DEVELOPING A THESIS

The process of creating the research paper

• defining a topic
• developing an interesting question
• choosing a working thesis ( a tentative answer to the question )
The final thesis for your research paper is your answer to the central question you
are
investigating. It may be the same as your working thesis, or it might be quite
different. If
your research showed that your original thesis was quite incorrect, your final
thesis could
end up stating almost the opposite of the working thesis. More often, your thesis
will be a
modification of the working thesis—that is, a version of that original thesis that
has been
modified, deepened, clarified, and enhanced by all the new facts and ideas you’ve
learned
through your research.

1. A good final thesis:

1. Must be supported by your research (in that it articulates an idea, opinion,

interpretation, or theory that is backed up by the evidence your reading has
uncovered);
2. is a positive, non-obvious statement (that is, not a truism);
3. Must not be a tautology (a statement that must be true or cannot be disproved
because it includes an unnecessary and excessive repetition of the same idea in
different words); and
4. Must be worth arguing, and, preferably, original and interesting.
2. Supporting Your Thesis with Evidence
Go through your notes and pick out the facts and ideas that are most relevant to
your thesis.
Look for items that:
• help to explain the thesis;
• help to show that it’s true;
• may call it into question or weaken it; or
• sharpen, focus, clarify, or modify it.

2. Some of the kinds of evidence most commonly utilized in research papers are:

• Definitions of terms
• Accounts of events that suggest a cause-and-effect relationship
• Statistics or other numerical data
• Individual examples that suggest a broader pattern (e.g., anecdotes)
• Facts or ideas from primary sources
• Facts or ideas from secondary sources
• Evidence related to alternative theses (especially evidence that seems to
weaken
them)
As you review your notes, be on the lookout for any examples of these kinds of
evidence

3. Avoiding Logical Fallacies

Some of the types of logical fallacies that you should avoid are:
• Unclear use of terms (defining the same term differently across different
arguments)
• Post hoc ergo propter hoc (Latin for “after this, therefore because of this” —
assuming that, when A occurs before B, A must have caused B)
• Hasty generalization (basing a conclusion on a small or flimsy body of evidence)
• “Straw man” (suggesting a weak, flimsy, and inaccurate summary of an
alternative
thesis in order to argue against it)
• Appeal to authority (trying to persuade your reader to accept an idea just
because
someone famous or respected said it)
• Ad hominem (Latin for “against the person” — criticizing an opposing point of
view,
not by showing why it is logically incorrect or factually wrong, but by attacking the
person who stated it)

4. Elements of Persuasive Style

Over the years, writers have developed stylistic and organizational tricks that give
their
writing a tone that is reasonable, thoughtful, and balanced. Some of the best of
these are:
• Be forceful and direct.
• Respond to key counterarguments.
• Make concessions when necessary.
• Don’t overstate your case.
• Put your strongest arguments first and last.
Also, remember to guide your readers through your arguments! Consider using
constructions like:
• “As a result of X, Y” or “Because X, Y”
• “Y, as a result of X” or “Y, because X”
• “In spite of X, Y” or “Despite X, Y”
• “Although X, Y” or “X, nevertheless Y”
In your research paper, you present your own ideas that connect the facts and
concepts
you’ve discovered through your research. Make sure your readers can follow you!

PAPER OUTLINE
I. Drafting and Organizing your Writing

1. Creating an Outline: Keep your outline simple

• a sentence stating your thesis
• 5-10 sentences listing the main ideas that you want to include in your paper in
some kind of logical order ( sometimes organised into a chart or table)
Creating a simple outline
1. Start with your thesis
is supported by your research
is a positive non obvious statement
is not a tautology ( something that can not be disapproved)
should be significant , original and interesting
2. Write the thesis in a sentence
3. Define precisely and clearly the terms you use in the thesis.
4. Give accounts of events and examples that suggest a cause-and-effect
relationship.
5. Quote statistics or other numerical data.
6. Detail individual examples that suggest a broader pattern (sometimes
anecdotes).
7. Cite factual evidence to back up the truth of the various parts of your thesis,
including, depending on the nature of the paper, either data from primary
sources,
ideas from secondary sources, or both.
8. Give information about alternative theses, along with facts and ideas to show
why
you think these alternative theses are wrong.

