zambia
participated in the implementation of these community schools. The communities
not only initiated the schools, but run them on a daily basis. Even though community
schools face major challenges, such as a lack of qualified teachers and a lack of
resources (material and human), they account for approximatively 20 per cent of
total enrolment in basic schools in Zambia. According to the Zambia EFA 2015
Review (2014), community schools have only provided interim relief, because they
do not offer optimal conditions for learning, and lack both necessary resources and
adequate professional development. Support is needed to ensure community schools
do not become part of the problem, but remain part of the solution.

Poverty, low levels of human development, and adult illiteracy are factors that
adversely affect both quality and equality of access to education. Levels of adult
illiteracy are more acute in rural areas and are particularly prevalent among females.
It becomes increasingly difficult for illiterate parents to support their children in
school activities as their children develop more competencies and more in-depth
knowledge over the years. The focus on adult literacy is, therefore, both important
and necessary for the equity and overall development of education in Zambia.

Out-of-school children
The impacts of these inequities are also reflected in the number of primary and
lower secondary school-age children who are out of school. Despite the significant
variations from year to year in the number of primary-age out-of-school children
(see Table 7), data provided by UIS (2015) indicate that, in 2013, more than 195,000
primary-age children were out of school in Zambia. The data presented in Figure 16
show that the percentage of adolescents out of school is higher than that of out-of-
school children of primary school age (CSO Zambia et al., 2009). More importantly,

75
 it indicates that the trend is higher among girls and that it is especially acute for girls
living in rural areas.

Table 7 Percentage of Zambian out-of-school children: Primary (ages 7-13)

Out-of-school Out-of-school Total of Number of

girls (%) boys (%) out-of-school out-of-school
(UIS, 2015) (UIS, 2015) children (%) children
(UIS, 2015) (World Bank, 2015)

2009 *7.2% *8.4% *7.8% 196,177

2010 *9.2% *11.0% *10.4% 271,516

2011 5.9% 6.8% 6.4% 170,939

2012 *3.7% *5.4% *4.5% 124,814

2013 6.5% 7.2% 6.9% 195,582

Source: UIS, 2015, and World Bank, 2015.

* UIS estimation

Figure 16 Percentage of Zambian out-of-school adolescents in 2007: secondary

(ages 14-18)

.
. .
. .
. .
.
.

Source: CSO Zambia et al., 2007.

Data from demographic and health surveys (DHS) show that higher proportions of
out-of-school children were found not only among rural girls, but also among school-
age children and young people from the poorest families (Figure 17 and Figure 18).
These results, therefore, reinforce the point that Zambia needs to continue efforts to
strengthen access to education for all, particularly by addressing equity issues.

76 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Figure 17 Percentage of primary school- Figure 18 P
 ercentage of secondary school
age children (ages 7-13) out of children (ages 14-18) out of
school school
% of children out of school

% of children out of school

Male Female Urban Rural Richest Poorest Total Male Female Urban Rural Richest Poorest Total
Quintile Quintile Quintile Quintile

Gender Urbanicity Income Total

Gender Urbanicity Income Total

Source: EPDC

MoGE equity interventions

A commitment to equity means working to ensure that all children, including
girls, children of diverse racial, ethnic, social, and economic backgrounds, children
with HIV/AIDS, and children with disabilities have access to school and to quality
education. The Special Needs/Inclusive Education Unit (SNIEU) is responsible
for formulating policies and monitoring progress related to increasing access to
education for learners with special educational needs (SEN), as well as for facilitating
the procurement and development of special needs materials. It is also the official
entity in charge of the implementation and evaluation of the Inclusive Schooling
Programme (INSPRO). INSPRO aims to improve the quality of primary, secondary,
and tertiary education for SEN learners, to increase their access to education, and to
develop an assessment protocol for early identification of SEN. In terms of results,
MESVTEE (2013a) points out that the SNIEU has developed specialized materials
such as documents transcribed into Braille, screening and assessment tools, and
specialized training modules. Curriculum reform has taken place at both general
and tertiary levels, and special education courses were introduced to the curriculum
in colleges and universities. Infrastructure has also improved in recent years, through
the construction of the National Centre of Excellence for Learners with Special
Educational Needs and the expansion of the Zambia Institute of Special Education
(ZAMISE). INSPRO has been introduced in all the provinces and has provided more
than 220,000 SEN learners with access to education (MESVTEE Statistical Bulletin,
2010). In addition to INSPRO, other programmes promoting inclusive education in
Zambia are implemented by organizations such as Sightsavers Zambia, Child Fund,
Leornard Cheshire, and DEAR Project.

77
 Despite the efforts of the SNIEU, some negative attitudes towards inclusive
education, and, in particular, to education for disabled people, continue to present
a barrier, mainly in rural areas. Some teachers have been empowered to make
inclusive education a reality in their classrooms. However, many have not received
any specific training on inclusive approaches or on inclusive education in general
(IDDC, 2013).

Multi-sectoral interventions for inclusive education

The HIV/AIDS pandemic affects a considerable number of Zambians. For instance,
approximatively 120,000 children (aged 0–14) were living with HIV in 2009
(UNAIDS, 2010). According to CSO et al. (2015), 6.6 per cent of the population aged
between 15 and 24 years (male: 5.4 per cent; female: 7.7 per cent) and 13.3 per cent of
15–49 population were affected by HIV/AIDS in 2014. HIV/AIDS is responsible for
the deaths of hundreds of people, including teachers, every year. However, according
to the Zambia EFA 2015 Review (2014), the number of casualties among teachers
has been minimised, in the past few years, by improved access to medication and to
some relevant technologies and treatments. Despite the slight decrease in numbers of
affected people in recent years (CSO et al., 2015), MoGE needs to improve the level
of knowledge and awareness of HIV/AIDS and should continue to coordinate efforts
with key local, national, and international stakeholders in HIV/AIDS prevention and
treatment.

Finally, the positive experiences of the World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF,
and the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) suggest that education and
health workers, teachers, parents, and community members should work together
to implement effective school health and nutrition (SHN) programmes to improve
the health of learners so that they can effectively participate in learning activities.
MoGE, in partnership with other stakeholders, is implementing SHN programmes to
ensure healthy and well-nourished learners in the country. The national programme
has four major components: school-based health services, water sanitation and the
environment, skills-based health education, and school health policies. According
to MESVTEE (2010), of a total of 8,783 schools, ‘44 per cent [were] offering school
health and nutrition interventions through treatment for worms and bilharzia,
malaria control, water and sanitation, school feeding programme, school gardens
and skills-based health education’ (p. 50). However, Chikwanu (2015) argues that
the SHN policy was poorly implemented in schools. Recent data (UNICEF, 2015)
show that, in 2012, some 63 per cent of the population of Zambia were making
use of improved drinking water. However, they also reveal significant disparities in
access to and use of improved drinking water between urban (85 per cent) and rural
(49 per cent) areas. In addition, despite the efforts of the SHN programme, in 2013,

78 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

14.9 per cent of children under 5 were underweight, 45.8 per cent suffered from
stunting, and 5.6 per cent from wasting, while results for the 2008–2012 period were
slightly more encouraging with, respectively, 14.6 per cent, 45.4 per cent, and 5.2 per
cent. However, there is some evidence of the positive impact of awareness-raising
programmes such as SHN in the context of the prevention and treatment of malaria.
In 2013, 37 per cent of children with fever were receiving anti-malarial treatment, 57
per cent of children were sleeping under insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs), and 68
per cent of households had at least one ITN, compared to 34 per cent, 50 per cent,
and 64 per cent, respectively, for the 2008–2012 period.

Nevertheless, the data overall echo Chikwanu’s observation and highlight

a pronounced need for further development of SHN as well as for further
implementation across the country.

2.4 Effectiveness
Several measures can be used to assess how effective an education system is compared
to other countries. Typical points of comparison include literacy rates, school
expectancy (the duration of students' school attendance), graduation rates, and
measures of student performance in internationally and/or regionally administered
tests such as PISA and SACMEQ. Together, these different measures provide a
snapshot of how well or how poorly an education system is performing.

Literacy rates
In terms of progress made towards the elimination of illiteracy, government efforts
have yielded some results, although the EFA target for 2015 has not been achieved.
According to UNESCO EFA Global Monitoring Report (2015), the adult literacy
rate (15 years and older) decreased from 69 per cent in 1995-2004 to 63 per cent
in 2015.7 These figures have to be compared with the sub-Saharan African average
adult literacy rate of 64 per cent (Figure 19) and the SADC sub-region average rate
of 79 per cent.

7 According to Zambia EFA 2015 Review, the adult literacy rate increased from 67.2% in 2000 to 83% in 2010.

79
 Figure 19 Adult literacy rate (15 years and above)
SSA 64%
57%
SADC 79%
75%
Seychelles 95%
92%
South Africa 94%
82%
Mauritius 91%
84%
Botswana 88%
81%
Swaziland 87%
82%
Zimbabwe 87%
81%
Namibia 82%
85%
Tanzania 80%
69%
Lesotho 79%
86%
DRC 77%
67%
Angola 71%
67%
Malawi 66%
64%
Madagascar 65%
71%
63% 2015
Zambia 69%
59% 1995–2004
Mozambique 48%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Source: EFA Global Monitoring report, 2015.

Table 8 shows Zambia’s achievements with regard to EFA Goal 4: ‘Achieving a 50 per
cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015’.

Table 8 Zambia’s performance: Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of

adult literacy, 2005–2014

Indicator reported Baseline (2004) Target (2015) Results (2014)

Goal 4: Illiteracy rates for 3.2 million illiterate 16.4% adult 13.07% illiteracy
Achieving a 50 per those aged 15 and (32.8% of the adult illiteracy rate or 2.3 rate or 1.9 million
cent improvement above population) million adults adults
in levels of
adult literacy by Completion rate in High dropout rates 100% completion Going by the
2015, especially adult literacy and rates achievements in the
for women, basic continuing previous indicator,
and equitable education this target was
access to basic programmes generally met
and continuing
education for all
adults

Source: Zambia EFA 2015 Review, 2014.

80 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Turning to educational attainment, the distribution of population (15-59 years)
according to the highest education level completed shows that 3.8 per cent had
no education; 23.1 per cent had some primary education; 17.2 per cent completed
primary level; 34.7 per cent had some secondary education; 13.2 per cent completed
secondary level; and 8 per cent had more than secondary education in 2013-14 (CSO,
2014).

School-life expectancy
The average school life expectancy (the total number of years of education a child
can expect to receive) is 10.8 years in Zambia, which is just near two years above the
basic education level. While the Zambia’s school life expectancy is higher than the
average of the sub-Saharan African region (9.5 years), it stands slightly below the
SADC’s average (11.2 years). Figure 20 illustrates school life expectancy within the
comparator group.

Figure 20 School life expectancy (years)

SSA 9.5
SADC 11.2
Mauritius 15.1
South Africa 13.2
Seychelles 13.2
Botswana 13.1
Swaziland 11.4
Malawi 10.8
Lesotho 10.8
Zambia 10.8
Madagascar 10.4
Zimbabwe 10.4
Angola 10.2
Mozambique 9.7
Tanzania 9.2
DRC 8.5

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0

 

81
 Table 9 School life expectancy by sex

Total Male Female

DRC 8.5 9.7 7.3

Tanzania 9.2 9.4 9.1

Mozambique 9.7 10.3 9.1

Angola 10.2 11.5 9.0

Zimbabwe 10.4 – –

Madagascar 10.4 10.7 10.2

Zambia 10.8 – –

Lesotho 10.8 – –

Malawi 10.8 10.8 10.9

Swaziland 11.4 11.8 10.9

Botswana 13.1 – –

Seychelles 13.2 12.7 13.6

South Africa 13.2 – –

Mauritius 15.1 – –

SADC 11.2 – –

SSA 9.5 9.9 8.7

Source: UIS, GMR 2015. Zambia’s indicators are calculated using data from the statistical bulletin 2014.

It should be noted, however, that school life expectancy represents the expected
number of years of schooling that will be completed, including years spent repeating
one or more grades. Table 9 suggests that the percentage of repeaters in both primary
and secondary education in Zambia is well below the average for sub-Saharan
countries.

82 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Table 10 Percentage of repeaters in primary and secondary education

Country/region Primary education (%) Secondary general education

(%)

Malawi (2013/2012) 18.88 12.15

Madagascar (2013/2013) 22.07 11.43

DRC (2013/2013) 10.81 9.90

Mozambique (2013/2013) 6.88 14.53

Zimbabwe NA NA

Lesotho (2013/2013) 13.67 14.41

Tanzania (2013/2013) 3.50 4.83

Zambia (2013/2013) 5.53 6.88

Swaziland (2012/2012) 15.49 11.00

Namibia (2012/2012) 14.89 17.97

Angola (2011/2009) 10.30 18.60

South Africa NA NA

Botswana (2012/2012) 4.66 0.50

Mauritius (2013/2013) 1.62 11.48

Seychelles NA NA

Sub-Saharan Africa (2013/2013) 8.75 12.27

Source: UIS database, 2015.

Student performance

In terms of learning performance, most of the standardized national, regional, and

international assessments highlight low learning achievement scores for a huge
number of students in Zambian schools. Assessment initiatives conducted over
the past decade include the Primary Reading Programme (PRP), Break Through to
Literacy (BTL), Early Grade Reading Assessments (EGRA), Early Grade Mathematics
Assessment (EGMA), the Grade Five National Assessment (G5NA), and successive
public examinations, all of which suggest that children are drifting through the
school system with very low mastery of desired learning competencies.

83
 According to the 2006 and 2008 Zambia National Assessment Survey Reports on
Learning Achievements at Middle Basic Level, performance in Zambian schools was
consistently below the desirable minimum level of 40 per cent (whether in English,
mathematics,8 life skills, or Zambian Languages), while the desired level is 70 per
cent (ZANEC, 2012). Reading assessments for early grades consistently show that
over 80 per cent of children are unable to read and write at the end of their first year
of learning. The 2012 G5NA also indicated that pupils consistently score below the
40th per centile, the minimum performance standard established by the MoGE.

This weak performance is also depicted in the Southern and Eastern Africa
Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ) results. Regionally,
SACMEQ results show that Zambian learners are performing at levels far below
those of their regional counterparts. For example, on SACMEQ’s 2007 examination,
Zambia’s learners scored an average of 434 in reading and 435 in mathematics, well
below the international mean of 500. Zambia is ranked 13th out of 14 countries for
literacy and numeracy by SACMEQ.

The Zambia EFA 2015 Review (2014) cited the low quality and relevance of education
as barriers to access and participation, especially for children from poor households.
The school opportunity cost is prohibitive when children confront poor learning
experiences, progressing without essential competencies such as the ability to read
and write. While compelling educational experiences create positive incentives for
children and families to choose education over other competing activities, poor
learning experiences exacerbate school opportunity cost, lead to early dropout, and
leave some learners subject to the vagaries of social norms, such as early marriage,
child labour, etc. This negative experience explains why girls, especially in rural areas,
leave the school system during upper primary; mostly because they and their families
question the relevance of education to their immediate livelihood needs (Zambia
EFA 2015 Review, 2014).

In the quest to address quality issues in Zambia, the debate is moving beyond
traditional remedies such as reducing the pupil-teacher ratio or providing school
requisites (chalk, desk, textbooks, etc.) to explore ‘soft’ solutions such as improving
governance, promoting effective school leadership and management, and introducing
formative assessment to enhance teaching and learning. The Zambian authorities
have already included these issues in their critical post-2015 education agenda.

8 In 2008, the score in mathematics was 40.2 per cent.

84 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

2.5 Efficiency
The efficiency of an education system is a measure of its performance relative to
the investment made. Efficiency speaks to how well or how poorly a system is able
to utilize existing resources. To study efficiency, it is necessary to examine how the
educational performance of a given country compares to the performance achieved by
countries that have made similar investments or, alternatively, whether other systems
have been able to obtain similar or better results by making smaller investments.

Public expenditure devoted to education

The education budget represents one of the largest component parts of the overall
Zambian Government budget. The Government of Zambia has improved education
funding since 2000, in response to increased demand for school. This is an indication
of political commitment to achieving education goals and targets. Notwithstanding
this effort, however, Zambia’s share of GDP devoted to education (4.3 per cent) was
lower than the average for the southern African region (4.9 per cent) and sub-Saharan
Africa (4.5 per cent) in 2013. With 15.4 per cent of total public expenditure devoted
to education (compared to an average 16.7 per cent in the SADC), Zambia still has
some leeway to increase its long-term commitment to public financing for education.

To accommodate the increased enrolment of recent years, especially in general

education, a significant proportion of the increase in the education budget has been
devoted to school infrastructure and improving staff working conditions, including
teachers’ salaries. Thus, in reality, the amount available for teaching and learning
resources and running schools remains low (Zambia EFA Review, 2015).

In 2014 and 2015, the education budget amounted to ZMW 8.6 billion (approximately
US $1.23 billion) and ZMW 9.4 billion, representing, respectively, 20.1 per cent and
20.2 per cent of the total budget. While these budget shares represent 5 per cent of
national GDP, it is important to note that the figures correspond to the budgeted
amounts, not actual education expenditure. Actual expenditure is, in general, lower
than the budget provisions. Table 11 shows that, for the last five years, actual public
expenditure on education represented an average of 17 per cent of total government
expenditure and stood at 15.4 per cent in 2013.

85
 Table 11 Trends in public expenditure on education 2006-2015
(nominal ZMW million)

  2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

  Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Budget Budget

Gross
domestic 38,561 46,195 54,839 64,616 77,667 93,333 106,015 120,780 166,078 189,783
product

Total
government 7,729 9,799 12,349 13,873 17,252 22,996 26,179 33,790 42,682 46,667
expenditure

Education
expenditure 1,513 1,851 2,371 2,847 2,909 3,522 4,501 5,209 8,599 9,415
(EE)

TGE as % of
20.0 21.2 22.5 21.5 22.2 24.6 24.7 28.0 25.7 24.6
GDP

EE as % GDP 3.9 4.0 4.3 4.4 3.7 3.8 4.2 4.3 5.2 5.0

EE as % TGE 9.6 18.9 19.2 20.5 16.9 15.3 17.2 15.4 20.1 20.2

Source: World Bank, 2015.

MESVTEE’s 2015 financial report provided a detailed analysis of education budget

allocation, release, and execution for 2014. According to the report, out of a total
ZMW 8.6 billion education budget, ZMW 6.1 billion (76 per cent) was allocated to
personal emoluments (PEs), leaving ZMW 2.2 billion (24 per cent) for non-personal
emoluments (non-PEs). The total allocation was mostly funded by Government
resources, which accounted for 97 per cent, while the main cooperating partners
(Irish Aid, UNICEF, JICA, AfDB, DFID, GPE, and USAID) contributed the remaining
three per cent through sector budget support.

In parallel, some active donors provided funding through bilateral and multilateral
arrangements using grants and projects in 2014. Irish Aid contributed £6 million, the
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) $3 million, and the UK Department
for International Development (DFID) $23 million. The Global Partnership for
Education (GPE) approved the Ministry’s application for funding amounting to $35.2
million for 2013–2018, with DFID acting as supervising entity. Additionally, DFID
and GPE, through the Sector Budget Support Programme, provided $1.6 million
subject to achievement of a number of targets, referred to as disbursement-linked
milestones (DLMs). Similarly, the Ministry received external funds from various civil
society organizations, amounting to ZMW 254.6 million. However, it is important to
note the sharp decline in cooperating partners’ support, including project funding,

86 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

from approximately 18 per cent of the total sector expenditure in 2009 to less than 6
per cent in 2012, and only 3 per cent in 2014. Table 12 shows the trend in education
funding, including cooperating partners’ contributions, from 2006 to 2014.

Table 12 Trends of education financing by cooperating partners (CP) (US$, millions)

  2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

CP financing 58 84 67 102 33 45 49 12 37

Government
361 378 566 462 574 679 826 953 1,361
financing

Total education
420 462 633 564 606 725 875 965 1,398
expenditure

% CP financing 14% 18% 11% 18% 5% 6% 6% 1% 3%

Source: World Bank, 2015.

This decline in CPs’ financing is partly due to the reduction in the number of
active CPs in the sector. In fact, at the start of NIF II in 2008, 11 CP had signed a
memorandum of understanding with the education sector, with five contributing to
the pool fund, while at the start of NIF III in 2012, there were only six CP signatories
to the Mutual Accountability Framework, with only two contributing to the pool.
However, the current funding structure seems consistent with Zambia’s status as a
middle-income country and the provisions of the national education policy, which
imply that the major responsibility for the education financing resides with the
Zambian Government.

Recent trends in education financing indicate not only a constant commitment to

education funding, but also a gradual shift in focus from basic education to secondary
and tertiary education, reflecting the Government’s intention to implement a national
education strategy that is relevant to the current context of the country. Having made
significant strides in terms of universal primary education and sustained economic
development (gaining the status of a middle-income country), Zambia is moving
into the post-EFA era, and its education strategy fits well with the internationally
agreed Education 2030 agenda.

Despite these achievements, however, analysis of education financing in Zambia

raises a number of issues, namely weak budget performance and inefficient intra-
sectoral budget allocation and utilization. These issues are reviewed in-depth in the
third chapter of this report, in the context of sector-wide policy and planning.

87
 Performance relative to investment
As described in Figure 21 and Figure 22, Zambia’s expenditure on education is
limited, though much higher than that of some countries in the region. Nevertheless,
the results of SACMEQ III (Figure 23) show that these levels of expenditure have yet
to be translated into improvements in student performance.

Figure 21 Public expenditure on Figure 22 Public expenditure on education

Expenditure on education
education as
as%%ofoftotal
total
education
Government
Government asonon%
expenditure
expenditure of GDP
education
educationas
as%
%of
of as government
% ofontotal
Expenditure public
expenditureexpenditure
GDP
GDP government expenditure

SSA 4% SSA
SSA 16.4%
16.4%
SSA 4%
SADC 4.8% SADC
SADC 16.5%
16.5%
SADC 4.8%
Swaziland 8.6% Namibia
Namibia 26.2%
26.2%
Swaziland 8.6%
Namibia 8.4% Swaziland
Swaziland 22.4%
22.4%
Namibia 8.4%
Malawi 6.9% Mauritius
Mauritius 20.9%
20.9%
Malawi 6.9%
Mozambique 6.7% South
South Africa
Africa 19.1%
19.1%
Mozambique 6.7%

South Africa
South Africa 6.1%
6.1% Mozambique
Mozambique 19.0%
19.0%

Mauritius
Mauritius 5.0%
5.0% Tanzania
Tanzania 17.3%
17.3%

Zambia
Zambia 4.3%
4.3% DRC
DRC 16.8%
16.8%

Seychelles
Seychelles 3.6%
3.6% Malawi
Malawi 16.3%
16.3%

Tanzania
Tanzania 3.5%
3.5% Zambia
Zambia 15.3%
15.3%

Angola
Angola 3.5%
3.5% Madagascar
Madagascar 14.0%
14.0%

DRC
DRC 2.2%
2.2% Seychelles
Seychelles 10.4%
10.4%

Madagascar
Madagascar 2.1%
2.1% Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe 8.7%
8.7%
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe 2.0%
2.0% Angola
Angola 8.7%
8.7%

0%
0% 2%
2% 4%
4% 6%
6% 8%
8% 10%
10% 0%
0% 5%
5% 10%
10% 15%
15% 20%
20% 25%
25%

Source: UIS and GMR, 2015. Data for Zambia are from World Bank, 2015.

The Zambian education system underperforms in comparison to countries which

invest less in education. Regionally, the results show that Zambian learners score the
lowest in both reading and mathematics compared to their regional counterparts.
When considered against expenditure levels, Zambia’s education system performs
less well than those of Zimbabwe, Seychelles, and Mauritius.

88 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Figure 23 National performance on reading and mathematics assessments (SACMEQ III)
Mathematics Scores

Reading Scores

Source: Hungi et al., 2010.

2.6 Overall appraisal

Overall assessment of the Zambian education system shows significant achievements

in relation to access, a mixed picture in terms of quality and relevance, equity, and
effectiveness, and raises questions in terms of efficiency.

Turning first to access, Zambia presents good participation rates in primary and
lower secondary education. These rates reflect an expansion in access, bringing the
country closer to its goal of providing universal education. Participation rates in
upper secondary education, however, remain low, indicating that Zambia is having
difficulty preventing children from dropping out before (or after) completing lower
secondary. Additionally, participation in tertiary education appears to accommodate
only a relatively small number of students, with one of the lowest rates in sub-Saharan
countries.

It is important to note that, in spite of real improvements in access to basic education,

Zambia still faces many challenges, including the further expansion of secondary
education to accommodate graduates from primary education, improving teaching
conditions to enhance the quality of learning, and reducing dropout, especially among
girls. The net intake rate (NIR) for primary education, which stood at 56.9 per cent in
2014, is far from the EFA target of 100 per cent that was expected by 2015 (Zambia
EFA 2015 Review, 2014). Long distances to school for younger children in rural areas
and a scarcity of Grade 1 places in urban areas (especially in Lusaka district) still
constitute key obstacles to school admission for children at official entrance age.

89
 With regard to quality and relevance, which this report assesses in relation to the
conditions that shape teaching and learning in the classroom, including teaching
and learning conditions, teachers’ qualifications, and teacher education and supply,
the picture shows some improvement, though many challenges remain. Among the
barriers to overcome, high teacher-pupil ratios, limited instructional hours, and a
shortage of qualified teachers continue to undermine the quality of education.

In terms of equity, proactive measures to attain gender parity have resulted in

the same proportion of girls and boys being enrolled in primary education and a
relatively high gender parity index, among the highest in the region, for both lower
and upper secondary education. Despite this success, Zambia still presents strong
geographical disparities. These disparities are even more alarming in relation to the
high number of OVCs and the high proportion of children out of school.

When it comes to effectiveness, the report examines the performance of the Zambian
system in terms of literacy rate, school life expectancy, the percentage of repeaters,
and student performance. The overall picture indicates that the system has been
able to slightly raise its adult literacy rate, remaining above the average for sub-
Saharan countries but well below the SADC sub-region average. Zambia’s school
life expectancy from primary to tertiary education places the country in the median
position in the SADC sub-region, and slightly above the sub-Saharan African average.
However, when the system’s effectiveness is assessed against student performance in
reading and mathematics, national examinations, national large-scale assessments
(G5NA and G9NA), and international large-scale assessments (SACMEQ), the
results clearly show that Zambia not only performs below average in international
and regional comparisons, but also fails to meet to its own national standards.

Despite improvements on some key political criteria, such as access, the Zambian
education system underperforms in comparison with a number of countries that
invest less in education. Regionally, results show that Zambian learners are less
successful than their regional counterparts. This low performance raises questions
concerning the efficiency of the Zambian education system. These include some fairly
pointed questions about government funding policies and the capacity of the system,
under current arrangements, to effectively implement policies towards achievement
of the Education 2030 goals.

90 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

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UIS (UNESCO Institute for Statistics). 2014. Zambia: National Assessment Survey.
Examinations Council of Zambia. Retrieved from: http://www.uis.unesco.org/nada/en/
index.php/catalogue/112.
UNAIDS (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS). 2010. Report on the global AIDS
epidemic.
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2012. Government of the Republic of
Zambia/United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Governance Programme
(2011–2015). Retrieved from: http://www.zm.undp.org/content/dam/zambia/docs/
legalframework/Zambia_2012-2015%20Governance%20Programme%20Document.pdf.
UNESCO. 2006. National education sector development plan: A result-based planning handbook.
Education Policies and Strategies, 13. Paris: UNESCO Education Section.
UNESCO-IBE (UNESCO International Bureau of Education). 2010. World data on education:
Zambia. 7th Edition, 2010/11. Retrieved from: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/
user_upload/Publications/WDE/2010/pdf-versions/Zambia.pdf.
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unesco.org/wtdb/worldtvetdatabase_zmb_en.pdf
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USAID (US Agency for International Development). 2002. Review and analysis of Zambia’s
education sector. Lusaka, Zambia.
World Bank. 2009. Zambia: Student assessment. SABER country report. Washington, DC:
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World Bank. 2015. World Bank Zambia Database 2015. Retrieved from: http://data.worldbank.
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Zambian education system. Prepared by George Hamusunga. March 2012.

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■■ Chapter 3
Review of Priority Policy Areas

This chapter provides a detailed review of the five education policy areas identified by
the ministries in charge of education, as national priorities:

• System-wide policy and planning.

• Teacher policies and development.
• Technical education, vocational and entrepreneurship training (TEVET).
• Adult literacy and education.
• Monitoring and assessment of learning achievement.

Each section provides a short overview of the key features of the corresponding
policy domain, and highlights a number of the policy issues at stake. For each policy
issue, supporting evidence is provided and policy relevance is discussed in the light
of international evidence and research, resulting in a set of recommendations. For
each recommendation, a rationale is presented, along with a discussion of policy
relevance and, whenever possible, some indication of relative priority and cost.

3.1 System-wide policy and planning

Introduction
Education policy and planning are fundamental in setting the vision and mission
for the sector, assessing need in order to define sector priorities and objectives,
developing and implementing action plans to achieve the desired results, and
monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of implementation and its contribution
to the achievement of the planned objectives (Kaufman and Herman, 1991). The
credibility of an education plan rests on a number of interrelated factors, including:
the ownership and commitment of the government and other education stakeholders
(cooperating partners, civil society organizations, communities, etc.), the quality of
the sector analysis/diagnosis, including the EMIS on which the plan is founded, and
the feasibility of proposed policy actions, taking into account available and projected
resources/capacities (human, material, institutional, organizational, and financial).

As mentioned in Chapter 1, education sector policy, planning, and governance in

Zambia have evolved with the political history of the country as well as through
the imperative for social and economic development articulated in successive

95
 policy documents. Through successive education policy reforms, Zambia has,
since independence, established a tradition of strategic planning, with the national
development plans providing the basis for education sector plans. Educational
planning has, therefore, been articulated through successive national development
plans, including the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP, 2002), the Transitional
National Development Plan (TNDP, 2002-2005), the Fifth National Development
Plan (FNDP, 2006-2010), and the Sixth National Development Plan (SNDP, 2011-
2015/16). These have, in large part, been geared towards alleviating poverty, achieving
sustained economic growth, and creating employment. Educational planning in
Zambia is also strongly informed by international trends and commitments, such as
the MDGs, the EFA goals and, currently, the Education 2030 agenda.

The Zambia’s current development agenda, as articulated by the National Vision

2030, focuses on the realization of the revised SNDP and the achievement of the
nation’s long-term development vision of becoming a prosperous middle-income
country by 2030. In this connection, the Education Sector NIF III (2011–2015)
and the Education Sector Plan (ESP) 2016–2020 provide a framework to drive the
education sector’s contribution to the national development endeavour, as well as to
internationally agreed education goals, such as EFA goals, MDGs, and the Sustainable
Development Goals.

The revised SNDP is organized around the theme of ‘people-centered economic

growth and development, with a specific educational development objective to
‘increase equitable access to quality education and skills training through efficient
and cost-effective measures that enhance human capacity for sustainable national
development’. To this end, NIF III’s focus is on four policy priorities, namely: (i)
free primary and secondary education; (ii) the expansion of tertiary and higher
education; (iii) the development of TEVET and skill training; and (iv) access, equity,
quality, relevance, efficiency, and skills development.

As a sector plan, NIF III seeks to guide the articulation of the broader objectives of
the SDNP into clear activities in the fields of education, science, vocational training,
and early childhood education. It is, in effect, the SDNP’s operational tool at all
levels of the education system, from ministry headquarters to provincial education
officers, district education board secretaries, and learning institutions. NIF III also
serves as an important tool for the monitoring and assessment of implementation
performance, while providing a framework for tracking resource utilization.

Process-wise, Zambia’s education authority strives to involve all relevant stakeholders

in policy dialogue for participative planning, though some stakeholders, such as local
communities, need to be empowered to contribute effectively to this process. An

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appraisal of NIF III by the Local Education Group found that the last Zambia ESP
was based on extensive consultation involving local, district, provincial, and national
stakeholders. An independent appraisal by international consultants reported that the
plan had secured strong political and stakeholder support, including support from the
donor community and civil society (GPE, 2011). However, despite the policy statements
on public-private partnerships, the private sector’s involvement in the education is
still limited. Like other education partners (cooperating partners and NGOs), the
private sector could be more effectively engaged through consultations during the plan
development process and participation in joint annual reviews (Beyani, 2013).

At the start of this review, MESVTEE was preparing the Education Strategic Plan
2016–2020, following the established participative approach and incorporating
lessons from the implementation of the previous ESP (NIF III). Nevertheless, despite
its technical and intellectual strengths, education planning and management in
Zambia still exhibits some weaknesses, particularly in the areas of: (i) governance,
particularly with regard to the implementation of educational decentralization policy;
(ii) budget performance and intra-sectoral budget allocation and utilization; and;
(iii) national capacities for effective sector policy development and implementation,
including issues related to monitoring and evaluation.

Policy issue 1: Ineffective implementation of the policy

to decentralize education

The weak implementation of decentralization policy impedes progress on education

access and quality, especially in rural areas.

Evidence
Despite the efforts invested by Zambia’s government to decentralize education,
stakeholders at both national and local levels point to marginal progress in
implementation and the low-level results achieved by the decentralization policy
(Irish Aid, 2013). They attribute this to a number of factors, mostly related to
administrative and financial challenges. A number of thorny issues, including the
legal and fiscal decentralization frameworks, have remained unresolved in the move
towards meaningful devolution (MoE, 2010). A study9 by Sikayile (2011), involving
two districts (Chongwe and Solwezi), revealed that while the decentralization
process brought some positive changes, especially in relation to participation

9 Discussions with relevant stakeholders during the review mission suggested that most of the issues raised in
this study are real and common to almost all the districts.

97
 and transparency both at district and school levels, it is still far from reaching the
anticipated results, due to administrative barriers, including weak institutional
capacity, poor accountability mechanisms, and ineffective autonomy of boards. A
number of participants in the study mentioned the failure of DEBs to deliver on
their mandate and to tackle school issues, including delays in teacher recruitment,
low learning achievement, and poor supply of educational materials. For instance,
the World Bank (2015) argues not only that the DEBs’ grants had proved insufficient
to fully cover procurement of all textbooks needed by students, but also that the
procurement capacity of DEBs had been weak.

These implementation issues occurred despite steps taken by the Government, when
establishing the DEBs, to develop their capacities, mostly in the areas of planning and
management, including in relation to staff and infrastructure (MoE, 2003).

Weak institutional capacity

The issues raised in relation to institutional capacity included poor organizational
support and realignment and weak implementation capacity. Sikayile’s study
suggests that weak institutional capacity not only affected the implementation of
decentralization policy by the DEBs, but frustrated actors at school and community
levels, raising fear that decentralization could worsen inequalities, since not all
communities would be able to mobilize local resources for education.

Insufficient organizational support

The theme of poor organizational support has been reflected in concerns regarding
personnel capabilities and operational guidelines, as well as, to a lesser extent, issues
related to coordination and information transfer. It is interesting to note that these
concerns, manifest at district level, are well known at central or national level, as can
be observed in the following statements, captured in Sikayile’s study:

A respondent (at national level) stated: ‘We are not aloof to the organizational challenges
facing district education boards countrywide. This is why we decided to put in place policy
measures to address them but whether they are working or not is difficult to tell. There are
still gaps in implementation … There are a number of factors but the most critical ones in
my view are lack of skilled manpower, unclear policy guidelines, and poor coordination.’

This was corroborated by a respondent from Chongwe District who explained:

‘… there are still setbacks concerning the implementation of educational decentralization….

and government still has a lot to do when it comes to strengthening institutional capacity
at the district level. There are ambiguities surrounding operational guidelines which affect
decision-making and coordination of activities. If MoE does not effectively reorganize

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 these boards by streamlining coordination and structural mechanisms, this whole idea of
district education boards will end up a white elephant.’

Similarly, a respondent from Solwezi District said:

‘This district is so large but unfortunately we are not well organized as a board which
makes it difficult to plan and coordinate. Education is very important. Therefore, a policy
such as decentralization ought to facilitate continued management and administrative
support. Moreover, most of these people in our board have no experience of how things
should be done. They are used to the old system where central government did everything.
You don’t just establish boards and expect that everything will be fine.’

Weak organizational realignment

With regard to organizational realignment, i.e. the creation of the necessary
institutional capacity framework to support the effective functioning of the DEBs,
most of the informants reported a weak administrative system and the absence of a
strong legal framework. Even when noting improvements in terms of transparency
and accountability in decision-making, the majority of stakeholders recognized that
DEBs are not functioning as officially expected. This is reflected in the following
statement by a member of Chongwe DEB:

‘We have the administrative framework but it is weak… Besides, where is the legal
framework to support implementation of the policy in districts? Though the intentions
were good, you cannot establish boards like we have done in this country without
strengthening the administrative framework. Remember also that no matter how well-
articulated your policy objectives are, implementation can be hampered if there is no
legal framework – this is one of the biggest problems we are experiencing. If education
is a right, why not develop a stronger regulatory framework to facilitate its provision?’

Similarly, a respondent from Solwezi DEB argued:

‘No-one can boast about transparency or administrative efficiency in our board… at least
not in absolute terms. Many times, decisions are made haphazardly. Senior officials from
Lusaka often flock here to ask us why this and that is not being done. If administrative
procedures are laid down, they are not adhered to… Maybe if we brought on board
sufficient funding that would be different. But in my view the challenge is beyond what
we experience: it’s a question of a regulatory framework which, if it exists at all, is not
working.’

Weak organizational realignment was found to be rooted in the ways in which the
duties and functions of board members are constituted in the Education Act of

99
 Zambia. In fact, while the functions of the PEO are clearly outlined in relation to
those of the DEB secretary, this is not the case for the education board chairperson,
thus creating potential conflict in the performance of these responsibilities (Sikayile,
2011). Some stakeholders perceive the weakness of the regulatory framework to be
in part due to the Government’s deliberate and prudent approach to introducing
education decentralization, as this national-level contributor noted:

‘Yes, there is need to realign institutions at district level to promote efficiency but
government is very cautious in its approach. Educational decentralization, as you know,
is by stages which are a building process. Most of these districts and communities like
Mufumbwe are highly poverty stricken. Therefore, it may not be beneficial to put in
place a regulatory framework which completely supplants government’s role in education
provision. Though education is a right… Government is cautious about putting in place
a strong legal framework as that may create stress on the system given limited resources.’

While a cautious and incremental approach to change might be required to ensure

a smooth transition to decentralization, it could also be said to suggest some
reservations on behalf of the Government, in terms of its commitment and its ability
to anticipate beforehand the challenges to effective implementation.

Weak implementation capacity

Among the institutional capacity issues identified in Sikayile’s study, weak
implementation capacity was highlighted by almost all members of the two DEBs
which took part. More specifically, the biggest issues concerned insufficient funding
and the lack of skilled personnel to address the new requirements in terms of
planning, decision-making, monitoring and evaluation, and reporting. Despite
the MoE’s attempts to develop DEBs’ capacities in planning, and financial and staff
management, the implementation capacity at district level remains questionable. The
root causes of this problem, according to participants in Sikayile’s study, ranged from
lack of political will on the part of the government, to poor leadership in the boards,
and a lack of commitment from communities to meaningful participation in the
provision of basic education.

While most of the stakeholders consulted during this review considered lack
of funding to be the most critical obstacle to successful implementation of the
decentralization policy in Zambia, it is important to note that this problem is
exacerbated by a number of administrative issues.

Inadequate accountability mechanism

Accountability is seen as one of the major corollaries of the decentralization
policy, since the transfer of decision-making authority to lower-level units must

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be accompanied by increased answerability for results. The implementation of
education decentralization in Zambia raised some issues regarding accountability,
namely the inadequate sharing of responsibilities within and between the governance
and management teams at district level, and the excessive administrative control by
the MoE, which engender inefficiency in the use of resources (Sikayile, 2011).

Inadequate sharing of responsibility

With regard to shared responsibility, it was found that decentralization, through the
creation of DEBs, had engendered a strong sense of collective action and ownership,
underpinned by the value of local knowledge and answerability for results at district
level. In the two districts studied, the DEBs were unanimously considered as a venue
for collective responsibility through which decision-making can be influenced,
particularly with regard to the construction of teacher houses and additional
classrooms in order to improve school access and quality. This positive perception
was shared by the majority of board members involved in the study, as reflected in
the following comment from a member from Solwezi District:

‘We know what is required of us all in this board. All schools in this district are ours
but if we don’t tackle their problems who will do it? It is not like before when somebody
from Lusaka came and told you what to do. Since we know the problems our children
face in these schools, we meet as a team to discuss ways of addressing them. This is why,
when it comes to constructing classroom blocks and teachers' houses, for instance, we
are all united as a board including parents who contribute upfront materials. The main
challenge, however, is that we are still answerable to headquarters and our decisions are
often questioned even though communities are expected to be judges of our works.’

In spite of this apparent enthusiasm, some respondents expressed reservations as to

the viability of collective action, citing lack of transparency, poor consultation, and
established controls as limiting factors. A member from the Chongwe DEB said:

‘One of the challenges in this board is lack of transparency and consultation when making
decisions. Many are the times you are invited to participate in activities you never had
a say on (…) It is the same problem affecting PTAs in basic schools. Parents are only
involved when it is time to contribute upfront materials for constructing school buildings.
You just get a feeling that you are being sidelined! You wonder why? So why should
everybody be squarely answerable for things not presided over as a team?’

The rationale for collective action and the consequent accountability are compromised
by the low levels of involvement of some board members in the decision-making
process. This can also be the case when board members realize they have no authority
to undertake agreed activities, as a respondent from Solwezi DEB argued:

101
 ‘Even if we are represented on the board as PTA members, there is not so much to show
for it at our level. Participation in board meetings is one thing but seeing to it that
necessary resources are in place to undertake agreed activities is another. Some of these
board members are just there for allowances in the name of working together, not that
they are doing anything meaningful. Of course there may be minutes showing that they
share ideas but then what else? If you look at the reports and statistics you will notice poor
pupil performance and stagnating quality of education. If government is always to blame,
then why are these boards there in the first place? Personally, I don’t understand why it is
like that, maybe you people who are so educated have answers.’

The intense political pressure under which the DEB secretary and the PEO operate
may also undermine collective action, and subsequently the board’s accountability to
the primary beneficiaries of basic education (pupils, teachers, and parents).

Excessive administrative control from the centre

The persistence of administrative control has also been raised as an obstacle to
the successful functioning of the decentralization compact. Through educational
decentralization, the DEBs are granted administrative, legal, and financial decision-
making powers over education matters (MoE, 1996). This implies increased local
control through deregulation of government duties. A senior policymaker at the
MoE put it this way:

‘If decisions are made by people who understand the problems, efficiency increases. This
is the case now. So we have ample time to concentrate on policy matters. Because of the
boards, issues of an operational nature, such as management of teachers’ payroll, are
exclusively dealt with at the district level. That is just one of the good lessons. Previously,
you would have to go to provinces, districts, and even right up to the schools to collect
information for planning purposes… Imagine how high the budget line for operational
costs was?’

However, the reality suggests that there remains a huge gap between policy and
practice. Top officials still exert supervisory control over the boards. For instance,
the decentralization compact, instituted by the MoE, states that DEBs must be
accountable to their constituencies for (i) the improvement of educational access,
equity, relevance, and quality and (ii) improvement in the performance of the
education system in service delivery. However, the general perception at national
and district levels is that DEBs do not have discretion over such decisions. In
practice, DEBs report to MoE headquarters through the PEO’s office on almost all
issues pertaining to the provision of basic education, with the exception of peripheral
matters, such as monitoring of education standards in schools. Similarly, decisions
concerning the approval of budgets and the allocation and use of funds are mostly

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made at MoE HQ, which suggests that DEBs have little or no control of financial
resources allocated by the central government (Sikayile, 2011).

While stakeholders at both national and district levels recognize that a certain
degree of supervision or administrative control by MoE HQ is needed to guarantee
successful implementation of decentralization, especially when sub-level units are
inexperienced, they also contend that excessive control defeats the whole point of
DEBs and the decentralization policy in general. The key challenge is to find the
optimal degree of administrative control over local units, while ensuring that the latter
have the necessary power and authority to execute the transferred administrative
responsibilities.

Compromised rationale for efficiency

Sikayile’s study also suggested that excessive central control over DEBs compromised
the rationale for efficiency in the use of resources, one of the objectives of educational
decentralization in Zambia. The majority (70 per cent) of stakeholders involved in the
study raised concerns about the effects of the decentralization policy on efficiency,
pointing out a huge gap between policy and practice. This is reflected in the following
statement by a female teacher from Chongwe District, who was supported by other
contributors:

‘As much as the PEO and other officers from Lusaka are fond of making frequent visits
to districts and schools, so too do DEB officials often travel to Lusaka, as we understand,
for meetings which never end. Just think about it, the money which they use to burn fuel
could be used to buy books and chalk for the poor school children. Please come to my
office after this meeting so that you can see for yourselves the boxes of chalk procured from
Lusaka without consulting us. Up to now, none of us has ever used that chalk because it
can’t write on the blackboard no matter how hard you press it. We had to use money from
our pockets to buy what we are using now. Imagine!’

Autonomy issues
Linking to the above discussions are issues related to DEBs’ autonomy in decision-
making. With the transfer of powers and responsibilities to DEBs, educational
decentralization also granted the board and school managers a certain degree of
autonomy to take independent decisions in the interests of their districts and schools,
respectively (MoE, 1996).

The majority of participants in Sikayile’s study argued that self-management, through

the DEBs, was one of the major achievements of the decentralization policy and
that it had led to remarkable improvements in the provision of basic education.
The enthusiasm for local autonomy and the resultant increase in the effectiveness

103
 in service delivery is evident in the following statement made by a Solwezi DEB
member:

‘Even if we don’t have powers to make final decisions, our presence during board meetings
matters a lot as it gives us an opportunity to influence the process of decision making. For
instance, we do, in our limited capacity, have a say on the budget, we participate in joint
monitoring activities at schools, which helps us to better understand problems faced (…).
It is easy and less costly to monitor schools since we are closer to them than people from
headquarters in Lusaka.’

The study also suggested that the boards were increasingly and proactively acquiring
autonomy, by executing legitimate control over some major decisions, such as teacher
recruitment, redeployment, and payroll management.

However, some participants had a different perspective. They highlighted the conflict
between the management and governance teams as an obstacle to the boards’
legitimate control over the delivery of education at local level. Members of the two
participating DEBs suspected the management team of coercing or undermining
board decisions. It was found, for instance, that one management team met monthly
to discuss issues concerning budgets, procurement plans, and reporting, often
without the knowledge of governance team members. This situation, exacerbated
by the lack of a legal framework, affects not only the boards’ autonomy, but also
local accountability and transparency in decision-making, which require close
collaboration between the management and governance teams.

Some participants mentioned that, due to excessive central control over matters
expected to be under their jurisdiction, DEBs had little or no leeway in making key
decisions over most of the responsibilities transferred to them. This remark, by a
member of Chongwe DEB, illustrates the situation:

‘The problem in this country is that you have policies which are well written but, when
it comes to implementation, it’s something else. Even if we are not technocrats, we are
able to point out some of the weaknesses. Many responsibilities have been transferred
to us as boards but, unfortunately, issues like districts’ annual budgets and work plans
are still approved from Lusaka and often it takes too long. You can imagine! Even a
simple decision such as purchasing of educational materials is also sanctioned from there.
Besides, there is never a month passing without officials from Lusaka coming here to
monitor, as if we can’t do that. Sometimes, our colleagues from the management team
are called on short notice even on minor issues such as taking information on how many
books are needed for the district. Surely? Now tell me, how can you lower administrative
costs or improve efficiency for that matter?’

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Education decentralization in Zambia also entails school-based management
(through the PTA), as the policy document clearly states that ‘entrusting greater
power and authority to education and school managers, at district and school levels
respectively, in addition to promoting community participation, leads to a strong
sense of ownership and responsibility for these units” (MoE, 1996). The study by
Sikayile suggests that, despite weak technical capacity and inadequate funding,
the PTAs manifest a strong sense of ownership and responsibility, mostly through
increased dialogue and transparency, which translate into improvements in education
delivery. This is reflected in the following statement from a school head:

‘I have been the head for this school for over 10 years and looking at the way we work as
PTA members now there is a big difference compared to the past. Before, it was difficult
to tell communities to contribute something even if it was for a noble course and nobody
cared much about the condition of the school and the plight of the pupils. Everybody
knew it was the duty of government (…) no wonder vandalism was rampant. But things
have changed. All these new classroom blocks you can see here are simply because PTA
members worked hand in hand with the community to build them, including making
some of the desks pupils sit on. So, even if this school belongs to government, we are the
owners because we have contributed so much to making it what it is today. I can tell you
one thing! If you have put an effort into making something, you will most likely take care
of it and protect it against vandalism.’

This suggests that the contributions of PTAs and communities are critical to the
achievements of the goals of decentralization. A small number of participants,
however, mentioned that school managers and PTAs still have no discretion over
minor decisions, such as the procurement of school requisites, which needs approval
from the DEB, causing delay in service delivery. The case is illustrated in the following
comment by a basic school PTA chair:

‘The school records show that enrolment numbers are increasing year by year but we do
not have adequate classroom places to accommodate every child from these surrounding
villages. We have done all we can with the community to try and build two additional
classroom blocks… see those moulded blocks outside! They have been there for over five
months and the rains will soon start. It is so annoying that we have to wait for officials
from the PEO and DEB’s offices just to come and survey where the building should be
located.’

Where school managers and PTAs lack this kind of discretion, there is a risk to
undermine effective school-based management. It should also be noted, however,
that, on occasion, ‘legitimate control’ cannot be avoided, at least in circumstances
where school managers and PTAs lack the authority, skills, and resources to effectively

105
 manage the autonomy granted to them. In those circumstances, the reinforcement
of school leadership can be a promising avenue for a successful implementation
of decentralization policy and an effective means of education service delivery in
particular.

Fiscal bottlenecks at district level

In addition to the administrative challenges discussed above, education
decentralization in Zambia is hampered by a lack of funding sources at local level.
Consistent with the principle that ‘finance follows function’ (Florestal and Coopers,
1997), the Zambian Government has made fiscal decentralization of the education
sector a part of the process, with the aim of establishing and operationalizing
financing mechanisms to ensure financial autonomy at local level and promote
effective transfer of financial resources from MoE HQ to provincial, district, and
school levels (GRZ, 2009).

In order to address the fiscal challenges and to guide the planning and financial
management process at these different levels, the Government has developed a
national fiscal framework, based on a number of measures and criteria, such as
the ‘special equalization fund’ and the ‘revenue allocation formula’, intended to
ensure the equitable distribution of financial resources across sub-sectors, levels,
and programmes. Two main fiscal variables are used when allocating funds: the
foundation variable and the factored variable. Through the foundation variable
a fixed amount of money is equitably allocated to each operational level, such as
district education office (DEO). With the factored variable, an amount of money
is allocated to sub-sectors or operational levels, based on parameters such as pupil
enrolment, school location, and gender parity index (MoE, 2007; NIF II, 2008–
2010).

While the allocation criteria and measures seem straightforward, on paper at least,
implementation highlighted the complexity of applying this wide range of measures.
Not only do financial resources not reach regional offices as planned (JICA, 2012),
but, more importantly, school and district grants are not allocated in a transparent
way, do not support the ‘pro-poor’ strategy, and are not properly executed (World
Bank, 2015). It was found, for example, that provinces with large-scale expenditure
and enrolment have difficulties in implementing their budgets, due to low capacity.
Around 30 per cent of primary schools do not receive any school grants, while most
primary schools receive less than the intended amount. It seems that disbursement
of school grants does not follow the budget allocation rule. More critically, there is a
lack of information about the allocation formula and the amount of school grants at
district and school levels. Therefore, most primary schools are not informed about
the level of grant they are supposed to receive. This impedes the implementation of

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free primary education policy, as half of government schools continue to charge fees
to compensate for unreleased school grants (World Bank, 2015).

The implementation of fiscal decentralization is, furthermore, made more difficult

by the weak link between plans and budget systems at central level, which affects
DEBs due to their high dependence on government grants (Sikayile, 2011). Weak
institutional capacity and poor accountability mechanisms, as discussed earlier,
further compound the challenges.

Discussion
Decentralization has been a leading theme of both education research and policy
discussion over the last three decades, as a large number of countries, developed and
developing, have attempted to decentralize their education systems. The rationale
for decentralization is the belief that shifting authority to lower management level is
likely to enhance the quality, efficiency, effectiveness, equity, and responsiveness of
public education (Ainley and McKenzie, 2000; Naidoo, 2005).

However, the literature suggests that decentralization reform has yielded mixed results,
depending on country-specific contexts, the form and degree of decentralization,
the strategies adopted for implementation, and the capacities of the actors involved.
Countries which have engaged in the decentralization of their education systems
report different benefits and pitfalls, as well as challenges and political implications
(Zajda, 2006).

Zambia’s education decentralization experience appears similar to that of most

African countries. In their review of education decentralization policy and practice
in Africa, Winkler and Gershberg (2003) conclude that: ‘…with respect to the
lessons learned from international experience, Africa does relatively well in terms
of informal or formal parental participation, does reasonably well in terms of the
design of financial transfers to schools and local governments, and does quite poorly
in terms of clearly assigning roles and responsibilities to local governments and in
providing the mechanisms and information required for accountability’.

It is important to mention the experience of community schools, as the most

common form of ‘de facto’ educational decentralization in Africa. Most of these
schools have been established by communities, as a consequence of state failure to
provide an education service. Increasingly, though, they have been supported by the
government within the framework of decentralization. However, there are concerns
that increased government involvement affects the creativity and independence of
these schools. Community schools are an example of success in the sector, especially

107
 in terms of reducing student and teacher absenteeism. There is also evidence that
they produce improved learning outcomes (Winkler and Gershberg, 2003).

In Zambia, as in other African countries, these mixed results can be explained by

the particular context in which education decentralization has been introduced. In
fact, most African countries have adopted education decentralization as a strategy to
achieve more cost-effective education service delivery against a background of severe
deficiency in terms of access, quality, and performance (Winkler and Gershberg,
2003). This challenging context is further complicated by high rates of illiteracy among
parents, poor banking systems, low levels of institutional capacity, and indications
of state failure in many countries. The trend towards education decentralization in
Africa has also been influenced by programmes of structural adjustment intended to
address fiscal imbalances in the 1980s, and the transition towards a more democratic
and market-driven form of politics in the 1990s (Ndegwa, 2002).

In spite of this generally mixed picture, some successful cases have been recorded. The
evaluation research suggests that the magnitude of educational improvement brought
by decentralization is small in most cases, and it occurs mostly where responsibilities
are transferred to schools rather than sub-national government (Winkler and Yeo,
2007). A country like Uganda has experienced a number of benefits from education
decentralization, in terms of increased participation, increased transparency and
accountability, and improvements in capacity building. Transparency, in particular,
has been enhanced through the publication, in the national press, of detailed
information on the conditional grants transferred to districts, while schools and
sub-counties have had to publicize their budgets and sources of funds (Winkler and
Gershberg, 2003). This successful implementation was facilitated by a stable macro-
economic environment, political will and commitment to education, and cooperating
partners’ interest in decentralization (UNESCO, 2004; Murphy, 2005; Namukasa
and Buye, 2007), and occurred despite central government’s involvement in military
conflict during the same period (UNESCO, 2004). Nevertheless, even with these
breakthroughs, the implementation process in Uganda faced political and financial
challenges, partly due to insufficient funds transfers from central government and the
fact that local governments had been neither consulted on, nor involved in, national
budgets (Winkler and Gershberg, 2003).

Research shows that, in many cases, accountability mechanisms are undermined

by poorly defined roles and responsibilities at different governance levels as well as
among the various agencies and actors involved in providing, funding, and monitoring
education services. These issues can be detected in countries such as Nigeria and
Tanzania where politically motivated top-down decentralization reform has taken
place. In Nigeria, for example, the federal recentralization of power has reduced

108 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

capacity, authority, and budget control at state and local levels, while accountability
is affected by the overlap between roles at the three levels of governments and by
duplications of function (Winkler and Gershberg, 2003).

A study on decentralization policy in four francophone western African countries

(Benin, Guinea, Mali, and Senegal) found that poor delineation of responsibilities
and power relations, and weak transparency mechanisms (weak accountability
system), made it difficult to identify who was accountable for pupil performance,
district education officials or school management committees (De Grauwe and
Lugaz, 2007).

Managing the autonomy of lower-level units is another major challenge to the

implementation of education decentralization. Lessons from international evidence
suggest that autonomy at local level needs to be counterbalanced with an effective
evaluation and accountability framework. This is not always the case. For instance, De
Grauwe and Lugaz (2010) note the lack of information on the use of funds transferred
to local offices or schools in the four western African countries they studied. Central
authorities in these countries have given little attention to monitoring actions taken
at local and school levels.

Furthermore, autonomy at the local level cannot yield the expected benefits unless
it is supported by adequate institutional capacities. This point is made by Naidoo
(2002) with reference to the situations of Ghana and Nigeria where the roles of
district education offices, school management committees, and community-based
organizations in the management of education provision were limited by capacity
constraints. This reflects an important principle for effective decentralization: ‘the
mandate of all actors should take into account their resources, skills, and assets’ (De
Grawe at al., 2005). A study of decentralization in Thailand noted that successful
implementation of school-based management rests on school leaders’ capacity
for leadership, strategic planning, entrepreneurship, and marketing (Gamage and
Sooksomchitra, 2004).

A common finding in the literature on education decentralization worldwide concerns

the gap between the rhetoric or policy intent and actual implementation. This
partly reflects the fact that the decentralization of administrative and management
functions is not often accompanied with the necessary implementation capacities
(institutional, organisational, financial, and human), especially at local level (Geo-
Jaja, 2006). But the implementation gap is about more than capacity, important
though this is. The literature is replete with examples of country-specific challenges
to decentralization, including cultural resistance to change, inadequate incentives
and rewards, weak commitment from the centre, and so on.

109
 For instance, Bjork (2004) found that Indonesian teachers’ conservative civil service
culture prevented them from making the most of the autonomy granted to them by
decentralization reform. As civil servants, teachers showed resistance to change and
continued to see themselves as accountable to the government rather than to students,
parents, and local school boards. Bjork’s study also found that the incentive (increased
authority) offered to teachers who accepted new pedagogical responsibilities proved
to be inadequate, as teachers were more interested in the security of their job than
in influencing school policy or impacting on their students’ lives. Financial reward
would be more effective, but there was not enough of it. Another impediment
identified in the Indonesian study concerns central-local relations. While there was
a genuine desire among central officials to decentralize decision-making power, this
was not accompanied with appropriate support. For instance, the centrally organized
training workshops failed to meaningfully change attitudes or empower actors at
lower-level units (Bjork, 2004).

Bray and Mukundan (2004), in their study of Kerala State (India), showed how
complex and challenging the implementation of educational decentralization can
be, even in a society with a high level of education, a long tradition of political
participation, and a strong presence of civil society organizations. The implementation
challenges encountered in Kerala match, in some respects, those described by Bjork
on Indonesia. For instance, it was found that, contrary to the judgement of state-
level planners, local-level actors did not have the capacity to deal with the substantial
educational issues (as opposed to infrastructure and logistic issues), adding further
to the implementation challenges. Similarly, it was difficult for some local-level
actors to understand and interpret the ‘highly academic’ guidelines (including
technical jargon) prepared by the state planning board. These capacity issues were
intensified by the timeframe, as Kerala’s authorities adopted a big-bang approach to
decentralization, instead of gradually transferring decision-making powers to lower-
level units, in accordance with the perceived improvement in their management and
leadership capacities (Bray and Mukundan, 2004).

While this discussion indicates the complexity and challenges involved in

implementing educational decentralization, particularly in developing countries,
it also supports an internationally shared belief that decentralization, if properly
implemented, is the most effective and efficient way of managing education (Winkler
and Gershberg, 2004; De Grauwe and Lugaz, 2010). The study by De Grauwe and
Lugaz (2010), for example, highlighted that all major education stakeholders consider
decentralization to be the way forward. Therefore, acknowledging the related
implementation challenges should not lead to a rejection of decentralization reform,
but rather to its cautious application and the exploration of innovative strategies to
address potential obstacles.

110 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

RECOMMENDATIONS

• MoGE should establish a clear and strong regulatory framework, backed by

renewed political commitment and adequate funding, to support implementation
of educational decentralization. This framework should clearly outline
coordination arrangements and provide clear operational guidelines that specify
power relations between and among members of the board, with clear delineation
of their different roles and responsibilities.
• MoGE should ensure that staff training and profiles match the assignment
and expected performance, namely the operationalization of the regulatory
framework for effective implementation of decentralization. In addition, MoGE
should provide systematic in-service training for DEB staff to update them with
new knowledge and skills in order to enhance their capacity to innovate and cope
with emerging challenges.
• MoGE should promote a management approach which reinforces complementarity
in roles and authority between the centre and the sub-level units (DEBs, PTAs,
communities, schools) in order to counterbalance the risks associated with abuse
of authority within DEBs or excessive control from the centre.
• MoGE should develop and disseminate transparent and clear guidelines on grant
distribution to DEB officers and school principals, with appropriate training
for better understanding and use of the grants. This is intended to improve the
efficiency of grant disbursement and use.
• In the same vein, MoGE should establish a specific monitoring and technical
support mechanism to anticipate and address critical issues. A forum for
communication and exchange of experiences and best practices can be created
for this purpose.

Policy issue 2: Weak budgetary performance: late, erratic,

and inadequate funding

While the Zambian Government continuously increases the share of education

budget, the effective implementation of education programmes and activities are
affected by late, erratic, and inadequate disbursements.

Evidence
While sector allocations are earmarked in budget documents, the education ministries
face a number of budget planning and management challenges, due to the discretionary
power of the Ministry of Finance and National Planning (MoFNP) over the release
of funds, the limited absorptive capacity, and the lack of skilled staff. In fact, while all

111
 government ministries, including the Ministry of Education, prepare and submit their
budgetary requirements, the amount of budget allocated to each ministry is the result
of a discretionary decision of MoFNP on the basis of the resources available to it. This
is a source of fluctuation in budgetary allocations and disbursements to the Ministry
of Education. For instance, in 2014, MoFNP released a total of ZMW 2.014 billion
from the non-PE budget component to MESVTEE, 81 per cent of the budgeted ZMW
2.496  billion. This partial release of education funding badly affected a number of
programmes, particularly infrastructure programmes, as detailed in Table 13.

Table 13 Consequences of partial release of non-PE component by MoFNP

Budget lines Allocated Released

(in ZMW) (in ZMW and as a %)

Infrastructure development at provincial level 378 m 124 m 33%

[Resource Development Centers (RDC) to PEOs]

Infrastructure development at the science division 327 m 157 m 48%

RDCs for headquarters at science 144 m 73 m 51%

Bursaries committee administration 257 m 229 m 89%

Grants to colleges of education 12 m 6.8 m 57%

School infrastructure at the 220 upgraded basic

320 m 100 m 31%
schools

Plan to replace pole and mud structures at

36 m 10 m 28%
community and state schools

As discussed earlier, while Zambia’s educational expenditure in percentage of GDP

has been stable over the last five years, its level remains relatively low in comparison
to SADC and the African averages. Besides, education funding was affected by a
sharp decline in external aid to education, which dropped from 18 per cent of the
total sector expenditure in 2009 to only 3 per cent in 2014 (World Bank, 2015), partly
due to the reduction in the number of cooperating partners. During the mission
review, some partners pointed out issues related to efficiency, transparency and
accountability in the use of resources, as a reason for donors’ reluctance.

Notwithstanding concerns about the limited education budget, not all disbursements
from MoFNP are utilized by the Ministry of Education, cases of insufficient
absorptive capacity have been reported, which have sometimes led to the return of
unutilized funds by the end of the financial year. According to some officials, the
apparently weak absorptive capacity of the Ministry of Education can be explained
by the delay in the release of funds by MoFNP, especially when funds are disbursed in

112 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

the last quarter, leaving insufficient time to the Ministry of Education to spend them
properly (Beyani, 2013; JICA, 2012). MESVTEE’s 2015 financial report highlights
the non-release of the fourth-quarter operational fund as one of the recurrent factors
that affected budget performance in 2013 and 2014.

Analysis of budget performance also shows a noticeable gap between authorized

provision and funded budget (low funding rate), while the difference between funded
budget and the actual expenditure is very low (high execution rate), except for basic
and secondary education (see Table 14).

Table 14 Education funding rates and execution rates, 2013 (million ZMW)

  Authorized Funded Actual Funding Execution

provision budget expenditure rates rates

  a b c d=b/a e=c/b

Basic 3,054 2,973 2,994 97% 101%

High school 691 661 661 96% 100%

Teacher education 122 104 102 85% 98%

TEVET 49 34 33 69% 97%

Higher education 473 409 413 86% 101%

Science and technology 56 40 39 71% 98%

Administration* 1337 1061 967 79% 91%

Source: World Bank, 2015.

* The capital expenditures for different sub-sectors are included under ‘Administration’, as most of this
expenditure is under the project unit at headquarters. Therefore, the low execution rate, particularly for
‘Administration’, is due to relatively low implementation of capital expenditure in education.

The issues of budget execution appear to be more challenging at sub-national levels,

particularly for general education, with performance varying with budget item and
province. It was found, for instance, that while 100 per cent of personnel emoluments
were executed in 2013, only 84 per cent of the budget related to DEB grants for primary
education was disbursed to DEBs. At the same time, certain types of grants were overly
executed, such as the grant for free primary education (106 per cent), and provincial
grants for free early childhood education, secondary education, and special schools
(105 per cent). It was also found that the quality of budget execution was linked to a
province’s enrolment size and expenditure, i.e. provinces with large-scale enrolment
and budget (e.g. Copperbelt) tend to have a lower execution rate, while those with
small-scale enrolment and budget have a higher execution rate (World Bank, 2015).

113
 Analysis of budget allocation in primary education suggests that the disbursement
of school grants does not conform to the budget allocation formula, which refers
to three factors: (i) school location (remoteness); (ii) gender parity index; and (iii)
school size (enrolment). A study by the World Bank (2015) showed that these factors
explained only 18 per cent of the actual grants disbursed to primary schools. This
suggests either flawed implementation of the funding formula or the proper amount
not being disbursed to schools. It seems that provinces apply different weights to
these factors, adding to the various challenges of implementing decentralization.

Related to the above situation is the fact that a number of primary schools (estimated
at 28 per cent in 2013, though there is wide variation between provinces) do not
receive any school grants from the government. Consequently, 27 per cent of
primary pupils still pay school fees (through PTA). It is also estimated that 60 per
cent of secondary school students pay fees for tuition. In fact, government funding
per student, estimated at ZMW 22 for primary education and ZMW 25 for secondary
education, represents only 64 per cent and 10 per cent, respectively, of annual
revenues per student (including both public and private sources). Moreover, this level
of funding per student remains far below the target of ZMW 46 (for primary) and
ZMW 144 (for secondary), suggested in the Performance Assessment Framework
(PAF) of 2015 (World Bank, 2015). This constitutes an enormous challenge to the
Government’s free primary and secondary education policies, as confirmed by a
number of stakeholders met during the review mission.

To address planning and budgeting challenges, the Government of Zambia has taken
steps to establish effective mechanisms and tools to ensure the optimal allocation
and use of available resources. Efforts in this direction include the introduction of
the comprehensive Public Expenditure Management and Financial Accountability
(PEMFA) programme, the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF),
the Financial Management Information System (FMIS), and the outcome-based
budgeting approach (OBB).

Launched in 2005, PEMFA came into effect in February 2006, with the overall
objective of contributing to government efforts to improve capacity to effectively
and efficiently mobilize and utilize public resources (improve public expenditure
management) and strengthen overall financial accountability. PEMFA’s effectiveness,
however, is constrained by limited access to information on how funds are allocated
and spent, suggesting a need for the ministries of education and finance to track
the use of resources allocated to and spent in each sector and sub-sector in order to
improve accountability for use of financial resources (Beyani, 2013).

114 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

The Government introduced the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF)
as a new budgeting approach, with the aim of addressing most of the weaknesses in
the budgeting process and ultimately strengthening the entire management of public
expenditure. The MTEF is a multi-year budgeting system that allows the government
to plan expenditures for a number of years in order to enhance predictability in the
flow of resources while strengthening the linkages between government priorities,
strategic plans, and budgeting and service delivery. The adoption of MTEF, in addition
to PEMFA, has helped make the budget process more elaborate and consultative,
though some challenges still persist, including insufficiently skilled staff, and weak
capacity to establish a results-based budgeting system or to ensure proper budget
execution. Similarly the FMIS, established as an accounting tool geared at promoting
accountability and transparency of public resources, faces challenges in terms of
compatibility with government departments and, again, a lack of skilled personnel
(Beyani, 2013).

Recent government efforts towards enhanced budget management include the

adoption, on a pilot basis, of the OBB in 2015. However, according to the Joint
Annual Review (2015), this budgeting approach proved to be ineffective, due to the
incompatibility with the current structure of ministry. Nevertheless, this remains
a commendable initiative that needs to be pursued through proper alignment of
ministry functions with OBB dictates.

Despite the efforts described above, erratic and inadequate funding from the MoFNP
remains a major obstacle to the smooth implementation of educational programmes
(MESVTEE, 2015; JAR Report, 2015).

Discussion
A number of UNESCO reports indicate that, over the last decade, many sub-Saharan
African countries have demonstrated strong political commitment to education,
as witnessed through robust national action plans and enhanced investment in
education development (GMR, 2013, 2014, 2015). Despite the increased level of
education spending in the region, the lack of adequate, equitable, and sustainable
financing continues to be a major challenge to the achievement of education goals
and targets. A number of studies suggest that meeting the cost of education in sub-
Saharan Africa requires a long-term approach that provides stable, predictable, and
adequate funding, rather than the current erratic and unpredictable funding that
prevails in most countries (OECD, 2008).

The latest available data (2012/13) show that half of sub-Saharan African countries
spend 5 per cent of GNP or more on education. The figures range from less than 2 per

115
 cent in countries such as the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of
Congo and Zimbabwe to 10 per cent in Botswana. In most countries for which data
were available, a noticeable increase was observed in the share of national income
devoted to education in the last decade. In most countries (19 out of 26 of those with
data), increases in public spending on education exceeded economic growth rates
(GMR, 2015).

Like other African countries, Zambia has gradually improved the level of education
funding over the years. However, despite the Government’s continuous effort to
increase the share of the education budget, funding levels remain low by regional
standards. For instance, in 2013 SADC countries devoted an average of 16.7 per
cent of government expenditure to education, compared to Zambia’s 15.3 per cent.
Similarly, Zambia’s share of GDP devoted to education (4.3 per cent) is lower than
the average for the SADC sub-region (4.9 per cent) and that for sub-Saharan Africa
(4.5 per cent).

Furthermore, in per capita terms, Zambia’s per pupil expenditure (PPE) in primary
education as a percentage of GDP per capita stands at 10 per cent, much lower than
the average PPE in primary for SADC countries, which is 13.5 per cent, and the
African average, which is 11.7 per cent.

It is important to note that Zambia did not provide recent educational data to
UNESCO’s Institute for Statistics (UIS). Therefore, one should apply caution when
comparing the UIS data contained in Table 15 with Zambian data (from World Bank,
2015), which were not necessarily produced using the UIS standardized approach for
internationally comparable data and statistics.

Due to already high commitments to educational development and the growing

resource constraints that many African countries are experiencing, allocating more
resources to the education sector may not be realistic for some of them. This is mostly
because of the difficult trade-offs between education and other important sectors.
Hence, increasing predictability, enhancing funds management and effectively
disbursing all the committed resources to deliver planned educational services are
key for meeting education challenges successfully despite limited resources (UIS,
2011). Besides, transparency and accountability in the use of resources is necessary
not only to make the most of the available money, but also to address donors’
reluctance, particularly in the Zambian context of reduction of the number of CPs
and recent declining pace of economic activities.

116 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Table 15 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP in SADC countries

  Government Government expenditure on education

expenditure on per pupil as % of GDP per capita
education as %
of GDP

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Angola 3.5 – – –

Botswana – – – –

D.R. Congo 2.2 7.4 5.4 75.1

Lesotho – – – –

Madagascar 2.1 6.6 8.4 102.6

Malawi 6.9 13.6 30.2 1,754.0

Mauritius 5.0 13.5 29.2 11.0

Mozambique 6.7 15.5 70.0 185.5

Namibia 8.4 17.6 – –

Seychelles 3.6 8.7 6.7 542.5

South Africa 6.1 17.7 19.0 37.9

Swaziland 8.6 20.8 42.7 –

Tanzania 3.5 – 12.1 651.3

Zambia 4.3* 10.0* 27.0* 156.0*

Zimbabwe 2.0 – – 62.0

SADC (average) 4.9 13.5 24.9 380.2

Sub-Saharan Africa 4.5 11.7 19.6 104.7

(average)

Source: UNESCO, EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2015.

* Data for Zambia are from the World Bank (2015): the figure on primary refers to basic education and
includes lower secondary education; the figure on secondary includes only upper secondary education
(Grades 10-12). Caution should be exercised when comparing these data with those from UNESCO.

This requires credible education finance and expenditure data which, in many
countries, are scarce and affect strategic and evidence-based decision-making and
management. In many cases, education finance data are not available in education
ministries which are often seen only as implementers of educational services, while
finance ministries have the main responsibility for planning and allocating budgets,

117
 as well as monitoring expenditure. The discussions with stakeholders met during
the review meeting suggested that this seems to be the case in Zambia. Hence, close
collaboration between these two ministries, especially in the areas of data and funds
management, is necessary to address this issue.

RECOMMENDATIONS
• The Zambian Government should consider increasing the budgetary allocation
to education, in line with many SADC countries, and ensure that the Ministry of
Finance disburses funds in full and in a timely fashion to MoGE and MoHE so they
can effectively implement national education policies. This implies strengthening
coordination between these ministries and the Ministry of Finance.
• The two education ministries should further strengthen the link between planning
and budgeting, particularly through enhancing OBB, in order to ensure that
allocated education funding is directed to specific targets and achieves the intended
results.
• The two education ministries should develop and/or strengthen mechanisms for
permanent monitoring of sector budget performance through the establishment of
an effective budget information system, with periodic benchmarks and warnings in
order to anticipate problems (e.g. delays in disbursements or execution) and ensure
timely interventions.
• The two education ministries should address the concerns of development partners,
in light of declining aid to education and the departure of some CPs, by enhancing
transparency, efficiency, and accountability in the use of educational resources.
• The Government should further strengthen and modernize the Financial
Management Information System (FMIS), with skilled staff and appropriate
software tools, to provide accurate and timely budgeting and financial information
across the government system and to education ministries in particular.

Policy issue 3: Inefficient intra-sectoral budget allocation and utilization

The intra-sectoral budget distribution indicates a clear priority given to basic
education, but raises concerns about the almost complete neglect of preschool, the
inadequate funding allocated to TEVET, and the relatively low attention given to
higher education.

Evidence

The pattern of budget allocation within the education sector gives an indication of
the Government’s policy priorities in the sector. Table 16 shows the distribution of
government expenditure by educational level/programme for the period 2006–2015.

118 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Table 16 Share of government expenditure by educational level (2006-2015)

  2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Average
2011-
2015)

  Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Budget Budget

Basic 42.6% 36.9% 46.0% 45.4% 51.6% 41.5% 50.8% 57.5% 55.9% 57.0% 52.5%

High school 10.2% 7.9% 9.4% 10.9% 12.2% 9.7% 11.4% 12.7% 12.8% 22.4% 13.8%

Teacher
3.1% 2.4% 2.3% 2.0% 2.2% 1.9% 2.0% 2.0% 2.2% 0.0% 1.6%
education

TEVET 0.2% 0.2% 1.1% 0.7% 0.4% 0.4% 0.9% 0.6% 0.7% 1.6% 0.8%

Higher
10.7% 12.0% 11.2% 11.0% 9.9% 10.0% 8.5% 7.9% 4.5% 12.6% 8.7%
education

Science and
0.2% 0.2% 0.4% 0.3% 0.2% 0.3% 0.9% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.7%
technology

Admi­ni­
33.0% 40.4% 29.6% 29.8% 23.5% 36.1% 25.4% 18.6% 23.0% 5.6% 21.7%
stration

Total (%) 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Total
(million 1,513 1,851 2,371 2,847 2,909 3,522 4,501 5,209 8,599 9,415
ZMW)

Source: World Bank, 2015.

While the Zambian pattern of budget distribution reflects the priority accorded
to basic education, in line with national policies and the country’s international
commitments to EFA and the MDGs, the higher levels of education, namely
secondary, TEVET and tertiary education, are relatively underfunded, particularly
when compared with the SADC and the sub-Saharan African averages (Table 19).
Government spending on primary and secondary education steadily increased
during the period under review, and accounted, on average, for 66 per cent of the
total government budget over the last five years. In terms of internal allocation,
most general education expenditure is on staff salaries. For instance, in 2013, salary
accounted for 89 per cent of general education expenditure, while the remaining was
devoted to infrastructure development (8.5 per cent) and school grants for education
materials and free primary and secondary education (2.5 per cent).

TEVET and higher education have received relatively low funding allocations over
the last five years, accounting, on average, for 0.8 per cent and 8.7 per cent of the total
public education funds, respectively. A consequence of this intra-sectoral allocation

119
 can be seen in the big differences in the development of the three sub-sectors (see the
pyramidal structure of Zambian education, illustrated in Figure 4 of Chapter 1). The
diagram presents an education pyramid with a heavy base, indicating wide access
to primary level, narrowing to a pinpoint at its apex, suggesting low transition to
secondary, and a very low access to tertiary education. It is important to note that
such an imbalance may also affect the smooth development of the sector, given the
interdependence of the three sub-sectors. Success in general education is largely
dependent on performance at higher levels (TEVET, tertiary education), which
provides teachers, managers, and technical staff, as well as pedagogical research for
education development.

When considering the public unit cost by sub-sector, taking into account differences
in enrolment size, it is striking to note that government expenditure per TEVET
student is low in comparison to other sub-sectors’ unit cost, particularly when
compared with unit spending at high school. As discussed later in the TEVET
section, this trend is explained by the fact that TEVET staff salaries are not paid by
the Government.

Table 17 Trends in government expenditure per student by level of education

(ZMW)

  2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Ratio to As % of

primary GNI per
education capita

Basic 332 386 474 429 637 849 1.0 10%

education
(G1-9)

High
school 916 1,167 1,568 1,406 1,790 2,265 2.7 27%
(G10-12)

Teacher
 --  --  --  --  -- 7,566 8.9 91%
education

TEVET 802 603 362 474 1,195  -- 1.9 16%

UNZA and
  14,460 12,363 13,229 12,713 12,921 15.2 156%
CBU

Source: World Bank, 2015.

As Table 17 indicates, expenditure per student in general education (basic and high
education) has increased steadily since 2008. In 2013, expenditure per high school
student was estimated at ZMW 2,265, which is 2.7 times higher than that for basic
education students (ZMW 849). This difference can be explained by smaller student-

120 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

teacher ratio in high school, higher teacher salaries, higher cost of equipment and
facilities, and so on. Public spending per student in teacher education is 8.9 higher
than per-student spending in basic education, while public spending for a university
student is 15.2 times that allocated for a basic student. This pattern is common
among different education systems; the tertiary education unit cost is considerably
higher than that for lower levels of education, due to increased staff remuneration,
the higher cost of infrastructure, logistics and equipment, higher management costs,
and so on.

However, the large difference between TEVET unit spending (ZMW 1,195) and high
school (ZMW 2,265) and university unit spending (ZMW 12,921) suggests that the
government prioritizing of TEVET is not being translated into adequate funding
support. Since the enrolment size of public universities is similar to that of public
TEVET institutions, it is striking that university unit spending represents more than
ten times the per-student expenditure of the TEVET sub-sector. Besides, while low
public funding to TEVET may be explained by the fact that TEVET institutions
generate their own resources, Zambia’s share of public spending on TEVET is the
smallest among African countries (see Table 18). Moreover, Zambian unit spending
on TEVET as a percentage of gross national income (GNI) is very low (16 per cent),
in comparison with other African countries, such as South Africa, Uganda, and
Rwanda which spend, respectively, 51 per cent, 263 per cent, and 311 per cent per
post-secondary, non-tertiary student (World Bank, 2015).

Table 18 Country comparison in TEVET spending as a % of government spending

TEVET expenditure as a share of Year

total government expenditure

Bangladesh 2.0 2001

Central African Republic 7.4 2008

Costa Rica 5.6 2005

Gambia 2.6 2009

Ghana 1.1 2008

Liberia (Recurrent) 8.5 2012

Malawi (Recurrent) 3.4 2007

Pakistan 5.7 2002

Rwanda (Recurrent) 9.6 2012

Sierra Leone (Recurrent) 3.4 2007

121
 TEVET expenditure as a share of Year
total government expenditure

South Sudan (Recurrent) 1.1 2009

Swaziland (Recurrent) 2.4 2007

Tajikistan 3.0 2006

Uganda 4.0 2004

Yemen 0.7 2006

Zambia 0.6 2013

Source: World Bank, 2015.

Despite this low level of public funding of TEVET, the Word Bank (2015) reported
some major achievements in this area, including: (i) sound financial management at
institutional level; (ii) an increasing trend in training in science and engineering; and
(iii) high employability in the formal sector, particularly when compared to Grade 12
graduates.

As with TEVET, the share of total government education spending allocated to

higher education – when considering its trend and the average (8.7 per cent) for
the last five years – seems to contradict the Zambian Government’s commitment to
improving the country’s human capital through increased access to higher education.
The Government’s policy notes the importance of expanding higher education, as a
driver of economic and social development towards Zambia’s ambition of becoming a
prosperous middle income country by 2030. However, Zambia’s share of government
spending on higher education is relatively low compared to most other African
countries. In 2013, the average share of government education spending devoted to
higher education was 18.6 per cent in the SADC countries, and 20.3 per cent in sub-
Saharan Africa.

The public financing of universities in Zambia consists mostly of operational grants,

bursaries, and infrastructure development, which accounted, respectively, for 35 per
cent, 50 per cent, and 15 per cent of total public expenditure on higher education
in 2013. While funding shows a gradual increase over the years, some concerns
have been raised about the use and management of that resource. First, it has been
found that the bursary-loan scheme, initially designed to support students from poor
households, benefits the relatively rich segments of the population, since 77 per cent
of university students come from the 10 per cent richest households in the country
(World Bank, 2015). Furthermore, although the current bursary scheme is a loan
scheme, none of the beneficiaries has repaid the loan since its introduction in 2004.

122 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Therefore, the current bursary scheme is not efficient and tends to worsen equity in
access to both higher education and public resources. It needs to be revised if it is to
become self-sustaining.

A second concern relates to the effectiveness of resource management in universities.

While public universities are granted financial and academic autonomy, their financial
status is characterized by chronic budget deficit and arrears, despite their efforts to
increase their revenue base. Both the University of Zambia (UNZA) and Copperbelt
University (CBU) rely on government grants for about half of their annual budget,
but their expenditure persistently exceeds their revenue. The chronic budget deficit is
driven largely by the salary burden, due to the large number of staff and the high level
of remuneration in universities. While high levels of remuneration are necessary to
attract internationally competitive staff, sound resource management is needed to
ensure the sustainability of the higher education financing system.

While issues of fund management in TEVET and higher education need to be

rigorously addressed, it should be stressed that these sub-sectors remain underfunded
by regional standards. It is important also to note that the weak development of
secondary and tertiary education seems inconsistent with Zambia’s ambition to
become a prosperous middle-income country by 2030. In fact, Zambia’s national
development policy relies on human capital, namely TEVET and tertiary education,
to achieve sustainable socio-economic development and concretize its 2030 vision.

Discussion
The intra-sectoral allocation of education expenditure varies across countries,
reflecting differences in policies and priorities. While primary or basic education
is a priority in almost all countries, averaging nearly 44 per cent of total education
expenditure in the SADC and 46.3 per cent of total education expenditure in sub-
Saharan Africa, it is striking that the average share for pre-primary education was only
1.8 per cent, on average, in SADC countries and 0.7 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa
for the school year ending in 2013. The Zambia situation is even more striking, as the
pre-primary education budget was almost nil, while basic education was allocated
57.5 per cent of government education expenditure in 2013. The Zambia EFA 2015
National Review (2014) mentioned that MESVTEE had made budgetary provisions,
accounting 0.05 per cent of the 2015 education budget, for the early childhood
development (ECD) sub-sector. This allocation is expected to grow over the medium
term as MESVTEE develops school infrastructure.

123
 As Table 19 shows, Zambia’s share of educational expenditure to secondary (12.7 per
cent) and higher education (7.9 per cent) are significantly below the SADC and the
African averages.

Furthermore, while basic education receives the largest share of government

educational expenditure in Zambia, about 90 per cent of this fund is allocated to
personal emoluments, leaving little for educational requisites. This, as pointed out by
stakeholders during the review mission, represents a challenge to the Government’s
intention to enhance education quality and learning outcomes.

While there is no simple formula for deciding the budget share to spend by level of
education and by educational domains or objectives, the trends indicate that most
countries has focused on the realisation of UPE or UBE, first in terms of access and
participation, and then in quality improvement. As Zambia has almost reached UPE,
though quality has still to be enhanced, its efforts should be directed to develop the
post basic education, including TVET and higher education that are essential for the
realization of the country ambition to become a prosperous middle income country
by 2030.

Therefore, Zambia needs to strategically reallocate its educational resources to ensure

a balanced sector development, in line with its development vision. It is also important
that available funds are effectively and efficiently used and managed to achieve the
education goals and objectives, including equity, inclusion and quality at all levels,
particularly in TEVET and higher education where equity issues are prevalent.

This suggests that Zambia still needs to increase its long-term commitment to public
financing of education, especially in light of its Vision 2030. In fact, as Zambia’s
educational funding levels are still relatively low compared to other countries with
similar development contexts, there is still leeway for fiscal expansion, given the
country’s relatively favourable current and projected macroeconomic context (good
economic growth with significant potential for increasing public investment in
education).

As suggested in the 2014 EFA Global Monitoring Report, countries need to raise 20
per cent of their GDP in taxes to achieve their development goals. However, few low-
or middle-income countries manage to mobilize domestic resources on this scale
and many do not devote a sufficient proportion to education. However, a country like
Namibia has demonstrated that this is doable, raising 24 per cent of its GDP in taxes
and allocating 22 per cent of its government budget to education. This is an example
that should be followed by other countries, including Zambia particularly, in relation
to its Vision 2030.

124 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Table 19 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government
expenditure on education in SADC countries

  Expenditure by level of education

(as % of total government expenditure on education)

  All levels Pre-primary Primary Secondary Tertiary

Angola 8.7 – – – –

Botswana – – – 26.3 –

D.R. Congo 16.8 1.0 61.6 37.2 22.0

Lesotho – – – – –

Madagascar 14.0 0.2 47.4 34.5 15.2

Malawi 16.3 – 49.5 19.3 21.5

Mauritius 20.9 1.7 22.7 34.1 7.1

Mozambique 19.0 – 49.2 61.6 13.7

Namibia 26.2 – 40.0 30.6 23.1

Seychelles 10.4 – 24.0 29.0 32.5

South Africa 19.1 1.5 38.8 – 12.2

Swaziland 22.4 0.2 48.7 11.8 12.8

Tanzania 17.3 6.0 49.2 29.2 21.4

Zambia 15.4* 0.05** 57.5* 12.7* 7.9*

Zimbabwe 8.7 – 51.6 25.6 22.8

SADC (average) 16.7 1.8 43.9 29.8 18.6

Sub-Saharan Africa 16.7 0.7 46.4 29.0 20.3

Source: UNESCO, EFA Global Monitoring Report 2015.

* Data for Zambia are from the World Bank (2015): the figure on primary refers to basic education and
includes lower secondary education; the figure on secondary includes only upper secondary education
(Grades 10-12). Caution should be exercised when comparing these data with those from UNESCO.
** This figure refers to budgetary provisions for 2015.

125
 RECOMMENDATIONS

• Government must ensure a harmonized expansion of different education sub-

sectors, through a rational intra-sectoral allocation, taking into account the
necessary articulation between the education sub-sectors and the particular
roles expected from TEVET and higher education, as drivers of the social and
economic development needed to sustain Zambia’s Vision 2030.
• Government should further ensure that the rebalancing of intra-sectoral budget
allocations to pre-primary and post-basic education levels (TEVET and higher
education) is accompanied with effective equity and inclusion policies, in order
to maximize the impact of the limited public resources for education.
• Government should address structural inefficiencies in resource management in
higher education, particularly by: (i) strengthening the bursary mechanism for
the identification of the eligible candidates, while giving clear authority for the
enforcement of the law related to the bursary loan scheme; and (ii) reforming and
modernizing the management of human resources in universities, by revising
the remuneration of university staff and applying an optimal student-staff ratio
(referring to the performance of universities in similar country contexts) in order
to progressively clear the financial accounts of the universities.
• Government must increase public expenditure on TEVET to enhance diversified
skills training, which is needed to sustain economic growth and to achieve
Zambia’s ambition of becoming a prosperous middle-income country by 2030.

Policy issue 4: Weak national capacities for effective strategic

planning and management of education development,
including plans’ implementation, monitoring, and
evaluation

Despite the established long tradition for education planning, as witnessed by quite
good policy documents as well as legal and institutional provisions, Zambia still faces
some challenges, particularly when it comes to implementation, and monitoring and
evaluation. The implementation gaps are mostly explained by the lack of funding,
the weak accountability system and, to some extent, the shortage of skilled staff,
especially at decentralized levels.

Evidence
National capacity for educational planning and management has been a recurrent
issue in this policy review with the Zambian educational stakeholders, particularly

126 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

with regard to the implementation of educational programmes at sub-national levels
within the framework of the educational decentralization policy.

Zambia has put in place appropriate structures and mechanisms for implementing
the full cycle of education strategic planning, including EMIS, sector analysis,
planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation.

Zambia has a well-established EMIS, which is the country’s main source of education
data for planning and budgeting purposes. Housed in the Directorate of Planning,
the EMIS covers all levels and aspects of the education system, including ECD,
primary, secondary, TEVET and tertiary education. EMIS data are supplemented by
those collected by the Central Statistical Office (CSO), particularly on demographic
and financial factors. According to Beyani (2013), the EMIS data is generally found
to be credible, as considerable attention is paid to its accuracy and methodology.
However, he noted some concerns with regard to some data and indicators, such as
net enrolment rates and pupil completion rates, which are sometimes misleading
and unreliable and, thus, fail to provide a sound basis for analysis. The information
on private educational institutions has also been found to be weak, and is mostly
limited to the number of such institutions and the number of students at each level
of education.

EMIS data are published annually in the Ministry’s statistical bulletin. However, it
has been reported that the collected data are not user-friendly (Beyani 2013), since
the rigid design of the system makes the customization of tabulations difficult, thus
preventing deeper analysis. Furthermore, the statistical bulletins and annual reports
do not provide analytical information, for instance, in the form of an analysis in
relation to benchmarks or targets to justify the use of public funding and reflect
accountability aspects (Word Bank, 2015). Most of these issues arise from a lack
of capacity, in terms of skilled staff and financial resource (Beyani 2013). In fact,
the appraisal of NIF II noted that EMIS operations had been affected by the loss of
trained staff both at HQ and at sub-national levels, as trained staff had either been
transferred to other government ministries or had left the Ministry of Education for
other institutions, whether in the private or non-governmental sector, which offer
more attractive remuneration (Chileshe, 2012).

As mentioned above, the Government of Zambia has established a tradition of

strategic education planning and management, based on a well-established EMIS.
Successive education plans (NIF I, NIF II, and NIF III) have been based on thorough
and participative sector diagnosis and policy dialogue. Programme design and
prioritization result from a systematic sector-wide analysis, including the review of
the prevailing situation in each sub-sector, the planned policy changes, the proposed

127
 strategies, the planned activities, and the performance indicators. Again, thanks
to the established EMIS, the ESP is reinforced by a comprehensive cost simulation
model and the related annual work plan and budget, which can be used as a resource
utilization tracking instrument. However, most of this work is done with significant
support from cooperating partners, suggesting weak national planning capacity.

Table 20 A review of planning and management capacity within Zambia’s MoE

Evidence/observations
Relevance
Is the MoE showing Increased level of public funding to education shows government
commitment? commitment to education development. But a number of important
initiatives are carried out in response to requests from donors, indicating
that the commitment of the MoE is not very high. Also, delays in the
formulation of NIF III may raise questions about the MoE’s commitment.
Are stakeholders able to While bi- and multilateral development partners are actively involved in
participate in the process of education policy and planning, some important stakeholders, such as
formulating sector plans and communities, parents, and some CSO representatives, have no capacity to
policy-related documents? contribute meaningfully to the planning process. The private sector is not
effectively involved in the planning process.
Opinions and insights from schools and communities are not always
considered.
Is the MoE showing The mid-term review of NIF II mentioned lack of accountability and weak
accountability? service delivery of educational administration as the root causes of poor
quality of education.

Efficiency

Are the roles of each Positions and responsibilities of officers of the MoE are stated in formal
stakeholder in and outside documents, but the actual allocation of human resources does not reflect
the MoE clear? initial plans.
Stakeholders have not comprehended their respective roles as there is still
no progress in the implementation of decentralization.
Contrary to policy discourse, decision-making power has not, in reality,
been transferred to provinces, districts, and schools.
Stakeholders have not been involved in the decentralization process and
there is a need for more consensus building.
Are plans such as the sector The education sector plan (NIF III) and the annual work plan and budget
plan compatible with policies (AWPB) are integrated and well-aligned with national development plans.
of higher order? The NIF III is an implementation plan of the SNDP, as NIF II was for the FNDP,
and so on.
Are methods taken to prevent While this review did not find significant information on corruption in the
corruption (such as adoption education sector, some cases of corruption have been reported in the
of a monitoring system)? health and transport sectors in recent years. Also, Zambia experienced
slight regression with regard to the corruption perception index and the
World Bank aggregate governance score.
Steps have been taken, through the Public Expenditure Management and
Financial Accountability programme, to improve predictability and control
in budget execution, as well as strengthen financial accounting, reporting,
and recording. An anti-corruption commission is in place to prosecute
and convict high-level officials. The Office of the Auditor General and the
Zambia Revenue Authority have recently been strengthened.

128 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 Evidence/observations

Effectiveness

Are goals in the sector plan While remarkable achievements have been made with regard to access in
achieved? basic education, there are still challenges to enhance access at secondary
level.
However, education quality has not shown meaningful improvement, and
did not meet the levels set out in the NIF III and FNDP. The relatively high
teacher salaries in general education (compared both to domestic wages
and to their counterparts in other African countries) are not reflected in
student learning outcomes. Equity in education also remains a big challenge.
The review undertaken for SNDP reported that, under the FNDP, the MoE
failed in its plan to construct 7,500 primary classrooms and 100 high schools
by 2010, achieving only 61 per cent and 47 per cent, respectively, of its
targets, indicating weak planning and absorptive capacity.
Are actions taken and MESVTEE’s 2015 financial report revealed low budget performance for many
budgets used in compliance sub-sectors and programmes in 2014: administration (62 per cent); teacher
with the sector plan? education (62 per cent); curriculum (65 per cent); and infrastructure (82 per
cent).
Budget performance for personal emoluments was 97 per cent. The
remaining 3 per cent of the payroll budget allocation can be attributed
to savings from retired or deceased officers and overall prudent payroll
management.
The budget performance for equity grants reached 91 per cent, and the
overall implementation rate stood at 90 per cent of the 2014 ministerial
budget. While this gap may be attributed to non-wage adjustments in the
period under review, under-funding is, in many cases, the consequence of
non-release of 2014 last-quarter operational grants.
The Zambia Public Expenditure Review (2015) highlighted poor efficiency
and poor effectiveness in resource use, mostly due to: (i) weaknesses in
targeting the right beneficiaries, especially when implementing pro-poor
policies; and (ii) ineffectiveness of implementation.
Does the MoE possess According to the evaluation of the Joint Assistance Strategy for Zambia
enough coordination skills to (JASZ) 2007–2010, there is little evidence of MoE capacity to effectively
coordinate with stakeholders? coordinate donors. The Ministry of Finance’s approach to aid management
has been weak and the JASZ is still largely driven by donors. Recently,
the Government has been proactive, taking a much stronger role in the
development of the new JASZ and the corresponding memorandum
of understanding and division of labour. Despite these developments,
one can observe that government allocations to education have been
increasing while donors’ contributions have been fluctuating and, overall,
falling, from approximately 13 per cent in 2007 to about 5 per cent in 2012,
including project funding.

Drawing on the Capacity Development Results Framework (CDRF) of the World

Bank Institute, JICA (2012) has developed a simplified framework to review the
planning and management capacity of Zambia’s MoE. While referring to the basic
concepts of the CDRF, this simplified framework uses the terms relevance, efficiency,
and effectiveness in place of the CDRF’s capacity factors. That said, its definitions
basically follow those of the CDRF. Table 20 summarizes the main findings of the
JICA study, with additional contributions generated by this study.

129
 This evidence suggests that, despite huge investment in education policy and
plan development, MESVTEE faces some challenges, particularly when it comes
to implementation, and monitoring and evaluation (M&E). According to many
stakeholders involved in this review, these gaps are mostly explained by the lack
of funding, the weak accountability system and, to some extent, the shortage of
qualified staff. It also appears that, as in some other countries, planning is not yet
established as a national framework geared at maximizing the effectiveness and
efficiency of education service delivery. Instead of being a living document to guide
progress towards national education objectives, ESPs have sometimes served only as
a resource mobilization instrument to comply with donor requirements.

With regard to M&E, there are two aspects that need to be distinguished in the case
of Zambia: (i) the M&E of schools, which is the responsibility of the Standards and
Curriculum Directorate (which is responsible for inspections); and (ii) the M&E of
ESPs, including the review of planning and implementation process, which is the
responsibility of the Directorate of Planning and Information.

The Directorate of Standards and Curriculum is responsible for ensuring the quality
of education standards, including the state of school infrastructure, the availability
and status of learning and teaching materials, and the qualification and performance
of teachers in schools at every level. The amended 1966 Education Act (the new Act
of April 2011) provides guidelines for the inspection process, as well as classroom
inspection forms to establish that teachers are in line with curriculum and teaching
standards. Based on these guidelines, the inspectorate reviews the above quality-
related data and information to provide for better planning by MESVTEE.

While the 2010 Education Act requires that an annual inspection report be submitted
to the Minister of Education for action, it was reported that these reports are no
longer available in any comprehensive form to the Ministry Planning Division, due
to staff shortages. However, a one-page summary report is occasionally submitted
on a provincial basis to the Planning Division. There are still no plans to address the
staffing challenges that have been plaguing the division since the early 2000s. Like
the other directorates of the Ministry, the main challenge faced by the Directorate of
Standards and Curriculum lies in inadequate funding, especially funding dedicated
to inspection activities. This problem needs to be urgently addressed if the quest for
quality education is to be rigorously pursued (Beyani, 2013).

As far as ESP M&E is concerned, it was observed that the emphasis is often put
on assessing the targets, to the detriment of a proper review of the planning and
implementation process, as well as an evaluation of the results and recommendations
to improve the next planning cycle. According to Beyani (2013), while the SNDP

130 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

has reviewed the implementation of the FNDP and identified shortfalls in its
achievement, no analysis has been provided of the challenges faced and the reasons
for missing the targets.

However, recent trends suggest that the education sector has taken steps to address
this challenge. In fact, an appraisal of NIF III by cooperating partners noted that
lessons from the implementation of NIF II have been taken into account to address
outstanding issues while relevant actions have been proposed through the sector
dialogue process. These issues have been mostly related to the share of total budget
devoted to management and administration, the tension between access (the
expansion of enrolment) and quality, and the funding of higher education.

Also, with NIF III, the M&E system has been reinforced through the establishment
of a common monitoring framework, the education sector Strategic Performance
Assessment Framework (PAF), agreed by the Ministry and all major stakeholders,
including the country’s cooperating partners. The sub-sector reporting and
monitoring requirements have been further developed, and annual progress reviews
have been instituted. The M&E system has also been enhanced by the adoption of the
Medium-Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) process along with the introduction
of annual work plans and budgets (AWPB). The improvement in data collection
is viewed as necessary to sustain the utilization of impact monitoring results for
evidence-based policy-making and resource allocation.

As part of the NIF III cycle, a mid-term review and a final evaluation were
introduced. The appraisal of NIF III has highlighted widespread capacity needs, as
a key constraint, not only on effective achievement of the NIF III objectives, but
also on effective M&E. The appraisal also revealed the weakness of the risk analysis
undertaken as part of NIF III, which, it recommends, should be addressed as part of
the Joint Annual Review (JAR).

The JAR of the education sector has been carried out since 1998, as a policy dialogue
mechanism geared at assessing the previous year’s performance, with the aim of
laying the foundation for the next year’s planning and budgeting process. While
the JAR has been improved over the years, a number of partners mentioned weak
follow-up on recommendations from the previous gatherings. For instance, with
reference to the 2015 JAR, ZANEC stressed that only 61 per cent of the 2014 JAR
recommendations had either been met or were being addressed, with 38 per cent
of actions not achieved. ZANEC also raised concern that the implementation of the
JAR focused on short-term objectives, while long-term objectives in previous JAR
reports had not been addressed at all, with some recommendations reappearing in

131
 successive JAR reports without being addressed or, indeed, discarded (JAR Report,
2015).

Discussion
Strategic planning is necessary to ensure accurate and timely delivery of educational
services. It sustains education development efforts by identifying challenges,
setting priorities, and focusing on what can realistically be achieved within a given
timeframe and with the available resources. Educational strategic planning requires
an increasingly strong information base for evidence-based policy formulation and
the resulting planning processes, including monitoring and evaluation geared to
inform and improve both implementation and subsequent planning phases.

In Zambia, as in many other countries, the need for strategic planning and
management is increasing with the need to cope with a dynamic and changing social
and economic environment, in order to make the best use of limited resources,
particularly in the context of educational decentralization.

The effective, efficient, and relevant implementation of the education planning cycle
relies on national capacities in terms of officials’ skills and performance, efficacy of
the organization (the MoE), and public administration as part of the institutional
sphere, as well as the socio-cultural, economic, and political context within which
educational programmes and activities are implemented (De Grauwe and Hite, 2008).

The literature is replete with cases of weak national capacity for education planning
and management, particularly among African countries. A study of Ethiopia, for
instance, highlighted four factors affecting the capacities of educational planners
and managers. These challenges, which have been mentioned in other country
studies (Benin, DRC, etc.), include weak human resource management, inadequate
organizational arrangements, a poor technical environment, and insufficient
motivation of planners and managers (Oulai et al., 2011).

While most countries have been embarked in national capacity development

programmes in recent years, the results have been disappointing in many cases,
particularly in the least developed countries, where these efforts have failed to
achieve the expected long-term impact. An international expert meeting, organized
by UNESCO in 2008, identified a number of reasons for these failures, as well as a
number of ways to overcome common constraints encountered in the area of capacity
development in educational planning and management (De Grauwe and Hite, 2008).