II. Writing your Research Paper

1. Writing the Introduction

a. Subject: identify your topic, then define it, limit and narrow it to a specific issue.
b. background: provide relevant historical data, discuss a few key sources that
c. Thesis : establish the direction of your study, and to point your readers towards
your conclusions
When crafting your introduction, use more than one of the techniques described
below:
• Provide the thesis statement
• Provide the enthymeme
• Provide a hypothesis
• Provide background information
First published in 1915, Spoon River Anthology by Edgar Lee Masters gives
readers candid glimpses into the life of a small town at the turn of the
twentieth century. Speaking from beyond the grave, the narrator of each
poem gives a portrait of happy, fulfilled people or draws pictures of lives
filled with sadness and melancholy.
• Review the literature
Throughout his novella Billy Budd, Herman Melville intentionally uses biblical
references as a means of presenting different moral principles by which
people may govern their lives. The story depicts the “loss of paradise” (Arvin
2
294); it serves as a gospel story (Weaver 37-38); and it hints at a moral and
solemn purpose (Watson 319). The story explores the biblical passions of one
man’s confrontation with good and evil (Howard 327-28; Mumford 248). This
paper will examine the biblical references...
• Challenge an assumption
Christianity dominates the religious life of most Americans to the point that
many assume that it dominates the world population as well. However,
despite the denominational missionaries who have reached out to every

corner of the globe, only one out of every four people on the globe is Christian,
and far fewer than that practice their faith. In truth, Christianity does not
dominate religious beliefs around the globe.
• Provide a brief summary
Alice Walker’s The Color Purple narrates the ordeal of a young black girl living
in Georgia in the early years of the twentieth century. Celie writes letters to
God because she has no one else to help her. The letters are unusually strong
and give evidence of Celie’s painful struggle to survive the multiple horrors of
her life.

2. Wring the Body of your Research Paper

a. Analysis: classify the major issues of the study, provide a careful analysis of
each in defense of your thesis.
b. Presentation: well reasoned statements at the beginning of your paragraphs,
supply evidence of support with proper documentation.
c. Paragraphs: offer a variety of development to narrate the history of the subject ,
to compare , contrast, show causes.
• Compare or contrast issues, critical views and literary characters. ( chracaters,
the
past and present, negative and positive issues)
• Develop cause and effect
• Define your key terminology
• Explain a process
• Ask questions and provide answers
• cite evidence from the source materials
• Use structure to control papers on poetry and fiction. For example, a short story
might have six distinct parts you can examine in sequence.
• Use location and setting. For example, examine the settings of several novels by
William Faulkner ( lakes, building, springs and so on )
• dividing the body by important issues is standard fare in many research papers.

3. Writing the Conclusion

a. Thesis Reaffirm your thesis statement

b. Judgment reach a decision about the merits of the subject.
c. Discussion discuss the implications of your findings
d. Directive offer a plan for action or a proposal that wll put into effect your ideas.
e. Ending

Writing your Paper Outline

An outline is a “plan” for your paper.  It helps you to organize your thoughts and
arguments. Use the below sample to write an outline about a topic of your choice
(you can use the topic of your research paper):

Outline Structure

1.      Introduction
·         Thesis: Indicate your topic, your main point about that topic, and the points
of discussion for that topic.

2.      Body- Part 1: Topic sentence goes here.

·         Supporting evidence: A paraphrase or quote from one of your sources goes

here, along with an in-text citation.

§  Explanation of the meaning of the supporting evidence.

3.      Body- Part 2: Topic sentence goes here.

·         Supporting evidence

§  Explanation

4.      Body- Part 3: Topic sentence goes here.

·         Supporting evidence

§  Explanation

5.      Conclusion:

·         Rephrased Thesis Statement: Rephrase your thesis.

·         Strong Closing: Close your paper with the significance of this discussion. Why
is this discussion important?