132 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

These expert discussions showed that most capacity development initiatives were
limited to the individual level and were usually in the form of training. However,
training will only have a long-term positive impact if participants: (i) are assigned
tasks that match the training received; (ii) are offered an enabling working
environment; (iii) receive adequate incentives; (iv) are well managed and supported;
and (v) form a sufficient critical mass to make a meaningful difference in national
capacities for educational planning and management. This suggests that individual
capacity alone is not sufficient to enhance performance. Organizational and
institutional issues must also be addressed. Hence, capacity development should first
induce organizational change, which requires strong government commitment and
change-oriented leadership. Sustainable improvement of organizational performance
entails the establishment of an adequate ministerial structure and relationship
(lines of communication: bottom-up/top-down) as well as strong monitoring and
accountability mechanisms for both internal (within the organization) and external
(towards partners and civil society) effectiveness. The institutional and contextual
arrangements, including the enforcement of laws, rules, and regulations, are also of
critical importance for sustainable national capacity development.

It was also found that many capacity development initiatives are donor-driven and,
in general, do not survive beyond the end of external funding. Lessons from various
experiences suggest that capacity development should be addressed as a long-term
undertaking, with strong strategic vision and commitment from the government
to create conditions for positive change, in terms of individual, organizational, and
institutional national capacities.

RECOMMENDATIONS
• Conduct a capacity needs assessment in education planning and management,
addressing the main capacity dimensions, i.e. individual, organizational,
institutional, and knowledge-based capacities.
• Based on the findings from the needs assessment, formulate a comprehensive
capacity development strategy for education planning and management,
including all relevant levels of education governance (central, provincial, district,
and local).
• Enhance the human resource management function of the Planning Directorate,
by taking relevant measures to: (i) ensure the enforcement of the guidelines for
recruitment so that candidates with suitable profiles are appointed to the posts
of education planners and managers; (ii) establish more systematic mechanisms
for staff training and professional development of planners and managers;
(iii) address issues of staff turnover; (iv) address issues of low salary to raise staff
motivation; (v) develop leadership and management capacity of heads of offices

133
 to support staff and enhance their morale; and (vi) provide opportunities for
planners and managers to meet regularly and exchange their experiences in order
to generate knowledge and innovations to address emerging challenges in their
areas of work.
• Further promote the culture of planning, M&E, and accountability within the
education system. It has to sensitize decision-makers, partners, and users of
education services as to the critical importance of producing reliable data, and
effectively implement the educational planning cycle (analysis, strategic planning,
implementation, and M&E).

References
De Grauwe, A. 2005. ‘Improving the quality of education through school-based management:
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3.2 Teacher policies and development

This section addresses one of five priority domains (teacher policies and development)
highlighted by Ministry officials at the outset of the review. It provides an analysis
of the policy issues that the country currently faces in this domain, as well as a set
of related policy recommendations, most of them resulting from discussions with
government representatives and other relevant educational stakeholders in Zambia.

These policy issues can only be understood in the context of teacher education and
development in Zambia.

Current context of teacher education and policies in Zambia

With total staff numbers exceeding 93,000, teachers constitute the majority of
Zambia’s civil servants, and their salaries represent the largest component of state
expenditure on education. This reality means that issues concerning teachers and
teaching must be a key area of focus in education reform in Zambia, particularly as
the country has experienced an acute shortage of qualified teachers for many years.
This shortage is due to a combination of factors, including the low capacity of teacher
training institutions, high attrition rates, and the impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic
(UNESCO, 2015).

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In light of these teacher-related issues and the imperative to achieve education quality
targets, MESVTEE has, under NIF III (2011–2015), implemented a number of policy
actions to ensure quantitative and qualitative improvement in teacher supply and
management.

The primary providers of teacher training and professional development programmes

in Zambia are teacher training colleges, universities (public and private), and some
non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Of the 14 public colleges of education, eight
focus on primary school level (Grades 1–7), two on junior secondary (Grades 8–9),
and two on senior secondary (Grades 10–12), while two provide in-service training.
Two colleges (David Livingstone and Kitwe) additionally offer training for ECCDE
educators while two technical and vocational institutions, Luanshya TVTC and
Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce, provide teacher training at
secondary school level. In addition to public colleges, the number of private teacher
training programmes has also increased in recent years. Entry requirements for
primary teacher training include a Grade 12 certificate with at least three credits and
two passes, including at least a pass mark in English and mathematics. Training for
secondary teachers can take the form of a three-year diploma or a four-year degree.

In addition to this initial training, continuous professional development (CPD)

programmes for teachers and education leaders have become central to the general
delivery of education, as stated in a recent EFA report on Zambia (MESVTEE,
2014a: 20).

CPD programmes provide opportunities for teachers to upgrade their qualifications,

support curriculum development, and advance their careers. While some have been
conducted formally through registration and systematic study, others have been
informal (Perraton, 2010). International and national surveys show that CPD for
teachers is important to the overall quality of education. Improving quality requires
a pedagogical shift to recognizing teachers as ‘facilitators of learning’ rather than
as ‘transmitters of facts’. Moreover, good quality teaching and classroom practice
are indispensable to the Post-2015 development agenda (Habler, Hennessy, Cross,
Chileshe, and Machiko, 2015).

In highlighting the value of CPD programmes, Educating Our Future (Government

of Zambia, 1996) argues that strategic approaches to in-service teacher education
should ensure that such programmes are demand driven, respond to identified needs,
focus on school needs, are based in schools or resource centres, are cost-effective so
that large numbers of teachers have opportunities for learning, and include studies
on subject content as well as methodologies, use of materials, and management in
classrooms. In keeping with this approach, the Government developed the Teaching

137
 Skills Book (based on lesson study experience), to help teachers develop learner-
centred lessons: ‘It is envisaged that, in the long run, Zambia will be in the position
to define its own learner-centred teaching and learning through our effort for
developing better lessons for the pupils’ (Ministry of Education, 2009: viii).

Another avenue for providing teacher professional development programmes within

the Zambian education system is through the teacher resource centres. According to
Fairhurst et al. (1999), the underlying idea is that these centres encourage professional
interaction and a certain level of curriculum development and material production,
which in turn result in improvement in the quality of teaching. Gibbs and Kazilimani
(1999) note that Zambia’s teacher resource centres are intended to: (i) establish a
sustainable and well-managed decentralized system for in-service teacher education,
and (ii) provide the necessary resources to schools while training head teachers and
teachers in methods of resourcing and better management of schools.

Teacher training centres have been established at different levels of the education
system and are thus operational at provincial, regional, and district levels. As Mulkeen
(2010) reports, Zambia’s hierarchy of CPD support structures are provided at three
levels: the school, zonal centres, and district centres. At the school level, each school
has an in-service training (INSET) coordinator who works with the head teacher to
identify training needs within the school. At the zone (i.e. cluster of schools) level,
there is a zonal resource centre, usually a classroom in a school, and a zone INSET
coordinator, usually a teacher who took the post as a voluntary part-time activity.
These local centres house some resource materials, and serve as a centre for training
activities and meetings. At the district level, district resource centres (DRCs), are
often equipped with libraries, photocopying facilities, computers, printers, and
sometimes internet access. Each DRC has a full-time district INSET coordinator.
Mulkeen (2010) notes that the DRC also serves as ‘a local hub for information from
the Ministry of Education about the latest initiatives and directives’ and stores ‘copies
of materials that should be available to schools’ (p. 99).

With regard to the improvement of teacher quality in Zambia, the National

Implementation Framework III (2011–2015) lists four key objectives: (i) to improve
the quality and relevance of teacher education; (ii) to increase output of pre-service
teacher education in order to achieve the MDGs and EFA goals; (iii) to improve the
efficiency and effectiveness of college education; and (iv) to improve equity in teacher
training.

To achieve these objectives, NIF III (MESVTEE, 2015: 38) proposes that the following
key issues be addressed:

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a. Promote excellence in the offer of diverse teacher education and training
programmes focused on national development.
b. Upgrade teacher education institutions and qualifications.
c. Strengthen systems for continuous professional development, management, and
support.
d. Establish a teaching council.
e. Provide appropriate management training for teachers taking up management
positions.
f. Harmonize innovations and practices in both schools and colleges of education.
g. Expand infrastructure in colleges of education.
h. Construct teacher education colleges.
i. Facilitate greater and more effective involvement of other key stakeholders in
teacher supply.
j. Promote alternative methods of teacher training.
k. Strengthen good governance through an efficient and effective system of
administration and financial management.
l. Streamline training of teachers to match subject teacher requirements in schools.
m. Incorporate elements of special education curriculum in all colleges.
n. Expand bursaries for vulnerable learners.
o. Provide specialized services for learners with special educational needs.
p. Provide guidance and counselling services.
q. Integrate cross cutting issues (HIV and AIDS, gender, life skills, etc.) into the
teacher training curriculum.

Achieving the objectives specified in the framework has been an ongoing challenge
that requires a number of key policy issues to be addressed. In the next section, these
policy issues are noted and a number of key recommendations are made.

Policy issue 1: L ow training capacity and inadequate teacher

qualifications

While the majority of teachers in Zambia have some teaching qualifications, there
remain key challenges in: (i) improving teacher content knowledge and pedagogical
skills, and (ii) addressing the acute shortage in the areas of mathematics and sciences.

Evidence
During the review mission, shortage of quality teachers has been mentioned by
almost all stakeholders consulted. The situation is exacerbated by various factors,
including poor working conditions for teachers, limited institutional capacity, and

139
 the insufficient teaching and learning skills of teachers (Beyani, 2013). Moreover,
since the launch of free primary education in 2002, many primary school teachers are
overwhelmed by class sizes of around 60–70 pupils, which has an impact on learning
outcomes, especially in mathematics and science (Chanda, 2008).

To improve the overall qualification profile of teachers, MESVTEE upgraded all

teacher qualifications offered at colleges of education from two-year certificate
programmes to three-year diploma programmes. Notwithstanding these changes, the
Ministry notes that the ‘qualified human resources, infrastructure and teaching and
learning materials still remain the main challenges in all colleges of education’ (MoE,
2010: 36). According to MESVTEE, teachers can obtain one of three qualifications:
(i) the teaching certificate, which is a requirement at primary level; (ii) the teaching
diploma, which is required to teach at junior secondary level; and (iii) a teaching
degree – either at bachelor’s or master’s level – which is a requirement to teach in
senior secondary education (Grades 10–12).

Of the 73,549 teachers at basic school level (Grades 1–9) only 7 per cent (5,207)
report having no professional qualification, with the majority in possession of a
teaching certificate (57 per cent) or teaching diploma (26 per cent) (MESVTEE,
2014a). At secondary school level (Grades 10–12), only 0.4 per cent (74) of 19,615
teachers reported having no professional qualification. Only 12 per cent of teachers
possessed the required qualification (a bachelor’s degree), with 61 per cent reporting
that they had an education diploma (MESVTEE, 2014a). The MoE also highlights
the acute shortage of secondary school mathematics and science teachers, noting that
not enough new teachers are graduating to address this shortage. It was in response
to this shortage that the ‘government has constructed Mulakupikwa University,
targeting increasing output of teachers in mathematics, science and other practical
subjects’ (MoE, 2010: 36).

The upgrading of teacher qualifications was initially aimed at primary-trained

teachers who taught in secondary schools. They took three-year courses, which
combined residential training and self-study modules. The upgrading process
impacted on teacher supply. Mulkeen notes an annual output of 4,300 newly trained
primary teachers from pre-service training, but annual losses of 1,100 primary
teachers upgrading to secondary level (Mulkeen, 2010: 96). While the process of
upgrading is important, the need to balance supply and demand should also be
addressed. Silwimba (2006) lists a number of issues that need to be addressed to
achieve this balance in practice, including: (i) a number of teachers pursuing further
studies, and not on active teaching duty; (ii) many teachers, though on the rolls,
unable to teach due to poor health; (iii) a number of new teachers not taking up
teaching positions; and (iv) the inherent problems of teacher distribution between

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overstaffed urban schools and understaffed rural schools distorting the demand-
supply equation (understaffing in rural schools is primarily due to unsatisfactory
life and working conditions in rural areas as demonstrated by the absence of basic
amenities such as power, potable drinking water, transport, etc.).

Another key initiative undertaken by MESVTEE (2013) was the introduction of a

new curriculum, both in schools and at teacher training institutions (TTIs). The
focus on revising the curriculum for TTIs was intended to ensure that student
teachers received relevant training that would better prepare them to address the
specific contexts that define learning and teaching across the schooling sector in
Zambia (Teacher Development Unit, 2015). As in June 2015, curriculum reform
within teacher training institutions was still being implemented.

Discussion
In the recent past, strategic interventions with partners have been initiated to remedy
the shortage of quality teachers. For instance, the non-profit Flemish Association
for Development Cooperation and Technical Assistance (VVOB Zambia), in
collaboration with MESVTEE, launched the Teacher Training Support Programme in
2008 to improve the quality of education through teacher training and development.
Twelve teacher training institutes were operational partners in the programme, which
covered four main areas: continuing professional development, distance learning,
ICT in education, and community schools (VVOB, 2013).

In 2014, the Government of Zambia signed a memorandum of understanding with

DMI Saint Eugene University in Lusaka to upgrade the qualifications of teachers
in mathematics and science through a fast-track distance-learning programme.
According to MESVTEE, 2,000 teachers will be trained during the first phase of the
programme. Half of these teachers will be upgraded from certificate to diploma, while
the remainder will upgrade from diploma to degree qualifications. The programme
is expected to take less than four years and offers residential provision during school
vacations (Chiale, 2014). MESVTEE is sponsoring the programme, which includes
some mathematics students from the University of Zambia.

The problem of teacher under-qualification is more acute for community schools.

DeStefano (2006) notes that teachers in community schools have less formal
education and less teaching experience, compared to their public school counterparts.
This, DeStefano argues, is due to the different employment requirements for teaching
in the two types of school. Public school teachers are required to have a primary
teacher certification, while teachers in community schools are only expected to have
completed senior secondary school through to Grade 12. Similarly, Sianjibu-Miyato

141
 (2013) notes that 90 per cent of teachers in community schools are untrained (most
of them are volunteers) and that the majority of them are not on the government
payroll. Furthermore, most community schools do not have enough resources to
cover day-to-day running costs. This situation has significant consequences for
teacher professional development programmes. While teachers in public schools
already possess a primary certificate, and are thus eligible to upgrade to a diploma
or bachelor’s degree, teachers in community schools still need to acquire a basic
primary certificate.

Community schools were started around 15 years ago by rural parents who felt that
their children should not walk to public schools located far away from their villages.
There are now some 4,000 such schools. Community school teachers generally have
at least six years of primary school education. In some areas, parents provide them
with a hut to live in and a bag or two of maize meal per month (Vilsack, 2014).
Vilsack (2014) further notes that:

‘The volunteer teachers are friends and neighbours, young people who have potential but
no access to further education. They have a vested interest in teaching the village kids to
read. With the help of weekend trainings, watching experienced teachers via cell phone
videos, and coaching by head teachers, these novice teachers are improving. Some of them
will earn the credentials that will qualify them for salaried positions’ (para. 8).

The African Revival, an international NGO whose goal is to improve the quality of
education in Zambia, launched the Community Teacher Training Programme in the
Kalomo District of the Southern Province. Working with the district education board,
African Revival singled out the lack of teachers as a key reason for poor performance
at schools in the district. Twenty community school teachers from Kalomo have
since been sponsored by the NGO to attain a diploma of education within three
years. The group completed the first year of the programme in spring 2015. The aim
is to improve the quality of teaching at disadvantaged schools in Zambia (African
Revival, 2015).

In 2010, USAID committed to improving the reading skills of 100 million children in
developing countries by 2015. For Zambia, the goal was 1 million. USAID has assisted
the Ministry of Education in developing in-service training for community school
teachers using a five-step process for teaching reading. Some community schools are
now doing better than public schools. Community school teachers seem to spend
more time with pupils, and are more effective and motivated in the classroom.

Another key factor concerning teacher qualifications pertains to the effective

implementation, both at school and TTI level, of the revised curriculum. Specifically,

142 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

at the level of TTIs, delays in the development of the new curriculum have resulted in
the continued use of training programmes based on the old curriculum at the same
time as the new curriculum was being implemented in schools (Teacher Development
Unit, 2015). The result of these delays has been that newly trained teachers are even
less well prepared as they enter the first years of their teaching careers. This matter,
however, has been identified as a critical issue to address, and plans are underway to
implement the new curriculum in all teacher training institutions in the near future
(Teacher Development Unit, 2015).

RECOMMENDATIONS
• Setup an integrated implementation plan with a road map to expand and improve
the accessibility and quality of teacher training programmes offered in response
to the newly revised curriculum for pre-service and in-service for teacher
trainees and teacher trainers. Institutions involved in teacher education should
be properly consulted on the implementation process.
• Improve the capacity of teacher training institutions to absorb more trainees,
focusing on both facilities and the knowledge and skills of lecturers.
• Implement targeted recruitment strategies to enrol higher numbers of students
onto mathematics, science, and technology teacher education programmes.
• Provide more opportunities for training teachers from community schools,
including specialized programmes that reflect the unique needs of these teachers.

Policy Issue 2: Inadequate continuous professional development

programmes

Most of the stakeholders involved in this review mentioned that the current
professional development programmes are uncoordinated, unsustainable, and do not
adequately address the specific needs of teachers

Evidence
Mulkeen (2010) argues that CPD opportunities for in-service teachers play ‘an
important role in improving teacher quality by providing opportunities to refresh
knowledge, to update on new curricula, and to reflect on professional experiences’
(p. 96). In Zambia, teachers’ continuing professional development is a vital part
of the country’s attempts to guarantee quality education for all, as reflected in the
2011 Education Act. Mubanga (2014) notes that two types of in-service education
and training programmes have been offered in Zambia: (i) long-term up-grading/
professional courses for school teachers offered by the National In-service Training

143
 College (NISTCOL), the Zambia Institute of Special Education (ZAMISE), and the
University of Zambia; and (ii) short-term INSET or capacity-building CPD courses
mostly based in schools or in teacher resource centres. However, MESVTEE notes that
these programmes are facing a number of challenges, such as inadequate reference
materials and infrastructure, under-resourced facilities, and a lack of integration of
CPD and ICT in the teacher education curriculum (MESVTEE, 2010: 37).

To address these issues, MESVTEE (2010) is reviewing current CPD mechanisms

to ensure a continued supply of appropriately qualified lecturers through college
staff development programmes. A key challenge concerns the sustainability of this
system, since it depends on donors and NGOs running short, one-off courses and
workshops. Consequently, some teachers are unable to implement the methods
they have studied when they return to classrooms. Also, as Banda notes, ‘It is not
surprising to find a teacher trying to propagate a certain way of planning a lesson and
they associate it with the cooperating partners instead of focusing it on the general
pedagogy of teaching and its context’ (Banda, 2014: 1).

Mubanga (2014) notes that efforts to improve teachers’ professional qualifications

and competence take the form of pre-service training provided through teacher
training colleges and in-service training through school-based initiatives, while
simultaneously efforts are underway to improve the teaching and learning
environment through provision of relevant materials and equipment, and the revival
of institutional infrastructure. However, Mubanga (2014) cautions that a failure to
implement the education reforms in full could compromise the quality of teacher
education programmes, highlighting issues such as the lack of a comprehensive
curriculum review in teacher training and the nature of training programmes
currently being offered.

Discussion
A background paper prepared for the Oslo Summit on Education for Development
held in July 2015 suggests that under-investment in professional development
programmes is associated with poor student results. Specifically, the key message
from the summit was that ‘investing in teachers, their preparation, support
mechanisms, and the means of delivery in the classrooms, is investing in learning. It
is a prerequisite to allow the transformative power of education to occur’ (UNESCO,
2015b: 14).

However, there is little data available from evaluations of CPD programmes to help
us understand their impact on teacher knowledge and behaviour. Moreover, Mataka
notes that there are no ‘systematic, well established and effective strategies of finding

144 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

out the views of teachers towards the INSET activities in basic schools’ (Mataka,
2010: 17).

In a recent synthesis report on In-Service Teacher Education in sub-Saharan Africa, Ibn

Junaid and Maka (2014) highlight the specific challenges that impact on continuing
professional development (CPD) programmes. These are :

• CPD programmes that do not resonate with teachers’ career progression are
ineffective and unattractive to teachers.

• CPD programmes for certification do not strengthen the academic and

pedagogical skills required for employment (those acquired during pre-service
training). They are also expensive and ineffective.

• The one-off training workshop renders teachers mere recipients of knowledge:

‘The prevailing mixture of certified and uncertified teachers in the education
systems of these countries calls for differentiated training programmes based on
established training needs of the different cohorts of teachers’ (Ibn Junaid and
Maka, 2014: 57).

Mataka lists a number of challenges arising from teachers’ evaluation of CPD

policies and activities at selected schools in Lusaka. A school manager explained
that his school regarded CPD programmes as refresher courses for teachers, while
a colleague noted that there was no CPD policy for schools. The study suggested
that poor communication of CPD by school managers contributed to the negative
attitudes teachers had towards it. Some said it was a waste of time considering that
teaching was their main purpose at school. Another issue concerned the capacity
and skills of management to effectively integrate CPD into the school curriculum.
Since such duties have been decentralized, school managers are now responsible for
informing teachers about such programmes.

Some teachers demanded payment for attending CPD activities since these sessions
did not always lead to promotion or salary increments. Others were reluctant to
participate in CPD because they regarded it as an external control mechanism that
could highlight their shortcomings. There were issues too about the quality of the
content of these courses and their impact on teaching and learning. The SACMEQ III
survey found that only 33.4 per cent of Zambian teachers felt the content of
professional development courses had an impact on their instructional capacity in
the classroom.

145
 These issues are exacerbated by the variable nature of promotion policies and
practices across the system, and the fact that promotion of teachers in Zambia is
often based primarily on academic qualifications with very little consideration given
to work performance. Discussions with education stakeholders suggested that some
promotion practices have been unfair, due to nepotism and corruption. The education
minister in 2013 commented: ‘In the past, thousands [of teachers] were selected
unprofessionally and so many crooks infiltrated the well-meaning restructuring
the ministry was doing. People were promoted using a system of psychology and
this has to stop’ (Lusaka Voice, 2013, para. 6). The minister noted that appointments
and promotions had also been based on political connections and emphasized that
‘there is need to rid the system of bad practices of nepotism, tribalism and perceived
corruption so that the best teachers are filtered through the system’ (para. 8).

RECOMMENDATIONS
• Institutionalize a system to improve coordination and harmonization among
providers and evaluators of teacher training programmes in order to successfully
and effectively improve the teaching and learning processes, as well as student
learning outcomes.
• Prioritize the improvement of teacher resource centres at the different levels
of the system to support effective teacher development programmes, and
restructure continuing professional development programme to reflect the reality
of classroom conditions.
• Further develop capacities at national and sub-national levels for monitoring
and evaluation of teaching and learning processes, through improved teaching
practice opportunities in pre-service programmes and in-service CPD.
• Strengthen monitoring and evaluation of CPD programmes to better understand
its impact on teachers’ performance and behaviour, as well as on the quality of
education.

Policy Issue 3: I nadequate policies for remuneration and career

opportunities

Currently, career pathways for teachers to advance within the education sector are
limited, while remuneration packages are perceived to be extremely low, resulting in
high rates of attrition and active teachers resorting to other sources of income.

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Evidence
Mulkeen (2010) notes that Zambia allocates near 70 per cent of its annual education
budget to basic education. In 2007, the starting salary for primary school teachers
in Zambia was US $3,292 per annum, four times per capita GDP. Primary teachers
also received other allowances, according to qualifications and marital status. For
instance, subsistence allowance was US $61–65 per month (about 22 per cent of pay).
While these salaries seemed high, they were in fact equivalent to US $17 per day
when converted into purchasing power parity (PPP). Mulkeen writes: ‘The teachers
unions, using data from the central statistics office, showed that the starting salary of
a primary teacher was roughly two-thirds of the cost of the basic needs basket for the
family’ (Mulkeen, 2010: 158).

The starting salary for lower secondary school teachers was 15 per cent higher
than that for primary teachers, and the starting salary for upper secondary school
teachers was 52 per cent higher than that for primary teachers. Yet, in many cases,
primary school teachers have heavier workloads and much larger classes. Compared
to jobs in the private sector, teaching is seen as less attractive and certainly pays less.
Teacher attrition rates are unsurprisingly high, averaging 9 per cent in 2013 (Zambia
EFA 2015 Review, 2014). Mulkeen (2010) argues that this is partly a reflection of
alternative opportunities in the labour market, and thus it should be expected that
attrition rates vary for different types of teachers.

Available data on Anglophone Africa indicate that attrition is higher among

secondary school teachers educated to a higher level, than it is for primary teachers.
Attrition is also higher among mathematics and science teachers in sub-Saharan
Africa (Mulkeen, 2010). Moonga (2010) observes that low salaries drive Zambian
mathematics and science teachers to other countries in the region. While they earn
around US $400 per month, with an extra US $100 for housing and other allowances,
in Zambia, in Botswana they can earn US $1,500 per month.

Bennell and Akyeampong (2007) use the concept of ‘wastage’ to define the category
of trained teachers who do not enter the teaching profession. The authors argue
that the high incidence of study leave, and high mortality rates in countries such as
Zambia, which have been badly affected by the AIDS epidemic, are major sources of
wastage. However, the main challenge in terms of wastage is posed by the relatively
high number of graduates who simply choose not to join the teaching profession.
While accurate data are not readily available, Mulkeen notes that, since 2005, the
University of Zambia has produced more than 400 graduate teachers each year (431
in 2006). Yet only 1,017 teachers with degrees were working in the country’s schools
in 2005. Mulkeen (2010) thus concludes that most graduates were either not entering
the teaching profession or leaving it shortly after joining (Mulkeen, 2010: 35).

147
 The 2005 IMF Zambia: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Progress Report noted that
of the 9,000 teaching vacancies available in 2003, 8,500 were in basic education and
500 in high schools. Nonetheless, the education sector could not employ teachers
who had graduated in 2002 and 2003 because of the wage bill ceiling recommended
by the World Bank as part of its structural adjustment programmes (SAPs). As a
consequence, only 1,400 were recruited in April 2004 to fill existing vacancies. The
IMF also reported that ‘high attrition resulting from deaths and brain drain also
aggravated the high pupil-teacher ratios in schools’ (IMF, 2005: 41). As James-
Traoure, Finger, Ruland, and Savariaud (2004) argue:

‘Teacher attrition due to HIV/AIDS leads to deteriorating educational systems through

stress on the human-resource base, worsening ratios of educators to students, loss of
experienced teachers, increased demands on staff health benefits, and pressure on
educator training colleges to keep pace with the demand for new teachers’ (p. 10).

In a review entitled Teacher Mobility, Gender and Status I, Sinyolo (2008) found
that AIDS-related deaths contributed to high attrition rates in Zambia and noted
that ‘The best way of reducing teacher attrition would be to address its root causes,
particularly HIV/AIDS, low salaries and poor working conditions’ (p. 10). Moonga
(2010) reports that ‘Zambia’s education ministry has in the past two years deployed
over 20,000 teachers across the country to replace those who have left for greener
pastures or died’.

In a study of teacher motivation in 12 sub-Saharan Africa countries, including Zambia,

Bennell and Akyeampong (2007) report that the low resignation rates among teachers
were not due to job satisfaction, but because of fewer opportunities for alternative
employment. The authors note that ‘Low attrition in the context of pervasive teacher
de-motivation only tends to make matters worse because dissatisfied teachers are
unable to leave’ (p. 49). High rates of teacher transfers also reflect job dissatisfaction
and could affect the quality of learning. Similarly, teachers who are unable to transfer
due to poor working and living conditions may under-perform at work.

This challenge was highlighted in the MoE’s Educating Our Future document (MoE,
1996):

‘The present structure encompasses relatively few promotion posts. As a result, many
teachers find that if they are to forward their own interests, they must leave classroom
teaching and seek a management or similar post. This leads to the loss from teaching
of several excellent teachers, and the frustration of those who fail to secure a new post.
This problem would not arise if promotion paths within the teaching channel allowed a
teacher’s salary to progress to the level of management salaries, or even beyond’ (p. 121).

148 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

In practice, however, as Beyani (2013) notes, policies and procedures for employment,
staff recruitment, and general human resources operations in the public sector are
guided by the Public Service Commission of Zambia. Highlighting the Ministry’s
commitment to improving teacher quality in Zambia, the National Implementation
Framework (MoE, 2010) argues for:

‘Improvement of the quality of teacher management that in turn entails the establishment
of an effective oversight body on quality control and quantitative improvements in teacher
supply, which will be complemented by an effective Performance Management System
that would monitor the performance of teachers at different levels, both in schools and
teacher training institutions’ (p. 10).

Similarly, based on an interview with Ministry’s officials, Beyani (2013) reports

that the human resources department of the MoE is committed to ensuring that it:
(i) recruits, retains, and upgrades the performance levels of its employees; (ii) defines
clear career pathways and provides guidance and policy direction on issues of
career development and management; and (iii) deploys adequate human resources
at all levels as ministerial functions are decentralized. However, Beyani also notes
that there are no transparent performance-based criteria to guide staff promotion,
especially of directors and permanent secretaries. He argues that the commitment to
fair promotion remains largely theoretical, resulting in ‘capacity-building challenges,
including difficulty in maintaining quality delivery of education services’ (Benyani,
2013: 78)

The impact of this ‘theoretical commitment’ on teacher remuneration and retention

is evident in the current system for promoting staff and recognizing improvements
in qualifications. The key challenge highlighted during our interviews was the
disjuncture between promotion processes, on the one hand, and teacher qualifications
requirements and the current staffing structure, on the other. As one interviewee
reported:

‘The policy and approach of the Ministry is to update qualifications of all teachers. The
challenge is that the upgrading of qualifications cannot be mapped on to the current
qualifications establishment as the current process only requires and/or recognises
certificates at primary school level and thus does not accommodate staff with diplomas
or degrees. So a person in a primary school who gets upgraded to a diploma or degree
has to move to a secondary school to get the salary increment, but most teachers are not
equipped to teach at a secondary school as they only have a primary qualification only’
(Interviewee 1, June 2015).

149
 The key issue is that the current salary scales within the school sector do not
accommodate the higher qualifications teachers achieve. Moreover, interviewees
reported that while a process exists by which staff can apply for a higher salary to
reflect their improved qualifications, i.e. by applying to the permanent secretary,
generally there is limited follow-up, if any official response, to applications submitted,
which corroborates Beyani’s (2013) point that this process is merely theoretical. To
further underscore this point, interviewees indicated that they were all still at the
entry-level grade even though many of them had been in the system for between
15 and 20 years and had applied for upgrading. It was also reported that a similar
situation affected academic staff at teacher training institutions, although it was
noted that the new minimum requirement for all lecturers is a first degree and no
longer a diploma.

Discussion
Teacher remuneration is the major cost driver in education. From a policy perspective,
remuneration packages need to be attractive enough to recruit, retain, and motivate
good teachers. However, they are designed within the wider constraints of public
funding.

Mulkeen and Crowe-Taft (2010) identify two categories of teachers likely to leave the
teaching profession voluntarily: those with high qualifications and skills attractive
in the labour market, and those who are unqualified, without formal employment
contracts, and living in disadvantaged areas.

At South End School in Lusaka, which had around 600 pupils in 2010, Moonga
reports that at least five teachers were required to teach mathematics and at least five
to teach science, yet they were only able to recruit two for each subject. The shortage
of teachers is so acute that one rural primary school employed a teacher who had
only completed Grade 7. ‘Low pass rates in science and mathematics are evidence
of how the shortage is affecting the quality of education’, writes Moonga, who also
notes that large numbers of trainee teachers are not obliged to teach in public schools
after completing their studies, even though they receive government bursary support
for their training (Monga, 2010). Low pay aside, teachers are also demotivated and
lack the basic equipment they need to teach. The head teacher of South End School
lamented:

‘The education system in Zambia, they put up schools where they have not provided the
necessary equipment to make a teacher of science enjoy his work. So you find that this
is part of the frustration which is there. As they upgrade these basic schools, they should
upgrade the equipment, the science labs and all that’ (Moonga, 2010: para. 23).

150 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Increases in salaries have not kept pace with the upgrading of qualifications. Newly
graduated teachers earn higher salaries than serving ones, who have longer experience
and improved qualifications, yet often wait many years to receive pay increments.

‘At the moment, the Ministry of Education, Science, Vocational Training and Early
Education and the Teaching Service Commission only consider upgrading or re-assessing
a serving teacher with a new qualification, once a vacancy is created. This only happens
when, for instance, a mathematics teacher with a degree retires, resigns, gets dismissed,
or dies’ (Kambilima, 2015, para. 9).

Rural schools in Zambia also tend to have a higher attrition rate than those in towns.
‘The rate of attrition of teachers from community schools, where teachers are very
poorly paid, employed at the discretion of the community and are often unqualified,
have a much higher rate of turnover than teachers in government schools,’ report
Mulkeen and Crowe-Taft (2010: 27). Inter-school migration, involving teachers
moving away from remote areas, also adds to the loss of teachers in those locations,
though, technically, this is not attrition.

UNESCO Institute for Statistics’ 2015 data on the global teacher shortage indicated
that 25.8 million school teachers would be required to provide every child with
primary education by 2030. This total includes the creation of 3.2 million new posts
and the replacement of 22.6 million teachers expected to leave the profession. Zambia
is expected to recruit 130,300 new teachers by 2030 (UIS, 2015).

RECOMMENDATIONS
• Revisit existing salary scales and structures of incentives so as to encourage and
facilitate improvements in the status and conditions of teachers and teacher
educators and to re-invigorate the teaching profession. Specifically, practices
which lead to primary school teachers being considered inferior to secondary
school teachers should be discouraged by ensuring that teachers are remunerated
according to their qualifications and experience.
• Develop specific career pathways for the teaching profession at the different
levels of the education sector through appropriate training, deployment, and
remuneration schemes to ensure that the most qualified teachers remain in the
classroom so as to address the challenge of improving learning for all children.
Specifically, all teachers, including primary school teachers, should be encouraged
to obtain the highest qualification possible, including diplomas and degrees
(master’s degrees or even doctorates), and should be rewarded accordingly. Such
policies should limit the current practice of primary school teachers having to
enter secondary schools to improve their salaries.

151
 Policy Issue 4: Weak utilization of information and communications
technology for implementing continuing professional
development programmes

Government policy encourages CPD programmes using information and

communications technology (ICT), though there remain many challenges in terms
of access, content, and ICT skills.

Evidence
Distance education (DE) for teacher training has been used in Zambia since the
1960s (Harry, John, and Keegan, 2013). However, as documented in other parts of
sub-Saharan Africa, applying information and communications technology (ICT)
tools in DE remains challenging. In 2003, there were 4,500 teachers enrolled in
distance learning programmes across the country, yet the National In-Service
Teachers’ College (dedicated to DE) only had capacity to accommodate 500 teachers
each year. Furthermore, only 360 students out of 2,580 distance learning applicants
were admitted at the University of Zambia during the same year, as most applicants
could not afford the studies and had no government sponsorship (Thomas, 2008).

Print media, informal tutorial group meetings, and face-to-face residential tutorials
are the main modes of delivering DE. Most lecturers do not have DE expertise ‘and
their attitudes towards distance education are not much different from the rest of
the people who look at distance education as a second-class form of education’
(Chiyongo, 2010: 71). In South Africa, an initial survey revealed that an ICT-based
distance-learning module in education management had to revert to print-based
delivery because only 1 per cent of the target group of teachers in rural areas had
reliable internet access. Text messages were used to supplement the print material
since most of the learners had mobile phones (Aluko, 2009).

The Zambia Education Curriculum Framework 2013 stipulates that DE programmes

for pre-service and in-service teacher education be developed by providing
institutions according to the guidelines of MESVTEE. The Ministry, furthermore,
is responsible for ascertaining that the programmes are managed by educators who
are qualified in DE methodologies (MESVTEE, 2013). However, findings from an
evaluation of a primary teacher distance learning diploma course in Zambia show
that:

‘(a) There was no consistent system for distributing modules and reports. This frequently
made it difficult for students to complete assignments on time; (b) The effectiveness of the
student support and tutoring system was limited by the low frequency and short duration

152 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 of contact sessions; (c) Some tutors were not conversant with the content of the modules
before contact sessions; (d) District management teams were not well prepared in terms
of knowledge and skills for supporting students’ (Chiyongo, 2010: 78).

In 2006, Zambia developed a draft ICT policy for education and a draft National
Implementation Framework for ICT (2007 to 2010) within the education system.
The curricula, syllabuses, and materials for distance education would be digitalized
and made available online for schools. Additionally, there would be ‘development
and implementation of an interactive distance education programme for continuous
education of in-service basic and high-school teachers including an on-line tutoring
by the National Universities and Colleges of Education’ (IICD, 2009, education
section, para. 1).

Discussion
In his article Time for Radical Change in Teacher Education, Moon (2010) suggests
that new models and a radical shift in policy are required to meet the lack of capacity
for CPD, especially in most sub-Saharan African countries where, ‘the vast majority
of resources are going to campus, residential training programmes extending for
up to three or four years, whilst unqualified teachers flood into the classrooms
and existing teachers have little or no opportunities for professional development”
(Moon, 2010: 10). Moon also notes that school-based programmes with diverse open
and distance teaching and learning methodologies can be a solution, and proposes
six central strategies:

• Fully integrate school-based, distance-learning approaches into national training

policies; not ‘bolt-on projects’ to deal with crises but fully integrated strategic
thinking.
• Establish a new, practical, classroom-focused curriculum for upgrading courses,
and for continuing professional development: the biggest problem for distance
education courses is when planners try to replicate the organization of campus-
based credit courses.
• Adapt more formative portfolio assessment systems giving primacy to classroom
practice; the dead hand of timed examinations still weighs heavily on many
programmes.
• Model costs in programme design in advance of implementation; problems of
sustainability almost always arise when this is not done.
• Plan for the progressive adaptation of information and communication technology
(ICT), especially mobile technologies; too many distance programmes continue
to ignore the potential of this.

153
 • Use media, especially radio, to make training more interesting and stimulating;
too much teacher education is ‘plain boring’ (p. 10).

Though internet access and ICT-supported learning are increasing in Zambia, it is

mostly within urban schools. In 2009, the Centre for Commonwealth Education
at the University of Cambridge (United Kingdom), in partnership with diverse
stakeholders in Zambia, launched a pilot project called OER4Schools to test
whether open educational resources (OERs) could be used in ICT- and internet-
equipped primary schools. It identified and adapted a school-based professional
development model for the local context. Three schools were used in the pilot and
a local distance-learning expert assisted the teachers in introducing and interacting
with new technologies. The main outcome of the pilot was a professional learning
resource for teachers and student teachers, focusing on interactive teaching and
learning, with and without ICT. A key element of this resource, according to the
project report:

‘is the use of unique video clips illustrating interactive practice (produced in Zambian
and South African primary classroom contexts) as a stimulus for discussion. The
resource is freely available for re-use under a Creative Commons license. It supports
different modes of learning, including collaborative and individual use, as well as
blended learning as part of a course’ (University of Cambridge, 2015, pilot project
section, para. 4).

The second phase of the OER4Schools project in 2010 included more interaction
among teachers using digital resources such as netbooks, instant messaging, Skype
calls, and emails. The model can be used for both online and offline interaction using
digital and non-digital learning resources. Results show that there was increased
interaction among students and less ‘chalk and talk’ from teachers. However, many
ICT projects are based on one-off workshops that are not sustainable and often
have limited relevance and value in terms of actual classroom practice. Some recent
research indicates that ‘a site-based CPD programme drawing on teachers’ local
networks is a promising approach’ (Hennessy et al., 2012: 37).

The spread of mobile phones in sub-Saharan Africa has enabled innovations in

mobile learning, which can bridge access and affordability gaps found in traditional
education. Nevertheless, mobile broadband penetration is still hindered by high
costs. iSchool Zambia is a for-profit company which provides a universal online
e-learning package with laptops, tablets, internet access, teacher training, etc. The
model is ‘aimed at improving standards in existing schools as opposed to investing
in building new schools’ (Stanfield, 2015: 143). Though mobile technologies are used
to support student learning and professional development among teachers, they

154 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

are not universally available, especially in remote parts of low-income countries.
Furthermore, the small screen on a mobile phone can hinder access to certain
features and interactions, though smartphones are better.

Too much dependence on mobile devices for virtual interaction, such as through
text messaging, ‘means mobile-teacher professional learning runs the risk of being
reduced to fact-based or rote learning versus procedural learning focusing on
improving instructional skills and behaviours’ (Burns, 2015: para. 4). Whenever
possible, mobile phones should not be an alternative to the tested and proven
methods of professional development and support. Burns further notes that ‘We need
to guard against a reductionist vision of learning that conflates teacher professional
development and support with little more than text messages, phone calls, and audio
snippets – versus sustained face-to-face interaction with colleagues, materials and
experiences’ (Burns, 2015: para. 5).

RECOMMENDATIONS
• Government should equip schools as well as teacher training centres with modern
ICT tools to support teaching and learning, as well as teacher CPD, and should
also provide technology-skilled personnel to support schools in enhancing their
use of ICT.
• Make available effective programmes, and increase access to ICT tools, for
improving teachers’ and instructors’ use of basic ICT and pedagogical skills for
improving learning and teaching, and develop teacher CPD. Specifically, support
networks are required among teachers to facilitate face-to-face and virtual
discussion platforms and the sharing of experiences and learning materials.
• Encourage the combination of online and offline teaching and learning resources
among teachers and students. When there is no internet connection, it is still
possible to access offline applications. Including non-digital resources is equally
important for interaction.
• Promote consultations among users in order to agree on the best ICT solution.
Some low-cost ICT solutions are as effective as some more expensive platforms.
• Increase access to ICT tools by improving infrastructure in rural teacher training
institutions. This enhances the capacity of users since it increases access points.

155
 Policy Issue 5: Lack of facilities and resources, and weak capacity and
qualifications of staff at teacher education institutions

Currently, many teacher training institutions have limited capacity and expertise
among staff and lack basic facilities and resources, including libraries and ICT
infrastructure, to develop the necessary knowledge and skills that trainee teachers
require to make a difference to the quality of education in Zambia.

Evidence
While recognizing the important contribution of teacher training colleges in
providing the country with a regular supply of qualified teachers, the Ministry of
Education (1996), in its Educating Our Future document, notes that these colleges
‘have been handicapped in the accomplishment of their mission by their inability
to bring the quality of their output to the level they would have desired’ (MoE,
1996: 111). Key reasons that affect the quality of graduates include:

• an overloaded and inappropriate curriculum;

• promotion of rigid teacher-centred methodologies;
• an excessively demanding examination system;
• staff with inadequate or unsuitable educational and professional qualifications;
• a shortage of educational resources of all kinds (MoE, 1996: 112).

Despite the commitment by the Ministry to address this situation, a number of

challenges remain, with most institutions still lacking adequate facilities and relevant
teaching and learning resources, while many teaching staff still lack the requisite
experience and qualifications for preparing teachers to meet the needs of the school
sector. Beyani (2013) notes that ‘many institutions are in a state of disrepair, with
broken down workshops and laboratories’ (p. 28). Highlighting the lack of adequate
teaching and learning material, Pire (n.d.) notes that ‘the Colleges of Education do
not have libraries with enough textbooks and other training and learning resources
necessary for the moulding of teachers. In most cases, the few books available are too
shallow to mould a teacher’s skills’ (p. 219). In reviewing the status of universities, the
National Implementation Framework (MoE, 2010) notes that:

‘the reality in our universities is that there are serious shortfalls that render the quality
of university education poor. These shortfalls include lack of serviceable equipment,
inadequate infrastructure, and insufficient ICT facilities, libraries, and laboratories.
Furthermore, there is a problem of poor staffing levels, weak appraisal system of staff,
and lack of locally-produced study materials’ (p. 43).

156 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Similarly, the READ review of teacher training in Zambia found that while the
training for teachers in lower basic education was appropriate, most college lecturers
were former secondary teachers who had never taught in primary schools, and who,
thus, were ill equipped to prepare student teachers. To demonstrate this point, the
report offers the following example:

‘since the tutors in primary teachers colleges are normally former secondary teachers,
with Secondary Teachers Diploma or a degree, they also have limited assessment
training ending on assessment definitions. This therefore creates a vicious circle of lack of
assessment training in the teaching fraternity cutting across all the levels of qualifications’
(READ, 2010: 28).

Furthermore, Longe and Chiputa (2003) report that some colleges offering upgrading
courses through distance education (DE) for primary school teachers face similar
challenges regarding inadequacy of study materials, inadequately trained tutors, and
poor infrastructure.

According to NIF III (2011–2015), management structures and programmes are now
available for CPD at all levels in the country, and the creation of school-based teacher
resource centres has decentralized these activities. The School Program of In-service
Training for the Term (SPRINT) has been used to implement CPD at school level.
However, while the structures of CPD appear to be well developed, the efficacy of
the structure in improving teaching and learning is weak. CPD is also ‘faced with
challenges such as inadequate reference materials, infrastructure, poorly stocked
specialised room, and lack of integration of CPD and ICT in the teacher education
curriculum’ (MoE, 2010: 37).

Discussion
Global initiatives such as EFA and the MDGs have increased participation in basic
education, yet they have also demanded a larger share of funding, often at the cost of
teacher training. Similarly, the introduction of early childhood education has required
the transfer of some teachers from primary schools to provide the human resources
for this provision. Quality remains a problem though some changes have been
taking place. For instance, the two-year Zambia Teacher Education Course (ZATEC)
programme was phased out for producing teachers with limited competence. ‘The
country has also introduced a revised national primary curriculum on account of the
ineffectiveness of teaching methods supported under the Primary Reading Program’
(MESVTEE, 2014a: 34).

157
 Masaiti and Chita (2014) argue that the upgrading of two teacher training colleges
to the status of universities (Nkrumah University and Copperbelt Education
University) was merely a political gesture since they do not offer curricula relevant
and responsive to trainees or national needs. ‘The other challenge is under-funding,
resulting in overcrowding, dilapidated infrastructure, high student-lecturer ratios,
lack of expansion in facilities, high levels of indebtedness, inadequate education
materials and ICT,’ they write (Masaiti and Chita, 2014: 448). These authors also note
that donor-driven initiatives, such as the school-based CPD offered by the Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA), have not been sustained after completion.
Similarly, Ibn Junaid and Maka argue that ‘the provision and implementation of
INSET activities is constrained by lack of funding and non-inclusion of INSET in
national policies and budgetary allocations’ (Ibn Junaid and Maka, 2014: 71).

In a recent report on In-Service Teacher Education in sub-Saharan Africa, Ibn Junaid

and Maka (2014) identified a number of challenges and lessons learned in eight sub-
Saharan African countries, including Zambia. The authors note that CPD policy in
Zambia is demand-driven and connects with wider policy efforts to improve teachers’
effectiveness. They also report that CPD programmes for basic and secondary school
teachers take place in formal institutional structures which are used for pre-service
education, and are normally occupied by regular teacher trainees. Key challenges
across most teacher training institutions in African countries, the authors note,
concern the limited capacity to absorb the huge number of certified and uncertified
basic education teachers, ill-equipped facilities, insufficient training materials, and
poorly paid tutors.

RECOMMENDATIONS
• Greater investment is required to improve facilities and provide relevant resources
for all teacher training institutions. To this end, the national education budget
should include line items for INSET programmes.
• Effective capacity development programmes should be put in place to enhance
the capacities and skills of current academic and support staff in all teacher
training institutions. In this regard, an academic staff development unit needs to
be created, either centrally, or decentralized in all teacher training institutions.
• Strengthen existing capacity in all teacher training institutions by employing
competent staff to manage and coordinate CPD activities.
• Monitoring and evaluation of CPD is necessary to understand capacity limitations
and to develop mechanisms for sustainability.
• Establish regulatory frameworks at decentralized levels, with authority,
management, and funding so as to ensure quality training for staff at teacher
training institutions.

158 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Policy Issue 6: Low status, morale, and professionalism of teachers

Generally, there is low morale within the teaching workforce, while respect for the
teaching profession is slowly being eroded within the community.

Evidence
Educating Our Future (MoE, 1996) notes that the status of teachers in Zambia,
and hence their morale, has been greatly diminished by the deterioration in their
conditions of service, and argues that this is due to a progressive decline in real
income. The document further notes that:

‘it is not satisfactory that the situation continues as it is. It would be even less satisfactory
if it were allowed to deteriorate further. Schools cannot be effective if teachers are
demoralized. Significant strides forward in preparing children for the world of the
twenty-first century cannot be made on the basis of a demotivated cadre of teachers.
On-going professional and personal development, which lie at the very heart of school and
educational improvement, are not the priority concerns of a person whose remuneration
does not match the status and responsibility attaching to his or her appointment’ (p. 120).

In addressing this challenge, the document argued for the establishment of an

accreditation board for teachers.

Almost two decades on, issues of teacher motivation, morale, status, and
professionalism continue to impact on the teaching force. In 2014, the Zambia
National Union of Teachers (ZNUT) urged the government to increase funding
for school infrastructure and also pay all outstanding allowances owed to teachers,
to motivate them at work. An official of ZNUT argued that ‘teachers work without
resources or proper training and, where they engage in training, Government has not
recognized their efforts by placing them in correct salary scales. The Government
should, therefore, increase funding to the sector’ (Kabaila, 2014: para. 5).

The situation in rural schools is especially bad. Rural schools in Zambia are less
attractive, particularly to newly qualified urban teachers. The number of female
teachers in urban schools is double the number of male teachers. This is partly
because female teachers tend to resist posting to rural schools, often for cultural and
social reasons. Lack of infrastructure and limited amenities also add to the resistance
(Mungai, 2015). The hardship allowances awarded to teachers who work in rural
areas are generally inadequate. Up to half the monthly salary earned by teachers in
rural Zambia can be spent on transport and accommodation to and from the district
offices to collect it (Bennell and Akyeampong, 2007).

159
 The Teaching Profession Act of 2013 resulted in the establishment of the Teaching
Council of Zambia (TCZ), in early 2015, with the role of overseeing:

• the regulation of teachers, their practice, and professional conduct;

• the accreditation and regulation of colleges of education;
• matters connected with, or incidental to, the foregoing (Government of Zambia,
2013: 151).

The establishment of the TCZ is a significant step forward, not only in enhancing the
teaching profession in Zambia but also in addressing the key challenge of improving
teacher quality. Specifically, the act requires the teaching council to: register all
practising teachers in the country, including teachers in private and community
schools; monitor and support the provision of effective continuing professional
development programmes for teachers; ensure all colleges of education are duly
accredited to offer quality programmes for the training of teachers; and develop a
code of ethics and address all disciplinary matters relating to the teaching profession.

In interviews with TCZ staff, a number of priorities were noted, including: (i) the
sensitization of teachers to the roles and responsibilities of the council, especially the
requirements regarding registration and the code of ethics; (ii) the establishment of
a system of CPD that will meet the needs of all teachers; and (iii) the accreditation
of colleges of education and improvement of capacity and skills of college lecturers.
Notwithstanding the challenges that need to be addressed, the effective functioning
of the TCZ holds enormous promise for the education section in Zambia, and has the
potential to make a significant contribution in addressing the challenge of improving
quality education for all in Zambia.

Discussion
Salifu (2013) notes that teachers’ low motivation is partly due to diminished regard
for their profession that in turn causes ‘attrition, low morale, burnout, absenteeism,
lateness and lack of commitment. The consequence is a decline in the standard of
education available to learners and difficulties in workforce planning for education’
(p. 98). Poor pay is noted as a key cause of low morale, particularly among basic
education teachers in sub-Saharan Africa. For such teachers, the profession is often
just a stepping stone towards other career pathways. Moreover, some teachers join the
profession because their high school grades were not good enough to pursue other
professions at college or university (Bennell and Akyeampong, 2007). Verhagen and
Tweedie (2002) have identified a number of factors which cause dissatisfaction with
terms of service, including: lack of proper accommodation; lack of housing schemes;
inadequate provision of loans; absence of a health scheme; poor promotional

160 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

prospects and lack of clear guidelines regarding promotion; concern that corruption
affects promotion and selection; and difficult communications with the employer,
coupled with a sense that teachers’ problems are disregarded. Another challenge
highlighted by UNESCO (2014) pertains to the salary bill and its implications
for practice. Specifically, ‘governments need to pay competitive salaries to attract
the best teachers, but many face a dilemma: higher salaries would raise the public
budget unless teachers’ numbers fell, which would increase class size. In countries
where classes are already large, as in much of sub-Saharan Africa, this would reduce
education quality’ (p. 254).

Various methods are used to motivate teachers. However, evidence of their efficacy
is often in short supply. For instance, from a policy perspective, offering incentives
to teachers is viewed globally as a means of enhancing student performance, yet ‘no
evidence is found that teacher incentives increase student performance, attendance,
or graduation, nor is there any evidence that the incentives change student or teacher
behaviour’ (Yawe, 2014: 15). Mutono (2010) advocates a deeper understanding of the
poor working conditions of many Zambian teachers when the government plans and
implements education reforms. Teachers have families and dependents that they take
care of financially. In some rural areas, they are the only formal income earners yet
sometimes go to work hungry. ‘A teacher who is the only or main breadwinner, and
has at least four family members to support, needs to earn at least US $10 per day to
keep the family above the poverty line of US $2 per day per person’ (UNESCO, 2014:
254). Non-monetary incentives should also be considered to boost teacher morale.

‘Inadequate, irregular, or delayed salaries often force teachers to seek supplementary

income’ (U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre, 2006: 6). Due to low salaries, some
Zambian teachers take on additional jobs to earn extra income. In the past, private
tutoring was a lucrative activity for teachers who charged exorbitant fees to students
who could not enter the mainstream education system. Over one-third of public high
schools had academic production units (APUs) that were created for such students.
Cash from the APU was shared among teachers who engaged in private tutoring,
although they were conducted in publicly financed spaces and facilities. However,
the government abolished APUs in 2011 because more classrooms had been built to
accommodate the students. Moreover, it was argued that the teachers were exhausted
from the extra work and could not be effective during regular teaching hours
(Siulapwa, 2011).

Mutono notes that some teachers ‘attributed their involvement in extra jobs such as
APU to the meagre salaries they were getting, but that robbed them of time to prepare
their work hence became less committed; the pupils were the ones that suffered’
(Mutono, 2010: 80). In 2013, the government also banned paid-for public tuition

161
 in all schools, which was another source of private income for teachers. The tuition
classes were conducted by teachers for national examination candidates during the
weekends and on school vacations. The ban was intended to ensure all students have
equal opportunities for study, particularly those who are disadvantaged economically
and cannot afford to pay for private classes.

A number of countries have established teacher councils to enhance the status of

the teaching profession as well as the capacity and skills of teachers. In Ghana,
Nigeria, and South Africa, the National Teaching Council, the Teachers’ Registration
Council of Nigeria (TRCN), and the South African Council of Educators (SACE),
respectively, were established to set professional standards for teaching and develop
a code of conduct and ethics for teachers, to ensure registration and/or licensing of
all teachers, and to provide or coordinate continuing professional development to
all teachers in the country (Ibn Junaid and Maka, 2014; Mosoge & Taunyane, 2009).
Regarding teacher professional development, Ibn Junaid and Maka (2014) note that
the Zambian MoE developed a comprehensive policy framework to guide the National
Teaching Council (NTC) in carrying out its role, in response to the challenges of
externally driven professional development programmes and the low impact of these
programmes on students’ numeracy and literacy performance. Similarly in Nigeria,
the linking of registration requirements by the TRCN to salary scales resulted in the
recruitment of more qualified teachers for basic education schools (Ibn Junaid and
Maka, 2014).

In their review of SACE, Mosoge and Taunyane (2009) found that the council had
done well in addressing two of its mandates, namely registration and code of ethics,
and performed poorly in the execution of its professional development mandate.
The authors note that this poor performance was attributed to the lack of clarity
regarding how professional development should be delivered and by whom, as well
as to limited funding. To address this challenge, the authors recommended that:

‘SACE should initiate, support and facilitate professional development of educators;

accredit service providers and professional development courses because SACE itself is not
responsible for the delivery of professional development initiatives, but should ensure that
policy is implemented; promote innovation and active research projects by educators; and
organise research and educational conferences for purposes of disseminating’ (Mosoge
and Taunyane, 2009: 15).

162 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

RECOMMENDATIONS

• Prioritize the effective functioning of the Teaching Council of Zambia by

ensuring availability of funds as well as of staff. Specifically, the work should focus
on sensitizing teachers to the roles and responsibilities of the TCZ, and beginning
the process of registration.
• Ensure that an integrated policy framework for providing continuing professional
development programmes is aligned with the wider systems and policies of the
education sectors. Specifically, this framework should be aligned with a revised
salary structure that rewards all teacher efforts towards CPD.

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3.3 Technical Education, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training

This section provides a policy review of the TEVET, as one of the priority areas
in the framework of Zambia’s efforts to address the Education 2030 Agenda. The
review is based on the methodology described in the introduction of this report. The
stakeholders who took part in the consultations included the permanent secretary
(PS) of science and technology (MoHE), the director general of TEVETA, TEVETA
board members, the business development and marketing officer of the Industrial
Training Centre, the director of Mazabuko Skills Training Centre, employers and
trade unions members, and the chief curriculum specialist.

TEVET being a subsector with particular features and links with the economy and
the labour market, it is important to duly depict the related context before addressing
the actual policy review.

Legal and policy framework

In Zambia, technical education, vocational and entrepreneurship training (TEVET)
is guided by three main policy frameworks:

i. The TEVET policy (1996), which is the main framework for technical
educational, vocational and entrepreneurship training in Zambia. It recognized
the need to adapt TEVET to meet the needs of a changing economy, including

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 an important share of informal sector, and to provide the right mix of skills to
support national development and youth’s employment prospects. Hence, the
goals of TEVET policy reform (1996), which are still relevant, included: (i) to
balance the supply of skilled labour market at all levels with the demands of
the economy; (ii) to act as a vehicle for improved productivity and income
generation; and (iii) to be an instrument for the minimization of inequalities
among the people (MSTVT, 1996).

Based on this policy, the TEVET Act No. 13, of 1998, and the TEVET
(Amendment) Act No. 11, of 2005, which led to the establishment of the
Technical Education, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training Authority
(TEVETA) became important milestones for Zambia’s TEVET subsector. The
1998 Act also defined a more decentralized governance framework, which
represented a radical change in TEVET management.

ii. Vision 2030 (2006) recognized TEVET’s role as an integral part of the
education and skills development sector and its contribution to economic
development. The vision for education and skills development included
increasing university and skills training output by 2 per cent each year and
improving equity of access, while maintaining internationally recognized
and locally validated standards of quality. By addressing the issues of youth
unemployment and skills shortages, the Vision 2030 has paved the way for
both the Fifth (FNDP) and the Sixth National Development Plan (SNDP) that
put job and employment creation at the core of its activities.

iii. The revised Sixth National Development Plan (SNDP, 2013–2016), whose
policy priorities include: inclusive growth, job creation and rural development,
underpinned by significant capital project in agriculture, accelerated
infrastructure development, energy, health, education, skills development,
water and sanitation. To implement these priorities, the revised SNDP aims
‘to increase efficiency and equitable access to quality basic skills and TEVET’.

In addition to the above policy frameworks, it is also important to note the Technical
Education, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training Authority (TEVETA) strategic
plan 2014–2016, which takes as its theme ‘skills for youth employment’.

All these frameworks recognize the need to promote TEVET as a means of providing
young people and adults with the practical knowledge and skills needed for economic
and income growth, poverty reduction, employment, productivity, and human
development.

168 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

System steering and governance
Until 1998, the TEVET subsector was governed by the 1972 Act. The latter
officially charged the Department of Technical Education and Vocational Training
(DTEVT) of the MSTVT with administration of TEVET in Zambia, providing for
the department to operate a centralized, publicly supported training system with
the aim of producing specialists at the crafts, technician and technologist levels for
employment in the formal sector of the economy.

The TEVET 1998 Act, replacing the previous legislation, defined a more decentralized
governance framework. It established the TEVETA as an independent legal entity
charged with regulating, monitoring and coordinating TEVET in coordination with
industry, employers, workers and other stakeholders. TEVETA has 21 regulatory
and facilitation functions that it must deliver, as defined by the Act. These functions
include: administer and manage TEVET fund; advise the Minister on TEVET;
regulate and advise Management Boards of publicly owned TIs; develop curricula;
set standards; administer examinations and trade tests; accredit and register both
public and private TEVET institutions; collect, manage, and disseminate labour
market information relating to TEVET, etc.

TEVETA is organized into four divisions: the Development Division, the Training
Standards Division, the Assessments and Qualifications Division, and the Finance
and Administration Division. Through its Training Systems Development Unit,
TEVETA oversees four different TEVET delivery models in Zambia. It is funded
through a grant from the government, though it also generates revenues by
conducting examinations and offering other services. The government grant was
reduced by 5 per cent in 2015.

The 1998 Act also enabled MSTVT, in consultation with TEVETA, to establish legally
autonomous Management Boards of publicly-owned TIs, charged with providing
training, developing curricula, maintaining standards prescribed by TEVETA,
staffing and compensation, administration, and cost recovery through fees for
tuition, boarding and other services. The principal of the TI would be appointed by
and accountable to the Management Board.

TEVETA is headed by a Director-General, reporting to the TEVETA Board composed

of government and non-government stakeholder representatives. The TEVETA board
is appointed by the Minister responsible of TEVET and includes three members from
the private sector, one trade union representative, one representative of the University
of Zambia, one representative of a religious organization involved in providing TEVET,
and three members from different ministries, among others. The chair and vice-chair
are elected from among the members. The present chair is from the private sector and

169
 represents the Zambia Association of Chambers of Commerce and Industry, while the
vice-chair represents the University of Zambia. The board meets every three months.

The Ministry, with overall responsibility for the sector, appoints the members of the
TEVETA Board, the TEVETA Director General, and members of the TI Management
Boards; it also approves the terms and conditions of service for TEVETA staff, and
the charging of fees for tuition or other services by TI Management Boards.

TEVETA was assigned responsibility for developing and managing the Training
Qualifications Framework (TQF) in Zambia, which was formally approved in
2010; as of October 2010, fifty qualifications had been registered on the TQF. The
Zambia Qualifications Authority was set up through the Zambia Qualifications Act
(No. 13, 2011). The Act provides the development and implementation of a national
qualifications framework; the registration and accreditation of qualifications;
measures to ensure that standards and registered qualifications are internationally
comparable; and matters connected with, or incidental to, the foregoing. The Act is
also intended to create a single, integrated qualifications framework with a view to
enhancing the quality of training, promoting education and training opportunities,
and facilitating access to, as well as mobility and progression within, the education
system. A 10-level framework ranging from primary education, through TEVET, to
doctoral level is in development. Figure 24 shows the proposed framework, though
the final decision on the combined ZQF has yet to be taken.
Figure 24 Proposed Zambia (National) Qualifications Framework
ZQF General education/ Technical and Vocational Higher Education
Level Schooling Education & Training
10 Doctoral Degree
9 Master’s Degree
8 Post-Graduate Diploma
7 Bachelor’s Degree
6 Diploma (Technologist) Diploma
5 Advanced Cert. Certificate
(Technician)
4 Craft Certificate
3 Trade Test Level I
Certificate
2 High School (Grade 12)† Trade Test Level II
1 Basic Education (Grade 9) Trade Test Level III
Regulatory Examinations TEVETA Higher Education
Body Council of Zambia Authority

Source: MESVTEE, 2015.

170 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia
The Zambia Qualifications Authority (ZQA) was formally established by the 2013
Education Bill to regulate university education in the country in order to enhance
quality and standardize qualifications, especially important giving the growing role
of the private sector in the provision of university education.

Training delivery: registered institutions

As of 31 March 2015, there were 294 training institutions registered with TEVETA; 39
per cent were located in Lusaka, 26 per cent in Copperbelt, and the remainder spread
out across eight rural provinces (TEVETA figures). The main providers of TEVET in
Zambia include public and private sectors, as well as church-based, community, trust,
and non-governmental organizations. The responsibility for corporate governance
and management oversight of training providers is vested in the boards appointed by
the respective proprietors. In this respect, government training institutions enjoy a
degree of autonomy over their own affairs.

TEVETA’s 2013 annual report shows that the share of public or government-owned
TEVET institutions increased from 21 per cent in 2008 to 32 per cent in 2013
(Table 21). At the same time, the share of private training institutions fell from 39 per
cent in 2008 to 23 per cent in 2012, and slightly recovered to 28 per cent in 2013. The
proportion of other providers remained more or less stable, with the church having
the largest at 21 per cent. The reduction in the number of private institutions was
mainly attributable to non-compliance with minimum training standards leading to
deregistration, while some providers have opted to move away from TEVET service
provision (TEVETA, 2013). According to World Bank (2015), the global financial
crisis that began to affect the country around 2010 may also have contributed to the
decline in the number of private institutions.

Table 21 Number of registered institutions by ownership, 2008-2013

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2013 (%)

Public/Government 58 78 80 87 79 88 32%

Private 107 107 107 96 54 77 28%

Church 59 66 66 65 49 58 21%

Community 8 6 10 9 7 8 3%

Trust 16 14 16 14 11 13 5%

Company 10 14 14 15 13 16 6%

NGO 20 18 15 18 17 15 5%

Total 276 303 308 304 230 275 32%

Source: TEVETA Annual Report, 2013. 171

 Training in the TEVET sector in Zambia is offered at the following levels:

• Trade test
• Craft
• Technician
• Technologist/diploma

Entry requirements into these levels differ. Trainees come from primary and secondary
education, as well as from other training institutions. Students entering the TEVET
will generally have undertaken seven years of primary education and five years of
secondary. Higher education is offered at universities and specialized institutes or
colleges, which offer two-year certificates and three-year diploma programmes.

Public TEVET is managed by a number of different ministries, including: the Ministry

of Higher Education (MHE); The Ministry of Community Development, Mother and
Child Health; the Ministry of Tourism and Art; the Ministry of Lands, Environment
and Natural Resources; the Ministry of Labour and Social Security; the Ministry
of Commerce and Industry; and the Ministry of Agriculture. Twenty-five training
institutions are managed by the Directorate of Vocational Education and Training
in MHE, while a further fourteen Skills Development Centres are overseen by the
Directorate of Open and Distance Education in the Ministry of General Education.
An inter-ministerial committee has been established to address issues of common
interest and to coordinate the activities of different government institutions.

Non-formal TEVET is offered by private-sector and community-based providers,

which include church-run organisations and NGOs. They run training courses
for school dropouts and disadvantaged youth. Private TEVET providers focus
mainly on business and commercial courses, preparatory courses for international
qualifications, and short courses on specific skills, as it is more expensive to offer
engineering-type training courses which entail heavy investment. Private TEVET
providers are mainly located in urban areas.

It should be noted that data on informal, non-formal, and private TEVET are much
harder to access than data on public sector provision. The quality of data also varied
according to the sources, suggesting the need to enhance the TEVET management
information system. Besides, the utilization of collected data can be further promoted,
including through providing more analytical information in the annual reports. For
instance, the publication of institutional benchmarking, at least for the institutions
receiving public funding, may help in improving fund allocations and accountability.

172 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Access to and participation in formal TEVET
According to TEVETA, the total enrolment in registered TEVET institutions reached
45,000 in 2015, up from 34,911 in 2012, an increase of 28 per cent. Available data
show an increasing trend in enrolment since 2009, and an unchanged distribution of
student enrolment by programme between 2008 and 2012 (Table 22).

Programme-wise, business studies represent the largest share, accounting for 45 per
cent of total enrolment, followed by craft programmes, with 24 per cent. In terms of
gender, male students account for 55 per cent of total enrolment. While the share
of female in the total enrolment is slightly lower at 45 per cent of total enrolment,
some programmes such as business are well balanced with a gender parity. However,
unbalanced gender ratios can be observed in other programmes like the secretarial
studies where almost all students are female, and the craft programmes where the
majority of students are male. Overall, gender disparity is worsened at higher level
of TEVET programmes, as the share of female students at diploma level was only 8
per cent in 2012.

Table 22 Student enrolment in TEVET by programme, 2008-2012

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2012 (%)

Business Studies 12,218 13,439 14,328 14,828 15,866 45%

Secretarial Studies 1,431 1,499 1,574 1,621 1,785 5%

Hotel and Tourism 3,662 3,845 3,428 3,553 3,695 11%

Media and Applied Arts 3,000 3,150 3,307 3,406 3,508 10%

Paramedical 340 357 375 386 394 1%

Aviation 102 120 147 151 154 0%

Craft Programmes 7,602 7,853 8,140 8,251 8,416 24%

Advanced Certificate/ 4,567 409 494 511 527 2%

Technical Programmes

Diploma/Technologist 477 501 510 526 566 2%

Programmes

Total 33,399 31,173 32,303 33,233 34,911 100%

Source : TEVETA Annual Report, 2012.

The majority (94 per cent) of student intake at TEVET institutions under MHE
are trained at Level 4 and above. More than half of the total intake in public TVET
institutions attend craft certificate and certificate (Level 4). Craft certificate offers a

173
 variety of trades related to engineering, while certificate provides training in areas
such as agriculture, secretarial and office management, and computers.

Diploma level (Level 6) has the second largest intake in public TEVET institutions,
and provide programmes with similar features than those offered by craft certificate.
Advanced certificate (Level 5) accounts for 15 per cent of the intake at public
institutions and offers relatively homogenous programmes. The majority of the
intake (near 80 per cent) is engineering related (see Table 23).

Table 23 Share of intake at public/Government TEVET institutions by NQF Level, 2013

Level 4 Level 5 Level 6

Craft Certificate % Certificate % Advanced % Diploma Level %

certificate

Automotive 29 Agriculture 29 Heavy 35 Electrical 14

electrical/ equipment engineering
mechanics repair

Electrical 31 Secretarial 27 Electrical 25 Science 12

engineering and office engineering laboratory
management

Mechanical 20 Computers 14 Mechanical 15 Automotive 7

fitting, engineering technology
mechanical
fabrication,
plumbing and
sheet metal

Others 20 Others 30 Secretarial 15 Journalism 8

and office
management

        Others 10 Physiotherapy 6

          Radiography 6

            Others 47

Source: TEVETA Data Source 2014 (not published).

Labour market characteristics and employment policies

Policies in TEVET are primarily geared at addressing the needs of national economy,
in terms of employment and enhanced productivity. While Zambia’s economy has
experienced a sustained GDP growth of above 6 per cent annually over the last decade,
this has still to be translated into effective employment generation, particularly for
the growing youth population.

174 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Basic information on labour market
High labour market participation, but weak skills and limited paid employment
According to the 2012 Labour Force Survey, the adult population aged 15 years
and above (working-age population) was estimated at a total of 7,861,259 persons,
representing 54.7 per cent of the total population (14,365,719) in 2012. Of the
total working-age population, 75.9 per cent (5,966,199) were in the labour force
(i.e. economically active) while 24.1 per cent were economically inactive. Males and
females represented, respectively, 48.4 per cent and 51.6 per cent of the economically
active population. Of the economically active population, 5,499,673 (92,2 per cent)
were employed, with the majority (52.2 per cent) working in the agricultural sector.

Table 24 Percentage distribution of employed population (15 years and older) by

level of education and employment status, Zambia 2012

Edu­cational Total Employed

Status in Emplo­yment
Attainment Population

Paid Appre­ Self Unpaid

Per cent Emplo­
  Number Total emplo­ ntices/ emplo­ family
share yers
yees Interns yed workers

Total 5,499,673 100.0 100.0 20.4 0.3 0.3 44.2 34.8

Nursery 12,979 0.2 100.0 8.6 0.0 0.0 49.7 41.8

Grades 1-7 2,401,956 43.7 100.0 9.7 0.2 0.1 49.1 40.9

Grades 8-12 2,024,760 36.8 100.0 31.7 0.5 0.4 41 26.4

A Levels 34,448 0.6 100.0 68.5 2.3 1.2 19.2 8.8

Certificate/
201,439 3.7 100.0 77.4 0.3 0.6 16.3 5.4
Diploma

Degree 30,389 0.6 100.0 80.8 1.0 3.1 7.2 7.9

None 793,703 14.4 100.0 5.2 0.1 0.1 47.2 47.3

Source: CSO, Labour Force Survey Report (LFS) 2012.

In terms of education attainment, the results of 2012 LFS showed that 6.8 per cent
of the population aged 15 years and older received skills training while 92.5 per cent
did not receive any skills training. Gender-wise, 10.0 per cent of the male population
received skills training compared to 3.7 per cent for females. It was estimated that 8.6
per cent of the employed population received skills training while 90.9 per cent did
not receive any skills training.

175
 Of the total employed population, 44.2 per cent were self-employed, 34.8 per cent
were unpaid family workers, 20.4 per cent were paid employees while interns and
apprentices collectively accounted for less than a per cent (0.6 per cent).

The under-employment was estimated at 10.2 per cent of the employed population,
with more prevalence in the rural areas (13 per cent) and among males. It is
important to note that 70 per cent (5.5 million) of people out of the working age
population were employed, the majority of them (61.7 per cent) in rural areas. A
large proportion of these workers (52.2 per cent) were in the agriculture, forestry and
fishery industries, while the lowest proportion was real estates and activities of extra-
territorial organizations and industries at 0.1 per cent each.

In 2012, the unemployment rate was estimated at 7.8 per cent of the total labour
force, showing a decline from 15 per cent in 2005 and 7.9 per cent in 2008. Females
accounted for 60.8 per cent of the unemployed population. The unemployment rate
was highest in urban areas at 14.2 per cent, compared to 3.3 per cent in rural areas.
The highest unemployment rate was found among young people in the age group
20-24 years, with 14.3 per cent followed by the age group 15-19 years with 12.3 per
cent. The youth (15-35 years) unemployment rate was 10.0 per cent. It was observed
that, overall, the unemployment rate decreased with increase in age. Table 25 below
presents unemployment rate by age-group, sex and rural/urban location.

Table 25 Youth (15-35 years) unemployment rate by age-group, sex and rural/urban,
Zambia 2012

Unemployment Rate
Youth
Total Rural Urban
Age Group  Labour
Force
Both Both Both
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Sexes Sexes Sexes

Total 3,594,079 10.0 8.5 11.3 4.4 3.8 4.9 17.2 14.3 19.8

15-19 601,141 12.3 11 13.3 6.1 6.1 6.1 25.6 21.8 28.5

20-24 992,899 14.3 13.9 14.5 5.8 5.6 6.1 25.8 24.7 26.7

25-29 976,219 8.8 6.9 10.5 3.6 3.1 4.0 14.7 11.1 17.8

30-35 1,023,819 5.6 4.3 7.0 2.5 1.4 3.5 9.0 7.25 11.1

Source: CSO, Labour Force Survey, 2012.

176 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

The illiteracy rate of the unemployed population was estimated at 16.7 per cent, with
12.4 and 19.5 per cent for unemployed male and female respectively. People having
Grades 8–12 accounted for the highest proportion of the unemployed population
(58.8 per cent), followed by those who attained Grades 1–7 (28.5 per cent). People
who attained “A” levels, certificates and degrees collectively accounted for 4.7 per cent
of the unemployed population.

A labour market dominated by the informal sector

In 2012, the formal sector accounted only for 15.4 per cent of the employed population,
compared with 84.6 per cent in the informal sector. While it shows a decrease, from
90 per cent observed in 2008, the informal sector still dominates the labour market
in Zambia. Females represented 54.9 per cent of informal sector employed, while
the formal10 sector is dominated by males, who accounted for 71.2 per cent of the
total employed. The most predominant occupation in the informal sector was skilled
agricultural, forestry and fishery, accounting for 98.3 per cent while the lowest was
professionals at 9.5 per cent. The highest percentage share of population employed in
the formal sector was found in educational industry (16 per cent), while the lowest
share was the real estate industry at 0.2 per cent.

In terms of educational level attained, the informal sector is clearly less endowed than
the formal sector. In fact, 48.9 per cent of the employed population in the informal
sector had attained Grades 1–7; 32.8 per cent attained Grades 8–12; 1 per cent had
obtained certificates, and 16.7 per cent had no education. While in the formal sector,
58.7 per cent of the persons employed had attained Grades 8-12; 18.5 per cent had
certificates, and only 2.2 per cent had no education.

The informal sector is mostly constituted of private businesses/farms (52.5 per cent)
and private households (47.2 per cent). The agriculture industry accounted for
59.9 per cent while non-agricultural industries had 40.1 per cent. Within the formal
sector, the private businesses accounted for 57.6 per cent and the central government
for 28.1 per cent of total employment.

10 The definition of the formal sector in the 2012 Labour Force Survey combined the concepts of formal
production units and formal employment. Formal sector employment was defined as employment where
the employed population were in either a registered business unit and/or was in central government, local
government and parastatal, regardless of whether they were formally engaged or not.

177
 Table 26 Percentage distribution of employed population (15 years and older)
by industry and employment Sector, Zambia 2012

Total Employed Employment Sector

Industry
Population Formal Informal
  Number % Number % Number %
Total 5,499,673 100 847,420 100 4,652,253 100
Agriculture, Forestry
2,872,331 52.2 87,42 10.3 2,784,911 59.9
and Fishing
Mining and Quarrying 88,251 1.6 67,608 8.0 20,643 0.4
Manufacturing 21,666 3.9 73,814 8.7 142,846 3.1
Electricity, Gas, Steam
and Air Conditioning 12,211 0.2 11,172 1.3 1,039 0.0
Supply
Water supply Sewerage,
Waste Management and 1,479 0.3 6,231 0.7 8,559 0.2
Remediation Activities
Construction 187,906 3.4 36,676 4.3 15,123 3.3
Trade, Wholesale and
645,571 11.7 110,365 13.0 535,206 11.5
Retail Distribution
Transportation and
137,301 2.5 61,797 7.3 75,503 1.6
Storage
Accommodation and
62,671 1.1 29,574 3.5 33,097 0.7
Food Service Activities
Information and
42,104 0.8 15,895 1.9 26,208 0.6
Communication
Financial and Insurance
14,941 0.3 12,615 1.5 2,326 0.0
Activities
Real Estate Activities 7,257 0.1 204 0.2 5,217 0.1
Professional, Scientific
19,378 0.4 11,561 1.4 7,817 0.2
and Technical Activities
Administrative and
57,801 1.1 42,507 5.0 15,294 0.3
support services
Public Administration
and Defence,
6,075 1.1 55,857 6.6 4,893 0.1
Compulsory Social
Security
Education 150,215 2.7 135,471 16.0 14,745 0.3
Human Health and
6,218 1.1 52,552 6.2 9,628 0.2
Social Work
Arts, Entertainment and
10,267 0.2 4,314 0.5 5,953 0.1
Recreation
Other Service Activities 11,055 2.0 18,836 2.2 91,713 2.0

178 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 Total Employed Employment Sector
Industry
Population Formal Informal
  Number % Number % Number %
Activities of Household
722,524 13.1 7,098 0.8 715,425 15.4
as Employers
Activities of
Extraterritorial
4,016 0.1 4,016 0.5 – –
Organization and
Bodies

Source: CSO, Labour Force Survey, 2012.

It is striking to note that the total number of formally11 employed persons (625,305)
accounted only for 11.4 per cent of the employed persons, who were mainly
concentrated in Copperbelt Province (23.6 per cent) and in Lusaka Province (20.1 per
cent). With 20.5 per cent of formally employed individuals, education industry
had a relatively higher percentage share, compared to other industries in terms of
formalization of employment. Mining and quarrying industry ranked second with
10.4 per cent while the lowest was real estate industry with 0.1 per cent.

Income for paid employees

In 2012, the national average monthly income was estimated at K1,724,106, with
males’ income (K1,981,661) being higher than that of female (K1,245,157) employees.
The average monthly earnings in rural areas were K1, 486,703, lower than the urban
areas average earnings of K1,969,503.

The highest average earnings were found in real estate activities (K5,481,340), followed
by financial and insurance activities and mining and quarrying at K5,071,611 and
K4,654,781, respectively.

The level of education attained determines significantly workers’ remuneration

level, as depicted in the table below. Degree holders earned a monthly average of
K7,920,673 while those without any education earned the lowest with a monthly
average of K1,235,869. Overall, males’ earnings are higher than those of the females,
regardless of the education status, except for those with no education, where females
had higher earnings.

11 For the purposes of the 2012 Labour Force Surveys, ‘formal employment’ is the one satisfying any of the
following attributes, in addition to having an entitlement to social security: (i) entitlement to an annual
paid leave; (ii) membership of a trade union; (iii) payment of income tax; (iv) written contract with the
employer(s).

179
 Table 27 Average monthly earnings (ZMK) for paid workers by education level
attained, sex and rural/urban, Zambia 2012
Paid Total Rural Urban
Emplo-
Status in
yees/
Education Both Both Both
Appren- Male Female Male Female Male Female
Sexes Sexes Sexes
tices

Total 2,864,498 1,724,106 1,981,661 1,245,157 1,486,703 1,740,386 964,026 1,969,503 2,249,628 1,499,449

Grades 1-7 1,212,581 1,332,599 1,687,496 741,749 1,516,056 1,863,371 823,746 935,802 1,214,609 614,147

Grades 8-9 623,449 1,248,075 1,375,578 954,946 1,331,887 1,405,314 1,105,358 1,175,454 1,345,472 864,741

Grades 10-12 784,183 2,310,001 2,386,424 2,114,940 1,896,045 1,966,153 1,665,988 2,461,610 2,554,728 2,243,356

A level/ 29,981 2,770,445 3,173,415 2,027,969 2,201,448 2,248,000 2,069,736 2,932,919 3,487,150 2,019,723
College
Student

Certificate/ 179,512 3,614,746 3,813,126 3,293,632 2,515,739 2,621,678 2,314,257 3,823,885 4,056,316 3,458,750
Diploma

Degree 27,188 7,920,673 8,324,340 6,100,151 4,596,137 4,596,137 – 8,426,482 9,041,532 6,100,151

None 7,604 1,235,869 1,228,733 1,243,051 1,471,013 1,392,093 1,566,951 507,855 449,144 540,304

Source: CSO, Labour Force Survey, 2012.

In relative terms, the average earnings of Degree holders represent 4.59 times
the national average monthly income (1,724,106), while the average earnings of
employees with no education equated only 0.72 times the national average monthly
income.

Demand for and supply of labour

Available data suggest that the labour market in Zambia is severely demand-
constrained. The biggest employer is the government, through the recruitment of
civil servants in the education sector (teaching and administrative staff), the health
industry (nurses), the police force and other government extension officers. But the
recruitment by the government is far from meeting the huge demand for labour,
especially given the growing population of youth seeking employment. Besides, access
to the government’s jobs has proved to be difficult, due to nepotism and corruption in
recruitment in the public service (UNCDF, 2015). More generally, according to the
Revised SNDP (2015), the challenges related to the demand for labour include: (i)
low manufacturing and industrial base, weak forward and backward linkages within
the economy; (ii) low levels of economic diversification and productivity; and (iii)
inadequate investments in areas of high potential for employment generation.

180 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

While a number of industries are flourishing in the private sector, particularly in the
area of construction, extractives and agriculture, their current demand for labour is
not yet enough to help mitigate significantly the unemployment challenges.

On the supply side, a survey by UNCDF suggested that youth’s employment profile
does not match the demand of the labour market, particularly with regard to the
technical and soft skills required to perform entry-level jobs in Zambia. This can be
attributed to a number of factors, including: mismatch between education/training
and the needs of the labour market; limited access to training in life skills and
business support; lack of prior work experience, often required by employers (about
55 per cent of employers in Zambia). In addition, one out of three employers (33 per
cent) interviewed mentioned high turnover in their companies as the single highest
barrier to youth employment (UNCDF, 2015).

The reality described above makes it easy to understand why entrepreneurship

emerges as an important potential alternative for youth’s self-employment in Zambia.
In fact, it is estimated that about a quarter of the youth population operate business
in various sectors, most commonly wholesale and retail trade, agriculture, livestock
and fishing. Though, accessing capital is a major and persistent barrier that limits
youth’s ability to effectively start a business. It is found that the agriculture sector
presents the easiest transition for job creation opportunities, particularly as farming
is widely practiced and is the main occupation of Zambians, accounting for 68 per
cent of the population’s activities. However, while there are opportunities for youth
to exploit value addition as a way to enhance their skills and earn an income within
the sector, there is a need to improve youth’s perception of the agriculture industry in
order to make it more attractive.

Recent trends in labour force and youth employment

With the growth and changing structure of the Zambian economy during the last
two decades, there has been also a growth in the size of the workforce, accompanied
by an increasing share of the more educated workers. Table 28 shows that, while
the proportions of workers with no education and those with Grades 1-7 decreased
between 2005 and 2012, a notable increase was observed in the proportions of workers
with Grades 8-12 and those with post-secondary degrees and certificates. This
trend, which is in line with the remarkable development of the Zambia’s education
system, is also an indication of the demand for qualifications by both individuals and
firms. This also confirms a positive labour market outcome of increasing education
opportunities.

181
 Table 28 Number and share of workers by education level, 2005-2012

  2005 2012

Total number of workers

41 55
(in millions)

Workers with no education 16.7% 14.7%

Workers with Grades 1-7 49.8% 43.7%

Workers with Grades 8-12 32.7% 36.8%

Workers with post-secondary degrees and certificates 0.8% 4.4%

Source: World Bank, 2015.

The growth of the labour force was also accompanied by a remarkable shift of
workers from agriculture to the service sectors (see Table 29). This is likely due to the
increased labour productivity in agriculture (5.5 per cent per year), which pushed
redundant workers out of agriculture and forced new entrants to seek jobs in other
sectors. The current fastest growing sectors – construction; transport, storage and
communication; and social and personal services (with 14.1 per cent, 18.2 per cent,
and 12.2 per cent growth per year, respectively) – also experienced largest growth
in labour force (22.5 per cent, 12.6 per cent, and 26.8 per cent, respectively). It was
observed that the proportion of non-educated workers is increasing in these sectors;
the influx of workers from agriculture has resulted in slowing labour productivity
growth.

While the trends described above suggest growing employment opportunities,

particularly for educated labour force, it is striking to note that youth (15-24
years) unemployment rate (14 per cent) is twice as high as that of the rest of the
adult population (25 and above). And, as illustrated in Figure 25, this situation is
highlighted in the last three labour force surveys. It should be noted also that the
increasing opportunity for post-basic education can partly explain the high rate of
unemployed youth.

Even if available data indicate that the unemployment rate is relatively low among
post-secondary and university graduates, the issue of persistent youth unemployment
needs to be rigorously addressed, including by questioning the adequacy between
skills provided by the training system and the employers’ requirements.

182 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Table 29 Trends in the composition of labour force by economic sector/industry,
2005-2012

2005 2008 2012

Sector Industry % thousands % thousands % thousands

Primary Agriculture, forestry, 72.3% 2,964 71.4% 3,284 52.2% 2,871

and fishery

  Mining and quarrying 1.4% 57 2.0% 92 1.6% 88

Secondary Construction 1.3% 53 1.7% 78 3.4% 187

  Electricity, gas and water 0.4% 16 0.3% 14 0.5% 28

  Manufacturing 4.0% 164 3.5% 161 3.9% 215

Tertiary Finance 1.0% 41 0.4% 18 0.4% 22

  Sales, trade, hotels and 10.5% 431 9.2% 423 12.9% 710
restaurants

  Social and personal services 7.0% 287 8.4% 386 21.8% 1,199

  Transport and 2.1% 86 3.0% 138 3.3% 182

communication

Total 100% 4,100 100% 4,595 100% 5,500

Source: World Bank, 2015.

Figure 25 Trends in labour force participation rate and unemployment rate, by age
groups (2005, 2008, and 2012)
Year Gender Age group Labour force participation Unemployment rate
% %

2005 Total Age  15-­‐24 68 24

Age  25+ 87 12

Age  15-­‐24 56 14

2008 Total
Age  25+ 86 5

Age  15-­‐24 52 14

Age  25+ 91 6
2012 Total
Age  15-­‐24 46 13

Age  25+ 94 4

Age  15-­‐24 57 14
Male
Age  25+ 89 7

Female 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 30

Source: World Bank, 2015.

183
 Policy measures addressing issues of youth employment
As discussed earlier, since its independence, Zambia has constantly taken steps to
improve its training systems and pathways to align them with the skills required by
the economy, particularly with regard to the competencies needed by the strategic
and growth sectors. While the 1996 TEVET policy remains the main reference
framework in this area, it has been reinforced by a number of recent policy level
mechanisms geared at improving the processes of school-to-work transition or youth
employment. These include the following:

(i) The introduction of a vocational training career stream in the secondary school:
started in 2014, this initiative aims at enabling young people leaving school at Grade 9
and Grade 12 respectively to be assessed and certified for award of Trade Certificates
by TEVETA, based on practical skills subjects they would have studied, in addition
to Junior and Senior Secondary school leaving (academic) certificates.

(ii) “My Job + 1” Business Challenge programme: this is a programme launched by

the MESVTEE in 2014, with the objective to promote the entrepreneur/employer
career pathway. It consists of an open learning-based annual entrepreneurship skills
competition. One of its success criteria requires participants to create at least two
jobs, one for the entrepreneur/investor team and one for another youth. TEVETA
has partnered with a number of private and public sector stakeholders to run and
sponsor the competition. The long-term goal is to equip youth with skills which help
them lead and drive job creation through deployment of their entrepreneurship,
innovation and servant leadership talents.

(iii) The Youth Development Fund: is a Government programme, under the Ministry
of Youth and Sport, with the overall objective “to lend finance to viable projects by the
young entrepreneurs as well as enable the youth benefit from associated training and
mentorship services. The Youth Development Fund is therefore aimed at supporting
the growth of sustainable youth-led SMEs into the private sector for wealth and
employment creation” (MYS, 2012). The Fund has two disbursement facilities,
namely loans and grants. For the year 2012, about US$ 2 million was allocated by
Parliament, broken down as follows: US$1,378,192 for loans and US$652,800 for
grants.

(iv) The 2015 revised National Youth Policy and the National Action Plan on Youth
Empowerment and Employment (2015-2020): launched in August 2015, aim to create
more than 500,000 jobs for the youth by the end of 2016. Based on a critical review
of the previous employment strategies, they squarely place youth at the centre of
national economic development and provide a more effective youth empowerment
and employment Strategy to address the identified challenges in a more systemic and

184 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

coherent approach. To serve this purpose, it is intended that they simultaneously
promote strategies for expanding the growth of the formal sector, for creating a youth
employment-friendly policy environment, for improving equality and inclusion
(gender, people with disability and those living with HIV and AIDS), for enhancing
youth participation in the formal labour market through acquisition of employable
skills, and for enhancing the performance of intermediation mechanisms.

Despite this commendable effort, the implementation of these national youth

policies and action plans are hindered by lack of resources. In fact, the immediate
macroeconomic issues, i.e. a recent drop in the price of copper, coupled with currency
fluctuations, have prompted the government to shift course away from job creation
for youth and toward macroeconomic efforts to diversify the sources of exports
(UNCDF, 2015).

Private investment and entrepreneurship opportunities and challenges

According to Doing Business 2016, which measures and compares business
regulatory quality and efficiency for domestic firms in different countries, Zambia
is ranked 97 out of 189 economies. The Doing Business 2016 ranking is based on
10 topics, including starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting
electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting minority investors, paying
taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts and resolving insolvency.

Table 30 Zambia’s Doing Business rankings and distance to frontier score,

2015 & 2016

Rank Change in rank DTF Change in DTF

Doing Business 2016 97 -6 60.5 -0.19

Doing Business 2015 91 60.69

Source: World Bank, 2016.

Note: Doing Business presents results for 2 aggregate measures: the distance to frontier score and the ease of
doing business ranking. The ease of doing business ranking compares economies with one another; the
distance to frontier score benchmarks economies with respect to regulatory best practice, showing the
absolute distance to the best performance on each Doing Business indicator. When compared across years,
the distance to frontier score shows how much the regulatory environment for local entrepreneurs in an
economy has changed over time in absolute terms, while the ease of doing business ranking can show only
how much the regulatory environment has changed relative to that in other economies.

185
 Figure 26 How Zambia and comparator economies rank on the ease of doing business

Rwanda (Rank 62) 68.12

Botswana (Rank 72) 64.98

South Africa (Rank 73) 64.89

Zambia (Rank 97) 60.5

Namibia (Rank 101) 60.17

Lesotho (Rank114) 57.69

Regional mean (SSA) 49.66

Angola (Rank 181) 39.64

0 20 40 60 80 100
Distance to frontier score

Source: World Bank, 2016.

When compared with neighbour countries, Zambia is doing relatively well both
in terms of ease of doing business ranking and DTF score. As shown in Figure 26,
the Zambia’s DTF score (60.5) which is slightly higher than the median value of the
sample (60.33), stands well above the sub-Saharan African average (49.66). Its doing
business ranking (97) also represents the median value of the sampled countries.

The figures below depict Zambia’s positions with regard to rankings and distance to
frontier scores on the 10 Doing Business topics.

Figure 27 Rankings on Doing Business topics – Zambia

Starting a Business (78)

Resolving Insolvency (107) Dealing with Construction Permits (110)

Enforcing Contracts (134) Getting Electricity (123)

Trading across Borders (152) Registering Property (157)

Paying Taxes (46) Getting Credit (19)

Protecting Minority Investors (88)

(Scale: Rank 189 centre, Rank 1 outer edge)

Source: World Bank, 2016.

186 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

This figure shows that Zambia’s rankings are particularly poor in: (i) registering
property (157/189); (ii) trading across borders (152/189); (iii) enforcing contracts
(134/189); (iv) getting electricity (123/189); (v) dealing with construction permits
(110/189), and (vi) resolving insolvency (107/189) where its ranks are higher than
the average of 97.

As for the distance to frontier score, the main challenges lie on: (i) resolving
insolvency (38.96); (ii) registering property (45.08); (iii) trading across borders
(49.01); (iv)  enforcing contracts (49.89); (v) protecting minority investors (53.33),
and (vi) getting electricity (59.13) where the scores are below the Zambia’s average
of 60.5.

Figure 28 Distance to frontier scores on Doing Business topics – Zambia

Starting a Business (86.69)

Dealing with Construction Permits (66.29)

Enforcing Contracts (49.89) Getting Electricity (59.13)

Trading across Borders (49.01) Registering Property (45.08)

Paying Taxes (81.66) Getting Credit (75)

Protecting Minority Investors (53.33)

(Scale: Score 0 centre, Score 100 outer edge)

Source: World Bank, 2016.
Note: The distance to frontier score benchmarks economies with respect to regulatory practice, showing the
absolute distance to the best performance in each Doing Business indicator. An economy’s distance to frontier
score is indicated on a scale from 0 to 100, where 0 represents the worst performance and 100 the frontier.

Key policy Issues

Against the background described above, the desk review and meetings with the
different stakeholders highlighted the following major TEVET issues as needing
urgent attention:

• Limited and inequitable access to TEVET;

• The roll-out of the two-tier system being introduced by the Zambian authorities;
• Lack of funding of TEVET;
• Unresponsiveness of TEVET to the labour market;
• Curriculum development not relevant to the labour market;
• Lack of quality trainers;
• Weak quality of training offered.

187
 It is interesting to note that more or less the same issues were highlighted at the Third
International Congress on TVET held in Shanghai in May 2012. The above issues
were discussed with relevant TEVET stakeholders met during the review mission.
They were also presented at a wrap-up meeting on the last day of the Zambian
mission in the presence of Ministry’s officials and different partners, who contributed
with observations and suggestions included in this final report. These policy issues
are analysed below and a set of recommendations is proposed.

Policy issue 1: Limited and inequitable access to TEVET

The current TEVET enrolment represents only 2.2 per cent of the population aged
15-24 years, and the prevailing TEVET system accommodates only 4.6 per cent of its
potential demands, consisting of some 300,000 youths leaving school at Grade 9 and
Grade 12 every year.

Evidence
The revised Sixth National Development Plan (SNDP) notes the importance of
TEVET in addressing Zambia’s principal labour market and socio-economic
challenges and contributing to economic and income growth, poverty reduction,
employment, productivity, and human development. According to TEVETA,
there were 290 registered TEVET institutions in March 2015, including 87 public
institutions. Total annual enrolment in registered TEVET institutions reached 45,000
in 2015, up from 34,911 in 2012, an increase of 29 per cent, which is significant, but
limited when considering the potential demand.

To put the annual intake into perspective, it should be noted that some 300,000
young people leave school at Grade 9 and Grade 12 every year. The prevailing
TEVET system can only accommodate approximately 14,000 students annually,
who represent only 4.6 per cent of potential participants. In Zambia, TVET’s total
enrolment as percentage of population aged between 15-24 years stands at 2.2 per
cent, well below the average of high performer SADC countries, such as Botswana
(30 per cent), Mauritius (21.7 per cent), Seychelles (4.5 per cent), South Africa (3.9
per cent). Table 31 presents detailed information on TVET enrolment in the SADC
countries.

The need to increase TEVET enrolment was then reflected in the TEVETA strategic
plan for 2014–2016 which targeted an annual enrolment of at least 154,000 learners
by December 2016 through promotion and/or development of the following seven
training systems or pathways: (i) training in secondary schools; (ii) training in TEVET
institutions; (iii) on-the-job training or workplace-based training; (iv) dual mode
training (TEVET learnership scheme, involving both institution- and workplace-
188 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia
based training); (v) open, distance, and flexible learning; (vi) recognition of prior
learning (RPL) assessments, and (vii) TEVET access/foundations/bridging courses.
From the current enrolment of 45,000, achieving the above target will be difficult,
given an estimated annual intake of 14,000 learners. Key performance indicators in
the revised SNDP suggest an annual TEVET enrolment of 66,000 by 2016, which is
a more realistic ambition. Nevertheless, Zambia’s acknowledgement of the need to
improve uptake of TEVET is important.

Table 31 Overall TVET providers and enrolment in the SADC countries

Country No. of TVET Total enrolment, % of female % of TVET

providers including public enrolment enrolment per
(including and private TVET population aged
formal and non- institutions 15-24 years
formal)

Botswana (2006) 202 31,000 – 30%

DRC (2006) Unknown 755,035 – n.a.

Lesotho (2010) 1
69 3,457 41% 1%

Malawi (2010)3 254 4,164 34% 0.2%

Mauritius (2010)4 576 44,294 – 21.7%

Mozambique (2010) 68 46,082 – 1.2%

Namibia (2008) 15 6,612 39% n.a.

Seychelles (2010)2,3 23 1,699 47% 4.5%

South Africa (2010)1 914 340,583 – 3.9%

Swaziland (2006) 57 2,858 45% 1.2%

Tanzania (2010) 1
889 177,749 43% 2.2%

Zanzibar (2009)2 30 2,894 25% 1.5%

Zambia (2010)1 276 33,399 41% n.a.

Zambia (2013)5,6 275 34,911 45% 2.2%

Zimbabwe (2010) 1,3

57 13,217 44% 0.5%

Source: UNESCO & SADC, 2013.

Notes:
1. Enrolment data are for 2009.
2. Enrolment data are for 2010.
3. Enrolment data refer to public TVET institutions only.
4. Enrolment data refer to levy funded learners for 2008-2009.
5. Enrolment data are for 2012.
6. These data were not in the original table. The indicators are derived from the TEVATA database.

189
 Low training capacity and poor public perception have been identified as the main
barriers to access to TEVET. Almost all training institutions operate below their
capacity with trainee to instructor ratios well below the prescribed norm of  20:1.
Trade schools fail to attract young people because traditional artisans, such as
brick layers and carpenters are looked down upon, although Zambia experiences
a major shortage of such skills (Commonwealth, 2016). In his speech at the launch
of the TEVETA strategic plan 2014-2016, the Minister of Education pointed out
the paradox between the severe space constraints experienced at upper secondary
education and the notable low enrolment in trades training institutions. Zambia’s
authorities also acknowledge that the challenge for TEVET concerns how best to
provide opportunities and diversity of training pathways in order to accommodate
the increasing number of school-leavers, as well as existing out-of-school youth.
The current TEVETA strategic plan 2014-2016 strives to address this challenge by
promoting and implementing seven training and learning systems or pathways for
pursuing TEVET.

Other barriers to participation in TEVET include the minimum academic

requirements for entry (Grade 9 or Grade 12 completion) and the progression from
certain programmes, as there are no institutions that offer higher-level TEVET
qualifications. The latter tends to deter interested candidates from upgrading their
skills. The Zambian Government has sought to address the challenge by merging
three Luanshya-based institutions into a single polytechnic that can offer higher-level
qualifications (NIF III, 2011–2015).

Efforts to address the access challenges are being addressed by encouraging the
involvement of various stakeholders in training provision and promoting distance
learning. Distance learning, however, is provided by only 2 per cent of registered
institutions. The ministry, TEVETA, and the Technical and Vocational Teachers
College (a leading provider of distance learning among TEVET providers in Zambia)
have planned various strategies to promote distance learning with TEVET providers.
Recognition of prior learning is seen as another way of increasing access to TEVET
institutions among the disadvantaged people.

Equity issues also remain fundamental in TEVET, since many low-income families
cannot afford to pay excessive fees. Furthermore, the existing training institutions are
concentrated in Lusaka, Copperbelt and Southern Provinces, which adds to the costs
for prospective trainees who rely on boarding facilities, yet often with limited capacity
with regard to the needs. According to NIF III (2015), some efforts have been made
in the past decade, through different TEVET and youth policies, to extend access to
female and socially disadvantaged youth. While these efforts resulted in an increase
in the proportion of socially disadvantaged learners, from 8.5 per cent in 2003 to an

190 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

estimated 18 per cent in 2008, and a 25 per cent increase in the number of female
graduates from TEVET programmes between 2002 and 2008, much still remains to
be done to achieve equity. Though, female enrolment in TEVET programmes has
notably improved from 40.6 per cent in 2008 to 45 per cent in 2012. Lower-level
enrolment amongst females is particularly prevalent in engineering and technical
programmes. Furthermore, the TEVET sub-sector still faces challenges in terms of
inclusiveness, due to the lack of accessible physical infrastructure for people with
disabilities, the inadequate number lecturers with specialized skills for training
people with disabilities, and inadequate financial support for gifted learners unable
to pay fees (NIF III, 2011–2015).

Discussion
In light of Zambia’s development context and vision, the expansion of the TEVET
system is a rational policy choice both from economic and equity points of view
(World Bank, 2015).

While Zambia needs qualified labour force to achieve its vision to become a prosperous
middle income country by 2030, the 2012 Labour Force Survey showed that only 6.8
per cent of its active population received skills training, and that 92.5 per cent did
not receive any skills training. At the same time, available data suggest that graduates
of TEVET institutions tend to perform better than secondary education completers
in the labour market. According to World Bank (2015), 63 per cent of TEVET
graduates have professional occupations while secondary school graduates are hardly
ever employed in professional occupations. Furthermore, returns to TEVET are
important. For instance, annual tuition fees of TEVET graduates in mechanic trade
amount to merely three to four months of their future expected salaries. This means
that, even when the opportunity cost of the training is taken into account, the cost
of TEVET can be recovered in a relatively short time. In comparison with secondary
education, the earnings of TEVET graduates are almost double of those of secondary
school completers (World Bank, 2015).