Quoting, Citing, & Paraphrasing

I. What Needs to Be Cited?

So how do you distinguish what needs to be cited from what doesn’t? Here are
some guidelines:

·         Common knowledge doesn’t need to be cited.

·         Facts that may be open to dispute need to be cited.

Example:
I accept Professor s Soandso s theory about the date of Othello, based on the fact
that his theory best accounts for the current evidence about when the play was
first performed.

·         Facts that may not be subject to dispute but that are little known and come
from a specific

             source need to be cited.

·         Opinions and interpretations of facts that you borrow from other writers
need to be cited, preferably to their root source. When you refer to any well-
known idea that can be traced to a specific originator, try to cite the original
source, not some later interpreter. (If an opinion or  interpretation is extremely
obvious or very well known, it may qualify as common knowledge.)

Opinion and interpretation vs. Fact

·         A fact is an event in the real world that practically everyone can point to and
agree upon.

·         An opinion or interpretation adds a personal spin, attitude, or feeling to the

real world event, which not everyone will agree upon.

Example:

Fact: The president of the US James Garfield was fatally shot by a man named
Charles Guiteau on

July 2, 1881.

Opinion: president of the US James Garfield was shot by Charles Guiteau, a

disappointed seeker of public office. Garfield’s murder led to the creation of the
civil service system in the US to remove job appointments from the realm of
politics.

If an opinion or interpretation is extremely obvious or very well known, it may

shift into the realm of common knowledge.
Take into consideration the level of experience of your reader. This will help you
determine whether a certain piece of information can be considered common
knowledge. Ask yourself: Would someone reading my paper who is generally
knowledgeable about the topic but not an expert find it helpful or useful to have a
source cited for that piece of information? If the answer is yes, then go ahead and
cite a source. If the answer is no, then do not bother: they would probably
consider this piece of information common knowledge. When in doubt, cite a
source.

II. How to Incorporate Your Research into Your Writing

Here are the three ways you can blend your research source materials into your
own prose:

1. Paraphrasing

To state the information in your own words, using your own style, and fitting it
naturally into the flow of your paper. Choose this form of citation whenever the
idea you are citing is more important than the precise way it is stated in your
source. Always provide a citation when you paraphrase.

Do not forget to use your own words throughout the paraphrase.

2. Direct quoting

Direct quoting of one or more sentences (quoting one or more of another writer’s
sentences verbatim).

Choose this method when a particular author has stated something in a way that
is unusually apt, interesting, forceful, or thought-provoking — the kind of
sentence or paragraph that makes you say,

“Wow! I can’t imagine how that idea could be stated any better.” Introduce the
quotation with a

phrase or sentence that provides the background for the quote (who said it, when,
where, how, and/or
why); use block quotations for longer quotes. Always provide a citation when you
quote directly.

Example:

3. Interweaving of quoted words or phrases into your own writing

To quote another writer’s words or phrases verbatim, embedded in your own

sentences.

Choose this technique when there are specific bits of language that are worth
borrowing from another writer but when it is not necessary to quote an entire
sentence or more. Naturally, as with any citation of a source, you need to include
an introductory phrase or sentence that provides the background for the quote
(who said it, when, where, how, and/or why). Always provide a citation when you
interweave quoted words or phrases.

Remember: When quoting, be careful to record every detail precisely (including

any errors in grammar, spelling, etc.) and use square brackets, ellipses, and sic as
needed. For specific guidelines about formatting parenthetical references,
footnotes, and bibliographies, see your previous handout:

Introducing Quotations

In a research paper, you should be careful to always introduce your quotations.

What does that mean?