On the equity side, available data suggest that TEVET contributes to lower gender
disparity in the formal sector employment. In fact, it was observed that, among
employed males, 31 per cent with secondary education work in the formal sector,
while those with certificate have a much higher chance to work (78 per cent) in
the formal sector. The contrast is even starker for females, since only 16 per cent of
females with secondary education work in the formal sector, compared to 77 per
cent of females with certificates. It is therefore critical to support students from poor
families to access and complete TEVET courses, so as to provide them with future
opportunities to get relatively stable jobs and increased earnings, as well as a chance
to significantly improve their socio-economic status.
191
 If Zambia is to become ‘a prosperous middle-income country’ as per its Vision 2030,
it is important that the country increases massively the number of learners in its
education and training system, while eliminating inequities of access.

The need to increase access to TEVET is critical and demands innovative approaches.
Different means have been explored in different countries to increase TEVET
enrolment. It is important, however, that the poor public perception of TEVET
is challenged from the outset. Lessons from German experience can be useful to
improve TEVET’s image in Zambia. The success of German economy is largely
sustained by its highly skilled workforce, due to investment in TVET by industry.
Also, in Germany, blue collar is not a stigma, rather skilled workers enjoy high level
of social appreciation.

Mauritius has introduced a modified version of the German dual apprenticeship

mode of training since 1996 and it has proved to be the most effective delivery
mode as practically all the graduates are employed before completing the training
programme by the same companies where they had their training.

The Government of Zambia has an important role and should find ways to improve
public opinion of the role of TEVET and underline the essential role it plays in
promoting economic prosperity and social cohesion. Awareness can change people’s
mindset and help them develop a better opinion of TEVET. The public profile and
attractiveness of TEVET must be raised among learners, families, and all other
stakeholders, including through the media, informing them of the possibilities for
progression, employment, and self-fulfillment that TEVET can offer. An effective
implementation of the qualifications framework can also help to serve this purpose,
as it will support the creation of pathways between academic and TEVET provision.
Similarly, appropriate counselling services should be introduced to provide young
people with information to help them choose their future career. TEVET should be
seen as a credible alternative means of gaining access to employment and a profession,
with particular attention given to potential students from the most vulnerable groups
as they are less likely to enrol in education and are more likely to drop out of school.
Girls, especially adolescent girls, young people from extremely poor socio-economic
backgrounds, and those living in remote rural areas, face additional barriers that
prevent them from attending school, as do young people with physical disabilities
who need special structural facilities.

Training in the form of a traditional apprenticeship is common in certain African

countries. In many countries, this is often the only means for the rural poor and the
economically disadvantaged to learn a trade. If properly regulated and supported by

192 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

the government this type of apprenticeship can be very useful, particularly for the
rural and urban poor.

However, it is important to note that global experience has shown that the mere
expansion of TVET will not solve the problems of unemployment and low economic
productivity. Therefore, TVET must respond to the competence needs of the
labour market and create a competent, motivated, and adaptable workforce capable
of driving economic growth and development. It is important also to realize that
competitiveness depends not only on the quality of the TVET system and the level of
skills development but also on other drivers of competitiveness such as institutional
environment, quality of infrastructure, innovation, etc., as well as on alignment
between skills development policies and industrial policies. A lack of quality TVET
and/or a mismatch between supply and demand can inadvertently contribute to
youth unemployment.

RECOMMENDATIONS
• Expand the delivery facilities of TEVET, particularly by: (i)  promoting
collaboration with employers in the delivery of TEVET by devising adequate
incentives. The dual apprenticeship mode of training can be introduced on a pilot
basis. Employers are very willing to take on learners provided that the necessary
conditions are created and they are not compelled to recruit the learners on
completion; (ii) constructing new TEVET institutions, the rehabilitation of
existing ones, and ensuring the maintenance of infrastructure.
• Re-brand TEVET so that it is perceived more positively and provide pathways
to further training. To achieve this: (i) Students should be well informed of the
opportunities that TEVET can offer and view TEVET as an attractive pathway.
Students should also have access to a variety of innovative, industry-led
programmes that prepare them for the workplace. In addition, the qualifications
framework should be made fully operational and appropriate counselling
services should be introduced to provide young people with relevant information
on existing training and their future career; (ii) Centres of excellence should be
established for different trades/fields within urban areas. These centres can offer
a higher level of training for those who are interested in pursuing higher-level
training or upgrading their skills.
• Expand TEVET training opportunities to ensure inclusiveness and equity by:
(i)  promoting trade tests and recognition of prior learning for young people
already at work. Many young people prefer to go directly to industry to learn
a trade while earning a salary, rather than spending one to two years at school
without any pay. Without opportunities for progression, they will stay where they
are and will have difficulty climbing the career ladder; (ii) identifying a number of

193
 training centres in rural areas to become leading training centres and providing
them with fully equipped mobile training units that they can move from place
to place, also interchanging equipment depending on the needs of these areas.
This has the advantage of not requiring the learners to move to Lusaka since
training facilities can be moved to where the learners are. This could support
the expansion of non-formal skills training centres for uneducated adults and
out-of-school youngsters in these areas. These centres could offer short-term,
basic-level training courses in occupations in which these groups can easily find
income-generating jobs; (iii) providing incentives to attract potential students
from the most vulnerable groups as they are less likely to enrol in education and
are more likely to drop out of school; (iv) revitalising traditional apprenticeship
training as it is a means to improve the skills of large numbers of young people in
rural sectors of the economy; (v) ensuring safety in TVET institutions and other
learning settings for all students and teachers, particularly females, who are the
most vulnerable group. These institutions must cater to the specific needs of the
learners, particularly the needs of girls and people with physical disabilities.

Policy issue 2: The reservation about the roll-out of the two-tier

system being introduced by the Zambian authorities

While Zambia is piloting the two-tier system, a number of stakeholders raise doubt
about the effectiveness of such an approach in relation to the expected results, namely
reduction of school dropouts, rebranding of TEVET image, increased employability
of TEVET graduates.

Evidence
The two-tier system is one of the two initiatives undertaken by Zambian authorities,
over the last fifteen years, in order to integrate skills training and basic education. The
first of these, referred to as Basic Skills Education (BSE), promotes the acquisition
within schools of pre-vocational and life skills, and the development of individual
learner talents for survival, development and self-work. To achieve the objectives of
BSE, the Government has established Continuing Education and Trade Skills Training
Centres across the country. In 2004, more than 14,000 learners were enrolled in these
centres and benefited from BSE.

In addition to the provision of the 2004 EFA policy framework, the Government
has made several pronouncements on the importance of skills education and
commitments to the development of a two-tier or flexible education and training
programme. The two-tier system is meant to give students who drop out at various

194 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

levels the basic competencies needed to prepare them for the world of work. They will
have the chance to be trade-tested by TEVETA as part of a vocationalized secondary
education curriculum which remains overwhelmingly general or ‘academic’ in
nature, but which includes vocational or practical subjects as a relatively minor
portion of the students’ timetable. For example, for both junior and senior secondary
schools, weekly vocational contact hours are eight out of 30 (27 per cent).

The Mazabuko skills training centre, among 12 others, has been delivering a sort
of two-tier education since 2009, with students able to alternate between academic
and TVET courses. About 20 per cent of the students on general education courses
voluntarily join in TVET courses, where four trades are taught. Grades 10, 11, and 12
students together follow these trades and, whenever they are ready, are assessed for
Level 3 and Level 2 qualifications. However, no tracer studies have been carried out
as to employment outcomes.

The two-tier system currently being introduced in Zambia differs from this example
in a number of respects. At primary level, all students are exposed to both career
pathways: academic and technical. This is to ensure every student has literacy skills
in English and a Zambian language or sign language, numeracy skills, ICT skills,
and life skills. Junior secondary school provides a two-year course that forms a basis
for the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and values needed for subsequent formal
studies at senior secondary school. The learner is equipped to pursue either academic
education or prevocational and life skills education.

Those who choose the academic pathway have eight compulsory subjects plus one
optional foreign language. Those opting for the vocational career pathway must
choose one from five course options (agriculture, technology, performing and
creative arts, physical education and sports, and home economics and hospitality).
The courses combine a series of academic subjects with the selected vocational
subjects. It should be noted that a single period of a vocational subject takes 120
minutes, whereas a single period for the support subject lasts 40 minutes.

Learners who successfully complete junior secondary education will be awarded a

Level-3 TEVETA trade certificate and a junior secondary school certificate from the
Examinations Council of Zambia (ZEC). Those who decide not to pursue tertiary
education can join the labour market.

Similarly, senior secondary school learners are prepared for tertiary education and the
world of work. The key competencies for learners are to: (i) communicate effectively
in both speech and writing; (ii) understand, interpret, and apply mathematical,

195
 scientific, and technological knowledge; (iii) apply the knowledge, skills, positive
attitudes, and value systems of vocational and life skills in real life.

The academic pathway has three options, namely social studies, business studies, and
natural sciences. Each learner has seven compulsory subjects related to the option
chosen and at least one additional optional subject.

Those choosing the vocational career pathway have the same options as under the
junior secondary course. Those who study vocational subjects up to Grade 10 and
pass a Level 2 TEVETA trade test will be awarded a Level 2 trade certificate. A Level
1 trade certificate is awarded to Grade 11 learners who have successfully completed
the Level 1 course. A word of caution is needed here: it is important to ensure that
those choosing the vocational stream are not considered to be dropouts or failures of
the academic stream.

It should be added that all learners are expected to be involved in the following
activities, which are part of the curriculum: (i) club and associations; (ii) sports; (iii)
preventive maintenance, and (iv) production unit.

The roll-out of the two-tier education system began in 2014. The target was to
enrol half of the adolescents who were not enrolled in formal schools due to lack of
sufficient places. As of May 2015, the two-tier system was being experienced in four
training institutional hubs: (i) Lukashya Technical Training Institute (197 learners);
(ii) Chipata TTI (191 learners); (iii) Mansa TTI (376 learners), and (iv)  Nkumbi
International College (75 learners). These institutional hubs are linked to twenty
technical secondary schools and ten schools for continuing education during the
pilot phase. Teachers provide instruction in academic subjects at the schools, while
learners move to the training centres to develop practical skills. Some schools have
also begun to deliver vocational skills training on their own campuses and can
organize testing for interested learners.

During the review mission, employers expressed their willingness to take on learners,
provided that necessary conditions are created and they are not compelled to recruit
the learners on completion of an apprenticeship.

Discussion
The recently introduced two-tier system, if successful, can help to increase access to
TEVET and its responsiveness to the labour market, as has been the case in other
countries. This mode of training has proved successful in countries such as Germany
and Mauritius where learners spend some time in industry and the remaining time

196 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

in a training institution. However, a proper legal framework has to be developed. Tax
incentives/relief could also be provided to entice the private sector to train learners
under the dual training model.

In their efforts to address the unemployment challenges, many countries strive to

‘vocationalize’ the secondary education curriculum in order to prepare young people
for effective entry to employment and jobs (Laglo & Maclean, 2006).

Bishop (2005) explains that the introduction of vocational education options at

secondary level induced students to stay longer in school and, in turn, increased
the flow of occupationally trained graduates into the labour force and generated
employer support for the further expansion of secondary education. That is why
almost all governments in developing countries are trying to expand the provision
of TVET at secondary level, while making efforts to increase secondary education
enrolment in general.

However, in countries where TVET is still regarded as a second-class form of

education, being reserved only for students who are less academically competent,
there has been, at times, a failure to attract students to secondary level TVET
programmes. It can even lead to decreased TVET enrolment at secondary level, as is
the case in Lao PDR, according to a 2011 UNESCO background paper on TVET in
Asia and the Pacific Region. Hence the need to rebrand TEVET, as mentioned in the
policy recommendations above, to give it a new and better image.

In addition, issues related to the provision of TVET can also be seen as obstacles
in expanding TVET enrolment. Clearly, TVET requires far greater investment
than general education due to the necessity of specialized facilities, equipment,
and materials for practical training. Due to the high unit cost of introducing and
running TVET courses, TVET institutions tend to be concentrated in places where
expected enrolment can be met. Lack of adequate financial resources and deficiencies
in professional vocational teacher training and assessment methods can all lead
to vocational courses being reduced to teaching theory rather than practice. This
situation tends to result in limited accessibility to TVET for people living in remote
or scattered areas or who face difficulty accessing transportation.

Vocationalized education, as it has been applied in some countries in the Asia

and Pacific region, can also be seen as pre-vocational education which does not
presuppose direct transition to the labour market but which, rather, aims to prepare
students for intensified vocational education at a later stage. Vocationalization
takes place at upper secondary level across the entire Asia-Pacific region, with the
exception of Malaysia, which has introduced vocationalization at lower secondary

197
 level for the less academically competent. This implies that students participating in
vocationalized education are equipped with a relatively high level of basic skills. This
can help if the student wishes to pursue further studies or continuous professional
development later on.

It is hoped that the two-tier system, which has just been introduced in Zambia, will,
if given the right conditions, serve as a catalyst to increase access to skills training at
secondary school level. Will it reduce the dropout at the different levels of secondary
level, most particularly among poor academic achievers? Will it help to improve the
perception of TVET and consequently increase the employability of and demand for
TVET graduates? Will it increase enrolment in TEVET? It should be noted that there
are serious debates over the validity of such an approach. For example, in analysing
tracer studies undertaken in developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa introducing
vocationalized education, Laglo (2005) emphasized that the inclusion of a small
proportion of vocational subjects in the total curriculum (e.g. between 10 per cent
and 20 per cent of curriculum time) failed to show any meaningful improvement in
job opportunities for participating students. According to a tracer study of Kenyan
industrial education (IE), only 5 per cent of participating students had secured further
training to which IE subjects were broadly relevant, while 40 per cent continued
with academic education and another 40 per cent were unemployed one year after
completing IE. In Kenyan industrial education, little time was allocated to vocational
education in lower secondary schools, i.e. three to five classes per week (Laglo, 2005).

In Mozambique, on the other hand, Billetoft and AUSTRAL Consultoria (2005)

showed that almost all technical school students were employed three years after
their graduation. Such contrasting results between Kenya and Mozambique may stem
from the differences in the percentage of vocational education to total education,
which is between 10 per cent and 20 per cent vocational education in Kenya and
between 30 per cent and 40 per cent in Mozambique, as well as from differences in
labour market conditions, with a depressed labour market blighting the former and
a ‘buoyant’ demand for skilled workers characterizing the latter.

Research conducted in economically more developed countries has also produced

mixed results. Bishop (2005) found similar results by analysing panel data of upper
secondary graduates who attended career-technical education (CTE) in USA, as he
reported no significant effects of introductory vocational courses (general business,
agriculture, distributive education and health occupations) on employment,
unemployment, wage rates and earnings of either 1993–94 or 2000 graduates. In
contrast, Bishop (2005) found that each additional non-computer CTE course led to
higher earnings than mean earnings of 1993 and 2000, namely an increase of 4.6 per

198 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

cent and 1.4 per cent respectively. This corresponded to remarkably high benefit–cost
ratios (exceeding 6 per cent) and internal rates of return (above 18 per cent).

The different experiences of African countries indicate that vocationalization policies

need to be implemented through a staged approach and after a careful examination
of labour market demand and the resources available at every stage in the relevant
country.

RECOMMENDATIONS
• It is recommended that the pilot be carefully studied and analysed, bearing in
mind labour market demand and resources available at every stage, before any
decision is taken as to whether the two-tier approach should be extended to other
schools.
• Provide proper and early counselling services and career guidance for students in
order to help them make informed decisions, particularly during their transition
from lower to upper secondary school, so that they can choose an appropriate
stream according to their abilities and desires.
• Promote/Develop effective cooperation between general education schools and
TEVET institutions, by ways of sharing teachers, programmes and facilities, as
well as the institutional arrangements for awarding relevant certificates to those
students who successfully complete vocationalized programmes. This implies
permanent dialogue between government departments or ministries responsible
for the concerned streams.

Policy issue 3: Lack of public funding for TEVET

The government priority given to TEVET, through different policy documents and
statements, is not translated into an adequate public funding, which impedes a
smooth development of this important sub-sector.

Evidence
The TEVET system in Zambia is financed through a variety of sources (the
government, fees paid by learners, sale of goods and services by training institutions),
yet funding remains a major challenge.

The Government provides funding for public and private TEVET institutions through
the relevant ministries. According to World Bank (2015), the share of government
education expenditure on TEVET is the smallest among the education subsectors, and
it accounted only for 0.6 per cent in 2013 (Tables 16 and 32). Though, TEVET share in

199
 the education budget was estimated at 0.7 per cent for 2014 and 1.6 per cent for 2015, the
trend in actual spending during the last ten years suggests an average below 1 per cent
of total education expenditure (World Bank, 2015). Also, as discussed in Section 3.1,
government expenditure per TEVET student is low in comparison to other subsectors’
unit cost, particularly when compared with unit spending of high school. The large
difference between TEVET (ZMW1,195) and high school (ZMW2,265) unit spending,
in one hand, and between TEVET and University unit spending (ZMW12,921), on the
other hand, suggests that government priority accorded to TEVET is not translated
into an adequate funding support (see Tables 15 and 16 in Section 3.1).

The low public funding to TEVET is explained by two main reasons. The first reason
is that the trainers at TEVET institutions are no longer civil servants, and thus the cost
of personal emolument, which accounts for a large share of expenditure, is not borne
by the government. It should be noted that the government was paying the salaries
of the trainers of all public training centres until 2000, before the dissolution of the
Department of Technical Education and Vocational Training (DTEVT). Second, with
the dissolution of DTEVT, the management and financial responsibilities, including
revenue generation, were decentralized to management boards at institutions under
a semi-autonomous structure.

The government’s funding to TEVET institutions takes the form of institutional

grants and competitive fund. While the institutional grants are provided to public
institutions, not all of them can receive them. Despite lack of clarity on the selection
process, almost the same institutions have received grants since 2006. From 2006 to
2013, the grants have more than doubled, reaching ZMW21.4 million in 2013, while
the number of recipients remained almost the same, around 24 to 27 institutions.
The average amount of grants per institution ranges from ZMW0.5 million to ZMW
2 million, partly depending upon the enrolment size. The Ministry does not use clear
formula or criteria for resource allocation to institutions; the amount of grants seems
to be mainly based on a historical trend (World Bank, 2015).

Established under the TVET (Amendment) Act No. 11 of 2005, the TEVET Fund
serves as a source of funding for public and private providers. The Government
provides the fund, which is consequently awarded to pre-determined training
programmes at public training institutions. This fund is utilized as and when resources
are available from the government. The TEVET fund aims at covering three spending
categories: (i) four windows of specific training funds, namely the pre-employment
training, the employer-based training, the SME/informal sector training, and the
infrastructure and system development; (ii) subsidies to institutions, and (iii) student
bursary. The two first components of the TEVET fund have considerably decreased
over the last years, until the ‘four windows’ completely drained out in 2012. In 2014,

200 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

the bursary was provided to less than 1,000 TEVET students, about half of which
went to those enrolled in urban institutions. To benefit from bursary, students should
meet the criteria for vulnerability set by the Ministry of Community Development,
Mother and Child.

Overall, the distribution of TVET fund is even more selective than that of the
institutional grants. Over the past years, only six institutions (almost the same) have
succeeded to receive the TEVET fund, based on institutional proposals. The total
amount of the TEVET fund was ZMW8.7 million in 2012, and the allocation per
institution varies between ZMW0.4 million and ZMW3.1 million. The two TEVET
fundings are not cumulative; the institutions that benefit from TEVET fund usually
do not receive institutional grants.

While TEVETA has had relatively good financial flows over the past years (World
Bank, 2015), its budget was reduced by 5 per cent from the figure for 2014. The
TEVETA revenue includes government grants, fees collected, and other services,
while its expenditures consist of: (i) expenditure on activities, including TEVET
fund (provided to institutions), examination, supervision, and system development;
(ii) administrative expenditure, including remuneration and operating costs.

Low public funding to TEVET, in a context of persistent macroeconomic constraints,

implies that TEVET institutions have to raise financial resources by themselves. A
study by World Bank (2015), based on a sample of four institutions, suggests that
despite low public funding, Zambian TEVET institutions, regardless of size and
location, succeed, through a sound financial management, to meet their operational
costs and to keep TEVET tuition and fees affordable to students. However, it should be
noted that these four sampled institutions are those receiving either the institutional
grants or the TEVET fund, and there is little information about those that do not
benefit from any public fund or grant. Most of such institutions are small and cannot
maintain healthy financial status in the medium and long run, unless they increase the
tuition and fees, which is already expensive especially for students from poorer family
backgrounds. While larger institutions, taking advantage of economies of scale, can
meet their operation costs with students’ fees and less dependency on public funds,
the smaller institutions would need government financial support in order to survive.

While training fees are a significant source of funding for both public and private
TEVET providers, it should be noted that fees charged by private institutions are not
regulated, but public TEVET institutions need to seek approval for training fees from
the corresponding ministries.

201
 In fact, only around 10 per cent of all training centre budget is allocated as a grant
from the government, which means that centres have to generate between 80 per
cent and 90 per cent of their budgets through training fees. This situation is causing
major problems for rural training centres where many prospective learners are
unable to pay for their tuition. The repercussions are many. These centres are not
able to generate enough revenue to pay and retain good-quality trainers. They find
themselves having to employ relatively poor-quality trainers, which impacts on the
quality of training delivered.

Funding is a major challenge even for some centres in urban areas. The manager of
Lusaka’s Industrial Skills Training Centre noted that demand from applicants to the
centre was greater than its capacity to deliver. In fact, the ratio of student demand to
intake capacity is 2:1. Unfortunately, the centre cannot expand its facilities to enrol
more students because of a lack of financial resources. Nevertheless, it has responded
by running short courses in rural areas when there is demand. This helps it to generate
some additional revenues.

Training consulting services and work for industry are permitted but only training
institutions that are located in urban areas, are credible, and have experienced trainers
and facilities that can undertake such services and generate additional revenues
through them. However, the benefits are marginal. For example, the Industrial Skills
Training Centre generates only 5 per cent of its budget through such services, in its
case, the repair and maintenance of public transport.

Training institutions in rural areas are not able to deliver these services as there is
little demand and they lack the necessary facilities and human resources to engage
in such activities. Instead, they must rely only on training fees, which are very low.

It is important to mention that charities and donors ensure funding for a number of
community-based and faith-based TVET providers. Those organizations subsidize
TVET training for socio-economically disadvantaged learners. Industry also provides
funding for enterprise-based training allowing students to train directly at the workplace.

The above-mentioned funding sources are complemented by some external funding.

The most recent/ongoing donor-assisted initiatives for TEVET include the following:

• The Support to Science and Technology Education Project: amounted USD 33

million funded by the African Development Bank (ADB), this project’s objectives
are: (i) the rehabilitation of facilities and the procurement of equipment at five
public training institutions and three public universities; (ii) the training of 300
instructors and managers; (iii) the review of curricula for twenty-five TEVET

202 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 programmes; (iv) the enhancement of work-based and entrepreneurship skills,
and some public-private pilot initiatives in the mining sector.
• The UK-funded Skills Improvement Programme (SKIP): amounted GBP 15
million, started in 2014 and will last six years, with the overall objective to support
enhancements to the overall quality and relevance of TEVET programmes, as
well as improvements in access and equitable outcomes. Around one third of
the total amount should be allocated to the TEVET Fund to support training
institute development, enterprise-based traineeships and the introduction
of skills training for youth in the informal economy. In addition, SKIP aims
at strengthening capacity within TEVETA and MHE, in-service training for
managers and instructors, scholarships for girls and women and those living with
disabilities, and upgrading the infrastructure at five training institutes to facilitate
access for those with physical disabilities.
• A loan equipment is provided by the Chinese Government to support the
re-equipment of fourteen public training institutions in order to update selected
programmes and make them relevant to the needs of industry (automotive,
welding, electrical and mechanical engineering), and to re-train instructors to
use the new equipment.

A number of smaller donor-assisted projects are underway, including: (i) Finnida

support for the construction sector; (ii) regional support for youth skills in the
mining sector from the Australian Aid Programme; (iii) UNESCO’s Better Education
for Africa’s Rise (BEAR) project, funded by the Government of the Republic of
Korea, to build capacity for planning, policy formulation and a management
information system; (iv) the ILO/One UN programme for Sustainable Livelihoods
for Young People through the Development of Rural MSMEs, funded by the
Swedish Government; (v) other ILO initiatives, including a Green Jobs programme
and PROPEL (Promoting Rights and Opportunities for People with Disabilities in
Employment through Legislation).

While donors’ assistance helps in addressing some specific issues, public funding will
need to be substantially increased if the TEVET policy objectives are to be achieved,
particularly given the likely shift towards funding of a lifelong TVET concept in
the near future. As pointed out by the 2014 Report of the Committee on education,
science and technology, “poor funding of the TEVET institutions and resource
allocation over the years has had negative effect on staff retention and the provision
of equipment and other inputs for skills training”. This view was also supported by a
number of stakeholders consulted during the review mission.

203
 Discussion
Why should Zambia increase public funding to TEVET?
With 0.6 per cent of education expenditure devoted to TEVET, Zambia spends the
lowest proportion of its national education budget on TEVET in the SADC region.
Other SADC countries allocate a significantly higher percentage of education funding
to TEVET. In fact, Botswana (6.9 per cent), Mauritius (4.4 per cent), Mozambique
(4 per cent), and Malawi (3.4 per cent) are among the SADC countries which spend
more.

Like Zambia, many countries inside and outside the region have pledged to invest
massively in improving the quality of TEVET as they see it as the main route to solving
rising youth unemployment, the lack of skilled workers, and the escalating school
dropout rates. However, Zambia, contrary to other countries, has not translated this
commitment into adequate financial support to TEVET development (see Table 32).

Table 32 Public expenditure on TVET as % of total public expenditure/budget on

education
SADC countries Other countries

Percentage of national educational TVET expenditure as a share of total Government

budget allocated to TVET expenditure in education

Country % Year Country % Year

Botswana 6.9 2009 Bangladesh 2.0 2001

Lesotho 6.0 (2003-2004) Central African Republic 7.4 2008

Malawi 3.4 2008 Costa Rica 5.6 2005

Mauritius 4.4 2009 Gambia 2.6 2009

Mozambique 4.0 2009 Ghana 1.1 2008

Namibia 2.9 2010 Liberia (Recurrent) 8.5 2012

Seychelles 13.6 2009 Malawi (Recurrent) 3.4 2007

South Africa 2.5 2009 Pakistan 5.7 2002

Tanzania 1.4 2009 Rwanda (Recurrent) 9.6 2012

Zanzibar 2.8 2009 Sierra Leone (Recurrent) 3.4 2007

Swaziland (Recurrent) 2.4 2007 South Sudan (Recurrent) 1.1 2009

Zambia 0.7 2014 Tajikistan 3.0 2006

Zimbabwe 4.7 2009 Uganda 4.0 2004

  Yemen 0.7 2006

Sources: UNESCO & SADC, 2013; World Bank, 2015.

204 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

In many countries, the public funds devoted to TVET are derisory compared with
the overall budget allocated to education, despite the fact that TVET plays an
essential role in promoting economic growth and the socio-economic development
of countries, with benefits for individuals, their families, local communities, and
society in general. However, quality TVET is very expensive as it requires workshops
of reputable standards, and that means regular investment in new equipment as well
as maintenance and repair of existing equipment. This requires heavy spending, both
recurrent and capital, to effectively respond to the needs of the existing labour market
and to the ever-increasing technology utilization in industry. On the other hand,
staff with industrial experience are expensive to recruit since the training centres
must compete with private industry, which is usually able to pay these experienced
professionals more. It should also be emphasized that quality TVET delivery requires
a relatively low trainee-trainer ratio since high enrolment in practical, intensive
programmes compromises the quality of learning outcomes, thereby increasing unit
cost (Dubois and Balgobin, 2009).

It seems that in many countries, the grant provided by the government is barely
sufficient to pay for the salaries of training centre staff, leaving an underfinanced
TVET system with practically no funds at all for capital investment and sustained
TVET development. In Mauritius, for example, the grant received from the
government for 2008/09 was 97 per cent of the staff cost. Hence, the Industrial and
Vocational Training Board (IVTB) had to generate additional revenue to balance its
budget (Dubois, 2009).

Zambia can learn from different TEVET financing experiences around the world
Nevertheless, the necessary funding should be provided if high-quality training and
investment in new projects are to be sustained in order to better respond to the needs
of industry. Thus, the fundamental question is who should pay for this training.
International experiences suggest that there is no single model for funding that
can be applied across all countries. There has to be a blend of government funding,
employer funding, fundraising, revenue generation, and so on. Financial schemes
and other forms of assistance vary from country to country.

Many countries, including some SADC countries have legislated and used employer
levies to fund training. In some countries, the training levy is a percentage of the
wage bill. In Tanzania and Malawi, a proposed 2 per cent TVET levy on the total
annual wage bill of companies proved problematic when it was first introduced. The
private sector viewed the levy simply as another form of tax. In Malawi, the levy
had to be reduced to 1 per cent of the total annual wage bill due to private sector
resistance. In South Africa, it was 0.55 per cent of total remuneration between 1 April
2000 and 31 March 2001, and, 1 per cent from then onwards. In Zimbabwe, it is 1 per

205
 cent for all employers with a wage bill of Z$ 2,000 per month (Durango 2002). In
Mauritius, it is 1 per cent of the wage bill.

In Malawi, information, education and communication (IEC) campaigns have led

to a number of private companies paying the levy voluntarily. The levy itself has also
increased steadily. The private sector in general now understands the need to have a
fund that is used to train the country’s workforce.

The case of Mauritius is rather different. Indeed, the imposition of a training levy
came from the Employers Federation. A training levy grant system was introduced
in 1989 to encourage employers to invest in the training and development of their
employees in order to upgrade their skills and enhance productivity. Employers
paying the levy became eligible to different types of refund in accordance with the
schemes (up to 75 per cent of the costs incurred) developed by the IVTB. These
schemes have been revisited many times since their inception and are still being
revised in order to better respond to the training needs of the country at large. Every
year, some 45,000 (8 per cent of the total labour force) employees undergo training
and retraining due to the prevailing training levy scheme.

On its introduction in 1989, part of the levy was utilized to finance IVTB’s activities
(when IVTB was created in 1988, 50 per cent of its recurrent budget and 15 per cent
of its capital budget were financed from this levy. The remaining parts of the budget
were financed by the government). The levy/grant management was transferred to
the Human Resources Development Council (HRDC) on its creation in 2003. As a
result, IVTB has been applying to the HRDC to obtain finance to balance its budget
and fund some of its activities.

Other countries, such as Singapore and Malaysia, use a training levy/reimbursement

scheme. In Singapore, for instance, beyond a certain salary level, employees are not
eligible for funding through the training levy. On the other hand, for Malaysia, the
training levy is more complex and the quantum varies according to the size of the
companies and the sector concerned.

There are cases where the government offers a tax rebate for staff training. In Chile, the
scheme allows firms to set training costs of up to 1 per cent of annual payroll against
corporate tax payments. This would not only stimulate firms to train more, but would
also have the additional benefit of making training providers more responsive to the
labour market. Whilst levies can generate large amounts of money in countries with
relatively large formal sectors, it is less clear how well they might function in very
small countries with very small formal sectors.

206 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Another form of funding support that is growing increasingly popular in the
developing countries is the donation of equipment to technical colleges. As
technology advances, companies are replacing their workshop equipment frequently.
The old equipment is then being donated to technical colleges to be used for training.
This form of funding is ensuring that the gap between the technology that trainees
use in colleges and that used in industry is not too great.

On a per-student basis, TEVET is much more expensive to deliver than other levels of
education, in particular primary and secondary. In most cases, expenditure on critical
training inputs remains low as most funds are spent on salaries. The public training
system still constitutes an important provider and financier of pre-employment
training. However, this simple financing framework is no longer able to meet skills
development needs in a context of growing resource constraints. It has become
important to consider how financing can also foster increased in-service training
among enterprises, greater private provision of training, and greater cost sharing
with beneficiaries. There is, therefore, a role for greater involvement of employers and
students in the financing of training, but this will only happen if the outcomes of the
training system and its external efficiency improve. Students and firms will only be
willing to participate in the financing of a system that shows demonstrable impacts
in terms of efficiency and outcomes.

In many African countries, including Malawi, Madagascar, Mauritius, Nigeria,

Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, training fees have been introduced in public TVET
institutions. Only in Zambia, however, fees do account for between 80 per cent and
90 per cent of training institutions’ budgets. Fee income to the Mauritius Institute of
Training and Development (MITD), by contract, accounts for only 9 per cent of total
revenue. A grant from the government covers the staff costs. In other cases, fees are
more substantial, although never at cost-recovery level. In public training centres in
Tanzania, for example, fees cover about 15 per cent of recurrent costs, in Madagascar
27 per cent (Zidermann, 2003). In its recently published strategy for financing TVET,
the Ethiopian Government has set a target of recovering 30 per cent of recurrent
training costs through fees.

As per UNESCO’s 2015 draft recommendations on technical and vocational

education and training, TVET institutions, including at secondary, post-secondary,
and tertiary levels, should have adequate funding for their operations, including
for infrastructure, equipment, and maintenance. TVET institutions should have
appropriate levels of operational and financial autonomy to enable them to engage
with their local contexts, to build new partnerships for improving the quality and
relevance of TVET programmes, and to generate revenue. There is a need, therefore,
to spread the funding net as wide as possible, to include adequate contributions from
the government, employers, development partners, training providers, students and
207
 communities. Table 33 shows a framework which summarizes the spread of the
different kinds of contribution to TEVET funding that can be adopted.

Table 33 Potential contributions to TEVET

Government Employers Trainees/ TCs Community Development

parents partners/
donors

Pre-employed · Physical · Sponsorship Targeted fees · Trainees’ Loan/grant

· Public TCs infrastruc- of trainees production Expertise
ture · Donation of and service Technical
· Equipment equipment activities support and
· Training · Resource advice
materials persons
· Admin costs · Corporate
· Staff costs social
responsibil-
ity (CSR)

· Private TCs · Sponsorship Targeted fees · Physical · Donation

of trainees* infrastructure of land
·D  onation of · Equipment and other
equipment · Staff costs facilities

In-service Fees of Fees (self ) Fees

employees*

Formal AS ✓ ✓ ✓

Traditional AS

Non-formal ✓ CSR ✓ ✓ ✓
/informal
training

RECOMMENDATIONS

• Government should improve funding to TEVET institutions in order for them

to produce adequate number of quality skilled workers needed to achieve the
country’s social and economic development vision. Budget allocated must be
commensurate with the number of TEVET graduates that need to be produced.
In light of the international trends and the SADC average public expenditure to
TVET, Zambia should increase its funding of TEVET to at least between 3 per
cent and 4 per cent of its education budget.

• Government should develop and implement a mechanism for sustainable

financing of TEVET. In this context, further policy discussion and, if necessary,
international technical assistance would be required to revisit the current

208 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 funding system (institutional grants and TEVET Fund) to make it more
transparent and inclusive. A competitive funding system can be introduced to
direct the development of public and private TVET institutions in response to
demand from enterprises and individuals. This can be linked to the registration
of training centres. Evidently, it will have consequences in terms of changing
registration requirements, from input requirements such as courses, teachers,
and infrastructure, to output requirements, namely learning and labour market
outcomes, measured in multiple ways, including placements, wages, and self-
employment.
• Government should consider introducing a more realistic costing structure where
the students pay a smaller proportion of actual training costs in public institutions.
As realistic fees could exclude those who are unable to pay, Government should
introduce targeted programmes, such as scholarships, reduced subsidized fees,
or soft loans for learners who cannot afford to pay the fees. Training voucher
schemes might be considered for students from vulnerable groups, including,
specifically, those from rural areas.
• Government should explore the possibility of introducing a training levy grant
scheme on a sectoral basis, as a means of building up a pool of funds to support
TEVET provision. Prior consultation with employers should take place to decide
on a pilot sectoral scheme. These employers could either directly sponsor the
training of their employees or contribute to a training levy based on a percentage
of their enterprise payrolls. In return, they can be refunded part of the training
costs incurred.
• Government should provide incentives and strengthen partnerships with non-
public stakeholders and industry to leverage more funding from the private
sector, bring on board more private investors, and seek external grants and other
contribution, such as equipment and new technologies.

Policy issue 4: Weak TEVET responsiveness to the labour market

According to many observers and employers, the quality and type of skills provided
in TEVET training institutions do not match the demand from the labour market.

Evidence
While the elements of responsiveness have been clearly ingrained in Zambia TEVET
strategies since the 1996 policy, and repeatedly highlighted in successive TEVET
strategies included in different national development plans (FNDP, SNDP, NIF III),
there are very few recent data and studies on TEVET responsiveness to the labour
market.

209
 The few available studies on TEVET responsiveness suggest mixed results. A tracer
study (2004–2006) conducted by Zambia’s former Ministry of Science, Technology,
and Vocational Training (MSTVT) showed that 55 per cent of TEVET graduates find
employment within six months of graduation, while 34.8 per cent of the graduates
find employment between six and twelve months after graduation, suggesting that
TEVET institutions have increasingly offered programmes that are responsive to the
market demand (MESVTEE, NIF III, 2010). The findings from the 2012 Labour Force
Surveys suggest that holding a post-secondary education qualification (TEVET and
higher education) makes a significant difference in the employability at the formal
labour market, as compared to secondary school qualification (World Bank, 2015).
But this does not necessarily imply that the skills provided by TEVET match the
employers’ requirements.

In fact, the coexistence of high economic growth and the relatively low employment
rates in Zambia (particularly among young people) suggests that, either the skills
of the unemployed persons do not match the employers’ requirements, or the firms
cannot afford to pay the market wage rates requested by the unemployed. In the case
of Zambia, both reasons have been raised by employers (Moono & Rankin, 2013).

According to stakeholders consulted during the review mission, a complaint

commonly raised by both private and public sectors concerns the mismatch between
skills of the workforce and the industry demands, especially in sectors such as
mining, engineering and construction. This applies even for graduates from training
institutions. The skill challenges, according to Moono & Rankin (2013), are inherent
to poor quality of education outcomes, which begins in primary level and persists in
TEVET or post-secondary education. They also state that, in addition to weak skills,
the high cost of labour in Zambia encourages firms to use immigrant workers and
to move away from lower-skilled labour and towards part-time or casual labour in
order to lower the risks and financial burdens associated with full-time hiring.

In fact, the firms have difficulties in retaining skilled and experienced workers,
especially in construction and mining sectors in both Lusaka and Copper Belt
regions. The small pool of post-secondary graduates with relevant skills are over-
demanded and expensive to recruit by many firms. Hence, some firms, including
most multinational mining firms, expressed their preference for foreign labour, which
they find more productive than the local one. The overall cost of skilled permanent
labour in Zambia is high relative to foreign options and semi-skilled part-time labour
(Moono & Rankin, 2013).

ZANEC (2012) reported that ‘the quality and type of skills that are provided in
TEVET training institutions have been an issue of concern for CSOs and other

210 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

stakeholders, as some of these skills are neither aligned to the demands of the current
job market nor tailored to stimulate self-employment’. As a consequence, TEVET
graduates experience a very limited employability in the labour market. It is in this
context that the Government has implemented the review of skills and curricula with
the aim to make them more market-driven.

According to the employers’ representative to the TEVETA board, the training on

offer is more supply-driven than demand-driven. They cited web design and database
management as examples of areas where enrolment in training was far in excess of
demand from businesses. According to TEVETA’s 2013 annual report, nearly 50 per
cent of learners were in business studies, for which there is little employer demand.
The Employers’ Association reported that they were working on a skills gap analysis
which they will share with the government so that training centres are aware of what
training to offer. They were in favour of introducing the dual apprenticeship mode of
training, provided that the necessary conditions prevail, including a legal framework
and tax incentives.

Training centres in Zambia, private or public, are at liberty to offer what training
they want. Private training centres mostly offer courses in business and commerce,
as this does not entail major prior investment. The end result is a high rate of
unemployment among young people who have completed their studies. Given the
climate of fiscal constraint, more effective use of these resources should have been
made. The Government has been contributing around 10 per cent of the budget of
these training centres for a number of years while the centres have indulged in supply-
driven training which has not contributed to the employment of their students. Had
tracer studies been carried out, data on graduate employability would have meant
better-informed decisions regarding the allocation of government resources.

While Zambia, like many African countries, has established systems for assessing
and certifying learning, some stakeholders pointed out weak links between TVET
learning and the labour market outcomes. Unfortunately, there are very little data
available to measure the destination rate, which provides a proxy indicator of TVET
responsiveness to the labour market. Most of information available in this area comes
from small-scale one-off tracer surveys, sometimes with excessively broad definitions
of employment. This calls for caution when using the derived data and information.
For example, this is the case for Malawi, Mauritius, South Africa, Tanzania and
Zambia, which all reported that more than 50 per cent of graduates find employment
within six months after graduation (UNESCO and SADC, 2013). This appears to be
symptomatic of a wider inadequacy of region-wide attention to the importance of
promoting the demand-responsiveness of TVET, which contrasts with the level of

211
 commitment in many countries to invest in TVET with the aim to respond to labour
market requirements.

One of TEVETA’s key functions is to collect, manage, and disseminate labour market
information related to TEVET. The available information includes the number
of institutions, distribution according to grades, levels of qualifications offered,
provinces and ownerships, and student enrolment in relation to programmes and
gender. However, no information is available as to the number of students in public/
private institutions, rates of dropouts, or the characteristics of trainees and their
employability. Nor is information available as to the types of courses offered by
private TEVET providers. Furthermore, no regular tracer studies are carried out to
ascertain the progression into employment of graduates. In addition, no assessments
are undertaken of the needs of the labour market.

TEVETA management furthermore complained of being short of resources.

According to its 2013 annual report, TEVETA’s total staff, including directors,
managers, specialists, officers, and supporting staff amounted to 45 in December
2013. With significant staff numbers, the limited availability of financial resources
is a constraint on TEVETA’s operational capacity, including its ability to ensure that
TEVET providers meet the needs of industry skills training.

Discussion
According to Mimi Kuo (2015), the purpose of TVET is to equip people not only with
vocational skills, but with a broad range of knowledge, skills, and attitudes recognized
as indispensable for meaningful participation in work and life. Furthermore, TVET
has a widely acknowledged role in furnishing skills required to improve productivity,
raise income levels, and improve access to employment opportunities (Bennell, 1999).
Maclean (2011) supports the view that TVET improves the skills of those enrolled
in TVET programmes thus puts them at an advantage in seeking employment.
TVET can also contribute to poverty reduction and help curbing social exclusion,
particularly given that the cost of higher education is out of the reach of the majority.
Furthermore, it can serve as an antidote to youth unemployment, where the labour
market is saturated (ETF, 2005). Maclean also asserts that TVET, if well positioned,
could play multi-dimensional roles in stimulating economic growth and social
development, improving conventional education, empowerment, wealth creation,
poverty reduction, and skills enhancement. TVET is well suited to helping young
people and adults become self-dependent and self-reliant, while, for those working
in industry, TVET is helpful in enhancing skills and mitigating high job turnover and
the risk of obsolescence (Okolocha, 2012).

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To achieve the TVET advantages described above, the types of skills provided should
be aligned to the demands of the prevailing labour market and/or tailored to stimulate
entrepreneurship or self-employment. Some countries have made significant efforts
to ensure the TVET responsiveness to the labour market, particularly by promoting
an effective involvement of industry in skills provision.

In a recent report, the German Federal Institute of Vocational Education (BIBB)

revealed that industry that invests in training gets a significant return on its investment:
roughly 80 per cent of the costs of apprenticeship are immediately returned, as the
apprentices become more and more productive while trained on the shop-floor. In
addition, the industry gets the well-educated and trained workers it needs.

However, in a study comparing Zambia with some SADC and other African
countries, Moono and Rankin (2013) found that Zambian firms are the least likely
to run formal training programmes for its permanent employees. While this seems
in contradiction with the common complaint from employers on the lack of modern
relevant skills among post-secondary education graduates, an explanation could be
found through the firms’ opportunities to use cheaper and more productive labour
offered by foreigners. The model of the mining sector, where the Government
provided a one-off grant in terms of land, building, and policy support, should be
replicated. The Government also sponsors the training of students over and above
the needs of the company so that they become competent to work in any related
company. Other centres of excellence can be built on that same premise.

This discussion suggests that TEVET cannot effectively perform its role in preparing
learners for work if it is designed and delivered in isolation. It will not be able to
respond to the demands of the labour market and, as a result, will produce graduates
who do not possess the competencies needed by the labour market. Based on their
interviews with managers of Zambian firms, Moono and Rankin (2013) reported
that, according to employers, ‘education providers do not seem to be aware of the
relevance of certain skills that industries expect from the graduates’. This suggests
that education providers failed to reflect in the current curriculum, the changes that
occurred in science and technology.

Therefore, there is a need to build up stronger public-private partnerships (PPP) and

to engage individual employers throughout the TEVET system, including in decisions
concerning the training to offer, and its design, development, and delivery, and in
initiatives such as workplace learning, including internships and apprenticeships. In
fact, there has been an unconvincing attempt to engage the private sector in dialogue
on TEVET in Zambia, although according to TEVETA, industry is also involved in
curriculum development. The TEVETA board comprises members of the private

213
 sector and is chaired by one of these members. But it meets only once every three
months.

In the same vein, it is important to strengthen the role of the Zambia National
Chamber of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture and employer associations in the
informal sector, and to build up their institutional capacity to participate in TEVET.
In Mauritius, for instance, strong PPP is the basis of the success of the Mauritius
Institute of Training and Development (MITD). The private sector is present on the
MITD board as well as on the school management committees of its various training
centres.

The advantages of the PPP are many. Apart from the fact that employers have the
opportunity to participate in decisions about the type and content of training offered,
they can also help in the following ways:

• Placement of students and trainers in industry. One must be careful not to have
trainers competing with students for industrial placement. Having employers on
board may resolve this conflicting situation.
• Transfer of management rigour to the training centres.
• Donation of equipment to training centres.
• Participation in job fairs.
• Help in building and enhancing credibility of the training institution.
• Help further developing and reinforcing the PPP.
• Support for graduates’ employment.
• Help in marketing short in-service, bespoke training programmes for industry.
• Help in providing part-time competent trainers from industry to boost the
quality of training delivery.

Many African countries have adopted ‘supply oriented’ training systems. Supply
orientation means training institutions produce the same types of graduates, year in
and year out, without regard for the needs of enterprises and the labour market. As
an African Development Bank (ADB) project document states: ‘Outcomes … rarely
guide the selection of skills and contents with the consequence that offered courses
and their contents are regularly irrelevant to needs and demands’ (ADB, 2004b: 3).

Botswana offers an example of a ‘demand responsive’ training system, with the

Botswana Training Authority given authority to accredit, register, and monitor both
public and private training institutions in accordance with the needs of the learners
and the industry. Australia too has introduced measures to make its TVET system
more employer-driven, with reforms undertaken to ensure greater engagement of
industry and employers through the National Qualifications Council. This means

214 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

that TVET policy is industry-led. Industry skills councils, representing 10 sectors
and composed entirely of industry members, develop standards and qualifications for
various occupations. They provide a continuous input process for skills definitions
(ADB, 2008a: 94). Sweden also adopts a ‘demand-responsive’ approach to skills
development, with the TVET sector organized to fit with and fulfil the needs of the
labour market.

The Singaporean model is of a centralized education system in which the Ministry

of Education is mainly concerned with the management of the polytechnics and
institutes. However, the Ministry of Manpower supports the Ministry of Education
by mapping the specific needs of the labour market in order to match the content of
the curriculum with the needs of the society.

In Germany, industry itself has the main responsibility for vocational training. It
designs the standards and curricula according to its changing needs, constantly
developing and redeveloping national occupation standard. Industry conducts
most training and education on the shop floors of its companies, with additional
instruction delivered by state-run vocational schools. The industry even pays an
adequate salary to its apprentices. The chambers of commerce monitor the whole
system, also offering exams and issuing certificates, which are recognized all over
Germany. Trade unions, too, play a very supportive role in the system. The whole
process is framed and enforced by the Vocational Education and Training Act.

As discussed with local stakeholders involved in this review, Zambia can learn from
the experiences described above in order to enhance its TEVET responsiveness to
labour market.

RECOMMENDATIONS
• TEVETA should develop a closer and mutually beneficial collaboration
between TEVET providers and industry, with effective participation of industry
representatives in all stages of TEVET planning, including in curriculum design,
delivery, and assessment. This will help in providing TEVET providers with
regular updates on relevant and modern skills, while the employers will have
more confidence on the TEVET outcomes.
• Government should provide incentives to further encourage workplace
experience learning for TEVET students in order to ensure an effective transfer
of relevant skills. This can provide a recruitment pool from which industry could
recruit and allows firms to establish relationships with learners, facilitating their
future recruitment.

215
 • TEVETA should set up effective mechanisms to ensure that TEVET is aligned
with the needs of employers and learners by carrying out employment trends
survey, training needs analysis, and tracer studies. To this end, TEVETA needs
to be supported by all relevant stakeholders, including Government, employers,
development partners, and communities. NGOs can be capacitated to carry out
training needs analysis (TNA) for the informal sector. This implies that relevant
institutional arrangements and provisions are in place to respond to those needs.
• TEVETA should enhance the quality and the sustainability of the TEVET
management information system (TEVET-MIS), and develop/reinforce its
linkages with Zambia Statistics Office and the labour market data systems. This
implies adequate funding, skilled staff and enabling working conditions, in terms
of technological equipment and facilities, staff salaries and development.

Policy issue 5: Curriculum development not relevant to labour market

requirements

Due to irregular revision and update of the curriculum, many TEVET courses are
delivered with outdated curricula which prove to be less relevant to the labour
market requirements.

Evidence
TEVETA provides guidelines for the development of institutional curricula and
approves curricula and standards of certificates in institutions established or
registered under the TEVET Act.

Curricula are supposed to be reviewed every three to five years, depending on the
duration of the course. For example, for diploma courses curriculum review is meant
to take place every five years. However, reviews have not been done for quite a long
time due to lack of resources (inadequate funding, late release of funds, low staffing
levels in curriculum development unit). As a result, some courses which date back
many years, and are now obsolete, are still being offered.

As the TEVETA website notes, ‘for some time now, there has been an outcry
from industry that curriculum was not meeting the requirements of industry, and
TEVETA, through its Curriculum Development Unit, has attempted to overcome
this challenge by adopting a curriculum development and review system that is said
to be more effective and efficient in producing curricula that are industry focused’.  

216 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Curriculum development, as defined by TEVETA, is a lengthy process. The need
for the development of a new programme or the review of an existing one can be
identified by any stakeholder, that is, by industry, trade or professional associations,
training providers, the community, or TEVETA. Occupational profiles are developed
before being used to develop curricula indicating the learning outcomes expected of
trainees at the end of each learning programme (Konayuma, 2007: 4).

Once a need is identified, TEVETA starts planning. A curriculum development

review team (CDRT) is convened to develop or review the curriculum. The CDRT
is made up of people from industry, trade or professional associations, training
providers, and other experts in the field who may not belong to any of the above
categories. 

According to TEVETA 2013 annual report, 19 curricula out of a planned annual

target of 24 were developed or reviewed during 2013. An additional 17 curricula
were at job profile development stage. Of the 40 curriculum documents that went
through the full curriculum development cycle during the year, 24 were approved
by the Occupational Standards, Curriculum and Training Systems Sub-Committee
of the TEVETA board, leaving a backlog of 17 programmes at approval stage and
46 at other stages of development by the close of the year. The result is that many
courses are being offered with an outdated curriculum. It is therefore not surprising
that students graduating from these courses are not employable in the labour market.