You should prepare your readers for every quoted or paraphrased section by first
telling them who said it, and, as appropriate, from what source, when, where,
how, and why. Therefore, as a general rule, few sentences within your research
paper (if any) should begin with quotation marks. Here are four basic ways to
introduce quotations within your research paper:

Use a short introductory phrase to lead right into the quotation. (For example: “In
The Origin of

Species, Darwin writes: ‘[quote]’”; “In the words of Thomas Jefferson, ‘[quote]’”;
“According to Joseph Haydn, ‘[quote]’”; “As Nietzsche suggests in On the
Genealogy of

Morals, ‘[quote]’”)

·         Describe the significant characteristic of the quote (or summarize the

relevant background behind the quote), followed by a colon and the quotation.
(For example: “Darwin emphasizes the impact of geographic isolation: ‘[quote]’”;
“Jefferson’s conviction is strong: ‘[quote]’”; “Haydn displays his respect for
Mozart: ‘[quote]’”; “Nietzsche argues against selflessness: ‘[quote]’”)

·          Integrate a quoted fragment at the end of your sentence, using the

subordinating conjunction “that.” (For example: “In The Origin of Species, Darwin
demonstrates that ‘[quote]’”; “In his First Inaugural Address, Jefferson declares
that ‘[quote]’”; “Haydn’s letter to von Genzinger reveals that ‘[quote]’”; “In On the
Genealogy of Morals, Nietzsche concludes that ‘[quote]’”)

·         Integrate a quoted fragment at the end of your sentence, without “that.”

(For example: “Darwin suggests that isolation is ‘[quote]’”; “Jefferson’s assertion
regarding ‘[quote]’”; “Haydn recounts a dream in which ‘[quote]’”; “Nietzsche’s
considers conscience to be ‘[quote]’”)

Formulation of a Research Question

1. Defining the Research Problem

In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting
and properly defining a research problem.
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants
to obtain a solution for the same. A research problem is one which requires a
researcher to find out the best solution for the given problem, i.e., to find out by
which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in the context of a
given environment.

2. Selecting a Research Problem

i. Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult
task to
throw any new light in such a case.
ii. Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
iii. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
iv. The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the
related
research material or sources of research are within one’s reach. Even then it is
quite
difficult to supply definitive ideas concerning how a researcher should obtain ideas
for his
research.
v. The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a
researcher, the time
factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem.
vi. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may
not be
necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to
one that
has already been done. But when the field of inquiry is relatively new and does
not have
available a set of well developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must always
be
undertaken.

3. Necessity of Defining a Problem

Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This
statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be
investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate
relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem
will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may
create hurdles. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for
any study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation of a
problem is often more essential than its solution. It is only on careful detailing the
research problem that we can work out the research design and can smoothly
carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing research.

4. Technique Involved in Defining a Problem

The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps
generally one after the other:
• statement of the problem in a general way;
• understanding the nature of the problem;
• surveying the available literature
• Developing the ideas through discussions;
• Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.

Exampl

Writing Your Final Draft

1. Reworking for Content

With your notes and key sources handy (along with your style guide), ask yourself

the following:

·         Does my paper satisfy all of the elements of the original assignment?

Typically, these elements include requirements regarding:

·         The number and assortment of types of research sources

·         The types of content (the assignment probably included directions like

“analyze,” “compare,” “review,” “describe,” “explain,” “define,” etc. — did I
follow the directions?)

·         The length of the paper (either a word count or page count — many
software programs include a built-in “Word Count” function; in Microsoft Word™
and OpenOffice Writer, for example, this feature is usually found under the
“Tools” menu)
·         Are the contents of my paper rich enough, thorough enough, and complete
enough to deserve a high grade? And is it long enough? If not:

·          Add one or more additional pieces of evidence (examples, quotations,

anecdotes, events) to further strengthen your argument.

·          Insert or expand a discussion of one or more opposing points of view.

Search out any topics in the paper that aren’t fully explained, clearly described, or
adequately defended. To locate these “weak spots,” try creating an outline of your
first draft, noting the number of paragraphs you devoted to each major subtopic,
example, argument, etc. You can even use various colored pens, highlighters, or
markers on a draft copy of your paper, color-coding each of these various areas.
Then skim through your paper, making a mental note of the numbers of
paragraphs or how often each color appears relative to the others. If you see lots
of only one, two, or three colors, or if you see some significantly larger numbers,
consider developing your other subtopics, examples, or arguments further: they
might be getting short shrift.