Also, while entrepreneurship development emerged as an important component in

all types of technical and vocational training in both formal and informal sectors
(MSTVT 2010), its integration into TEVET curricula is not yet effective, as is also the
case for trainers’ training programmes. This is well reflected through the following
comments, made by a stakeholder: ‘Entrepreneurship education should progressively
be integrated into curricula and the use of entrepreneurial pedagogies should be
advocated across sections, departments and, finally, faculties in universities, unlike
the current scenario where entrepreneurship is regarded as a pre-occupation for
those who have failed to make it academically’.

Discussions with stakeholders, as part of this review, suggest that efforts have been
made to integrate entrepreneurship training but the approach taken has not been
effective. Little has been done to ascertain what the great majority of people who are
not in formal employment are doing to earn a living, mostly working in micro, small

217
 and medium-sized enterprises12 (MSMEs). It was pointed out that TEVETA has been
developing a draft policy on entrepreneurship for the last three years. Unfortunately,
it was not possible to view a copy of the draft. Nevertheless, it is emphasized that
entrepreneurship should not be taught as an independent module. It should, rather,
be integrated, with trainers trained to relate their teaching to entrepreneurship.

The various curricula of the 2013 education curriculum framework make no mention
of entrepreneurship amongst the different subjects on offer at the various levels in
secondary school education. It is interesting, though, to note that the framework
indicated that entrepreneurship education ‘shall be integrated in the curriculum for
teacher education’. Hopefully, the teachers concerned will integrate entrepreneurship
into their teaching.

As far as curriculum is concerned, another element which is becoming increasingly

critical is sustainable development. Growing concerns about climate change,
environmental degradation, and scarcity of resources are driving TEVET to develop
skills and provide knowledge to pave the way towards a green economy and society.
While the Government of Zambia has enacted a new Environmental Management
Act (EMA) No. 12 in 2011, ILO (2013) warned that much of the current economic
performance has come at a huge environmental cost for future Zambian generations.
Therefore, ‘Zambia has yet to embrace and exploit the potential scale of job creation
related to the emerging green economy’, ILO recommended. Also, a survey by
UNCDF (2014) mentioned, among the barriers to youth employment (as assessed by
employers), the limited access to training in life skills and business support.

Discussion
To be relevant and responsive to a rapidly changing labour market, the TEVET
curriculum should be up-to-date and keep a proper balance between generic
learning and social skills, and specific vocational skills (UNESCO, 2012). Hence, an
increasingly important task for TVET is to prepare students to learn how to update
knowledge and how to adapt to new situations, rather than simply preparing for
specific occupations.

With regard to the integration of entrepreneurship into TVET curriculum, the

Mauritian experience can be useful for Zambia. At the Mauritius Institute of Training
and Development (MITD), TEVET trainers have been trained to integrate some

12 The Zambian Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Industry (2008) reported the existence of a large MSMEs
sector, of which over 90 per cent are informal. This subsector is dominated by enterprises with a workforce of
less than 10 employees and more than half of all MSME business activities are based in rural areas. The primary
objective of most of the MSME owners is to generate employment and income for personal requirements.

218 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

elements of entrepreneurship in their technical teaching. Technical trainers are
now able to offer their students examples of how materials are sourced, costed, and
utilized, and the labour involved production. This helps students to better understand
the basic concepts involved in costing of a product or service, which is an essential
knowledge for a self-employer or an entrepreneur.

UNESCO experts meeting in Bonn in October 2004 highlighted the need to

re-orient TVET curricula to better acquaint students and trainees with conservation
and the sustainable use of resources, social equity, and appropriate development,
as well as with competencies to practice sustainable tasks in the workplace. Thus,
training materials should be developed on education for sustainable development
(ESD). Obviously, there should also be a training programme for trainers on how to
implement ESD.

In the same vein, the head of UNESCO-UNEVOC, states that ‘improving young
people’s chances for meaningful employment and making jobs more environmentally
sustainable are actually not separate issues – young people are our future and green
skills can contribute to safeguarding this future for the next generations.’ So the
TEVET curriculum must include strong elements of sustainable development and
entrepreneurship education, in addition to technical content and other skills for
employment.

RECOMMENDATIONS
• Government should ensure that TEVETA policy of regular curriculum review be
effectively implemented. This will contribute to addressing emerging problems of
graduates entering the labour market without these skills. In this context, more
resources should be placed at the disposal of TEVETA.
• TEVETA should ensure that design and delivery of curriculum are informed
by industry’s needs and trends. Industry, TEVET providers, and TEVETA
should collaborate throughout the different processes of curriculum design,
implementation and review.
• TEVETA should ensure that entrepreneurship is effectively integrated in TEVET
curricula and that trainers are trained in use of entrepreneurial pedagogies.
• TEVETA should ensure that TEVET curricula are also informed by international
trends, in addition to employers’ requirements in order to integrate updated and
modern training skills on sustainable development, on business support, and
social and life skills.

219
 Policy issue 6: Lack of quality trainers

A number of serving TEVET practitioners (trainers, assessors, and examiners)

do not meet one or more TEVETA standards for accreditation, namely academic
qualifications, pedagogical skills, and industrial experience.

Evidence
The Technical and Vocational Teachers’ College is the only institution in Zambia
specializing in pedagogical training for TEVET teachers. It provides full-time, part-
time, short-term, and distance courses with full-time programmes offered in the
following areas: (i) technical teacher’s diploma; (ii) commercial secondary teacher’s
diploma; (iii) advanced teacher’s diploma (commercial and design and technology);
(iv) design and technology teacher’s diploma; (v) guidance, counselling, and
placement diploma; and (vi) special vocational teacher’s diploma.

Initial teacher education consists of pedagogical training for those with a technical
qualification, while pedagogical skills can be upgraded through CPD extension
studies. Technical training for teachers is provided at technical training institutions
and universities. The highest qualification delivered by the Technical and Vocational
Teachers’ College is the diploma in TEVET, with an average annual output of 100
teachers.

According to UNESCO and SADC (2013), there were 205 full-time students in
TEVET teacher training (60 per cent male), 835 in distance programmes (58 per cent
female), and 15 in extension programmes (73 per cent male). There are three types
of TEVET practitioners – trainers, assessors, and examiners – each with their own
specific responsibilities. Industry employees may be assessors and examiners, though
not in a training institution (UNESCO and SADC, 2013).

Table 34 Number and type of TEVET teaching staff

Type Number

Trainers 1,063

Assessors 466

Examiners 283

Total TEVET staff 1,812

Accreditation is required for trainers, but it is believed that some trainers lack accreditation and there are no data
on actual qualifications.
Source: UNESCO and SADC, 2013.

220 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

TEVETA is in charge of accrediting TEVET trainers, assessors, moderators, and
examiners. The accreditation system is based on a set of minimum technical and
teaching qualifications outlined by TEVETA. TEVET instructors qualify in teaching
at different TEVET levels, as specified in the TEVET qualifications framework.

For registration with TEVETA, trainers must possess the required qualifications,
pedagogical skills, and industrial experience. Two issues have been noticed, however.
First, an individual with no pedagogical skills can receive provisional registration
and be given time to update his or her pedagogical skills. Trainers are also sometimes
registered without the necessary industrial experience. Concerns have been
raised about the quality of instructors, as many of them possess specific technical
qualifications and work experience, but lack the required skills for effective teaching
(Commonwealth, 2016).

The other problem concerns the huge turnover of trainers, mostly due to low
remuneration. A survey undertaken by the NEAC on capacity assessment of public
TEVET institutions revealed that TEVET trainers, despite their technical importance,
are paid lower salaries than their counterparts in the teaching service. This imbalance
affects their motivation and accounts for their preference for migration to the
teaching service, leaving the TEVET sector understaffed and with high staff turnover
(GRZ, 2014).

Previously, when TEVET trainers were on the government pay roll, they could be
transferred from one training institution to another, according to need, and were
being paid by the Government. However, TEVET providers have since been given
their own management autonomy and can recruit, dismiss, and decide on pay.
Hence, many training institutions, particularly those in rural areas, have found it
extremely difficult to recruit and retain competent trainers. Some providers find
themselves trapped in a vicious circle, unable to recruit the staff they need to engage
more students, while low student numbers restrict recruitment efforts and prevent
them offering appropriate remuneration.

The result is that many training institutions cannot afford either to pay trainers a
decent, attractive salary or to invest further in their facilities and human resources.
This is a source of high staff turnover; the best trainers leave TEVET for more
attractive salaries elsewhere. Consequently, some institutions have no choice but to
recruit poorly qualified trainers who in some cases find themselves offering training
in courses above their own level of qualification. Facilities, furthermore, are generally
poor, which also leads to low-quality training incapable of attracting sufficient
numbers of learners.

221
 Discussion
A UNESCO study on the status of TVET in the SADC region found that ‘few countries
have systems in place for data management on TVET trainers/instructors, or for
initial teacher education or continuing professional development in contextualised
TVET staff qualifications’. It also highlighted that TVET instructors tend to occupy
a lowly place on the occupation hierarchy, especially when compared to teachers
in academic schools and lecturers in higher education (UNESCO & SADC, 2013).
Overall, the investment in TVET trainers does not seem to be a priority for most
countries in the region, including Zambia. This is somewhat in contradiction
with most of these countries’ policy frameworks, which recognize the importance
of TVET for youth employment and fulfilment as well as for their nations’ socio-
economic development.

UNESCO report (2015) of recommendations on technical and vocational education

and training dedicate a whole section (Section 35) to TEVET trainers. It notes the
importance of developing policies and frameworks to ensure a supply of qualified
and high-quality TVET staff, including teachers, instructors, trainers, tutors,
managers, administrators, extension agents, guidance staff and others. Also, referring
to the growing consideration of work-based learning and TVET in other settings
including community-based, distance and online, the Report invites Member States
to more systematically support and acknowledge the emerging roles and learning
needs of trainers, tutors and other facilitators, by considering the development or
strengthening of policies and frameworks concerning their status, recruitment
and professional development. It advocates that TVET staff should have decent
working conditions and adequate remuneration, as well as career and professional
development opportunities.

To this end, the Report recommends the application, in the TEVET subsector, of
the recommendation concerning the Status of Higher-Education Teaching Personnel
(1997) and that of the recommendation concerning the Status of Teachers (1966),
especially with regard to the provisions on preparation for the profession; further
education for teachers; employment and career; the rights and responsibilities of
teachers; conditions for effective teaching and learning; teachers’ salaries and social
security. In this connection, it is noteworthy that, currently, no TEVET trainers are
members of the Zambia National Union of Teachers, which would help raise their
status at the same level as their counterparts in the teaching service.

UNESCO (2015) also warned that trainers should be equipped to cope with changing
social and economic requirements. The role and responsibilities of trainers are
changing and they should be prepared and equipped to work with different types of
learners, including those from vulnerable groups (girls, people with disabilities, etc.).

222 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Hence, they should be provided with special training skills. They must also master
entrepreneurship and sustainable development skills in addition to their technical
subjects. It is therefore important to secure sufficient budget for continuous
professional development for TVET trainers.

In the same vein, TVET trainers in educational institutions and the workplace should
have the capacities required to make TVET responsive to the economic, social,
cultural, and environmental contexts of the communities and societies in which they
work and to contribute to the transformation and expansion of TVET. In particular,
TVET staff require initial preparation, as well as continuing training and professional
development, including experience of working in enterprises, and support to enable
them to reflect on their practice and to adapt to change. The initial and continuing
professional development of TVET staff should include training on guidance and
gender equality (UNESCO, 2015).

TEVETA has a role here in developing proper standards for the accreditation of
trainers, assessors, moderators and examiners. The example of Botswana, which has
developed such standards, can be inspiring.

A number of TEVET stakeholders consulted during the review seem to support that
trainers employed by public training centres be restored to the government payroll.
They are also in favour of introducing a system of performance management within
which each trainer would have to deliver against agreed targets.

RECOMMENDATIONS
• Government, through the Ministry of Higher Education, should strengthen the
systems of initial training, and review the Initial Training of Trainers Programme
to better prepare and equip trainers to handle new emerging situations.
• Government should strengthen the systems for continuous professional
development, management, and support of TEVET trainers.
• Government should restore public trainers to its payroll and pay them a decent
salary in order to raise their status and morale, and recruit and retain the best
trainers.
• TEVETA should review and enhance the standards of accreditation for trainers,
assessors, moderators, and examiners.

223
 Policy Issue 7: Low quality of training

The quality of TEVET, as assessed through system’s internal efficiency (pass,

throughout, and destination rates) and feedback from employers, is a matter of
concern.

Evidence
TEVETA ranks registered training institutions on the basis of their ability to satisfy
minimum training standards. It inspects TEVET institutions and awards grades, as
described below:

• Grade 1 – Very good: The institution is very good in terms of management, staff, and
facilities and shows very few weaknesses.

• Grade 2 – Good: The institution offers good basic quality training but shows some
problems in management, trainer qualifications, or facilities. It shows more strengths
than weaknesses but there are areas in need of improvement.

• Grade 3 – Satisfactory: The institution shows a mixture of strengths and weaknesses in

the above-mentioned quality elements. It barely meets the minimum training standards.

While this list of grades is supposed to be available in TEVETA, the issue is whether
it is up-to-date and made public to ensure that all stakeholders are aware thereof.
TEVETA also oversees assessment and certification. While continuous assessment is
carried out by training providers, evidence is accumulated for external verification.
The terminal testing of trainees’ competency is conducted by external assessors
and examiners, either on site or at a trade testing centre. TEVETA’s role in quality
assurance is critical; it is responsible for training, accrediting, and monitoring
verifiers, assessors, examiners and trade testing centres in order to ensure that their
marking is in line with national standards. Certificates are awarded to successful
trainees only once the marking sheets of external assessors/examiners have been
validated by TEVETA. The grading system for awards ranges from Level III (pass) to
Level I (distinction).

However, in its 2014 Report to National Assembly (on September 25, 2014), the
Committee on Education Science and Technology stated that ‘TEVETA inspections
were not conducted regularly to determine whether minimum training standards in
the TEVET institutions were maintained. The irregularity of inspections was due to
capacity and financial challenges by the regulatory Authority. However, these visits were
of little value as the visitations were often routine and mostly no feedback was given’.

224 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Zambia’s intention to ensure training for high-quality skills has been repeatedly
expressed since the 1996 TEVET policy. Successive strategic documents and
statements intended also to improve the quality of TVET, strengthen links to the
labour market, in terms of both requirements and opportunities, and broaden
the scope of the policy to include all types of TVET in both formal and informal
economic sectors. However, Zambia is still struggling to put its intentions into
practice, since a number of challenges identified continue to persist, including: the
poor state of repair of TVET institutions and inadequate and outdated equipment
and resources; logistical and financial constraints that prevented the government
from performing its governance role in the sector; outdated curricula; and ineffective
follow-up, evaluation, and inspection services. Consequently, the quality of TVET is
so low that many graduates of the system are not sufficiently skilled to meet the skills
needs at entry levels in the formal sector.

A report of Committee on Education Science and Technology (2014) pointed out

‘inappropriate and ineffective technological infrastructure which did not meet
the required standards to both training needs and final demand’. It stated also
that ‘infrastructure in terms of standing buildings, lecture rooms and offices in all
TEVET institutions is generally adequate. Some institutions have equipment for
which demand hardly exist, while others had little or no equipment where demand
exists. Most equipment being either obsolete or running down, training is done using
outdated technology which is sometimes totally different from what the trainees
would be expected to work with once they get into industry. The quality of equipment
is so inadequate that the average ratio per lecture time is up to thirty-six (36) students
to one (1) machine. This indubitably raises serious concerns about the quality of
learning that could be delivered’.

During the review mission it was also noted that the quality of facilities is very
poor in most training institutions. For example, in the Industrial Skills Training
Centre, Lusaka, the equipment dates back to 1986 when Germany provided Zambia
with state-of-the-art equipment in major sectors such as manufacturing and the
automotive industry. Much of this equipment is no longer in good working condition.
The workshops are in a state of despair. No major investment has been effected but
for a few pieces of equipment donated by Trans Aid. The Mazabuko skills training
centre occupies very old facilities, dating back to 1935. Here again, there is a lack of
equipment, and learning and teaching materials are expensive.

The other element which impacts directly on the quality of training is the quality
of trainers, as elaborated above. System exists at TEVETA to register and accredit
trainers. However, as many of these training institutions cannot afford to pay a decent
salary to trainers, they cannot attract quality trainers to work with them.

225
 As a consequence of the facts described above, most stakeholders noted, during the
review mission, that there has not been significant improvement as far as TEVET
quality is concerned. This have certainly have been exacerbated by other issues, such
as: curricula are not being reviewed at regular intervals; insufficient budget is allocated
to TEVET; no strategies have been introduced to establish internal and external
evaluation systems based on tracer mechanisms and criteria; no strengthening of
the capacity of the system has taken place to implement such systems; the National
Qualifications Framework is not fully operational; TVET data remain scant; and
financial resources are lacking and teaching is mainly academic.

Discussion
A sound assessment of TVET quality and efficiency should be based on the evidence
of pass, throughput and destination rates, related to the unit costs of delivering these
outcomes. According to UNESCO and SADC (2013), it is difficult to measure the
actual quality and efficiency of TVET in the SADC countries, due to weak quality of
data, both for unit costs and for trainees’ flows. For example, only five of the SADC
countries reported on throughput data, and only three reported that more than half
of a learners’ cohort exits successfully (Mauritius, Seychelles and Zambia – though,
the latter from a different dataset from the pass rate data) (UNESCO and SADC,
2013).

With this in the background, other factors to be considered include the ratio
of students to trainers and how the training compares with that on offer in other
countries. SADC came up with a series of criteria and indicators, which it used for
the assessment and review of TVET in the region, leading to the development of a
regional strategy for the revitalization of TVET in 2013. This UNESCO-SADC report
(2013) suggests that, while TVET quality indicator can be derived as a proxy measure
of training inputs, processes, outputs and outcomes, most countries have no data
readily available to calculate these proxy indicators. Hence, in the SADC countries,
including Zambia, data on the key quality measures are limited in both coverage and
robustness.

While available data are often incomplete and uneven (UNESCO and SADC, 2013),
the sample of indicators on the quality of TVET, presented in the above cited report,
suggests that the efficiency of TVET system is low in most SADC countries (Table
35).

226 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Table 35 TVET quality/efficiency indicators

Country Pass Throughput Destination rates into

rates rates employment: learner employment
rates after graduation

Related
6 months 2 years
Public Private Year Public Private Year to prog. Year
after after
study

Angola          

Botswana     23.1% 40.6% 2010

D.R.-Congo      

Lesotho 50.0% 70.2% 2009    

Madagascar        

Malawi *35.0% 2010   86.0% 42.4% 72.6% 2009

 

**52.5% 2007    

Mauritius 90.4% 2010 71.0% 2010 67.7% 2008

Mozambique 60.5% 2009        

Namibia 55.0% 2008     48.9% 2008

Seychelles 78.0% 2009 71.0% 2009    

South Africa     4.0% 2007 52.9%   60.0% 2007

Swaziland 59.0% 2010      

Tanzania #82.0% 80.0% 2010 23.0% 53.0% 2010 69.9% 2.2% 79.5% 2010
 

##92.0% 2010          

Zambia 51.0% 2010 54.0% 2010 55.0% 34.8% 44.5% 2008

Zanzibar 92.9% 2010      

Zimbabwe      

Source: UNESCO and SADC, 2013.

Notes:
** Data refer to trade test.
** Data refer to advanced craft.
# Data refer to public VET.
## Data refer to public TET.
 Throughput data in South Africa – taken from the first cohort of learners entering the National Certificate
(Vocational) programmes in 2007 at public FET colleges and passing all seven subjects at NQF Level 4 in
2009 - show throughput of 4%.

227
 Table 35 shows that only three countries (Mauritius, Seychelles and Tanzania) exhibited
pass rates greater than 75 per cent, and pass rates vary worryingly within several
countries across institutions, programmes and gender. The lack of comprehensive
throughput data in the region is a serious concern, as this is essential for measuring
the efficiency of TVET systems. As for the destination rates into employment, the
Report pointed out that there is very little information on learners after six months
of employment and minimal information on TVET learner employment in their
field of study. It is assumed also that qualification levels of trainers/instructors,
overall, are low, and may be particularly poor in segments of private TVET provision
(UNESCO and SADC, 2013). What is apparent for almost all SADC countries is that
their longstanding commitment to relevant training still has not yet translated into
effective TVET systems capable to establish the relevance of public TVET provision
for the labour market.

With regard to external efficiency, there is no better way of assessing the quality of
TEVET delivery than through the feedback of its end users (industry and employers).
Then, the quality of the training is the end result of a system incorporating a series
of sub-systems, namely: the effectiveness and responsiveness of the training offered
to the labour market, the quality of the training facilities available, the quality of
the trainers involved, and the degree of industry involvement in the delivery and
assessment of training.

Hence, ensuring quality requires capacity for regular assessment and monitoring of
the TEVET programme implementation as well as results in terms of students’ flows
and feedback from employers. However, a report by UNESCO and SADC (2012)
pointed out the limited capacity for TVET policy implementation in many SADC
countries. In the case of Zambia, the Report stated, this is attributed, amongst other
factors, to a dearth of managerial skills and capacity in the relevant departments and
institutions.

According to UNESCO and SADC Report (2013), the training quality assurance
system in the SADC region still needs to be strengthened in terms of monitoring
and evaluation, with a view to promoting quality improvement. The Report notes
the continuing efforts to involve professional bodies, trade associations, and subject
experts in the quality assurance system, although current results show that this is
being done only in a few sectors.

228 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

RECOMMENDATIONS

• Government should reinforce TEVETA to prioritise and direct financial resources

for the revitalization of the TEVET institutions through adequate investments in
the state of the art technical equipment, modern workshop, computer labs and
ICT infrastructure, in all the TEVETA colleges.
• Government should support TEVETA in enhancing its quality control
mechanisms to ensure that all public and private institutions meet quality
standards. To this end, TEVETA should revise and reinforce the standards for
approving and accrediting training institutions, trainers, moderators, examiners,
and assessors.
• TEVETA should strengthen the TEVET Management Information System
(TEVET-MIS) to ensure that data on system efficiency and quality are collected,
analyzed and used for TEVET policy and planning. Quality data will help to make
strategic decisions based on evidence, usage, and analysis of information related
to system efficiency in producing graduates as well as graduates’ employment
outcomes. This is critical if one has to maximize the efficient use of the limited
public funding to TEVET system.
• TEVETA should ensure that the grading of training centres is regularly updated
and made available to all relevant stakeholders and the large public.
• Government should support TEVETA to carry out regular and comprehensive
tracer studies and publish the findings.

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Bishop, J. H.; Mane, F. 2005. ‘Economic returns to vocational courses in US high schools’. In:
Vocationalized secondary education revisited (pp. 329–362). Netherlands: Springer.
Commonwealth of Learning (Ed. Du Vivier). 2016. Situational Analysis and Baseline Study
Open of Distance and Flexible Learning in the TEVET sector. Retrieved from: http://
dspace.col.org/bitstream/handle/11599/1776/2016_DuVivier_Situational-Analysis-
Baseline-Study-ODFL-TEVET_Zambia.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
Dubois, R.; Balgobin, K. 2008. Financing of TVET: Examples of some countries. National
TVET Policy Development Workshop, Swaziland 19–21 November 2008.
Dubois, R.; Balgobin, K. 2009. Best practice in financing of training through continuous
improvement of the levy/grant system. UNESCO/UNEVOC.
Dubois, R.; Juwaheer, Y. 2012. Skills for green jobs in Mauritius. ILO/UNESCO.
Durango, L. 2002. The financing of technical and vocational education and training (TVET):
Options and challenges for sub-Saharan Africa.

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 Government of Zambia. 2014. Committee on Education, Science and Technology. Report of the
Fourth Session of the Eleven National Assembly, appointed on Thursday 25th September 2014.
Retrieved from: http://www.parliament.gov.zm/sites/default/files/documents/committee_
reports/Report%20for%20the%20Fourth%20Session%20Education%202015.pdf.
IIEP (UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning). 2003. Synthesis of main
findings from two case studies carried out in Ghana and Zambia on private technical and
vocational education and training (TVET).
International Labour Organization. 2013. Zambia Green Jobs Programme. Republic of Zambia,
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groups/public/@africa/@ro-addis_ababa/documents/genericdocument/wcms_213390.
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Kharge, M. 2015. Forging India-Germany partnerships in skill development. Retrieved from:
http://download.diplo.de/New_Delhi/Final%20Report%20-%20India%20Germany%20
Partnership%20on%20Skills.pdf.
Konayuma, G. 2008. ‘Country report of TEVET in Zambia’. Paper presented at UNEVOC
international experts consultation seminar in Dublin.
Kuo, M. 2015. Technical vocational education and training. Retrieved from: http://www.unesco.
org/new/en/newdelhi/areas-of-action/education/technical-vocational-education-and-
training-tvet/.
Laglo, J.; Maclean R. (Eds). 2005. Vocationalized secondary education Revisited. Netherlands:
Springer.
Malaysia 11th National Development Plan 2016–2020. Retrieved from: http://rmk11.epu.gov.
my/book/eng/Elevent-Malaysia-Plan/RMKe-11%20Book.pdf.
Mauritius Institute of Training and Development. Corporate information.  Retrieved from:
http://www.mitd.mu/about_us.php.
Mauritius Qualifications Authority. 2012. Quality assurance standards for training institutions.
Retrieved from: http://www.gov.mu.
McGrath, S. 2004. Transforming vocational education and training in Southern Africa: New
issues and challenges. British Council.
MESVTEE. 2010. Education Sector National Implementation Framework III 2011–2015.
Lusaka, Zambia.
Ministry of Finance, Zambia. 2014. Revised Sixth National Development Plan (2013–2016).
Ministry of Education, Ethiopia. 2008. National Technical and Vocational Education and
Training Strategy, 2nd Edition.
MSTVT. 1996. Technical education, vocational and entrepreneurship training policy.
Nkanza, P. K. 2010. National report on literature review of TEVET in Zambia.

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Republic of Zambia. Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Industry. 2008. The Micro, Small and
Medium Enterprise Development Policy. Final Report. Retrieved from: file:///C:/Users/h_
mputu/Downloads/MSE%20Development%20Policy.pdf.
TEVETA (Technical Education, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training Authority). 2013.
Annual report 2013.
TEVETA. 2014. Strategic plan, 2014-2016.
TEVETA. 2013. Possible models for implementing vocational training in secondary schools.
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2013. Human Development Report of
Zambia.
UNESCO and SADC. 2013. Status of TVET in the SADC Region. Assessment and
Review of TVET in the SADC Region and of the Development of a Regional
Strategy for the Revitalisation of TVET. Retrieved from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/
images/0022/002256/225632e.pdf.
UNESCO-UNEVOC. 2004. UNESCO international experts meeting in Bonn.
UNESCO-UNEVOC. 2010. World TEVET Database: Zambia.
UNESCO-UNEVOC. 2012. Malaysian education policy review.
UNESCO-UNEVOC. 2013. Expanding TVET at the secondary school level. Asia Pacific
Education System Review Series.
UNESCO-UNEVOC. 2013. Policy review of TVET in Cambodia.
UNESCO-UNEVOC. 2013. TVET policy review for Zanzibar.
UNESCO-UNEVOC. 2014. TVET policy review: Saint Kitts and Nevis.
UNESCO-UNEVOC. 2015. Final report containing a draft text of the recommendation
concerning technical and vocational education and training. Retrieved from: http://unesdoc.
unesco.org/images/0023/002325/232598e.pdf.
UNESCO-UNEVOC. 2015. Unleashing the potential: Transforming TVET.
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Education and Training. Shanghai, People’s Republic of China, 14–16 May 2012.
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United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF). 2015. Zambia country report. Youth
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economic_opportunities_report_zambia.pdf.

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Education_in_Singapore#Secondary_education.
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exploreeconomies/zambia/~/media/giawb/doing%20business/documents/profiles/
country/ZMB.pdf.

3.4 Youth and Adult literacy and education (YALE)

Introduction: Context and policy environment of YALE in Zambia

Adult literacy education in Zambia is as old as the country’s independence. It was,
indeed, first introduced in 1966, under the Ministry of Community Development
and Social Services (MCDSS). The mandate to provide adult literacy remained under
MCDSS until 2004, when the Government, through a gazette notice, designated the
Ministry of General Education (MoGE), to be in charge of this portfolio. Thus, before
2004, the Ministry of Education had not been directly involved in providing adult
literacy education in Zambia. Its involvement was at the post-adult literacy level.

From 1965 up to the 1980s, people were encouraged to enrol in evening classes
conducted by Ministry of Education under the then Department of Continuing
Education, now the Directorate of Distance Education (DODE). However, since
2004, MoGE, through DODE, has been providing, managing, coordinating and
monitoring YALE activities; and in 2007, the Permanent Secretary Ministry of
Education appointed an adult literacy technical committee. In addition to MoGE,
other line Ministries as well as twenty-five different organisations, namely, Civil
Societies and Faith Based Organisations, conduct adult literacy programmes in the
country.

Concurrently, several acts and policies were ratified in order to guarantee education
and literacy for all. Zambia’s constitution of 1964 which made provision for equal
and adequate educational opportunities in all fields and at all levels in the form
of directive principles, was the first in a long series of national and international
conventions. Within this framework, various government policy documents aimed at
regulating and guiding YALE provision in Zambia. From 2003 to 2007, the Ministry
of Education Strategic Plan (MoESP) covered post-primary, ECCDE and also adult
literacy areas. Following this, the National Implementation Framework (NIF),
2007 – 2010, developed four priorities areas, including literacy education. This was
reinforced with the Fifth National Development Plan (FNDP) from 2006 to 2010.

232 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

The immediate focus of the sub-sector during the FNDP was policy development,
clarifying the roles of the public sector and civil society in literacy education delivery.
In the light of this, FNDP has put a strong emphasis on this field, planning, amongst
others, to provide specialized literacy programmes to the blind and deaf adults as well
as gender education to literacy learners and instructors, review literacy curricula,
develop specific literacy programmes for youth and particularly female youth and
ensure equitable access to literacy education (women and rural communities).13

The current National Development Plan, the Sixth National Development Plan
(SNDP), also made some provisions to increase Adult literacy levels, through:
(i) establishing and increasing participation in adult literacy centres; (ii) enhancing
access and quality assurance; (iii)  linking adult literacy programmes to higher
education and skills development programmes, and (iv) building capacity of adult
literacy providers at all levels.14 In the same vein, NIF III (2011-2015) dedicated one
of its goals to adult literacy with the following strategic objectives: (i)  to increase
access to adult literacy education; (ii) to improve the quality of literacy education,
and (iii) to promote equity in the delivery of adult literacy programmes15.

A stand-alone policy on adult literacy was first mooted in 2004 when the Ministry
of Education was allocated responsibility for literacy. Also, some other plans and
policies, not directly under the Ministry of Education, included YALE in their
programmes. The 2003 policy of the Ministry of Community Development,
Mother and Child Health did include basic provisions for literacy work.16 Similarly,
the National Youth Policy of 2015 set several objectives, one of which deals with
education and skills development and recommends to advocate for the incorporation
of literacy, numeracy, life and communication skills in the curriculum for those who
cannot return to mainstream education.17

The civil society organization, People’s Action Forum (PAF), has been contributing
constructively to the formulation of such a policy since 2008, when it published ‘An
assessment of the extent of adult literacy in Zambia’ based on an extensive survey of
literacy organizations and literacy workers in the country. In 2009, PAF followed this
up with a stakeholder position paper setting out a number of strategies entitled ‘Adult
literacy: the way forward in Zambia’. Following the Sixth International Conference
on Adult Education (CONFINTEA VI) in Belem in 2012, which boosted national
efforts to reinforce policies and laws concerning YALE, PAF undertook a further

13 National Report of Zambia by MoE, 2008.

14 SNDP p. 94.
15 NIF III p. 34.
16 The National Policy for the Department of Community and Development.
17 National Youth Policy p. 9.

233
 study, ‘Provision of youth and adult learning and education in Zambia after Belem’,
followed in 2014 by a large workshop, the report of which is entitled ‘Strategy for
accelerating YALE programmes in Zambia after Belem’.

Alongside these initiatives, several attempts were made to establish a policy that
would be entirely dedicated to youth and adult literacy and education. In the past
decade, a standalone policy on youth and adult literacy was initiated but it finally
was not materialised. In 2009, DODE did set about drafting a National Policy on
Youth and Adult Literacy, with the process reaching its culmination in 2015. This
Policy was developed through provincial consultative meetings and with inputs
from various stakeholders at different levels. Recently, however, the Ministry was
advised by Cabinet Office that it would prefer to see such a policy as a part of a
revised education policy, rather than a standalone policy. Thus, despite literacy being
included in several national plans and policies, the country has no policy on adult
literacy until now. YALE is still guided by the heterogeneous framework described
above.

YALE institutions and provision in Zambia

Zambia has a number of education programmes that serve youth and adult
populations. Unfortunately, these programmes are too small in scale, suffer from
serious shortages of funding, and are apparently in need of rejuvenation. Currently
0.01 per cent of the education budget is allocated to youth and adult literacy.18

Currently YALE is offered through structured and non-structured systems, at literacy

centres, countrywide. In 2015, DODE reported that the total number of adults
and young people enrolled in 1,057 literacy centres was 27,132. Only one-third of
provision was provided by MoGE, as shown in Table 36.19 The other providers include
The Ministry of Community Development, Mother and Child Health, the Ministry
of Health, the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, the Ministry of Home Affairs
(Prisons Service), faith-based organizations, and non-governmental organizations.
Of particular note is the People’s Action Forum that has implemented a REFLECT
approach in three provinces and played an advocacy role for increased attention to
youth and adult literacy in the country.

18 Talking notes for the Permanent Secretary.

19 Talking notes for the Permanent Secretary. No gender breakdown is provided. However, historical data
provided by the MCDMCH suggests that about 70 per cent of literacy learners are women.

234 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Table 36 Enrolment in literacy centres in Zambia in 2014

Provider Number Number Number

of Centres of Learners of Learners
per centre

MoGE 315 9,091 29

Others 742 18,041 24

Total 1,057 27,132 26

Source: DODE.

The Zambian Government’s literacy programme is offered at three levels, described

as follows:

• Basic literacy is the ability to read, write and count. It increases opportunities in
people’s lives in so far as understanding and acting on the basis of the written
word is concerned.

• Functional literacy is the ability to perform a function (a duty, service, or business)

by the individual who has acquired basic skills in reading, writing and counting
in order to understand issues related to income-generating activities such as
crop-growing, nutrition, health, childcare, and issues of household management.

• Integrated literacy is the ability for an individual to combine basic and functional
literacy in order to improve the interaction between the environment and people’s
livelihoods.20

The Ministry of Community Development originally held the lead function for
literacy in government, from 1965 until 2004, when the lead was transferred to
the Ministry of Education. It was thought strategically useful for the Ministry of
Community Development, Mother and Child Health to continue its involvement
with functional and integrated literacy in view of the personnel that it already
had engaged in the field. A new programme of functional literacy has since been
developed by MCDMCH, dealing with topics such as civic education, management
and skills education, entrepreneurship skills, income-generating skills, computer
literacy, health and environmental education, numeracy skills, and reading and
writing Zambian languages. The Ministry has not, however, been able to implement
this programme because of a lack of funding. Some materials dating back to the 1990s
are still in use. MoGE has also recently developed a new literacy curriculum and new

20 Education for All 2015 National Review: Zambia.

235
 materials in seven languages which were expected to be introduced in 2015. Topics
include entrepreneurship, fishing, human rights, HIV and AIDS, education, gender,
food and nutrition, pig keeping, wealth, arithmetic, and communicative English.

The MoGE has also taken a number of initiatives to reinforce the institutional and
human capacities to deliver YALE. These include the establishment of a National
Adult Literacy Technical Committee in 2008, the training of the Ministry staff in
YALE methodologies, and the convening of YALE stakeholder policy dialogues.

Youth or adult learners are able to sit the Grade 7 national examination but it is
not known how often this happens. It seems that certificates of achievement are
seldom issued to adult literacy learners. A national qualifications authority is being
established and could play a role in the validation of certificates given to adult
learners, depending on the structure of the future national qualifications framework.

At secondary level, youth and adult learners can join programmes offered by DODE
at their centres. These are run on a ‘night school’ model (though, in fact, classes
usually meet in the afternoon) by the provincial and district education authorities
(since the administration of education has been decentralized) and make use of
learning materials produced by the Zambian College of Open and Distance Education
(ZACODE), which is based in Luanshya and is part of DODE. There is a widespread
phenomenon of schools operating ‘academic production units’ to provide re-sit
opportunities for candidates at secondary level. Some adult learners are assisted by
correspondence study with ZACODE, but no data have been found on the extent of
these programmes.

Technically, the TEVET system is an important part of the education available to

young people and adults, but this is considered in depth in Section 2.3. TEVET is,
however, considered part of the lifelong learning system discussed below.

Brief history, status of and trends in YALE

Brief history of YALE
Zambia has long experience of adult literacy programmes and campaigns. The first
initiative, the Basic Literacy Programme, was launched in 1966 by the Department of
Community Development under the Ministry of Rural Development. This programme
ran from 1966 to 1971, with an emphasis on the three Rs i.e. writing, reading and
arithmetic. It involved large numbers of participants (totalling 65,887 participants, of
which 90 per cent females) with over 1,300 local volunteer teachers thereby making
literacy a major national concern and not just the responsibility of few full-time
government officers (Luchembe, 2016). Despite funding availability, this project

236 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

has not succeeded, due to a number of reasons, including: disconnection between
the contents of the primers and the social context; inadequate and quick delivery
of primers, which resulted in relapses into illiteracy for some participants; lack of
supervision; problems of remunerating officers and instructors; and lack of interest
among literacy officers.

A second initiative, the Functional Literacy Programme – Agriculture, with emphasis

on agricultural production, was introduced in 1970. Its focus was on growing maize
– the staple crop of the country. A radio programme on literacy was also introduced
to supplement the project, broadcasting information on self-help programme,
mother and child care, self-reliance and how to save money from their produce.
This programme was jointly funded by the government and UNESCO. Although the
programme had a big geographical coverage, with 80 per cent female participants,
the total enrolment was disappointingly low. The total enrolment, from 1971 to 1973,
was 2,928 participants. Also this programme suffered from inadequate budget, which
affected the availability of inputs and resources such as books.

A third programme, the Functional Literacy, Health and Nutrition Programme started
in 1978 and introduced topics on health and nutrition into the state-run functional
literacy programme. This programme, which has benefitted from the collaboration
between the Ministries of Education, FAO and WHO, was initially well funded,
but encountered funding challenges later on. Also, the project evaluation found
that the primers were not relevant to the peculiarities of different regions. And a
study by UNESCO, in 1989, identified lack of continuing education and lack of
relevant instructional materials, as responsible for the relapse into illiteracy of some
participants. In addition, the programme lacked human resources such as teachers.

The most recent programme was the National Literacy Campaign, ran for seven years,
from 1992 to 1998. The goal of the campaign was to reduce illiteracy to 12 per cent by
the year 2000. The beneficiaries were identified as ‘the underprivileged women and
men who had attended school and those who had relapsed into illiteracy’. In 1992,
the government established the Zambia National Alliance for the Advancement of
Literacy (ZAALIT), with the main objective to design and implement a campaign to
eradicate adult illiteracy. By 1993, ZAALIT had established over 1,000 classes with an
enrolment of 25,243 students. However, like other previous campaigns ZAALIT was
also faced with lack of adequate funds. By the end of 1998, some 98,701 people had
participated in the campaign.

Recent developments and prospects in youth and adult literacy

Within the framework of EFA movement, Zambia has adopted the EFA Goal 4 on youth
and adult literacy, and has strived to achieve a 50 per cent reduction in illiteracy by 2015.

237
 In 2004, a few years after the launch of EFA, a total of 33,157 adult learners were enrolled
in institutions offering literacy classes, out of which 14,391 were males and 18,766 were
females.21 In 2006, 36,523 learners attended literacy classes and one year later there were
2,091 literacy classes with 41,894 learners (9,750 males, 32,324 females).22

However, the status of adult literacy in Zambia suggests that all the interventions
described above have not had much impact. In fact, the latest data (UNESCO 2014)
indicate that Zambia, like 51 of the 87 countries with data, is still far from achieving the
literacy goal. While the national target set for 2015 was to halve the illiteracy rate from
32.8 per cent in 2004 to 16.4 per cent in 2015, the actual illiterate rate was estimated at
13.07 per cent, equating to 1.9 million adult illiterates (EFA Review 2015). However,
it is important to mention the big difference between data from Zambia CSO and
those provided by UNESCO. Furthermore, there is a large difference between literacy
data collected through individuals’ self-declaration and those derived from a survey
reading test. A reading test is a more precise measure of an individual’s literacy skills
and typically yields lower literacy rates than the self- or household declarations used
in most censuses and surveys, which explains the observed drop in literacy rates
for some years in countries like Zambia (see Table 37 and Figure 29). In fact, data
derived from Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) suggest higher level of illiteracy
(36.6 per cent in 2015) than that presented in the Zambia EFA Report.

Table 37 Trends in youth and adult literacy in Zambia, 1990-2015

Year Adult (15 years and older) Youth (15 to 24 years)

Literacy rate Illiterate pop. Literacy rate Illiterate pop.

MF M F GPI MF(000) %F MF M F GPI MF(000) %F

1990 65.0 73.0 57.4 0.79 1,487 61.9 66.4 67.3 65.5 0.97 524 51.3

1999 68.0 76.3 59.8 0.78 1,742 63.3 69.5 72.6 66.2 0.91 630 55.1

2002 69.1 80.9 61.8 0.76 1,666 66.9 69.1 77.7 66.3 0.85 614 60.1

2007*,a 61.4 71.9 51.8 0.72 2,478 63.3 64.0 70.3 58.5 0.83 864 58.2

2015*,a 63.4 70.9 55.8 0.79 2,953 60.2 65.8 69.4 62.1 0.89 1,029 55.2

Notes:
* UIS estimation. a: Data based on reading test in a national household survey.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2013.

21 Zambia EFA 2015 Review, 2014.

22 NIF III p. 32, 33.
238 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia
It is striking to mention that data based on reading test indicate very minor changes
in youth and adult literacy rates between 2007 and 2015, suggesting negligible impact
of the different literacy programmes and initiatives undertaken in Zambia.

Care should be taken when analysing trends over time, particularly when comparing
the data and indicators based on self-declarations and those derived from reading
tests. Also the concept of literacy has evolved over the years. An important
development in recent years is an increased emphasis on functional literacy and a
view of literacy as a continuum of skills that cannot be fully captured with traditional
dichotomous measures of literacy.

Figure 29 Trends in youth and adult literacy in Zambia, 1990-2015

Zambia: Adult literacy rate, 1990-2015 Zambia: Youth literacy rate, 1990-2015

2015 target
Litaracy rate (%)

Litaracy rate (%)

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2013.

Note: Literacy rates for 2007 and 2015 are based on a reading test in a Demographic and Health Survey (DHS),
literacy rates for other years are based on self- or household declaration of literacy skills in a national survey or
census.

The above caution in interpreting data should not conceal the fact that YALE remains
an important challenge to be addressed by the Government of Zambia, as the national
development policy identified literacy as a way of fighting poverty and tackling issues
of learning support for children, amongst other things.

Also, despite a large participation of females in different literacy programmes and

initiatives, the illiteracy continues to be more prevalent among females than males,
with estimated literacy rates at 55.8 per cent and 70.9 per cent, respectively, in 2015.
Also, illiteracy is more pervasive in rural than urban areas. Furthermore, regional
disparity is noticeable, as literacy rates in provinces like Copperbelt and Lusaka are
estimated to be more than 80 per cent, compared to 61 per cent in Northern Province
and 54 per cent in Eastern Province (CSO, 2010).

239
 In terms of prospects, the rapid expansion of basic education in Zambia is
undoubtedly a powerful asset to enhance youth and adult literacy rates in the medium
and long terms. Research evidence shows that the spread in literacy is determined
by the population growth, the pace in universalizing primary/basic education, and
the maintenance or follow-up to literacy to avoid relapses into illiteracy. While
Zambia can count on the development of formal education to eliminate illiteracy, it
is important to ensure that basic education is made compulsory by law (to minimize
dropout) and that the quality of education is enhanced to prevent relapses into
illiteracy. Nevertheless, given the current low levels of literacy among adults, Zambia
has still to invest on adult literacy if its objective to eradicate illiteracy has to be
achieved.

Finally, it should be noted that the YALE challenge is a global one. Findings from
the global review of the EFA decades suggest that, apart from the worrying fact that
over half of the countries in the world have no data to assess progress, investments
in YALE have been inadequate, inefficient or poorly designed. The relative lack of
attention, internationally and nationally, to EFA goal 4 has been well documented
(Robinson 2005a; UNESCO 2007). Depending on country contexts, this situation
can be explained by lack of political commitment, inadequate YALE policy, lack of
funding, etc.

Key issues and challenges in YALE in Zambia

Despite different initiatives by the Government and stakeholders, YALE practice and
provision still remain a challenge in Zambia. The main issues identified in recent
years can be grouped into four categories:

(i) Policy challenges: these relate to poor coordination and monitoring of different

providers and their YALE programmes, weak administration and implementation
structures in MoGE, lack of accurate YALE statistics, and weak monitoring and
evaluation strategies. Besides, most of the existing YALE programmes are still based
on the traditional concept of literacy, i.e. basic skills in reading, writing and numeracy,
rather than the evolving notion of literacy as a continuum of knowledge and skills in
the lifelong learning perspective.

(ii) Access and equity related-issues: due to lack of adequate infrastructure, equipment
and learning materials, especially for people in rural setting and those with disability.

(iii) Inadequate structures and capacity, and poor public funding: leading to low and
erratic remuneration for facilitators/instructors, low staff motivation, and inadequate
infrastructure and equipment.

240 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

(iv) Quality issues: due to the limitation in the language of instruction, lack or
inadequate teaching and learning materials, lack of trained staff in YALE methodology
and pedagogical skills in adult learning. It was reported, for example, that due to lack
of teaching and learning materials, some YALE centres use materials that are meant
for children. The limitation in languages of instruction has also affected production
of materials for teaching and consequently excludes people who are not familiar with
the selected language. Also, there is heavy reliance on volunteers leading the learning
groups.

Policy issue 1: Lack of a comprehensive national YALE policy and

weak reflection of lifelong learning perspective in YALE
programmes

Despite the fact that YALE is mentioned in all education policy documents, as part
of the strategies to address the literacy challenges, YALE provision is still poorly
regulated and weakly coordinated, with little policy guidance, due to lack of policy
foundation. This piecemeal approach to YALE practice and provision does affect the
effectiveness and the efficiency of this subsector. Beside, most YALE programmes in
Zambia are still based on the traditional concept of literacy, rather than the lifelong
learning perspective.

Evidence
While Zambia has made substantial progress in expanding formal basic education,
and included in different policy documents its intention to eradicating illiteracy, the
country does not have a deliberate YALE policy, nor a policy on lifelong learning.
Mulenga (2007) notes that the lack of YALE policy probably explains why the literacy
statistics in Zambia have never been impressive by any standard.

Indeed, adult literacy was included in many national plans and policies, since the
country’s independence in the 1964. Some were more specific and dedicated one of
their priorities to literacy but all advocated for a better quality, access and equality for
YALE. Moreover, at an international level, Zambia was involved in EFA, MDG and
SDG agendas, and committed to achieve significant progress in the education sector,
including literacy domain.

The absence of a national policy on YALE is manifest through: the poor

coordination and monitoring of different providers and their YALE programmes;
the poor regulation, and the weak administration and implementation structures
in MoGE; the lack of YALE statistics, and monitoring and evaluation strategies.

241
 Lack of policy on YALE has even been acknowledged by a Minister of Education,
Geoffrey Lungwangwa, in 2009, when he stated that ‘the government would have a
national adult literacy policy in place soon’ (Luchembe, 2016). In 2007, the Ministry
of Education made an attempt to develop a policy on YALE, through a consultancy
contract with Zambia Open University. In the same year, the Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Education appointed an adult literacy technical committee comprising
members from different constituencies, namely, civil societies, faith based and
Government ministries to contribute to the draft policy on behalf of their respective
organisations, taking into account the consultant report. This committee was also
tasked to spearhead research in YALE provision and practice. Alongside these
initiatives, civil society with PAF’s constant contribution to YALE provided a great
number of publications and studies and also required improvements concerning
literacy in the country.

However, all these initiatives had difficulties to reach their objectives and have not
fully achieved their targets. This was due to, amongst other issues, a lack of a firm
foundation that would have ensured a good coordination between the different
bodies providing literacy services. Currently twenty-five different organisations,
including Civil Societies and Faith Based Organisations (FBOs), in addition to
three line ministries (MoGE, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives and the
Ministry of Local Government and Housing), conduct adult literacy programmes in
Zambia as either basic literacy or functional literacy or both.

As mentioned earlier, the draft policy on YALE, developed by DODE in 2009, which
would provide a solid basis and fulfilled a vital role by regulating, coordinating and
establishing standards for YALE, has never passed; the Cabinet Office was in favour
of a YALE policy integrated in a revised education plan, rather than a standalone
policy.

Thus, adult literacy education practice and provision in Zambia remains, until today,
uncoordinated, with little national policy guidance. The objectives planned through
national plans and the other various bodies turn out to be disharmonised and not
as efficient as it could be. The lack of a comprehensive national policy on YALE has
certainly affected the development of this subsector, and can be an explanation of
the stagnation or the reduction recorded in adult literacy rates over the recent years.
Also, according to many education stakeholders, most of existing YALE programmes
in Zambia are still based on the traditional concept of literacy, i.e. ability to read,
write and calculate, rather than the evolving notion of literacy conceived within the
lifelong learning perspective.

242 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Discussion
A sound policy and legal framework is critical to provide clear direction and solid
foundation for a long-term development of YALE in Zambia. In the current context
of mainstreaming the education 2030 agenda, this offers an opportunity to align
YALE policy with the Sustainable Development Goals, especially in the perspective
of lifelong learning.

Traditionally, literacy has been interpreted as referring to the most basic of skills
in reading, writing, and numeracy. Nowadays, however, it is found more useful to
consider literacy in terms of a continuum of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values,
still starting at a basic level, but moving on through increasing levels of fluency and
complexity, to include, for instance, the ability to use computers and other modern
technology for self-directed learning. Very basic literacy is very important in giving
self-confidence to adult learners, but may not be sufficient for developmental
purposes. Investment in foundation literacy can deliver significant returns only if
that foundation is built on to become sustainable and lead to further (independent)
learning. As with building a house, a good foundation is essential, but on its own does
not provide the wished-for shelter. It is for this reason that Sustainable Development
Goal 4 emphasizes the need not only to ‘ensure inclusive and equitable quality
education’ but also to ‘promote lifelong learning opportunities for all’. The focus on
inclusive, equitable, and quality lifelong learning opportunities for all also underpins
the Incheon Declaration adopted at the World Education Forum (Incheon, Republic
of Korea, 19–22 May 2015) and the Education 2030 Framework for Action: Towards
education and lifelong learning for all discussed in Incheon and adopted at the high-
level meeting on 4 November 2015.

The Education 2030 Framework for Action clearly states that: ‘The right to education
begins at birth and continues throughout life; therefore the concept of lifelong
learning guides Education 2030. Beyond formal schooling, flexible lifelong and
broad learning opportunities should be provided through non-formal pathways and
through stimulating informal learning.’

A strategic approach to lifelong learning is described as follows: ‘Beginning at birth,

lifelong learning should be embedded in education systems through institutional
strategies and policies, adequately resourced programmes, as well as robust
partnerships at the local, regional, national and international levels, to ensure
opportunities for all age groups including adults. Special measures are needed to
address the needs of adult learners and millions of children, youth and adults who
remain illiterate. To ensure the acquisition of new knowledge and skills, countries
should institutionalize mechanisms and processes to assess the quality and quantity
of the skills available and ensure that curricula and education and training systems

243
 are responsive to the needs of the labour market and society. Cross-sector approaches
traversing education, science and technology, family, employment, industrial and
economic development, migration and integration, citizenship, social welfare and
public finance policies should be used.’

Some of the relevant targets under discussion include: (i) A percentage increase (to
be determined nationally), by 2030, in the number of youth and adults who have
relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent
jobs and entrepreneurship (Target 4.4); (ii) By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in
education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training
for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and
children in vulnerable situations (Target 4.5); (iii) By 2030, ensure that all youth and
at least a percentage of adults (to be determined nationally), both men and women,
achieve literacy and numeracy (Target 4.6).

In the same vein, African education ministers meeting in Kigali, Rwanda, for the
Sub-Saharan Africa Regional Ministerial Conference on Education Post-2015 (9-11
February 2015), agreed on the following statement: ‘We recognize the high percentage
of youth as a potential asset to be harnessed for Africa’s transformation. Noting the
high adult and youth illiteracy levels, particularly of girls and women, and the huge
numbers of out-of-school children and youth, we are determined to ensure that all
youth and adults, especially women, have access to continuous lifelong learning and
functional literacy, numeracy and requisite skills programmes for life and work. We
commit to the use of mother tongue instruction before transiting to use of national/
international languages for literacy programmes. We further call for the promotion
of literacy programmes at the workplace’.23

The African Education Ministers meeting also recognized the policy challenges for
YALE, when it highlighted that ‘literacy provision is not an unusual issue in the world,
including in this region, where every country nonetheless established some form of
literacy provision and has at least some references to literacy in general development
policies and plans. However, only few of them have overt, ratified national literacy
policies’.

Uganda is an exception that can inspire Zambia and other countries in the setting of a
standalone policy concerning YALE. Indeed, in 2002, Uganda established a National
Adult Literacy Strategic Plan (NALSIP), for the time period 2002/3 and 2006/7.
This Plan provided a strategic direction for provision of adult literacy services in
the country and increased financing of adult literacy both from the Government of

23 Sub-Saharan Africa Statement on Education Post-2015 (Kigali Statement).

244 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Uganda and development partners. The overall objective of NALSIP was to attain
50 per cent literacy (of the then 7million non - illiterate population), which was an
ambitious target of turning 3.5 million illiterates into literates by 2007. The plan
also targeted an equitable access to basic and continuing education for women
and out-of-school girls. In order to consolidate it, NALSIP was followed by the
National Action Plan for Adult Literacy (NAPAL) which covers the period of 2011-
2016 and is focused on expanding access to and improving quality of adult literacy
services through enhancing capacity of implementers, strengthening coordination
and management, and collaboration and partnerships. NALSIP had many positive
impacts on YALE in the country. Following its adoption and the launch of NAPAL,
the quality of learning has been improved and the knowledge and skills of adult
literacy facilitators/instructors and community development workers involved in the
programme have been strengthened, which has heightened the demand for higher
level training for adult literacy learners and instructors. Even though NALSIP has
met some challenges and its five-year-implementation reached out only 1,234,889
adult learners out of the targeted 3.5 million non-literates (constituting only a 35 per
cent achievement in enrolment). These two initiatives contributed to improving
Uganda’s adult literacy rate which increased from 68.14 per cent in 2002 to 73.86 per
cent in 2015, ranking the country amongst the best performers in the sub-Saharan
Africa region24.

In view of the requirements emanating from the Sustainable Development Goals,

as discussed above, it would be appropriate for Zambia to set about drafting a
broad education policy based on the organizing paradigm of a learning society or a
lifelong learning system. Such a system would consider the learning needs not only
of children but also of youth and adults. It would allow and facilitate both vertical
and horizontal paths for learners to improve their levels of education. In deciding to
establish a national qualifications authority, Zambia has already taken an important
step in this direction.

Although much more discussion will be needed, the following diagram might suggest
the beginning of a representation of such a system in Zambia. Clarified policy on
YALE, and provision for YALE in education legislation, would provide clear direction
and a firm foundation for the long-term development of YALE in Zambia.

24 UIS

245
 Figure 30 Emerging learning society or lifelong learning system in Zambia (for
discussion)

NQF level
NQF level Institutions
Institutions

State Private Internet Social

10
universi- education free move-
9 ties and institu- media ments,
Colleges tions and political
8
libraries structures,
7 associa-
Technical tions,
6
and religious
vocation- bodies,
al educa- Work- sports,
5
tion & based music, and
4 training learning cultural
State Academic State and HRD groups,
3
secondary production YALE entrepre- science
schools units night neurship bodies, etc.
schools
and
Skills State
2 ZACODE
training schools for
basic
education Community State NGO and
1
schools YALE FBO
program- YALE
mes program-
(incl. non- mes
education
ministries)

Family- State ECD

based Centres
early
childhood
develop-
ment and
health Mobility and
Mobility and cross-
cross-fertilization
fertilization

RECOMMENDATIONS

• The education policy currently being written by MoGE (and the related revised
education bill) should contain enabling provisions concerning YALE at both
primary and secondary levels. It should further empower MoGE to establish a
range of YALE programmes from a very basic level of education to secondary and
further education level.
• Zambia should frame its new education policy within a lifelong learning paradigm
in line with the requirements of the Sustainable Development Goals.
• Government, through MoGE, should support the finalization of the Youth and
Adult Literacy Policy drafted in 2009, in collaboration with key stakeholders,

246 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 including CSOs and FBOs. This policy should address the problems related to
regulation, coordination, standardisation and funding, as well as issues regarding
data, monitoring and evaluation of YALE in Zambia.
• Provision should also be made for the creation of a national council on YALE,
to be appointed by the minister, with the main function of bringing together all
actors in YALE in a think tank, and for this council to produce an annual report
on YALE (not just on its own activities).

Policy issue 2: Limited and inequitable access to YALE

In light of the high potential demand for YALE (uneducated youth and adults,
including school dropouts and out-of-school adolescents), the low and decreasing
enrolment in literacy centres is a matter of concern.

Evidence
Recent literacy data, from Demographic and Health Survey 2013-2014, suggest that
there are more than 2.2 million Zambian youth and adults aged 15-49 years who
never went to school or who have minimal literacy skills. This population represents
the primary target for YALE, to which should be added the school dropouts and
out-of-school adolescents who will progressively join the adult population. The adult
illiterates aged 50 years and above are also part of potential demand for YALE.

However, in 2015, DODE reported that the total number of adults and youth
enrolled in 1,057 literacy centres decreased and stood at 27,132 learners. It should
be noted that, in 2004, a total of 33,157 adult learners were enrolled in institutions
offering literacy classes, out of whom 57 per cent were females. In 2006, the number
of learners attended literacy classes reached 36,523 and one year later there were
2,091 literacy classes with 41,894 learners, out of whom 77 per cent were females.

It is striking to note that, with more than 2.2 million illiterate adults aged 15-49,
the number of the learners engaged in adult literacy programmes has never reached
50,000 over the last ten years. It is clear that the current level of access to YALE is not
sufficient to make an impact on the extent of need. Greater efforts must therefore
be made to increase access. Through Figures 31 and 32, presenting respectively, the
percentage distribution of adults (15-49) by level of literacy and by level of education
attended, one can assess how critical the issues of adult illiteracy are in Zambia. It is
important to note that, in the 2013-14 DHS, the literacy status of respondents was
determined by assessing their ability to read all or part of a simple sentence in any
of Zambia’s seven major language groups. The literacy test was administered only to
respondents who had less than secondary education.

247
 While more recent data show that two-thirds of those engaged in YALE are women,
DHS indicate that men are more likely to be literate than women. In fact, the literacy
rate for male adults (15-49) is estimated at 82.7 per cent, compared to 67.5 per cent
for female adults (15-49). Also, Figure 33 indicates that men are more educated than
women in all categories.

Figure 31 Adults age 15-49 by literacy status and gender

31.8%
Cannot Female
read at all 16.8% Male

Can read 8.9%

part of a
sentence 10.2%

Can read 13.8%

a whole
sentence 15.7%

Secondary 44.8%
school or
higher 56.8%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Source: Zambia DHS 2013-2014.

Figure 32 Adults age 15-49 by highest level of schooling attended or completed

5% Female
More than secondary
8%
Male
8%
Complete secondary
14%
32%
Some secondary ed.
35%
16%
Complete primary
16%
31%
Some primary ed.
23%
8%
No education
4%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

Source: Zambia DHS 2013-2014.

DHS data also indicate that literacy varies notably by place of residence. As displayed
in Figure 33 and Figure 34, 83 per cent of women residing in urban areas are literate,
as compared with only 54 per cent of rural women. Literacy is highest among women

248 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

in Copperbelt (84 per cent) and lowest among those in Luapula (48 per cent). Literacy
increases substantially with increasing household wealth, ranging from 38 per cent
among women in the lowest wealth quintile to 93 per cent among those in the highest
quintile. This finding confirms the positive association between economic status
and literacy. Moreover, the problem of illiteracy continues to be pervasive among
marginalized groups such as women, children and people with disabilities.

Figure 33 Adult age 15-49 literacy rates by place of residence

100% 93%
Urban
90% 83%
Rural
80% 73%
70%
60% 54%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Male Female

Source: Zambia DHS 2013-2014.

Figure 34 Adult (15-49) literacy rate by gender and province

Lusaka 80%
93%
Copperbelt 84%
91%
North-Western 61%
84%
Southern 72%
81%
Central 68%
80% Female
Western 66%
80% Male
Luapula 48%
78%
Muchinga 54%
76%
Northern 49%
76%
Eastern 49%
66%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Source: Zambia DHS 2013-2014.

However, Government capacity to expand access to YALE is limited by a number of

factors, including funding. For example, MCDMCH has a new functional literacy
programme, which it cannot implement, due to lack of funding. Similarly, the

249
 DODE’s basic literacy programme has been making very slow progress, mostly due to
lack of funding, inadequate structures and weak capacity. Previously (in the process
of developing the draft literacy policy), concerned stakeholders have suggested 3 per
cent of the education budget as a realistic target for YALE funding.

During the review mission, Zambian education stakeholders pointed out the need to
expand access to literacy, including through mobilizing all relevant partners, such as
CPs, employers, NGOs, etc. to contribute directly to the provision of literacy. They
noted that very few employers or large statutory bodies have YALE programmes for
their employees. The same applies to the defence force and the police. A number
of NGOs and faith-based organizations (FBOs) are active in the field of YALE, but
on a limited scale. It seems also that some providers of literacy and youth and adult
education charge learners fees.

Discussion
Achieving effective literacy programmes is a key way to improve the prospects of
young and adult Zambian who cannot be included in conventional schools, and
those of their children. As long as access to YALE will remain a challenge for people,
especially those in rural areas, it will prevent them from improving their well-being,
increasing their professional opportunities and understanding their environment
and their capacity to adjust to its dictates. Moreover, gaps between rural and urban
areas will keep on widening, leaving most of the population lagging behind.

Women’s participation in YALE can yield important benefits in terms of gender

equity, improvement in family health, children’s education, and other economic
and social benefits. It is equally important that men engage in YALE to ensure an
improvement in national literacy level, and maximize its impact on the country’s
economic development. It appears however, that YALE programmes only attract few
men, due to many reasons. Some of them are related to the physical environment,
administrative and pedagogical practices of education and training that do not
necessarily fit their age and status in society. Another barrier has to do with current
life situations. Men, especially in rural areas, are usually busy with other activities and
they see no reason to participate in adult literacy programmes as they are expected to
provide for their families. One would, at least, want to avoid a situation in which men
oppose YALE or the participation of women in YALE programmes.

Access to YALE programmes can also be broadened and strengthened with

participation of private sector entities and other large corporations. Within this
framework, YALE programmes could be developed for staff members. This would
improve levels of education of staff members and, at a larger scale, would contribute

250 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

to better communication and productivity within companies. In some companies, in
other countries, such training is conducted by the company providing half the time
that is needed while the workers offer the other half.

As Zambian CSO representatives concur that the programmes of some NGOs and
FBOs appear to be of good quality, such organizations can serve as a proving ground
for new approaches to YALE and possibly influence the quality of YALE programmes
offered by others. It may be that NGOs and FBOs have relationships with communities
that are hard to reach because of their remoteness or for cultural reasons. If funding
is the main constraint on the expansion of such useful NGO and FBO programmes,
the Government should consider funding agreements with them. This may prove a
cheaper option for the government than mounting the whole programme itself.

The charging of fees to young people and adults participating in education

programmes probably serves as a disincentive to attendance, particularly for those
who are most disadvantaged and in need of education. Since primary education is
now provided free of charge it would seem out of place to charge youth and adults
for the equivalent level of education. According to some stakeholders met during the
review, the amount raised through charging fees was in any case small, and probably
nullified by the cost of administering the money.

RECOMMENDATIONS
• MoGE should convene a meeting (or meetings) with leading figures in the private
sector, and leaders of other large corporations, encouraging them to mount YALE
programmes for their staff members. DODE might encourage such initiatives
by offering free or subsidized learning materials, training of facilitators, and
monitoring and evaluation. DODE might engage relevant trade unions in this
connection as well. Close cooperation with TEVET will be essential to combine
YALE with skills training.
• DODE should enter into discussions with NGOs and FBOs engaged in YALE
with a view to enabling them to expand their YALE programmes. The basis for
discussion might be that the government would pay a certain amount for each
learner who is able to achieve a certain level of education, subject to testing at the
end of the course.
• DODE should conduct or commission a gender survey concerning YALE to better
understand how gender relations affect participation in YALE programmes, and
the interests of men and women that would motivate them to participate in YALE
in greater numbers. A survey could also be carried out to profile YALE participants
in terms of socio-economic conditions, livelihoods, language, awareness of
educational opportunities, main challenges they face, and aspirations.

251
 • DODE should devise a plan for expanded access to YALE, considering all
recommendations made in this policy review concerning YALE. Due weight
should be given to rural areas and to provinces with the lowest literacy rates.
• MoGE should approach Cabinet with a submission on YALE, advocating the
various changes that are needed. Part of the submission should be a plan to
increase access to YALE. It should also be proposed that funding for YALE should
increase in phases to reach 3 per cent of the education budget.
• Government should ensure that participants in government YALE programmes,
at the equivalent to primary level education, should not be charged user fees.

Policy issue 3: Inadequate funding, structures and capacity for YALE

While potential demand for opportunities to learn is high among Zambian youth and
adults, an effective expansion of access to YALE is hampered by weak institutional
capacities and structures as well as lack of funding.

Evidence
As discussed in the previous section, the stark difference between the potential
demand for literacy, represented by the 2.2 million youth and adult illiterates, and
the actual enrolment in literacy programmes (27,132 learners) in 2014 clearly
suggests problems with the country capacity to effectively deliver YALE. According
to ZANEC (2016), public funding to YALE was 0.01 per cent of total education
budget in 2014 and in 2015. Hence, ZANEC urges the Government to increase its
capacity to respond to these needs, as was also suggested by most CSOs consulted
in the framework of this policy review. As mentioned early, it has been found for
instance, that the MCDMCH has a new functional literacy programme but has not
had the funding available to implement it.

The lack of funding is manifest through the poor status of YALE infrastructure and
learning facilities. The infrastructure used for adult learners in Zambia is either
inadequate or dilapidated. Facilities, especially for people with disabilities, are scarce,
even non-existence, which reduce drastically their opportunities to have adequate
classes that would meet their specific needs. Indeed, according to the Education
Public Expenditure Review, no funds were allocated to YALE for infrastructure
development between 2012 and 2015. Also, the 2016 budget for literacy has not
mentioned any funding for equity and special education needs25.

25 ZANEC Parliamentary Paper on the education budget estimates for the 2016 financial year presented on
22nd October 2015 to the expanded committee on estimates.

252 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

As for existing structures and capacities, DODE, the Directorate of Open and Distance
Education, as the government institution with responsibility for dealing with this
demand, seems to be misnamed and to lack some of the specialized management and
professional staff that are required, at all levels of the government.

The Zambian College of Distance Education (ZACODE) is not living up to its

potential as an alternative provider of secondary and further education. One of the
main reasons for this might be that it is hampered by a too close association with
the Ministry and overly bureaucratic decision-making processes. As has been found
with open learning institutions in other countries, a degree of autonomy might give it
the ability to successfully manage complex logistics, IT systems, and learner support
systems. Although Zambia has experience in the use of radio for education, it seems
that this knowledge is not being exploited. Similarly, other ICTs such as mobile
phones, are not being fully utilized in education.

The University of Zambia’s Faculty of Education reportedly has 12 lecturers in adult

education, and over 100 students graduate with qualifications in adult education
every year, but no tracer study has been done to find out what they are currently
doing, what their employers think of them, or what the former students think of their
training. Contact between the university and the ministry seems to be minimal.26
Discussions with Zambian literacy stakeholders suggested that most of these
graduates (in adult education) are not serving in the area of YALE.

Discussion
A number of measures can be taken to improve the policy environment, the capacity
of various bodies to deliver YALE programmes, and the quality of YALE programmes.
However, an effective implementation of such measures, for a significant expansion
of YALE, requires an increase of funding.

Lack of funding has been cited as one of the reasons of failure in past literacy
programmes and campaigns conducted in Zambia. Most of these programmes failed
due to inadequate funding for regular and appropriate remuneration for literacy
officers, transportation, and learning facilities. According to Luchembe (2016),
lessons from these programmes also suggest the need for strategic and comprehensive
planning for such major assignments as the eradication of adult illiteracy. A piecemeal
approach to such important issues not only frustrates the people directly involved (as
well as volunteers) but does raise issues of credibility of the results obtained.

26 Interview with Amos Musonda Luchembe at UNZA, 17 June 2015.

253
 Luchembe (2016) also notes that, in a number of African countries, adult basic
education is sidelined, at the government policy level, and therefore has weak
structure and receives little funding (Luchembe 2016). Referring to Zambia, Mulenga
(2000) observed that: ‘Continuing education is a Cinderella department functioning at
the margins of public and ministry concerns, operating with minimal funds, physically
carrying out its activities in [a] structure … a structure just within the perimeter fence
of ministry, but almost far out of the marginalization of adult continuing education.
Although there have been numerous official statements [on] adult education and
literacy by the government, there has been no consistent and coordinated policy on
adult education and literacy. This is partly due to the initial colonial neglect by the
government, but also reflects the lack of a coordinated “policy lobby” by those involved
in funding and providing adult education’.

As mentioned earlier, expanding access to YALE, especially to young women, people

in rural areas, and people with disabilities, would contribute to reduce inequality,
improve individuals and national development prospects. In Zambia, potential
demand for opportunities to learn is high among adult population. However, if MoGE
is to provide access to learning on a larger scale it must have in place appropriate
capacity and structures, which implies adequate funding.

RECOMMENDATIONS
• MoGE should be capacitated, with adequate human and financial resources, to
ensure policy development and implementation, drafting of laws, regulation,
development and enforcement of standards, collection and analysis of data
on programmes, negotiation of agreements with other bodies, quality control,
coordination of various providers, planning, budgeting, and financial control,
grant-making, monitoring and evaluation, and the supervision or carrying out
of research. Structures at sub-national levels also need strengthening to ensure
effective programme implementation and monitoring.
• MoGE should undertake the profiling of the staff in place for YALE and the
restructuring of DODE (and perhaps also MCDMCH, since they do most literacy
work) to ensure that there is sufficient management and professional posts for
YALE to carry out what is expected of it, considering the large number of youth
and adults in need of learning.
• Once new structures are put in place, a training plan should be developed and
implemented to ensure that staff members have the skills that are required of
them.
• The Zambian Government should request assistance from relevant experienced
institutions such as UNESCO, the Commonwealth of Learning, etc., for
re-structuring ZACODE as a semi-autonomous college of open learning with a

254 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 clear mandate and funding arrangements. The college might focus on Grade 11
and 12 courses, and certificates and diplomas where there is sufficient demand to
make open learning a viable option. Radio and ICTs should be fully exploited for
open and distance learning.
• The University of Zambia, in collaboration with the MoE, should conduct a tracer
study of graduates in adult education from the university over, say, the past ten
years. A forum for consultation between the university and the ministry should
be established and both parties should seek to identify research projects that
can be carried out in the field of YALE. Practical teaching experience in literacy
centres should be part of the training of adult educators.
• Infrastructures for YALE should be rehabilitated, expanded and constructed. A
particular attention should be paid to ensure that all infrastructures respond to
the needs of Learners with Special Education Needs so as to enhance access to
literacy programmes for vulnerable groups.

Policy issue 4: Issues related to quality, results, efficiency, and

reputation

Some stakeholders expressed doubt about the quality of the YALE delivered by many
institutions, due to lack of qualified trainers, inadequate infrastructure and learning
materials, as well as lack of national standards, quality assurance mechanisms or
national assessments of learning achievement and curriculum in YALE.

Evidence
Zambia has a long history of literacy programmes, going back to the 1960s. It has
some excellent literacy programmes, like “Reflect and HIV/AIDS”, conducted by the
People’s Action Forum, which won the UNESCO King Sejong Literacy Prize in 2008.
The trouble is that the various programmes have hardly ever been described in detail
or evaluated. It is remarked in the draft literacy policy document that government
literacy activities have not been formally evaluated since 1971.27 It is likely that some
programmes are out of date.

As discussed earlier, Zambia’s experiences with literacy programmes and campaigns

have not proved successful and have not yielded expected results, due to a number of
reasons, including inadequate primers, disconnection between literacy contents and
the social context. The Zambian stakeholders consulted during the review mission
were unanimous that the issues discussed in the previous sections, i.e. inadequate

27 National Policy on Youth and Adult Literacy 2015 (draft), p. 12.

255
 YALE policy, poor structures, weak institutional capacity and lack of funding, badly
affect the quality, results, efficiency, and reputation of YALE.

Linked to the above mentioned factors, is the lack of qualified literacy instructors.
In Zambia, much work in YALE appears to be carried out by volunteers. It is an
achievement to have persuaded young people to give their time in this way, and this,
indeed, may have been the only solution available, given the paucity of resources.
There may, however, be consequences in terms of the amount of time that volunteers
can actually give on a daily or weekly basis, as well as in terms of the quality of service
delivered. Also, the high turnover of volunteer workers can also prevent the build-up
of expertise and constitutes a threat to effective literacy programme implementation.

Qualified instructors are not motivated to serve in YALE, due to inadequate

remuneration, poor status and reputation, and low career development prospects.
While the ministry and trade unions are moving towards a professional council
for school teachers, there is no equivalent move for those engaged in YALE. The
association of adult educators seems to be dormant.

Discussions with stakeholders also suggested that those engaged in YALE in Zambia
do not seem to be regularly and constructively in touch with international bodies
focusing on YALE, including the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, the
International Council for Adult Education, and the Commonwealth of Learning.
UNESCO structures such as its Institute for Statistics, HQ, Harare Regional Office
for Southern Africa, and others, are not being engaged to the possible benefit of
YALE in Zambia. Initiating partnerships with such organizations would help Zambia
to learn from international experiences on YALE, benefit from their expertise and
strengthen national capacity for YALE, which in turn, contribute to enhance the
quality, effectiveness and efficiency of YALE.

Discussion
National standards, quality assurance mechanisms or national assessments of
learning achievement and curriculum in YALE are important tools for measuring
and monitoring progress in the field of literacy. This is of vital importance, especially
for a field that has to demonstrate its value more energetically than more mainstream
and traditional ones. Even though this remains a challenge for Zambia, some
countries in the Sub Saharan Africa region took inspiring measures to cope with this
issue. For instance, Kenya has set up a central body, Kenya’s Department of Adult
Education, which conducts literacy proficiency tests every year to determine the
level of acquisition of learners. Through this Department, a total of 56,132 adults
sat and passed the literacy proficiency tests between 2003 and 2006. In Lesotho,

256 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

all literacy providers can have their participants assessed by the Lesotho Distance
Teaching Centre. In Uganda, annual proficiency examinations are prepared with
the involvement of district-level supervisors of adult literacy programmes, and
instructors participate in originating questions in all key learning areas. South
Africa has state adult basic education examinations as well as state-recognised ones
provided by two NGO assessment agencies28. These measures are a first but decisive
step to improve YALE quality, efficiency and results.

As the learning content of adult literacy and education is clearly of fundamental

importance, a unified curriculum would coordinate YALE providers’ efforts and
generate awareness of international and national concerns as well as the benefits of
lifelong learning for learners. Even if curriculum, curriculum content and curriculum
approaches do not seem to be prominent issues and matter for great debate in
Zambia as in the whole continent, some countries take steps to address this issue.
In Tanzania, for instance, curriculum revision has led to the development of a more
effective Integrated Community-Based Adult Education (ICBAE).

The assumption is sometimes made that literacy is a relatively simple matter that
can be addressed by teachers who have only a little more knowledge than those they
are teaching. However, a frequent evaluator of literacy programmes on the African
continent has pointed to the complexity of successful literacy programmes29. They
give careful attention to what they deliver, on the so-called supply side. However,
they also engender interest in what they offer by attending to the so-called demand
side. They do this by careful analysis and consideration of the literate environment,
to capitalize on how text is useful in a given context. They have to be aware of the
opportunities for development in a community. Such opportunities might arise
through the spread of managerial responsibility, or changes in the cultural, religious,
or political environment. How text is being used in schools, workplaces, and
households has to be considered. The language best known to learners is used as far
as possible. Unless such groundwork is constantly undertaken, the changing context
means that a literacy programme is likely to meet with rejection by all or some of
its intended beneficiaries as not worth the effort. Successful YALE programmes
invariably need to be led (if not implemented) by knowledgeable decision-makers
and skilled educators.

Capacity for quality YALE provision is closely linked to the country’s ability to train
qualified staff that can carry out all the activities related to conceptualizing training
programmes, and implementing them. Thus, a better professionalization of adult
28 The state and development of adult learning and education in sub-Saharan Africa Regional synthesis report,
John Aitchison and Hassana Alidou, 2009.
29 Easton. 2014. Sustaining literacy in Africa: Developing a literate environment.

257
 literacy instructors and recognition of their status would obviously have a significant
impact on quality of teaching. In Lesotho adult education is considered as a specific
profession, with the National University of Lesotho offering qualifications from
Diploma to Masters (via distance education through the Institute of Extra Mural
Studies), with plans to introduce a PhD programme. Graduates from these courses
are recruited across many government services and NGOs and most receive increased
remuneration at work in recognition of this qualification. Continuing education is
provided via the Lesotho Distance Teaching Centre (LDTC). Some of these courses
are free for volunteer adult education facilitators.

The weak current state of YALE in Zambia is mainly due to the minimal investment
made by government in the past decade or two. This is hopefully about to change, since
the Zambian Government has requested this review, and is presumably considering
the implications of the Sustainable Development Goals. However, those working in
the field must also encourage the investment of new resources in YALE by making
every possible effort to design and carry out programmes that demonstrably show
results and compare favourably with the best performer countries in the world. Much
heavier investment is therefore needed in understanding existing programmes, their
achievements, success factors, challenges, and lessons learned, which should inform
future policy development in this important area.

RECOMMENDATIONS
The following steps could be taken in the short- to medium-term to improve the
quality of YALE.

• MoGE should be empowered, within the usual public-service constraints, to

employ full-time and part-time staff, to develop curricula and study materials, to
monitor and evaluate programmes, and to transfer funds (based on agreements)
to other ministries, NGOs, the private sector, and universities and research
institutes so that such bodies can carry out agreed YALE programmes, engage in
public advocacy of YALE, carry out research concerning YALE, provide technical
support to partner organizations, and charge fees or exempt categories of learners
from paying such.
• Government should conduct an evaluation of all literacy work and YALE centres
under government auspices (for all the ministries involved). Private programmes
could be included if the owners agree.
• Government should make it possible for participants in YALE programmes to
be assessed and receive certificates. Such certificates should be registered on the
national qualifications framework. At secondary level, national examinations can
still be used, for the time being.

258 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

• MoGE should establish a robust database on all YALE programmes in the country
and, through EMIS, integrate the main data gathered in the annual statistical
bulletin of the ministry. The proposed national council on YALE should also play
a role here.
• MoGE should formulate national standards for YALE professional educators
through a participatory process and, in due course, obtain acceptance of
these standards by the qualifications authority. Make YALE part of the
professionalization of the teaching profession.
• MoGE should cultivate links, contacts, and exchanges with international and
foreign organizations with a specialization in YALE.
• MoGE should employ as many graduates in YALE as possible to lead YALE
programmes and gradually replace volunteers with staff members who are paid
on the same salary scales as apply to the teaching profession. Those who work
part-time or on short-term contracts should be paid pro-rata.
• MoGE should give awards and recognize in every way possible those who do
excellent work in YALE.

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Easton, P. 2013. ‘Developing literate environments: Fleshing out the demand side of Education
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3.5 Monitoring and assessment of students’ learning achievement

This section aims to propose recommendations by UNESCO to improve the current
system and approaches to the monitoring and assessment of students’ learning
achievements (MALA) in Zambia. The Section presents first the current status
of MALA in Zambia; then, four policy issues, which were identified as the most
prominent in Zambia at the moment by the UNESCO expert team, are discussed.
These issues are:

• The absence of a formative orientation of the current MALA system;

• The lack of use of MALA data to inform policy-making;
• The inadequate orientation of the current provision of Continuous professional
development (CPD) programmes for teachers in MALA; and
• The lack of a comprehensive M&E system.

These four major policy issues are presented in terms of the evidence from the
field, both national and international (where applicable). Each MALA policy issue
is discussed in order to develop recommendations for policy implementation and
action in Zambia.

The current status of MALA in Zambia

There is a trend worldwide for the establishment of a comprehensive framework of
MALA so that all different sources of learning, monitoring and assessment data can
lead to a coherent and integrated evidence base for improved decision-making and
practice in education. This is a rallying cry to ensure that a better quality of education
is offered to all stakeholders and targeted beneficiaries of the educational system.
UNESCO (2005: 36) initiated such a framework within which context, learners’
characteristics, enabling inputs, and outcomes are water tight and interrelated to
improve the understanding of education quality. This is still an ongoing quest that
can result in better quality learning, provided that there is a coherent and consistent
system-wide approach to monitoring and assessment.

262 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

In line with this, in a review of research of students’ learning outcomes, Chinapah
et al. (2010: 4) argue that much must still be done to achieve the learner-centered
pedagogy required to make education quality for all (EQFA) genuinely inclusive
and attainable. Moreover, after reviewing the three dominant assessment systems
for learning achievement – classroom assessment, examinations, and large-scale
system-level assessment – Clarke (2012: 6–8) concluded that it is imperative to
differentiate between assessment as learning or for learning (formative), which is
mostly done through classroom assessment; and examinations and surveys serving
as assessment of learning (summative). To this end, a unified framework is proposed
for ‘an understanding of what an effective student assessment system looks like and
how countries can build such system’. Therefore, a good MALA should capture the
relationships and interactions between the teacher and the learner. Several surveys of
the determinants of student learning outcomes and academic achievement in Africa
have pointed in this direction, finding learner-teacher interactions measured in
terms of attitudes and classroom behaviours to be the most important determinants
of student learning outcomes and academic achievement (see, for example, Chinapah
et al., 2000).

Zambia is well known for its regular and continuous efforts to assess, examine, and
monitor students’ learning achievements over several decades. Zambia is well known
for its framework for learning assessment and, at first sight, its institutional capacity
for assessment looks extremely well-developed. The country has a long-running,
secure examinations and assessment programme managed by the Examination
Council of Zambia (ECZ). The main policy milestones are still those that were
established through ECZ Act (1983) and the educational policy document Educating
Our Future (1996). These policy milestones are championed by ECZ, which up to
now has had the lion’s share of responsibility for MALA in Zambia. ECZ has the
unique mandate to conduct regularly:

• National examinations at grades 7, 9, and 12, for all subject areas;

• National large-scale assessment (NLSA) programmes for Grade 5 students to
measure their literacy and numeracy skills;
• International large-scale assessment (ILSA) surveys for the Southern and Eastern
Africa Consortium for Monitoring Education Quality (SACMEQ); and
• Surveys for the OECD’s PISA for Development initiative to support evidence-
based policy making in emerging and developing economies, as part of the Post-
2015 global education agenda.

However, a more in-depth analysis reveals that the actual capacity to use the rich
information gathered from all these sources is limited in Zambia, due to a lack of
technical skills to make a diagnostic use of assessment data as well as to the relatively

263
 non-existent public discourse concerning such use (OECD, 2014: 16). Therefore,
there is an urgent need in Zambia for the coordination and harmonization of all
MALA structures, programmes, projects, and activities under a common MALA
umbrella. It is important to note that this theme was consistently emphasized by
all MALA stakeholders and beneficiaries during UNESCO’s fact-finding mission
to Zambia in June 2015. This important MALA initiative can only succeed when
adequate resources are made available for long-term and sustainable institutional
and human capacity development, and harmonized to avoid duplication and wastage.
It should reach out all major MALA stakeholders and beneficiaries in a mutually
reinforcing, inclusive, and enduring manner.

Policy issue 1: Absence of a formative orientation of the current

MALA system

The MALA system in Zambia has a longstanding tradition and, despite some
drawbacks, is highly regarded by most stakeholders in education. Yet, it is entirely
focused on summative assessments that have important implications for students’
careers and lacks the necessary focus on the formative evaluations that may contribute
more to raising the quality of the learning experience, particularly of those who are
lagging behind.

Evidence
Public examinations feature highly within formal assessment in Zambian schools,
just as they do in most African countries. Assessment is not only a key factor in the
transition to further education and work; it can also be a major influence in education
decision-making by individuals, their families, and employers. Each level of school
education in Zambia is marked by a central public examination. Examinations
are high-stakes, as elsewhere, since their outcomes determine which students are
selected to the next level of education. Parents use them to select the schools in which
to enrol their children, while employers use them to identify who to employ.

ECZ annually administers the following examinations to students in public, private,

grant-aided, and community schools:

• The Grade 7 Composite Examination which certifies completion of primary

education and is a requirement for pursuing lower-secondary education;
• The Junior Secondary School Leaving Examination (JSSLE) for Grade 9 which
certifies the completion of lower secondary general programmes and is required
for joining upper secondary education; and

264 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

• The Grade 12 General Certificate of Education (GCE), which is an entrance
examination for tertiary institutions, such as colleges and universities.

The nature of high-stakes examinations in grades 7, 9, and 12 means that those

students who do not transition to the next grade leave the formal education system
without qualifications. Although some may repeat those grades hoping to qualify,
ultimately very few get selected to progress to university education. The JSSLE and
the GCE in Zambia are regarded as important transition junctures between school
and work, and school and tertiary education. These are high-stakes issues and
represent persuasive motives to administer these examinations as such. Therefore,
policymakers need to guarantee that the instruments designed test for what students
are expected to learn.

All education stakeholder groups in Zambia accept that details of what is measured
by examinations, information on how they are prepared, and reports on the
performance of past candidates are available to most students. Nevertheless,
examination malpractice is rampant and has included, for instance, leaked content
and copying from other examinees. A full section about such malpractice appears
in the latest ECZ report (2014: 27–32). ECZ has established some mechanisms to
monitor malpractice, and funding is provided for independent research on the
effects of examinations (World Bank, 2009). Despite this, the outcomes of these
examinations are considered credible, and are used to advance to higher levels of
education and for employment.

Watering down the prominence of high-stakes assessment should assist in reducing

the pervasive incentives and distorting behaviours in schools and by teachers.
Nonetheless, it may not be sufficient, in itself, to address tendency of teachers to
‘teach to the test’ and schools to channel their resources to those students with
higher capabilities, at the expense of those who require more support. It is perhaps
not helpful to categorize these disruptive behaviours in terms of poor schools and
teacher accountability, since it implies putting the blame on schools and teachers;
these behaviours could be seen as a rational response to poor policy signals intrinsic
in the current system of reward (UNESCO, 2012a).

MoGE has established guidelines for conducting school-based assessment in the

teaching and learning process. Assessments are now required every 5th, 10th and
13th week, respectively (Education for All 2015 National Review Report: Zambia).
However, classroom assessment practices are still very weak. For instance, teachers
do not have a standardized grading format and do not explain clearly to parents how
their children have performed. Nevertheless, it is a requirement. Evidence from a
continuous assessment initiative pilot highlighted many implementation challenges.

265
 For example, large class sizes have increased the workload of teachers, who are not
able to practice continuous assessment, and instead engage in continuous testing at
the end of the month. Many are also not able to conduct assessments on an ongoing
basis, including weekly, fortnightly, or following a topic. Although the teachers
participating in the project had been provided with booklets with guidelines which
required that they meet other teachers, this was not possible for various reasons.
Furthermore, classroom assessment activities are not linked with pedagogical or
curricular framework, and also tend to focus on control and administrative tasks
(World Bank, 2009).

Discussion
The World Bank’s System Assessment and Benchmarking for Results (SABER) for
student assessment systems (see Clarke, 2012) posits that high-stakes examinations
can have a backwash effect on the education system and impact positively, or
negatively, on the knowledge and skills of graduates. Such examinations are generally
designed to test understanding of specific subjects for progression to the next grade,
rather than testing transversal competencies such as critical thinking and creativity.
It is noted that they involve rote learning for preparation, instead of deeper learning.
These concerns must be considered in the application of such tests, to determine
whether they should be combined with other information sources.

High-stakes examinations are generally considered as gateways to further education.

The Grade 7 Composite Examination and JSSLE are used to select top-performing
students who might otherwise not have the opportunity to go to privileged schools.
This is not the only way of widening access to education, however. Efforts to
democratize education have increased access and have created more pathways to
further education. Gambia, for instance, abolished examinations at the end of the
primary cycle in 2002 and, as a result, increased enrolment in lower secondary
education, from 44 per cent in 2002 to 57 per cent in 2003, and 63 per cent in 2004.
The same approach could be implemented in Zambia (UNESCO, 2012b).

There is need for an alternative to the current system of reward which sends the
message that the priority of policy is to improve the results of high-performing
schools and students, rather than raising those of the less privileged. For illustration,
if the examinations are used as a diagnostic to recognize and channel more support
to the schools with greatest difficulties, or to reward tangible improvements where
there was previously poor performance, it would indicate that the policy priority is
meant to lift the performance of those left behind. Such a scenario would introduce
diverse incentives and promote a different set of behaviours among teachers and
schools. The USA and some parts of Australia have implemented such measures.

266 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Good configuration between the structure of rewards and the anticipated practices
within school and among teachers is fundamental.

RECOMMENDATIONS
• Establish a comprehensive MALA framework and built-in system to complement
the current summative assessment model with a formative one.
• Promote formative assessment at school level by offering in-service training to
teachers and school leaders, as well as toolkits with a wide variety of examples.
• Improve the capacity of individuals tasked with administering examinations,
developing tests, and analysing examination results to understand the value of
formative assessments by offering them regular and sustainable capacity-building
programmes.

Policy issue 2: Lack of use of MALA data to inform policy-making

Despite the fact that Zambia is one of the few sub-Saharan countries to have
a comprehensive MALA system, the actual use of the resulting data for better
informed policy-making by the government is rather low. This may be the result of a
lack of capacity to produce timely reports highlighting key messages that can prompt
action, or of a lack of evidence-based political culture among policy-makers, or a
combination of both.

Evidence
As already said, Zambia has a well-established MALA system which has both
national and international components. The National Assessment Survey (NAS)
has, for instance, been undertaken seven times (between 1999 and 2014) to measure
the learning achievement in literacy, numeracy, and life skills of pupils in Grade 5.
Zambia has also participated in international large-scale assessment (ILSA), including
SACMEQ and, more recently, PISA for Development. The SACMEQ surveys of 1995,
2000, and 2005 tested the abilities in mathematics and reading English of Grade 6
children in formal school.

Yet, despite such important initiatives, much is still to be done to ensure a better
use of the MALA results. For instance, Zambia also participated in the Early Grade
Reading Assessment (EGRA), which was a measurement instrument for early-grade
reading proficiency, administered by USAID (2009–2010). The results had major
policy implications and a policy dialogue between USAID and Zambian government
officials was arranged in 2011. Despite these efforts, the abysmally weak outcomes
made stakeholders reluctant to disseminate the draft assessment report publicly. It

267
 took a new government to deal with the reality of the EGRA results dissemination
and, once the conversation was joined by citizens and action groups, the government
and USAID developed another dissemination strategy to broaden the discourse
(Nielsen, 2014).

In 2014, Zambia became the first sub-Saharan African nation to agree to participate
in the international survey pilot of PISA for Development. The process is expected
to provide an all-inclusive appraisal of the quality and equity of Zambia’s education
system, with a view to strengthening the effective use and dissemination of PISA
assessment results, for policy debates and implementation strategies and actions. This
initiative is linked with an improved system of educational assessment in Zambia, as
should be the case in emerging and developing economies. It is argued that PISA for
Development in Zambia will address exactly such an important need.

It is often argued that these different surveys operate on their own with their specific
mandates, methodology, and expected outcomes. They can be donor driven and/or
donor funded. Sustainability in terms of resources (human and fiscal) and ownership
in terms of institutionalization possibilities and capacity enhancement are lacking.
For example, SACMEQ results are not adequately used for informed policymaking
and implementation beyond the central ministry level. The feedback that schools
and educators need from the results is not always available. As the SABER Country
Report (2009) confirmed, there is a total absence of educational policy decisions
based on the results of SACMEQ to bring about any positive impact on students’
achievements. Furthermore, the report insisted that results from assessments are
rarely used by teachers, either for their teaching or for improving the performances
and results of their students.

Similarly, an OECD report concludes that: ‘The research staff at the ECZ has had
training in the use of modern psychometrics, including classical item and test analysis
… However, due to unfamiliarity of other stakeholders with these method, they have
not yet been employed in the production of reported results of any assessments.’
(OECD, 2014: 17).

There is little evidence of top-ranking decision-makers being aware of why assessment

data do not influence improvements in learning. However, field experience indicates
that, in a few provinces, provincial leadership has regularly checked on performance
(MESVTEE, 2014). A consistent connection with stakeholders beyond the MoE can
offer local solutions which are cost effective (USAID, 2014).

However, for both surveys and examinations, there is no mechanism in place for
the effective use of the results for informed policymaking and recommendations.

268 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Evidence from the consultations and discussions conducted during the June 2015
UNESCO fact-finding mission confirms that too much emphasis is given to high-
stakes examinations in the country, without adequate efforts and resources for
further capacity building of the critical mass of human resources involved in such
examinations, namely in measurement, test developments, and analyses, and the
broad-based dissemination of examination results. It was reported during the
meeting with ECZ staff that the very rich and valuable annual ECZ examination
reports cannot be printed and disseminated because of lack of resources, although
they are intended for major stakeholders, users, and beneficiaries at central, regional,
district, and local levels.

Discussion
The outcomes of national assessments and surveys (national, regional, and
international) can be used to establish benchmarks for appraising learning
achievements (Lesotho) and provision of baseline data on the availability of learning
materials in schools (Vietnam), to mention just a few. Regional African surveys,
such as SACMEQ, allow senior policy makers to inform prospective decisions
on baseline data and select issues which might be further investigated in research
studies. It also supports the involvement of stakeholders and better transparency
in decision-making. For example, in her framework paper for the World Bank in
answer to the question, ‘What matters most for student assessment systems?’, Clarke
(2012: 18) concluded that, over and above the three key quality drivers she proposed
for assessment – (1) an enabling context; (2) system alignment; and (3) assessment
quality – MALA or any other framework has to be supported by efforts to strengthen
the quality and utility of data and information produced.

This is critical because the main purpose of any assessment system is to provide valid
and timely information to a set of users – the student, the teacher, the community,
and the policymaker – so that they can make better decisions in support of improved
quality and learning outcomes. Choices about the assessment system should support
these users, in relation to their information and decision-making needs. Therefore,
country teams must plan from the outset to have a long-term commitment to, and
investment in, the policies, inputs, and actions that will be required to transform
their assessment system. The pay-off will be an assessment system that can support
better decision-making and contribute to higher levels of education quality and
learning for all.

There is potential for beneficial relationships among various organizations concerned

with education, yet they do not seem to have fully explored their capacities to
shape a commonly coordinated and harmonized MALA system. Having partners

269
 beyond the MoE, such as higher education institutions, employers, NGOs, and
parent associations, can enable the sharing of successes and failures in the field to
help shape the assessment policy and instruments. Additionally, such relationships
cultivate institutional trust and enhance reforms, while addressing any reluctance to
effectively analyse and use the outcomes of various assessments.

RECOMMENDATIONS
• The main stakeholders concerned with educational planning, teacher training,
curriculum development, and quality control should work in tandem with ECZ
and other national and international bodies involved in carrying out MALA
surveys in Zambia, to make effective and optimal use of MALA results to improve
the quality of learning.
• Monitor the impact of NLSA results on policymaking and implementation and
provide funding for independent research involving more researchers from
higher education institutions, so that these results can be optimally used locally
and disseminated nationally and internationally.
• A formal national policy document should be written to systematize the effective
use of ILSA results in the education policymaking and policy implementation
processes. Steady government funding should be made available for ILSA
activities, research, and development.
• Coordinate and harmonize the use, analysis, and dissemination of assessment
and survey results to design appropriate policies and actions that are directly
concerned with effective learning, teacher training, classroom instruction, and
general assessment.
• Use MALA results effectively to create alternative career pathways to increase
equality of participation and to improve the results of disadvantaged students,
and girls in rural areas, in particular. In this context, hard-to-reach areas, children
from disadvantaged socio-economic groups, and children with disabilities
and learning difficulties should receive feedback and remedial educational
opportunities through the effective and systematic use of assessment results
from surveys and examinations. Assessments need to be followed up by other
research measures to understand how non-cognitive factors contribute to poor
performance.
• MALA results should be provided in an accessible manner to reach major
educational stakeholders: the learners, the teachers, the parents, and the front-
line implementation agents. Media coverage of the results is indispensable for
such a need and purpose.
• Key stakeholders should contemplate the implications of national assessment
verdicts. Multiple stakeholders, such as civil society, teachers’ unions, teachers, and
mass media, need to receive the assessment results and national public awareness

270 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 campaigns should be launched before international survey results are reported
from a worldwide league of nations’ perspective. The results of international
assessments should be broadcast first and foremost in national media and be
disseminated to national and local key stakeholders and teachers before they
reach the international media and international educational community.

Policy issue 3: Inadequate orientation of the current provision

of continuous professional development (CPD)
programmes for teachers in MALA

While Zambia has invested in a number of important teacher CPD initiatives, these
are mostly oriented towards the improvement of teaching and learning, with a focus
on curriculum content for examination and certification purposes, little attempt is
made to use CPD programmes to enable teachers to make a proper use of MALA
data and results in order to improve learners’ performance.

Evidence
CPD for teachers is necessary to achieve sustainable quality education. Over the
years, in-service training (INSET) systems have supported teacher CPD. If African
governments owned, operationalized, and sustained INSET, then effective teacher
professional development could result in sustainable quality teaching and learning.
However, a study has documented that this is not the case for Kenya, Malawi, and
Zambia, which have non-sustainable CPD and INSET systems (Banda, 2014).

The Standards and Evaluation Guidelines (MESVTEE, 2015) stipulate that within the
current decentralized education system, schools and centres/units have responsibility
for planning and managing programmes and projects involving human resource
development, such as CPD and related activities. It is necessary to monitor and
evaluate on a continuous basis the operations and sustainability of CPD for teachers
in Zambia. It should involve standards officers in all phases of activity. Besides
monitoring, they can offer advice to stakeholders on the programme, help schools
in managing CPD, produce monitoring reports for CPD, etc. There are numerous
types of monitoring activity for SBCPD activities. CIPP (context, input, process,
products), for example, allows those charged with implementation to decide on how
the programme is to be implemented. This programme is flexible enough to generate
suggestions on how to effectively implement SBCPD.

A 2013 study exploring the impact of strengthened teacher CPD programmes on

pupils’ performance at Grade 12 in selected secondary schools in Solwezi District

271
 found that the institutionalization of SBCPD activities in secondary schools was
important not only in improving pupils’ performance but also in enhancing the skills
and competencies of teachers. Depending on their job description, the interviewees
mentioned their involvement in diverse types of CPD programmes. For instance,
most of the senior education standards officers, head teachers, heads of department,
and teachers indicated that first and second degree courses (such as the fast-track
degree programme for science and mathematics education) helped them to attain
higher professional qualifications. The principal education standards officer (teacher
education department and provincial resource centre co-ordinator) stated that:
“As a provincial resource centre, we have a timetable in which we go round all the
secondary schools to sensitize teachers on how CPD programmes are supposed
to be conducted. At certain times, we even conduct demonstrations on any latest
professional skills that need to be communicated to the teachers, for their own
benefit and that of the learners.” (Ngumbwe, 2013: 50). Students in the focus group
discussions were aware of their teachers’ professional upgrading involvement at
various universities, attendance at subject association conferences, and departmental/
school teacher group CPD meetings. Some of them had also participated in their
teachers’ presentations of lesson study cycles.

The above-mentioned research on CPD activities found that the performance of

Grade 12 learners at participating secondary schools in Solwezi District improved
remarkably, while CPD activities such as upgrading of qualifications enhanced
the competencies and skills of participants in the delivery, demonstration, and
presentation of lessons. It was, however, observed that, although the performance for
Grade 12 students improved at district and provincial levels, this was not reflected
in overall outcomes at national level. The Solwezi District CPD programme was also
part of the MoGE/JICA initiative.

Despite these positive inputs, in Zambia, as in most African countries, there is a

continuity gap following the completion of projects. Likewise, all these innovative
and important CPD initiatives still focus on the improvement of teaching and the
teaching/learning processes, with an emphasis on curriculum content and teaching,
for examination and certification purposes. Little attempt is made to use CPD
programmes to enable teachers to genuinely examine MALA data and results in
order to improve learners’ performance.

Discussion
Lifelong learning for teachers has long been held up as a critical means of ensuring
that an education system can meet the various challenges of education policy reform,
changing priorities, and innovation. Evidence from around the world reminds

272 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

teachers of the challenges they face and the need for continuous professional
development (CPD). In the Middle East, for example, important efforts are made to
promote CPD in university faculties of education in order to meet such challenges.
A European Union CPD programme for teachers has been launched in the region to
develop and further strengthen teachers’ capacities in action research and student
teaching. However, in Zambia as in most countries of the world, CPD programmes
for MALA are non-existent as teachers are expected ‘to teach for the test’ and nothing
else. Both pre-service and in-service programmes are designed for such a purpose.
The teaching profession is often regarded as the most traditional and conservative
profession.

Over the years, a number of teacher professional growth initiatives in Zambia

have been government-driven and donor-funded. For instance, the Japanese
International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and MoGE implemented a project called
the Strengthening of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education (SMASTE)
School-based CPD through Lesson Study in Zambia, which began in 2005. The
document, School Program of In-service Training for the Term (SPRINT) Program
in Zambia (Japan Education Forum IX), listed some CPD activities which were
conducted during the project. Interestingly, the project was implemented during a
period when Japan’s approach towards donor aid was for ‘…African ownership in
development and of partnership with the international community as seen in the
New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) of 2000’ (Mubanga, 2012: 7).