Determine whether you have relied too heavily on one or more sources: if you
have, consider referencing additional sources. Again, try using various colored
pens, highlighters, or markers on a draft copy of your paper, color-coding each
research source you’ve referenced. Then skim through the colors you see
throughout your paper, making a mental note of how often each color appears
relative to the others. If you see too much of only one, two, or three colors,
consider referencing additional sources.

Once you’ve reworked for content on your own, ask some friends, classmates, or
relatives who are good debaters to read through the latest draft of your paper.
Ask them to point out any “weak spots” in your arguments and offer any other
suggestions for enriching your content. Once you’ve implemented their
recommendations, review your latest draft (following the advice we’ve given
above one more time).
2. Reworking for Style

With a thesaurus and grammar textbook handy (along with your style guide), ask

yourself the following:

·         Are my ideas clear and understandable? Do they flow gracefully from one
point to the next?

Be sure to:

·         Make sure your ideas are in a logical order.

·          Use the paragraph as your structural unit.

·          Include a topic sentence in each paragraph.

·          Use signpost words and phrases to guide the reader and connect one idea
to the next: first, second, next, similarly, by contrast, for example, for instance,
therefore, as this shows, unlike, on the other hand, furthermore, in addition,
nevertheless, however, although, even though, despite, in spite of, as a result,
more importantly, in summary, yet, thus, for instance, specifically, particularly,
etc.

·         Use transitions appropriately. For example, you should consider concluding

each major subtopic, example, argument, etc. with a brief summary that connects
it back to your thesis. Then you would introduce the next one by commenting on
how it is similar to, differs from, developed out of, caused, was caused by, etc. the
last one. Again, use signpost words and phrases.

·          Is my writing concise and is the style interesting? Be sure to:

·          Omit needless words.

·          Look for lifeless words that have no energy and convey no meaning.
Rephrase to eliminate them.

·         Look for “to be” verbs. Rephrase to use action verbs.

·          Look for passive verbs. Rephrase to use active verbs.

·          Look for sentences containing numerous modifiers (adjectives, adverbs,
modifying phrases and clauses). Rephrase to use well-chosen single words.

·          Omit repetition or redundancy.

·          Avoid paragraphs that include only one sentence — and pages that include
only one paragraph!

Once you’ve reworked for style on your own, ask some friends, classmates, or
relatives who are good writers or editors to read through the latest draft of your
paper. Ask them to offer suggestions for improving your style. Once you’ve
implemented their recommendations, review your latest draft.

3. Reworking for Mechanics

With a dictionary and grammar textbook handy (along with your style guide), edit

and proofread your research paper, addressing the following common issues:

Grammar and Usage

·         Construct your sentences correctly:

·          Make sure your subjects and verbs agree, especially with indefinite and
collective pronouns (singular and plural).

·          Use parallelism correctly (construct sentences using parallel grammatical

forms for logically parallel ideas).

·          Use comparatives and superlatives correctly (use comparative adjectives

and adverbs when comparing two; use superlatives when comparing three or
more).

·         Use words correctly, paying careful attention to commonly misused words

(such as affect and effect; imply and infer; expect and suspect; allude and elude;
preced and proceed; comprise, compose, and constitute; subscribe, ascribe, and
prescribe; etc.) and the nuances of “synonyms.”

·         Construct your verb tenses correctly, paying careful attention to irregular

verbs (such as forbid, forbade, forbidden; lie, lay, lain; mistake, mistook, mistaken;
speak, spoke, spoken; take, took, taken; prove, proved, proven; show, showed,
shown; etc.).

·          Use pronouns properly, paying careful attention to subjective and objective

forms of pronouns (such as he and him, they and them, we and us, etc.). Also, try
to use gender-neutral language whenever possible. Using plurals can help you to
avoid clunky and verbose constructions like “he or she,” but don’t use “they,”
“them,” “their,” and “theirs” as if they were singular pronouns!

·          Try to avoid abbreviations, acronyms, jargon, contractions, and slang as

much as possibl