School-based continuing professional development (SBCPD) has been conducted in

Zambia by MoGE as an effective means to enhance educational quality. It is designed
for self-development, as well as for group and institutional development. The idea is
to improve teaching and learning through activities in classroom using lesson study.
SBCPD has been incorporated into basic schools and high schools, including colleges
of education. It also forms part of the school and college curricula. The Zambia
Education Curriculum Framework 2013 has been developed to provide guidelines
and structure throughout the education system (from early childhood to tertiary and
adult literacy) for alternative career pathways. For instance, junior secondary schools
(Grade 8 and Grade 9) currently offer both an academic and technical career pathway.
Senior secondary schools (Grade 10 and Grade 12) also provide technical pathways.
The overall aim of the framework is to equip Zambians with skills, knowledge, and
values to contribute meaningfully to the development of society and the economy
(MESVTEE, 2013).

Guidelines for implementing the school-based programmes have been developed

by the MoE, and a range of stakeholders have been acknowledged for successfully
implementing the CPD programmes at national level by providing policy pathways

273
 to schools and colleges which manage the implementation. The MoE has recognized
the helpful role of teachers’ resource centres as learning stations (Mazala, 2011).

From 2008 to 2013, The Flemish Association for Development Cooperation and
Technical Assistance (VVOB), in collaboration with the MoGE, implemented
the Teacher Training Support Programme which focused on three themes: CPD,
distance education, and ICT in education for all teacher training colleges. Towards
the end of the programme, VVOB and partners requested all the individuals who
had participated in the programme to write their perspectives of the programme
activities. The results were published in a booklet entitled Stories of change. The CPD
advisor for VVOB Zambia mentioned that before the VVOB intervention, CPD was
neither structured nor appreciated, and its activities were not linked with the existing
or future roles of people within the college. The programmes therefore failed to meet
their goals. A key outcome of the programme has been the institutionalization of
CPD in colleges through the creation of the national CPD task team, which comprises
lecturers in all colleges; the design of national and college level guidelines for CPD;
the founding of CPD committees at colleges; and the scheduling of CPD activities at
colleges and departments of colleges (VVOB, 2013).

RECOMMENDATIONS
• Institutionalize CPD programmes for teachers to effectively implement MALA
at national, regional, district, and school levels, following the establishment of a
legal framework for its application.
• Increase internal capacity (through further training of human resources) at the
MoE with a view to bolstering classroom and school-based assessment. Teachers
need training too in all MALA programmes, projects, and activities. Increase
monitoring by school officials at district level.
• Increase the possibilities for teachers, especially those in the rural areas, to
actively participate in the improvement of MALA through different capacity-
building programmes. This is to strengthen and sustain their knowledge, skills
and competencies in this field and to ensure effective implementation at school
and classroom levels on a continuous basis.
• Promote CPD through workshops, seminars, educational fora, and university-
based certificates, diplomas, and degrees in assessment. ICT and other media
outlets should be used to disseminate CPD activities. This can widen access to
knowledge-sharing. Strengthen in particular locally-driven CPD activities for
teachers and mobilize more funds for allocation to CPD activities at schools and
resource centres.
• Develop and sustain capacity-building programmes for head teachers in CPD
activities to improve their knowledge of MALA programmes, projects, and

274 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 activities. School leadership should be involved in CPD activities to promote
teacher practice in knowledge and skills acquisition so as to improve student
performance.

Policy issue 4: Lack of a comprehensive M&E system.

The practice of one-shot teaching and learning to the test is sustained by the lack of
M&E system to systematically monitor and produce feedback from all assessment
systems for teachers, learners, examiners, curriculum and textbook developers, and
school leaders.

Evidence
Assessment practices in the country are usually summative and do not provide
immediate feedback on the teaching and learning process (formative assessment).
In the absence of a M&E system for MALA with capacity-building implementation
modalities for major education stakeholders and a database consisting of assessment,
benchmarks, and performance indicators, the practice of one-shot teaching and
learning to the test will prevail and continue to undermine the quality of education
in Zambia.

In Zambia, assessment for quality assurance is regarded as a key pillar of the Post-2015
agenda. In its document, Education for All 2015 National Review Report: Zambia,
MoGE acknowledges that, over the past decade, policy initiatives such as free primary
education (FPE) and early childhood education (ECE) have successfully increased
participation rates. However, quality initiatives to improve teacher competence, for
example, have failed. Furthermore, insufficient funding for FPE has compromised
the quality of service delivery. The document maintains that: “Zambia has generally
done well in carrying out summative assessments but needs to build an early warning
system to gather achievement data continuously throughout the learning cycle in an
aggregative manner so that policy actions derive from information based on real-
time practice.” (MESVTEE, 2014: 35)

The 2014 Joint Annual Review (JAR) policy brief, which reported on the assessment
situation in Zambia, postulates that before embarking on an assessment, attention
should be given to the environment within which learning is nurtured. It suggests
that stakeholders need to collaborate in achieving the goals of assessment, no
matter how varied they are. “Crucially, strengthening the ability to collect and apply
everyday data is bound to improve the quality of monitoring the performance of the
system. Improving everyday assessment practices will also increase the chances of
achieving better results at the end of learning cycles. In all, the notion of evidence

275
 based decision making in the education sector must derive evidentiary from a robust
process of collecting and analyzing assessment data.” (Chipoma, 2014: 35–36).

It is therefore imperative that measurable monitoring indicators of quality and

learner-centered pedagogy focus on learning processes and outcomes, and not only
on inputs. Multiple quality indicators are necessary for both formal and non-formal
education programmes since they are required to account for the health, civic and
environmental awareness, and social and communication skills of students.

Discussion
The World Bank document, Making Monitoring and Evaluation Systems Work:
A Capacity Development Toolkit, emphasized the growing global demand from
government, citizens, civil society, the international community, NGOs, donors, and
so on, for improved performance in terms of good governance, accountability and
transparency, effective development, and delivery of credible outcomes, among other
things. “As demands for greater accountability and results have grown, there is an
accompanying need for useful and useable results-based monitoring and evaluation
systems to support the management of policies, programmes, and projects.
Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) is a powerful public management tool that can
be used to improve the way governments and organizations achieve results. Just as
governments need financial, human resource, and accountability systems, they also
need good performance feedback systems.” (Gorgens and Kusek, 2009: 1)

A credible M&E system acts as an extra management tool providing decision-makers

with feedback on performance so as to support future improvements.

RECOMMENDATIONS
• Strengthen the country-specific monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system for
MALA in close cooperation with all major stakeholders at ministry, departmental,
regional, district, and school levels.
• Explore and analyse good and cost-effective M&E practices for MALA, regionally
and internationally, with a view to institutionalizing and strengthening the
Zambian MALA system with relevant M&E performance indicators as related to
inputs, processes, outputs, outcomes, and impacts.
• Further develop and strengthen the MALA M&E system with democratic
structures and institutions, participatory governance, and the empowerment
of civil society organizations, local educational managers, planners, and
administrators to ensure broad-based commitment to quality education.

276 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

The four policy issues identified and discussed in this section all point to the
importance of revisiting Zambia’s existing system for assessment and monitoring
learning achievement. Analysis of its strengths and weaknesses indicates the
importance of having a comprehensive MALA framework where all types and
forms of assessment and monitoring of learning achievement are harmonized in a
built-in system. The way forward for Zambian authorities, education stakeholders,
and partners in this field should involve the development of an MALA framework
with a built-in comprehensive and complementary system for both summative and
formative assessment, capacity development of human resources for assessment
through broad-based CPD programmes, the effective use and dissemination of data
and results for informed policymaking and implementation, and the setting up of an
M&E system for MALA. From this perspective, Chipoma (2014: 7) provides this key
policy recommendation to MoGE which can pave the way for the development of
an effective MALA system in Zambia in the years to come: “MoGE takes immediate
action to develop a comprehensive policy on assessment that clearly states a vision,
ethos, and guidelines for implementation. This policy must cement the ambitions of
the new national curriculum as well as challenge stakeholders, including the private
sector (for vocational training), to do more to innovate, balance investments between
assessments of and for learning, and ensure that all aspects of practice are progressing
in tandem.”

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■■ Conclusion

A favourable macroeconomic and socio-political environment has allowed Zambia

to demonstrate remarkable commitment to improving its national education system,
particularly following the 2000 Dakar Education for All conference. This is evidenced
in stable funding for education, which averaged 17 per cent of total government
expenditure (equating an average of 4.1 per cent of GDP) between 2009 and 2013.
After experiencing serious educational challenges in the 1980s and 1990s, Zambia
has undertaken serious structural reform of its education sector, resulting in marked
improvements in most key educational indicators at all levels.

More than a decade of concerted action has delivered significant improvements in

access to and participation in basic education. The country has also been pursuing
national and international goals with measures concerning quality and the right to
education. As a consequence, Zambia has achieved notable progress: in primary
education is almost reached, gender parity in this level is achieved, nearly nine out
of 10 children completing primary education achieve their transition into lower
secondary education, and the completion rate for lower secondary (62.4 per cent
in 2011), places the country among the high performers in sub-Saharan Africa.
Consistent with Zambia’s new status as a middle-income country, the current
national strategic focus on education is gradually shifting towards the development
of upper secondary and higher education, in line with both Zambia’s Vision 2030 and
the internationally agreed Education 2030 agenda.

Despite these accomplishments, Zambia is, nevertheless, not performing as well as

it could, with education quality falling short of national and international standards,
while significant inequities remain. The shortfalls are of particular concern as the
country’s population is mostly composed of young people: 46.2 per cent of the
Zambian population are under 15 years old. In fact, Zambia’s results in international
tests are below those of many neighbouring countries, with far too many young people
scoring at the very lowest levels, far too few excelling, and far too large a gap between
the results of the most privileged youth and those from more modest backgrounds,
especially those in rural areas. This paints a grim picture of the quality of education
as well as of its relevance and equity. Some of the root causes for these shortfalls are
analysed through the lens of the five major policy domains of this review.

This review has focused on five national priority domains where Zambia is willing to
take action to better ensure that its students acquire the skills, knowledge, and values
they need for their personal fulfilment as well as for the realization of the country’s

281
 social and economic development, particularly in the context of its Vision 2030.
While actions in these areas would go a long way to improving the outcomes of the
country’s education system, this review necessarily leaves room for other measures
that Zambia might need to take in pursuit of the same purpose. The main lessons of
each chapter, and the conclusions that flow from these, are outlined below.

System-wide policy and planning

Zambia’s strong commitment to alleviating poverty, achieving sustained economic
growth, and creating employment through strategic planning, as the cornerstones of
educational development, is clear. Its dedication to ensuring that international trends
(such as the MDGs, the EFA goals, and, currently, the SDGs) are reflected in educational
planning has also been demonstrated. However, despite these strengths, the review
revealed some weaknesses with regard to planning and management of education.
These include, first, weak budgetary performance, due to late, erratic, and inadequate
sector funding. Second, the distribution of funds between sub-sectors has proven to
be inefficient and unconducive to the achievement of strategic objectives, such as the
reduction of inequity by promoting pro-poor policies, and the development of skills
training and human capital to drive economic and social development (TEVET and
higher education). Third, it was found that weak policy implementation compromises
the effective and efficient use of limited public resources. This refers particularly to
the ineffective implementation of the decentralization policy for general education,
as well as to poor human resource management and the inefficient bursary scheme
in higher education. Fourth, linked to the above, is the weak national capacity for
education planning and management, which affects policy implementation at all
governance levels (central, district, and local).

To address these issues, the review team suggests that the Ministry should develop
and implement a comprehensive sector capacity development programme, based on
an exhaustive needs assessment. Particular attention should be devoted to identify
and eliminate impediments to the implementation of the decentralization policy,
and to create conditions for its success. The Government has to pursue its efforts
to increase funding for education (especially for pre-primary, TEVET and higher
education) and define an optimal intra-sectoral allocation, while further reinforcing
accountability mechanisms for effective and efficient use of limited resources.

Teacher policies and development

A general shortage of qualified teachers has been observed, due to a failure to recruit,
train, and retain a sufficient number of academically qualified candidates for teaching
positions. The effects of this shortage of qualified teachers are particularly strong when

282 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

it comes to education quality. Thus, the review team recommended that teachers’
qualifications, and the quality of professional development programmes, should be
revised. It was also suggested that the capacity of teacher training institutions should
be improved, and that greater investment is thus required to improve facilities and
provide relevant resources for all teacher training institutions. The development and
effective implementation of the new curriculum for TTI should also be prioritized.
In this regard, an academic staff development unit could be created, either centrally,
or locally in all training colleges. Issues related to teachers’ remuneration, career
opportunities, status, morale, and professionalism were also identified as important
factors affecting education quality. In order to deal with these issues, the team
suggested revisiting existing salary scales and structures of incentives so as to
encourage and facilitate improvements in the status and conditions of teachers
and teacher educators and to re-invigorate the teaching profession. Prioritizing the
effective functioning of the Teaching Council of Zambia is also an essential means of
addressing these points. The team recommended an increased use of information and
communications technology, relevant to local contexts, which could be implemented
in schools and in teachers training centres.

TEVET
Analysis of the TEVET sector demonstrated that even though there is a strong will
and evidence that TEVET could satisfy the needs of the labour market, address socio-
economic concerns, and exploit resource-based opportunities, many challenges
still remain with regard to skills development in Zambia, in terms of access,
responsiveness to labour market, qualification of trainers, and quality of training.
Therefore, the review recommends some strategic means of increasing the access to
and attractiveness of TEVET programmes, including: expanding available TEVET
opportunities, identifying a number of training centres in rural areas so that training
facilities come to the learners and not the other way around, and rebranding TEVET
so that it is perceived more positively. To deliver this, the Government must increase
funding for TEVET to at least between 3 to 4 per cent of its education budget, which
is the SADC average, as severe underfunding has been noted in this domain. Stronger
partnerships with non-public stakeholders and industry would be an interesting
solution to bring on board more private investors. In the process, industry, TEVET
providers, and TEVETA should collaborate to develop a more relevant curriculum
and to make TEVET more responsive to labour market demands. In fact, a relevant
TEVET curriculum is a vital requirement that was raised by different stakeholders
throughout the review process. Therefore, in order to ensure that TEVET plays its role
as a driver of economic and income growth, as the Government intends, the country
must ensure that the design and delivery of the curriculum are led by industry (or
conducted with its close collaboration). The review finally found that the quality of

283
 training and trainers could be improved by measures such as revising and reinforcing
the quality standards and restoring a decent salary to trainers.

Youth and adult literacy and education

While Zambia’s population is predominantly young, it is estimated that 27 per cent
of young people and adults (aged 15 years and above) have never been to school or
have minimal literacy skills. Despite the Government’s efforts to tackle this issue, the
evidence shows that the literacy programmes implemented in recent decades were
insufficient to address the needs of youth and adults. The main challenges in this area
include lack of a policy foundation for YALE, limited and inequitable access to YALE,
inadequate funding and weak capacities (institutional, organizational and human).
Thus, the review team suggested first of all the elaboration of a comprehensive policy
on YALE, as a solid foundation for a long-term development of YALE in Zambia.
It is recommended that the new education policy contains enabling provisions
concerning YALE, and be framed within a lifelong learning paradigm in tune with
the requirements of the SDGs. To expand access to YALE, the Ministry in charge of
literacy should convene leading figures in the private sector and leaders of other large
corporations in order to encourage them to mount YALE programmes for their staff
members and design a plan to reach rural areas and provinces with the lowest literacy
rates. As the review pointed out the lack of qualified literacy instructors, focus must
also be placed on quality, results, and efficiency by conducting an evaluation of all
literacy work and YALE centres and by formulating national standards for YALE
professional educators. In the same vein, it is recommended that the Ministry
undertakes the restructuring of bodies, such as DODE and ZACODE, to improve
the structures and the capacity for YALE.

Monitoring and assessment of learning achievement (MALA)

With a longstanding and highly regarded tradition in the field of MALA, Zambia
has set up a large number of MALA structures, programmes, projects, and activities.
Despite these achievements, the review pointed out a number of issues, including: (i)
the absence of a formative orientation of the current MALA system; (ii) the lack of
use of MALA data to inform policy-making; (iii) the inadequate orientation of the
current provision of continuous professional development programmes for teachers
in MALA, and; (iv) the lack of a comprehensive M&E system. In order to upgrade the
country’s capacity for assessment, which is already well-developed, initiatives should
be taken to engage all major MALA stakeholders and beneficiaries in a mutually
reinforcing, inclusive, and enduring manner. Establishing a comprehensive MALA
framework and built-in system to complement the current summative assessment
model with a formative one would be a first step that could be reinforced with some

284 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

other actions for informed policy-making and effective implementation. It is thus
recommended that MALA results should be provided in an accessible manner
to reach major educational stakeholder (learners, teachers, parents, and front-
line implementation agents). The main stakeholders concerned with educational
planning, teacher training, curriculum development, and quality control should also
work in tandem with ECZ and other national and international bodies involved in
carrying out MALA surveys in Zambia to use MALA results effectively and optimally
to improve the quality of learning. On the other hand, involving teachers, through
CPD programmes, in assessment and monitoring of learning achievements should be
considered. This could be done by increasing the possibilities for teachers, especially
in the rural areas, to actively participate in the improvement of MALA through
different capacity-building programmes. Institutionalizing CPD programmes for
teachers to effectively implement MALA at national, regional, district, and school
level, following the establishment of a legal framework for its application, would be
another important action to take into account.

In support for Zambia’s national vision for education in the context of the Education
2030 agenda, this review will hopefully provide important direction as to how the
current education policies and strategies can be reinforced or readjusted to help the
country to achieve its educational goals and targets.

Conducted in the context of CapED, this review should also be considered as a first
step in UNESCO supporting the Government of Zambia as it continues to spearhead
policy reforms and provide an exemplary model for capacity development in various
national educational priorities for the sub-Saharan African region. To better serve
this purpose, the main findings of the review are summarized in the Tables 38 and 39,
presenting respectively, ‘the main policy issues by implications for education system’s
outcomes, effectiveness and efficiency; and the ‘recommendations by expected level
of feasibility and impact on outcomes’.

285
 Table 38 Domain issues by implications for education system’s outcomes,
effectiveness and efficiency
Implications for

outcomes

Effectiveness
POLICY ISSUES/DOMAIN

Efficiency
Access Equity Quality

1. System-wide Policy and Planning

1.1 Ineffective implementation of the policy to decentralize education x x x x x
1.2 Weak budget performance: late, erratic, and inadequate funding x x x x
1.3 Inefficient intra-sectoral budget allocation and utilization x x x x
1.4 Weak national capacities for effective strategic planning and
x x x x
management
2. Teacher Policies and Development
2.1 Low teacher training capacity and inadequate teacher
x x x
qualifications
2.2 Inadequate continuous professional development programmes x x x
2.3 Inadequate policies for teacher remuneration and career
x x x
opportunities
2.4 Weak utilization of ICT for implementing CPD programmes x
2.5 Lack of facilities and resources and weak capacity and
x x x
qualifications of staff at TTIs
2.6 Low status, morale, and professionalism of teachers x x x
3. Technical, Entrepreneurship and Vocational Education and
Training (TEVET)
3.1 Limited and inequitable access to TEVET x x x
3.2 The reservation about the roll-out of the two-tier system x x
3.3 Inadequate public funding for TEVET x x x x x
3.4 Weak TEVET responsiveness to labour market x x x
3.5 Curriculum not relevant to labour market x x x
3.6 Lack of quality trainers x x x
3.7 Low quality of training x x x
4. Youth and Adult Literacy and Education (YALE)
4.1 Lack of a comprehensive national YALE policy and weak reflection
x x x x x
of lifelong learning perspective in YALE programmes
4.2 Limited and inequitable access to YALE x x
4.3 Inadequate funding, structures and capacity for YALE x x x
4.4 Issues related to quality, results, efficiency, and reputation x x x
5. Monitoring and Assessment of Learning Achievement (MALA)
5.1 Absence of a formative orientation of the current MALA system x x x
5.2 Lack of use of MALA data to inform policy-making x x x
5.3 Inadequate orientation of the current provision of CPD
x x x
programmes for teachers in MALA
5.4 Lack of a comprehensive M&E system x x x

286 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

Recommendations by expected level of feasibility and impact on outcomes

The literature30 suggests that success in education reforms is determined by a number

of factors, including:

(a) A commitment to education and the belief that competencies can be learned and
therefore all children can achieve;

(b) Clear ambitious goals that are shared across the system and aligned with high
stakes gateways and instructional systems;

(c) Adequate capacity at the point of delivery;

(d) Aligned incentive structures, accountability, and knowledge management;

(e) Investing resources where they can make most of a difference;

(f) A learning system: an outward orientation to keep the system learning, using
international benchmarks as the ‘eyes’ and ‘ears’ of the system, and anticipating
challenges to current success, learning from them, formulating and implementing
appropriate responses;

(g) Coherence of policies and practices: alignment of policies across all aspects of the
system, coherence over sustained periods of time, and consistency and fidelity of
implementation.

The above factors fall into three clusters, referred as: (i) ‘Must haves’ (a, c, g); (ii)
‘Quick wins’ (b, e, f), and; (iii) ‘Low hanging fruits’ (d). Based on the above, the
recommendations from each policy domain of the Zambia Education Policy Review
are plotted in the matrices below to show their expected level of feasibility and impact
on outcomes (Tables 39.1 to 39.5). Besides, Table 40 displays the recommendations
by estimated level of priority, difficulty, cost and timeframe.

30 Andreas Schleicher. 2015. Strong performers and successful reformers in education. Presentation to IBAEM
Conference, 17 October 2014, Rome. Retrieved from: http://www.ibo.org/contentassets/­71f2f66b529f48a8a
61223070887373a/keynote-andreas-schleicher.pdf

287
 Table 39.1. System-wide Policy and Planning (SWPP)
Table 39.1 System-wide Policy and Planning (SWPP)
HIGH(IMPACT(ON(OUTCOMES
MUST(HAVES QUICK(WINS

Commitment(to(universal(achievement
*Increase and disburse the education budgetary allocation in full and in a time

Capacity(at(point(of(delivery Resources(where(they(yield(most
*Ensure that staff training and profiles match the assignment *Increase public expenditure on TEVET to
and expected performance enhance diversified skills training
*Formulate a comprehensive capacity development strategy
for education planning and management
*Enhance the Planning Directorate’s human resource
management function
Lessons&from&high&performers

Coherence A(learning(system
*Strengthen the link between planning and budgeting *Establish a specific monitoring and techni-
*Ensure a harmonized expansion of different education cal support mechanism to anticipate and
sub-sectors, through a balanced intra-sectoral allocation address critical decentralization issues
*Ensure that the rebalancing of intra-sectoral funds allocations*Strengthen mechanisms for permanent
is accompanied with effective equity and inclusion policies monitoring of sector budget performance,
including FMIS
*Conduct a capacity needs assessment in
education planning and management,
addressing the main capacity dimensions

Low&feasibility High&feasibility

Incentive(structure(and(accountability
*Establish a clear and strong regulatory
framework for decentralization
*Promote a management approach that
reinforces complementarity between the
centre and the sub-level units
*Develop and disseminate transparent and
clear guidelines on grant distribution to
DEB officers and school principals
*Address structural inefficiencies in resource
management in higher education
*Promote a culture of planning, M&E, and
accountability within the education system

MONEY(PITS LOW(HANGING(FRUITS(
LOW(IMPACT(ON(OUTCOMES

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 39.2. Teacher
Table PoliciesPolicies
39.2 Teacher and Development
and Development
HIGH(IMPACT(ON(OUTCOMES
MUST(HAVES QUICK(WINS
Capacity(at(point(of(delivery Resources(where(they(yield(most
*Set up an integrated implementation plan with a road map to *Increase access to ICT tools by improving
expand and improve the access to and quality of teacher infrastructure in rural teacher training
training programmes institutions
*Improve the capacity of teacher training institutions to
absorb more trainees Gateways,(instructional(systems
*Develop capacities at national and sub-national levels for *Implement targeted recruitment strategies to
monitoring and evaluation of teaching and learning processes enrol higher numbers of students into maths,
*Equip schools and teacher training centres with modern ICT science, and technology teacher education
tools to support teaching and learning, and teacher CPD programmes
*Improve facilities and provide relevant resources for all *Provide greater training opportunities for
teacher training institutions to support INSET teachers from community schools
*Put in place effective capacity development programmes to *Prioritize the improvement of teacher
enhance the capacity and skills of academic and support staff resource centres at all levels of the system
*Strengthen existing capacity by employing competent staff *Make available effective programmes, and
to#manage#and#coordinate#INSET#activities increase access to ICT tools, to improve
Lessons(from(high(performers

teachers’ and instructors’ use of basic ICT

and pedagogical skills
Coherence *Encourage the combination of online and
*Institutionalize a system to improve coordination and offline teaching and learning resources
harmonization among providers and evaluators of teacher among teachers and students
training programmes
A(learning(system
*Strengthen monitoring and evaluation of
CPD programmes to better understand its
impact on teachers’ performance and
behaviour, and on the quality of education
*Promote consultations among users in order
to agree on the best ICT solution
*Reinforce M&E of CPD to understand
capacity limitations and to develop
mechanisms for sustainability
Low#feasibility High#feasibility

Incentive(structures(and(accountability
*Revisit existing salary scales and incentive
structures to encourage and facilitate
improvements in the status and conditions
of teachers and teacher educators
*Develop specific career pathways for the
teaching profession at the different levels
of the education sector
*Establish regulatory frameworks at decen-
tralized levels with authority, management,
and funding to support quality training for
staffat teacher training institutions
*Prioritize the effective functioning of the
Teaching Council of Zambia by ensuring
the availability of funds as well as staff
*Ensure that an integrated policy framework
for providing CPD programmes is aligned
with the systems and policies of the TCZ

MONEY(PITS LOW(HANGING(FRUITS(
LOW(IMPACT(ON(OUTCOMES

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289
 Table 39.3 Technical
39.3. Technical Education,
Education, Vocational
Vocational and Entrepreneurship
and Entrepreneurship Training (TEVET)
Training (TEVET)
HIGH(IMPACT(ON(OUTCOMES
MUST(HAVES QUICK(WINS
Commitment(to(universal(achievement
*Expand the delivery facilities of TEVET by promoting collaboration with employers and constructing
or rehabilitating TEVET institutions
*Re-brand TEVET so that it is viewed more positively and provide pathways to further training
*Expand TEVET training opportunities to ensure inclusiveness and equity
Capacity(at(point(of(delivery Resources(where(they(yield(most
*Strengthen the systems of initial training to better prepare *Improve funding to TEVET institutions in
and equip trainers order for them to respond to the expectations
*Strengthen the systems for CPD, management, and support from labour market
of TEVET trainers *Develop and implement a mechanism for
*Ensure that TEVET policy of regular curriculum review is sustainable financing of TEVET
effectively implemented *Restore public trainers to government
*Ensure that design and delivery of curriculum are informed payroll and pay them a decent salary in
by industry’s needs and trends order to raise their status and morale
*Ensure that entrepreneurship is effectively integrated in *Reinforce TEVETA to prioritize and direct
TEVET curricula and that trainers are trained in use of financial resources for the revitalization of
entrepreneurial pedagogies the TEVET institutions
*Explore the possibility of introducing a
training levy grant scheme on a sectoral
Coherence basis, as a means of building up a pool of
*Develop effective cooperation between general education funds to support TEVET provision
schools and TEVET institutions on ways of sharing teachers,
Lessons(from(high(performers

programmes and facilities

*Set up effective mechanisms to ensure that TEVET is aligned Gateways,(instructional(systems
with the needs of employers and learners *Review and enhance the standards of
*Develop a closer and mutually beneficial collaboration accreditation for trainers, assessors,
between TEVET providers and industry moderators, and examiners
*Enhance the quality and the sustainability of the *Support TEVETA in enhancing its quality
TEVET-MIS, and reinforce its linkages with CSO and the control mechanisms to ensure that all
labour market data systems institutions meet quality standards

A(learning(system
*Analyze carefully the pilot of the two-tier
system before taking any clear decision
regarding its roll-out
*Provide proper and early counseling servi-
ces and career guidance for students in order
to help them make informed decisions
*Ensure that TEVET curricula are also
informed by international trends
*Strengthen the TEVET-MIS and ensure that
data on system efficiency and quality are
collected, analyzed and used for TEVET
policy and planning
*Support TEVETA to carry out regular and
comprehensive tracer studies and publish
the findings
Low$feasibility High$feasibility

Incentives(structure(and(accountability
*Consider to introduction a more realistic
costing structure where the students pay a
smaller proportion of actual training costs
in public institutions
*Provide incentives and strengthen partner-
ships with non-public stakeholders and
industry to leverage more funding from
the private sector
*Provide incentives to encourage workplace
experience learning for TEVET students
*Ensure that the grading of training centres
is regularly updated and made available
to all relevant stakeholders

MONEY(PITS LOW(HANGING(FRUITS(
LOW(IMPACT(ON(OUTCOMES

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Table 39.4 Youth
39.4. Youth and Literacy
and Adult Adult Literacy and Education
and Education (YALE) (YALE)
HIGH(IMPACT(ON(OUTCOMES
MUST(HAVES QUICK(WINS
Commitment(to(universal(achievement
*The education policy should contain enabling provisions concerning YALE at both 1ry and 2ry level
*DODE should devise a plan for expanded access to YALE, considering the findings of this review
*Ensure that participants in government YALE programmes equivalent to primary-level education
should not be charged user fees
*Infrastructures for YALE should be rehabilitated, expanded and constructed

Capacity(at(point(of(delivery Resources(where(they(yield(most
*MESTVEE should be capacitated, with adequate resources *Employ as many graduates in YALE as
to ensure policy development and implementation possible to lead YALE programmes and
*Develop and implement a training plan to ensure that staff gradually replace volunteers with staff
members have the skills that are required of them members
*MESVTEE should be empowered to employ full-time and
part-time staff, to develop curricula and study materials,
to monitor and evaluate programmes Gateways,(instructional(systems
*Undertake the profiling of the staff in place for YALE and *Ensure that participants in YALE program-
the restructuring of DODE mes aree assessed and awarded certificates
Lessons(from(high(performers

*Formulate national standards for YALE

professional educators and obtain
Coherence acceptance of these standards by the
*The new education policy should be framed within a lifelong qualifications authority
learning paradigm in line with the SDGs
A(learning(system
*Conduct or commission a gender survey
concerning YALE to better understand how
gender relations affect participation in YALE
*The UNZA, in collaboration with the MoE,
should conduct a tracer study of graduates
in adult education from the university
*Conduct an evaluation of all literacy work
and YALE centres under government
auspices
*Establish a robust database on all YALE
programmes, connected to EMIS

Low$feasibility High$feasibility

Incentive(structures(and(accountability
*Make provision for the creation of a
national council on YALE, to be appointed
by the Minister
*Convene leading figures in the private
sector and other leaders, encouraging them
to mount YALE programmes for their staff
*DODE should consult with NGOs and FBOs
engaged in YALE with a view to enabling
them to expand their YALE programmes
*Request assistance from the CoL in restruc-
turing ZACODE as a semi-autonomous
college of open learning
*Cultivate links, contacts, and exchanges
with international and foreign organisations
with a specialisation in YALE
*Give awards and recognize in every way
possible those who do excellent work

MONEY(PITS LOW(HANGING(FRUITS(
LOW(IMPACT(ON(OUTCOMES

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291
 Table 39.5 Monitoring
39.5. Monitoring and Assessment
and Assessment of Learning
of Learning Achievement
Achievement (MALA) (MALA)
HIGH(IMPACT(ON(OUTCOMES
MUST(HAVES QUICK(WINS
Commitment(to(universal(achievement
*Institutionalize CPD programmes for teachers to effectively implement MALA at national, regional,
district, and school levels
*Increase internal capacity at the MoE with a view to bolstering classroom and school-based assessment

Capacity(at(point(of(delivery Gateways,(instructional(systems
*Improve the capacity of individuals tasked with *Establish a comprehensive MALA frame-
administering examinations, developing tests, and analyzing work and built-in system to complement the
examination results current summative assessment model with
*Increase the possibilities for teachers, especially those in the a formative one
rural areas, to actively participate in capacity-building *Promote formative assessment at school
programmes to improve MALA level by offering in-service training to
*Promote CPD through workshops, seminars, educational teachers and school leaders
fora, and university-based certificates, diplomas, and degrees *A formal national policy should be written
in assessment to systematize the effective use of ILSA
*Develop and sustain capacity-building programmes for results in the education policymaking and
head teachers in CPD activities to improve their knowledge policy implementation processes
Lessons(from(high(performers

of MALA programmes, projects, and activities *Use MALA results effectively to create
alternative career pathways to increase
equality of participation and to improve
the results of disadvantaged students

Coherence A(learning(system
*The main educational stakeholders should work in tandem *Monitor the impact of national large-scale
with ECZ to make effective and optimal use of MALA results assessment (NLSA) results on policy-making
to improve the quality of learning and implementation and provide funding
*Coordinate and harmonize the use, analysis, and dissemi- for independent studies
nation of assessment and survey results to design appro- *Strengthen the country-specific M&E
priate policies and actions for effective learning, teacher system for MALA in cooperation with major
training, classroom instruction stakeholders at MoE, departmental, regional,
district, and school levels
*Explore and analyze good and
cost-effective M&E practices for MALA,
regionally and internationally, with a view to
institutionalizing and strengthening the
Zambian MALA system

Low$feasibility High$feasibility

Incentive(structures(and(accountability
*MALA results should be provided in an
accessible manner to reach major
educational stakeholders
*Key stakeholders should contemplate the
implications of national assessment verdicts
*Further develop and strengthen the M&E
system of MALA, with democratic structures
and institutions, participatory governance,
and the empowerment of civil society
organizations, local educational managers,
planners, and administrators to ensure
broad-based commitment to quality
education

MONEY(PITS LOW(HANGING(FRUITS(
LOW(IMPACT(ON(OUTCOMES

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Table 40 Recommendations by estimated level of priority, difficulty, cost and
time frame
Decision-making
SYSTEM-WIDE POLICY AND PLANNING aspect Time frame
(high/medium/low)

Difficulty

Medium
Priority
Recommendations

Short

Long
Cost
Issue 1. Ineffective implementation of the policy to
decentralize education
1.1 Establish a clear and strong regulatory framework,
backed by renewed political commitment and
H M M ➔ ➔
adequate funding to support the implementation of
decentralization in education
1.2 Ensure that staff training and profiles match the
M M L ➔ ➔
assignment and expected performance
1.3 Promote a management approach that reinforces
complementarity in roles and authority between the H M L ➔ ➔
centre and the sub-level units
1.4 Develop and disseminate transparent and clear
guidelines on grant distribution to DEB officers and H L L ➔
school principals
1.5 Establish a specific monitoring and technical support
M L L ➔
mechanism to anticipate and address critical issues
Issue 2. Weak budget performance: late, erratic,
and inadequate funding
2.1 Increase the budgetary allocation to education and
ensure that the Ministry of Finance disburses funds in H M M ➔ ➔
full and in a timely fashion to MoGE and MoHE
2.2 Strengthen the link between planning and budgeting,
H M L ➔ ➔
particularly by enhancing outcome-based budgeting
2.3. Develop and/or strengthen mechanisms for permanent
M M L ➔ ➔
monitoring of sector budget performance
2.4. Address the concerns of development partners, in light
M L L ➔
of declining aid to education
2.5 Further strengthen and modernize the financial
M M L ➔ ➔
management information system
Issue 3. Inefficient intra-sectoral budget allocation and
utilization
3.1 Ensure a harmonized expansion of different education
M L L ➔ ➔
sub-sectors, through a balanced intra-sectoral allocation
3.2 Ensure that the rebalancing of intra-sectoral budget
allocations is accompanied with effective equity and H M L ➔ ➔
inclusion policies
3.3 Address structural inefficiencies in resource H M L ➔ ➔
management in higher education

293
 Decision-making
SYSTEM-WIDE POLICY AND PLANNING aspect Time frame
(high/medium/low)

Difficulty

Medium
Priority
Recommendations

Short

Long
Cost
3.4 Increase public expenditure on TEVET to enhance
diversified skills training, needed to sustain economic H M M ➔ ➔
growth and achieve Zambia’s Vision 2030
Issue 4. Weak national capacities for effective strategic
planning and management
4.1 Conduct a capacity needs assessment in education
planning and management, addressing the main H L L ➔
capacity dimensions
4.2 Based on the needs assessment, formulate a
comprehensive capacity development strategy for H L L ➔ ➔
education planning and management
4.3 Enhance the Planning Directorate’s human resource
H L L ➔ ➔
management function
4.4 Further promote the culture of planning, monitoring
and evaluation (M&E), and accountability within the H M M ➔ ➔
education system

Decision-making
TEACHER POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT aspect Time frame
(high/medium/low)
Difficulty

Medium
Priority

Recommendations
short

Long
Cost

Issue 1. Low teacher training capacity and inadequate

teacher qualifications
1.1 Set up an integrated implementation plan with a road
map to expand and improve the access to and quality of H M L ➔ ➔
teacher training programmes
1.2 Improve the capacity of teacher training institutions to
H M M ➔ ➔
absorb more trainees
1.3 Implement targeted recruitment strategies to enrol
higher numbers of students into mathematics, science, H M M ➔ ➔
and technology teacher education programmes
1.4 Provide greater training opportunities for teachers from
H M M
community schools
Issue 2. Inadequate continuous professional
development programmes
2.1 Institutionalize a system to improve coordination and
harmonization among providers and evaluators of H M L ➔ ➔
teacher training programmes
2.2 Prioritize the improvement of teacher resource centres
M M L ➔ ➔
at the different levels of the system

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 Decision-making
TEACHER POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT aspect Time frame
(high/medium/low)

Difficulty

Medium
Priority
Recommendations

short

Long
Cost
2.3 Further develop capacities at national and sub-national
levels for monitoring and evaluation of teaching and M M M ➔ ➔
learning processes
2.4 Strengthen monitoring and evaluation of CPD
programmes to better understand its impact on
H M M ➔ ➔
teachers’ performance and behaviour, and on the
quality of education
Issue 3. Inadequate policies for teacher remuneration
and career opportunities
3.1 Revisit existing salary scales and incentive structures
to encourage and facilitate improvements in the status H M M ➔ ➔
and conditions of teachers and teacher educators
3.2 Develop specific career pathways for the teaching
H M L ➔ ➔
profession at the different levels of the education sector
Issue 4. Weak utilization of ICT for implementing CPD
programmes
4.1 Equip schools and teacher training centres with modern
ICT tools to support teaching and learning, as well as M M M ➔ ➔
teacher CPD
4.2 Make available effective programmes, and increase
access to ICT tools, to improve teachers’ and instructors’ M M M ➔ ➔
use of basic ICT and pedagogical skills
4.3 Encourage the combination of online and offline
teaching and learning resources among teachers and H M L ➔ ➔
students
4.4. Promote consultations among users in order to agree
M L L ➔
on the best ICT solution
4.5 Increase access to ICT tools by improving infrastructure
H M M ➔ ➔
in rural teacher training institutions
Issue 5. Lack of facilities and resources and weak capacity
and qualifications of staff at teacher education
institutions
5.1 Improve facilities and provide relevant resources for all
H M M ➔ ➔
teacher training institutions to support INSET
5.2 Put in place effective capacity development
programmes to enhance the capacity and skills of H L L ➔
current academic and support staff
5.3 Strengthen existing capacity by employing competent
M L M ➔
staff to manage and coordinate INSET activities
5.4 Reinforce M&E of CPD to understand capacity limitations
M L M ➔
and to develop mechanisms for sustainability
5.5 Establish regulatory frameworks at decentralized levels
with authority, management, and funding to support H M M ➔ ➔
quality training for staff at TTIs
Issue 6. Low status, morale, and professionalism of
teachers
295
 Decision-making
TEACHER POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT aspect Time frame
(high/medium/low)

Difficulty

Medium
Priority
Recommendations

short

Long
Cost
6.1 Prioritize the effective functioning of the Teaching
Council of Zambia by ensuring the availability of funds H M M ➔ ➔
as well as staff
6.2 Ensure that an integrated policy framework for
providing CPD programmes is aligned with the systems H M L ➔ ➔
and policies of the TCZ

Decision-making
TECHNICAL, ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND VOCATIONAL
aspect Time frame
EDUCATION AND TRAINING (TEVET)
(high/medium/low)

Difficulty

Medium
Priority
Recommendations

short

Long
Cost
Issue 1. Limited and inequitable access to TEVET

1.1 Expand the delivery facilities of TEVET by: (i) promoting

collaboration with employers through adequate
H M H ➔ ➔
incentives; (ii) constructing and rehabilitating TEVET
institutions

1.2 Re-brand TEVET so that it is viewed more positively and

H L L ➔
provide pathways to further training

1.3 Expand TEVET training opportunities to ensure

H M M ➔ ➔
inclusiveness and equity

Issue 2. The reservation about the roll-out of the two-

tier system being introduced by the Zambian
authorities

2.1 Analyze carefully the pilot before taking any clear

decision as to whether the two-tier system should be H L L ➔
extended to other schools

2.2 
Provide proper and early counselling services and
career guidance for students in order to help them make H L L ➔ ➔
informed decisions

2.3 Promote/develop effective cooperation between

general education schools and TEVET institutions on H L L ➔
ways of sharing teachers, programmes and facilities

Issue 3. Inadequate public funding for TEVET

3.1 Improve funding to TEVET institutions in order for them

to produce adequate number of quality skilled workers H M H ➔ ➔
needed to achieve country’s development vision

296 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 Decision-making
TECHNICAL, ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND VOCATIONAL
aspect Time frame
EDUCATION AND TRAINING (TEVET)
(high/medium/low)

Difficulty

Medium
Priority
Recommendations

short

Long
Cost
3.2 Develop and implement a mechanism for sustainable
H M M ➔ ➔
financing of TEVET

3.3 Consider to introduction a more realistic costing

structure where the students pay a smaller proportion H M L ➔
of actual training costs in public institutions

3.4 Explore the possibility of introducing a training levy

grant scheme on a sectoral basis, as a means of building H M L ➔ ➔
up a pool of funds to support TEVET provision

3.5 Provide incentives and strengthen partnerships with

non-public stakeholders and industry to leverage more H M M ➔ ➔
funding from the private sector

Issue 4. Weak TEVET responsiveness to labour market

4.1 TEVETA should develop a closer and mutually beneficial

H L L ➔ ➔
collaboration between TEVET providers and industry

4.2 Government should provide incentives to encourage

workplace experience learning for TEVET students in H M M ➔ ➔
order to ensure an effective transfer of relevant skills

4.3 TEVETA should set up effective mechanisms to ensure

that TEVET is aligned with the needs of employers and H M L ➔
learners

4.4 TEVETA should enhance the quality and the

sustainability of the TEVET-MIS, and reinforce its H M L ➔
linkages with CSO and the labour market data systems

Issue 5. Curriculum not relevant to labour market

5.1 Ensure that TEVETA policy of regular curriculum review

H M L ➔
is effectively implemented

5.2 TEVETA should ensure that design and delivery of

H M L ➔ ➔
curriculum are informed by industry’s needs and trends

4.3 TEVETA should ensure that entrepreneurship is

effectively integrated in TEVET curricula and that trainers H L L ➔ ➔
are trained in use of entrepreneurial pedagogies

4.4 TEVETA should ensure that TEVET curricula are also

M L L ➔
informed by international trends

Issue 6. Lack of quality trainers

5.1 Strengthen the systems of initial training, and review
the Initial Training of Trainers Programme to better H M M ➔ ➔
prepare and equip trainers
297
 Decision-making
TECHNICAL, ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND VOCATIONAL
aspect Time frame
EDUCATION AND TRAINING (TEVET)
(high/medium/low)

Difficulty

Medium
Priority
Recommendations

short

Long
Cost
5.2 Strengthen the systems for CPD, management, and
H M M ➔ ➔
support of TEVET trainers
5.3 Restore public trainers to government payroll and pay
them a decent salary in order to raise their status and H H H ➔ ➔
morale
5.4 Review and enhance the standards of accreditation for
H M L ➔
trainers, assessors, moderators, and examiners
Issue 7. Low quality of training

6.1. Reinforce TEVETA to prioritise and direct financial

resources for the revitalization of the TEVET institutions M M M ➔

6.2. Support TEVETA in enhancing its quality control

mechanisms to ensure that all institutions meet quality M L M ➔ ➔
standards
6.3. Strengthen the TEVET-MIS and ensure that data on
system efficiency and quality are collected, analyzed H L M ➔
and used for TEVET policy and planning
6.4. Ensure that the grading of training centres is regularly
M L L ➔
updated and made available to all relevant stakeholders
6.5. Support TEVETA to carry out regular and comprehensive
H M M ➔ ➔
tracer studies and publish the findings

Decision-making
YOUTH AND ADULT LITERACY
aspect Time frame
AND EDUCATION (YALE)
(high/medium/low)
Difficulty

Medium
Priority

Recommendations
short

Long
Cost

Issue 1. Lack of a comprehensive national YALE policy

and weak reflection of lifelong learning
perspective in YALE programmes

1.1 The education policy should contain enabling provisions

H L L ➔
concerning YALE at both primary and secondary level

1.2 The new education policy should be framed within a

lifelong learning paradigm in line with the requirements H L L ➔
of the SDGs

1.3 Support the finalization of the Youth and Adult Literacy

Policy drafted in 2009, in collaboration with key H L L ➔
stakeholders, including CSOs and FBOs

298 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia

 Decision-making
YOUTH AND ADULT LITERACY
aspect Time frame
AND EDUCATION (YALE)
(high/medium/low)

Difficulty

Medium
Priority
Recommendations

short

Long
Cost
1.4 Make provision for the creation of a national council on
H L L ➔
YALE, to be appointed by the Minister

Issue 2. Limited and inequitable access to YALE

2.1 Convene leading figures in the private sector and

leaders, encouraging them to mount YALE programmes H M L ➔ ➔
for their staff members.

2.2 DODE should enter into discussions with NGOs and

FBOs engaged in YALE with a view to enabling them to H L L ➔
expand their YALE programmes

2.3 DODE should conduct or commission a gender survey

concerning YALE to better understand how gender H L L ➔
relations affect participation in YALE programmes

2.4 DODE should devise a plan for expanded access to YALE,

considering all recommendations made in this policy H M L ➔
review

2.5 MoGE should approach Cabinet with a submission on

H L L ➔
YALE, advocating the various changes that are needed

2.6 Ensure that participants in government YALE

programmes equivalent to primary-level education H L M ➔ ➔
should not be charged user fees

Issue 3. Inadequate funding, structures and capacity

for YALE

3.1 MoGE should be capacitated, with adequate human

and financial resources, to ensure policy development H M M ➔ ➔
and implementation

3.3 MoGE should undertake the profiling of the staff in

H L L ➔
place for YALE and the restructuring of DODE

3.3 Develop and implement a training plan to ensure that

M L M ➔
staff members have the skills that are required of them

3.4 Government should request assistance from the CoL in

re-structuring ZACODE as a semi-autonomous college M L L ➔
of open learning

3.5 The UNZA, in collaboration with the MoE, should

conduct a tracer study of graduates in adult education M L L ➔ ➔
from the university

299
 Decision-making
YOUTH AND ADULT LITERACY
aspect Time frame
AND EDUCATION (YALE)
(high/medium/low)

Difficulty

Medium
Priority
Recommendations

short

Long
Cost
3.6 Infrastructures for YALE should be rehabilitated,
M M H ➔ ➔
expanded and constructed

Issue 4. Issues related to quality, results, efficiency, and

reputation

4.1 MoGE should be empowered to employ full-time and

part-time staff, to develop curricula and study materials, H M M ➔ ➔
to monitor and evaluate programmes…

4.2 Government should conduct an evaluation of all literacy

H L L ➔ ➔
work and YALE centres under government auspices

4.4 Government should make it possible for participants

in YALE programmes to be assessed and awarded M L L ➔ ➔
certificates
4.4 MoGE should establish a robust database on all YALE
programmes and, through EMIS, integrate the main M L L ➔ ➔
data gathered in the annual statistical bulletin
4.5 MoGE should formulate national standards for YALE
professional educators and obtain acceptance of these H L L ➔ ➔
standards by the qualifications authority
4.6 MoGE should cultivate links, contacts, and exchanges
with international and foreign organisations with a M L L ➔
specialisation in YALE
4.7 MoGE should employ as many graduates in YALE as
possible to lead YALE programmes and gradually M M M ➔ ➔
replace volunteers with staff members
4.8 MoGE should give awards and recognize in every way
M L L ➔
possible those who do excellent work

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 Decision-making
MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
aspect Time frame
ACHIEVEMENT (MALA)
(high/medium/low)

Difficulty

Medium
Priority
Recommendations

short

Long
Cost
Issue 1. Absence of a formative orientation of the current
MALA system
1.1 Establish a comprehensive MALA framework and
built-in system to complement the current summative H L L ➔
assessment model with a formative one
1.2 Promote formative assessment at school level by
offering in-service training to teachers and school H L M ➔ ➔
leaders

1.3 Improve the capacity of individuals tasked with

administering examinations, developing tests, and H L M ➔ ➔
analyzing examination results

Issue 2. Lack of use of MALA data to inform policy-

making

2.1 The main educational stakeholders should work in

tandem with ECZ to make effective and optimal use of H L L ➔
MALA results to improve the quality of learning

2.2 Monitor the impact of national large-scale assessment

(NLSA) results on policy-making and implementation H M M ➔
and provide funding for independent studies

2.3 A formal national policy should be written to

systematize the effective use of ILSA results in the
M L L ➔
education policymaking and policy implementation
processes

2.4 Coordinate and harmonize the use, analysis, and

dissemination of assessment and survey results to
H M M ➔
design appropriate policies and actions for effective
learning, teacher training, classroom instruction

2.5 Use MALA results effectively to create alternative career

pathways to increase equality of participation and to H M M ➔
improve the results of disadvantaged students

2.6. MALA results should be provided in an accessible

M L L ➔
manner to reach major educational stakeholders

2.7 Key stakeholders should contemplate the implications

M L L ➔
of national assessment verdicts

Issue 3. Inadequate orientation of the current provision


of CPD programmes for teachers in MALA

3.1 Institutionalize CPD programmes for teachers to

effectively implement MALA at national, regional, H L M ➔
district, and school levels

301
 Decision-making
MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
aspect Time frame
ACHIEVEMENT (MALA)
(high/medium/low)

Difficulty

Medium
Priority
Recommendations

short

Long
Cost
3.2 Increase internal capacity (through further training of
human resources) at the MoE with a view to bolstering H M M ➔ ➔
classroom and school-based assessment

3.3 Increase the possibilities for teachers, especially

those in the rural areas, to actively participate in the
H L M ➔
improvement of MALA through different capacity-
building programmes
3.4 Promote CPD through workshops, seminars, educational
fora, and university-based certificates, diplomas, and M L L ➔
degrees in assessment
3.5 Develop and sustain capacity-building programmes
for head teachers in CPD activities to improve their
H L L ➔ ➔
knowledge of MALA programmes, projects, and
activities
Issue 4. Lack of a comprehensive M&E system

4.1 Strengthen the country-specific M&E system for MALA

in cooperation with l major stakeholders at MoE, H M M ➔ ➔
departmental, regional, district, and school levels
4.2 Explore and analyze good and cost-effective M&E
practices for MALA, regionally and internationally,
H L L ➔
with a view to institutionalizing and strengthening the
Zambian MALA system
4.3 Further develop and strengthen the MALA M&E
system with democratic structures and institutions,
participatory governance, and the empowerment of
H M M ➔ ➔
civil society organizations, local educational managers,
planners, and administrators to ensure broad-based
commitment to quality education

302 UNESCO Education Policy Review ■ Zambia